Trial Articals

1 Australian professor Dean Forbes “commutes” to the countries of Southeast Asia four times each year. In this series of questions and answers, Forbes describes some of the chief attractions of Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, and Thailand. He probes the reasons behind the rapid economic growth of Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand, and why the socialist countries of Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam have not fared as well. Forbes also provides a sobering assessment of the legacy of the Vietnam War (1959-1975).

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ABOUT SOUTHEAST ASIA Q: How have the economies of Southeast Asia fared under Communist governments? A: Not very well. Today, in fact, the poorest countries in Southeast Asia are Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia, where Communist parties achieved power in the 1970s. At that time, government attempts to establish rural cooperatives and to develop socialist industrial economies, with the support of the Soviet Union and China, had limited success. Policy failure was a key reason, but the high level of war damage that these countries suffered, and their isolation from the expanding global economy in the 1970s and 1980s, compounded their woes. During the 1980s, the governments of Vietnam and Laos began to introduce market reforms in an attempt to stimulate economic activity, but with mixed results. In Vietnam, for example, the economy initially improved, but during the late 1990s economic growth slowed. Q: What were the forces behind the rapid growth and subsequent volatility of many Southeast Asian economies in the 1980s and 1990s? A: There is much debate about the causes of the economic miracle that characterized development in Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, and, to a certain extent, Indonesia in the 1980s and until the economic crisis of 1997. There are three main theories. The first theory holds that the cause was primarily strong, strategically astute governments that promoted particular kinds of industries, especially those with an export orientation. Singapore is often cited as a good illustration of this theory. The second theory suggests that deregulation of economies allowed open markets to flourish, releasing the productive resources within Southeast Asian countries. The best illustration of this is Hong Kong. The third theory argues that the key was so-called Asian values, such as the emphasis given to cooperative family-based work, high levels of family savings, and a readiness to invest in businesses. This argument is often directed at the economies of China, Taiwan, and Singapore. None of these theories is wrong, as each argument has an element of truth. However, I believe the first theory explains the success of more countries than the second and third theories do. During the 1980s and for most of the 1990s, the growing Southeast Asian economies were remarkably consistent in their growth from year to year, even when global economic activity dipped. This reflected their focus on competitively priced manufacturing exports, especially for the United States and European markets, where demand remained consistent.

2 Q: What kinds of cultural challenges have Southeast Asian nations faced as their economies have developed? A: During the Southeast Asian “economic miracle” of the late 1980s to mid-1990s, the primary beneficiaries were the indigenous entrepreneurs, who often became extremely wealthy, and the urban middle class, which expanded considerably in number and individual wealth. These classes desire, and can afford, imported products such as motor vehicles, televisions, cellular phones, and computers. They are also able to travel abroad more frequently than they did before the economic boom. These groups have become more exposed to global cultures, in which the American influence is dominant. The influence of Western culture is apparent in the growth of fastfood franchises such as McDonald’s and Wendy’s, the significantly greater use of the English language, and the preference for Hollywood movies. Some governments fear the impact of global culture on indigenous culture and sense of identity. They try to slow the spread of Western culture by restricting imports of Western films and television shows, censoring the use of the Internet, and discouraging the adoption of Western practices. They also foster local culture. In Indonesia, for example, schools and universities are required to teach in the national language, Bahasa Indonesia, and not in English. Q: What steps have the socialist countries in Southeast Asia taken to improve their economies in recent years? A: During the 1980s Vietnam was the first socialist country in Southeast Asia to introduce market reforms as a way to stimulate economic activity. Laos also began to introduce market reforms, though to a lesser extent than its neighbor, and with fewer tangible results. In Cambodia, on the other hand, fighting between government forces and the Khmer Rouge guerrillas effectively destroyed any chance for sustained economic development. With the recent demise of the Khmer Rouge, Cambodia now has a better chance to focus on economic growth. In Vietnam, the government began by legalizing private small-scale agricultural production. It then implemented reforms to facilitate small-scale entrepreneurialism in urban areas, financing, and foreign trade. The Vietnamese government insisted it was still a socialist economy, but the removal of subsidies gave it some characteristics of a market economy. The economic reforms, called doi moi in Vietnamese, had an immediate impact. Foreign investment began to flow into Vietnam, and agricultural and industrial production increased. The country became a net rice exporter after years of failing to provide sufficient rice for its own population. During the late 1990s, however, economic growth slowed and foreign investors began to pull out, disillusioned with the government’s failure to sustain support for a more open economy. Q: How are Asia’s formerly so-called miracle economies (Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, and South Korea) faring in the aftermath of the Asian financial crisis of the late 1990s? Are some doing better than others, and if so, why? A: Economic growth in Asia Pacific in 2001 seems likely to be lower than it was in 2000 as a result of the slowdown in the North American economy. However, Asian Pacific countries in general seem to have bounced back after the economic crisis.

3 During 2001 commentators forecast increases in gross domestic product (GDP) for Asia Pacific: 5.8 percent growth for Malaysia, 4.7 percent for South Korea, 4.0 percent for Indonesia, and 3.9 percent for Thailand. Most would agree that the forecast growth rates for Malaysia and South Korea are more likely to be achieved than are those for Indonesia and Thailand. Q: What are some of the most interesting attractions for visitors to Cambodia? A: Cambodia is not a country that is visited by many people. Its history is little known or understood by those in the West, and in recent times people have been horrified by the brutality of the Pol Pot regime that ruled the country from 1975 to 1979. In more recent times the country has not been without danger. Millions of unexploded landmines and bombs are left over from the war, and continuing political unrest has led to the kidnapping of a number of people traveling outside recognized tourist centers. However, Cambodia is a beautiful country whose people are trying to put behind them the terrors of the past and move into a new more peaceful age. Though the negative side of Cambodia’s history may dominate, there are many aspects of the country for people to enjoy. The most famous attraction is Angkor, a complex of large and small wats (temples) and other monuments. Wats may be very small, or as at Angkor, more like an entire town. The size of the complex is one of its most impressive aspects. The whole place is an impressive monument to the ancient civilization of Khmer people—the oldest parts were built more than 1,000 years ago. The Mekong River is the lifeline of Cambodia. It is a transport route, and it supplies water for most of the rice growing in Cambodia. Besides the river itself, a major lake, Ton le Sap, is a great attraction. For visitors, the sight of water apparently running the wrong way is of interest. This occurs when the Mekong is in flood and the water flows into the lake rather than out of it, as it does the rest of the year. The Water Festival is held to coincide with this phenomenon. It begins on the last full moon in October and continues for three days. Visitors come from all over the country to watch brightly colored boats taking part in daytime races, while in the evenings decorated floats and fireworks help people celebrate the coming of the fish-laden water. Q: What elements of the Dutch colonization are still evident in Indonesia today? A: The Dutch influence on contemporary Indonesia is not all that obvious compared to, say, the French impact on Vietnam, but it is nonetheless identifiable. A few older people remember how to speak Dutch, but the language is rarely used. However, some Dutch words have been incorporated into Bahasa Indonesia, and Indonesian institutions—such as universities—are structured similarly to institutions in The Netherlands. Indonesia’s foreign policy is not particularly oriented to The Netherlands. Dutch scholars maintain a major interest in Indonesia, and some Indonesian students go to universities in The Netherlands, although more go to Australia and the United States. Some Indonesian families have members living in The Netherlands, where there are significant communities of Indonesians, including many who have opposed recent Indonesian governments. The Dutch influence on the architecture and the shape of some cities is still visible. The planning of Jakarta, known as Batavia under the Dutch, was influenced by the model of

4 Amsterdam, and the city is therefore crisscrossed by a series of canals. It also contains many Dutch colonial buildings such as the Presidential Palace, Istana Merdaka. Q: Why is the press less restricted in Thailand and the Philippines than it is in other countries of Southeast Asia? A: The Philippines and Thailand have media that are much more open to diverse and dissenting views. Newspapers and television in the Philippines provide outlets for the views of a large number of columnists and commentators, who write opinion pieces and editorialize about a wide range of subjects. The greater diversity of opinion reflects the looser form of democracy in Thailand and the Philippines, where opposition to government is tolerated. By contrast, military regimes, or regimes dependent on strong military backing— including those in Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar (Burma)—have routinely sought to muzzle the press. In these countries, newspapers are heavily censored, and often the military has its own newspapers as well. The press was muzzled in Suharto’s Indonesia. In an effort to disseminate government television throughout the country, Indonesia launched several Palapa satellites. However, many people bought satellite dishes to receive the government stations and discovered they could receive other satellite television broadcasts, including channels critical of the government. The current government has relatively little control of the media. Diverse political opinions are flourishing, and many new newspapers and magazines have started up since 1998 when Suharto’s presidency ended. In Singapore and Malaysia there is less overt censorship of the press. However, the respective governments retain tight control, and the publication of opinions critical of the government is rare. In order to get more independent news on local politics, Malaysians are increasingly turning to a Web site called Malaysiakini. The government is intent on discrediting the site, if not closing it down. Governments throughout the region are finding it difficult to control access to the Internet. Q: With Indonesia’s increasing population growth, are there enough resources to meet the country’s needs? How will the native people be affected by this growth and development? A: Indonesia’s population is growing, of course, but at a much slower rate than it once was. Annual population growth rates of 2.3 percent in the 1970s had declined to about 2.1 percent in the 1980s and 1.5 percent in the 1990s. This decline was due to a well-run family planning program and the impact of urbanization and economic development. Population growth rates are expected to drop further to about 1.2 percent over the next five years. On this basis Indonesia is currently projected to have a population of 217 million in 2003. Although parts of the country such as Java are densely populated, Indonesia has significant natural resources, and the shift of population to the cities will ease the pressures in the rural areas. However, Indonesia’s political instability is seriously undermining the economy and threatening the gains of recent years. This is the most serious challenge facing the Indonesian government, not the ratio of population to resources. Q: What are some of the most interesting attractions for visitors to Laos?

5 A: For many people, Laos remains largely unknown. It is a landlocked country located between Thailand and Vietnam, and until recent times there has been little awareness of it in the West. Many of the most interesting aspects of Laos have to do with its geographical and political isolation. It is not an easy place to get to and remains one of the few Communistled countries. During its history Laos has been dominated by several of its neighbors, and the Lao inheritance has been influenced by a wide variety of cultures. Buddhist beliefs are of major importance in Laos, and many of the most significant buildings are associated with Buddhism. The Buddhist monks live in wats (temples), and there are many wats to see. They contain images of Buddha, many in either the Calling for Rain posture or the Contemplating the Bodhi Tree posture, which are distinctively Laotian. The national monument of greatest significance is Pha That Luang (Lao for “The Great Stupa”). The design of the building represents the Buddhist search for perfection. The traditions of the Laotian people are of great interest. While some of the classical music and dance are now rarely performed, visitors can readily find performances of Laotian folk music and dance. One of the best times to be in Laos is in April, when everyone celebrates Pi Mai, the lunar New Year. During this weeklong festival, everyone enjoys a ritual cleansing and renewal. They make special offerings to the newly washed Buddhas in the wats, clean their homes, and wear new clothes. Water is used liberally to throw at other people, and tourists are not excluded! Throughout the year there are other significant festivals. A more serious one takes place in July. The monks retreat to their wats, and it is a time for the young men to enter the monastery, even if only for a short time, to learn more about the life of Buddha. Q: What have been the effects of logging in Southeast Asia? A: The logging and degradation of Southeast Asia’s primary tropical rain forests is a growing worry within the region, as well as throughout the world. Since the early 1980s the rate of deforestation has been among the highest on the planet, amounting to the loss of about 1 percent of total forest cover each year. Indonesia has experienced the largest amount of deforestation in absolute terms, but the impact in Vietnam, the Philippines, and Thailand has also been severe. Although logging has generated short-term income, Southeast Asia has suffered many negative consequences of the degradation. It jeopardizes the livelihoods of the estimated 30 million people who still live in the fast-disappearing forests. The extremely rich biodiversity in the forests is also eroded by logging. Moreover, logging leads to increased runoff after rains and the likelihood of more frequent flooding downstream. There are questions about the long-term economic benefits of logging, especially because efforts to reforest areas or generate timber plantations have been insufficient. Q: What are some of the cultural attractions in Malaysia? A: Visiting Malaysia is like going to many different places. Its capital, Kuala Lumpur (or KL, as everyone calls it), reflects the mixed origins of the people who now live in the country. Here, many buildings show a cosmopolitan mix of Malay, Chinese, Indian, and European cultures. Though Kuala Lumpur is a busy commercial city, it contains some beautiful and restful places, such as the Tasek Perdana Lake Gardens.

6 Nearby is the National Museum, which houses historical exhibits. Not too far away is the National Mosque in its setting of lawns and fountains. The colorful Indian temple of Sri Mahamariaman is another example of the mixed origins of the population. The multicultural aspects of Malaysia’s history are also evident in George Town, on the island of Pinang, which is off the west coast of peninsular Malaysia. Its attractions reflect the variety of peoples who have lived and traded in the area. Perhaps the most notable of these are Khoo Kongsi, an old Chinese clan house; Fort Cornwallis, a British 18th-century fortress; and the Pinang Museum and Art Gallery. One of Pinang’s most unusual attractions is the Snake Temple, which contains many venomous snakes. Visitors will be relieved to know that the snakes are heavily drugged with incense and do not pose a danger. On the northwest coast of the island of Borneo, near the Sarawak state capital of Kuching, there are traditional villages built on stilts close to the Sarawak River. The longhouses that have been used by the local people for centuries still exist in some villages. Q: What are some attractions for outdoor enthusiasts who visit Malaysia? A: Most visitors to Malaysia see only the capital city of Kuala Lumpur. Outside the city, however, are many different landscapes. Malaysia actually comprises both the peninsula section and also a number of islands, or parts of islands. One of the most striking of these is the island of Borneo, where in the state of Sabah there are dense jungles, and Mount Kinabalu, the highest mountain peak of the Malay Archipelago. Kinabalu National Park is famous for its more than 500 species of birds and 800 species of orchids. Also on Borneo, the natural environment of the state of Sarawak abounds with rivers, mountains, and forests. Unusual animals and vegetation, including carnivorous plants, long-nosed monkeys, and Sambar deer, inhabit the forests. Other areas of Malaysia are famous for their limestone caves. Swifts nest in some of these caves, and their nests are used to make birds’ nest soup. Other caves have been developed as shrines for worship. The Batu Caves, which are reached by 272 steps, house the Hindu shrine of Lord Subramaniam, while nearby is the Museum Cave, a fascinating display of brightly colored statues and murals from Hindu mythology. Another attraction for outdoor enthusiasts, especially divers and swimmers, is the wealth of beaches in Malaysia. The beaches have their own wildlife attractions, with giant turtles coming ashore to lay their eggs. The state of Pahang, on the east coast, has beautiful beaches. It is also a magnet for visitors who want to see village festivals and the craft of weaving pandanus leaves into mats, hats, and baskets. The traditional crafts of woodcarving and batik can also be seen in this area.

7 Q: What are some of the most interesting attractions for visitors to Myanmar? A: Myanmar, formerly known as Burma, is a fascinating place to visit. There are, however, government restrictions on which places a visitor can go. Myanmar is renowned for its festivals. There are far too many to describe here, but most are related to the lunar cycle of Buddhism. The lunar new year in April is welcomed by the Thingyan Water Festival, when people pour water over one another in the belief that it cleanses the body and mind of evil from the previous year. The Kason Festival in early May has a special place in the Myanmar calendar, as it commemorates the day Buddha was born, the day he attained enlightenment, and the day of his demise. The capital of Myanmar is Yangon (Rangoon). The city is full of interesting attractions, particularly its many pagodas. Visitors ought to remember that pagodas, and indeed all Buddhist structures, should be walked around clockwise. No one should miss Yangon’s Shwedagon Pagoda, which towers almost 100 m (328 ft) above the city. It was built about 2,500 years ago and is surrounded in legend. It is believed to contain strands of Buddha’s hair, which were put together with other relics and laid in a chamber. A golden pagoda was built over this, and then a series of pagodas in silver, tin, copper, lead, marble, and finally iron. No visit to Myanmar is complete without a few days in Mandalay, one of the old capitals of the kingdom. The city is famous for traditional arts and crafts, especially the carving of stone images of the Buddha and the manufacture of gold leaf. Merchants have always gathered in Mandalay, and the city is a shopper’s paradise. A unique feature of the Myanmar people, and one that few tourists see, is the tribal group known as the Padaung. These people maintain a centuries-old custom of using neck rings to extend the necks of their women. The number and value of the rings confers status and respect on the wearer’s family. Though many women still have neck rings, the practice is becoming less common. Q: With the recent slaughter of the Nepalese king and his family and the ascendancy of the younger son, Gyanendra, many are concerned that Gyanendra may allow for cozier relations with China. Is this likely, and what would the consequences be for Nepal, and India, and the rest of the region? A: Historically Nepal’s closest links have been with India. Nepal is a predominantly Hindu country, and India regards Nepal as part of its strategic zone. Relations between Nepal and China are more fragile. India, China, and Nepal share a border region—the Kalapani junction—and events such as the Sino-Indian war in 1962 highlight the underlying tensions in the region. However, China and Nepal have important trade relations, and China maintains an embassy in Kathmandu. Relations between Nepal and China have improved over the last few years. One of the key factors is that Nepal has discouraged Tibetans from crossing the border into Nepal— a move that has been welcomed by Beijing. It seems to be in the strategic interest of all three countries for Nepal to continue providing a buffer between India and China while maintaining cordial relations with both. If Nepal were to move significantly closer to China, tensions in the region would probably be heightened, and that is not in anyone’s interest. Q: Is the idea of “people power” gaining momentum in Southeast Asia?

8 A: Not to any appreciable extent. The concept is identified with the overthrow of the Marcos regime in the Philippines and with Corazon Aquino’s election to the presidency. There have been recent references to “people power” in the overthrow of Suharto in Indonesia, and under Presidents Habibie and Wahid Indonesia has certainly shifted toward greater democratic involvement in politics. Thailand has also embraced greater levels of democracy. I would be hard-pressed to find any evidence of “people power” momentum anywhere else in Southeast Asia. Q: What are some of the most interesting attractions for visitors to the Philippines? A: The Philippines are a complex of more than 7,000 islands. Many of these are quite small; 11 of them comprise more than 90 percent of the country’s total landmass. Luzon and Mindanao are the largest islands. The country’s capital, Manila, is on Luzon. The city has a long history, but the European influence dates from the 16th century. The Spanish influence is most evident in the Interamuros district, where buildings represent different eras in Filipino-Hispanic architecture. Fort Santiago, Manila Cathedral, and San Augustin Church are all located here. Culturally, the Philippines are different from many areas of Asia, as the main religion is Catholicism, and there is a close relationship between church and state. On Mindanao is Mount Apo, an active volcano that is the tallest peak in the Philippines. Mount Apo, meaning “grandfather of all Philippine,” dominates a remarkable natural landscape that has geysers, sulfur pillars, a steaming blue lake, swift-flowing rivers, and waterfalls cascading almost 300 feet into a deep gorge. The Philippine Eagle Nature Center is located at Pag-asa, in the foothills of Mount Apo. It is a breeding center for the endangered bird known as the monkey-eating eagle. Mount Pinatubo, on Luzon, is the Philippines’ most famous mountain due to its recent volcanic eruptions, which have caused thousands of people to be moved from their homes over the last decade. The country’s four major rice-terrace sites, which are included in the World Heritage Sites list, are a living cultural landscape. The rice terraces of Ifugao and their irrigation systems date from as early as 1000 BC. The rice terraces are an awesome sight, climbing from the base of the mountains like massive green stairways. It is said that their length, put end to end, would encircle half the globe. The Philippines also have many underwater attractions that are of special interest to divers, including shipwrecks. Tubbataha Reef Marine Park is also a World Heritage Site, because of its abundant marine life. It consists of two islets with soft corals and small caves where divers can see white-tip and nurse sharks, turtles, rays (devilfish), and many other reef fish and sea creatures. Q: Did the death of Pol Pot in 1998 signal the demise of the Khmer Rouge? A: It probably did. Pol Pot, or Saloth Star as he was known in his youth, became the general secretary of the Communist Party in Cambodia in the early 1960s and subsequently fled into the jungle to escape Cambodia’s ruler, Prince Norodom Sihanouk. He led the Khmer Rouge when they took up arms against the government in 1967, and he was the apparent leader of the Khmer Rouge government that controlled Cambodia from 1975 to 1978. After the Khmer Rouge were thrown out of power, Pol Pot led them to the

9 jungles along the Thai border, where they resumed guerrilla warfare against the incoming government of former Khmer Rouge figure Hun Sen. Rumors circulated in early 1996 that Pol Pot had died, but these rumors merely masked a split in the Khmer Rouge movement. By 1997 the Khmer Rouge were seriously weakened, and Pol Pot was arrested and held by hardline Khmer Rouge general Ta Mok. A show trial followed, parts of which were recorded and shown on Western television. Pol Pot died of heart failure in April 1998. By that time the Khmer Rouge were split and further weakened. The death of their long-time leader symbolized the death of the Khmer Rouge, although remnants of the guerrilla force remain scattered through Cambodia. Q: How is the period of colonial rule remembered by the people of Southeast Asia? A: Memories of the colonial period are fast disappearing—the people with direct experience and memories of colonialism are now in their 60s. Subtle reminders of the colonial presence remain, such as in language, food, and religion, and sometimes through family connections, or diffuse government-to-government links. Many students from Southeast Asia travel outside the region to attend university, but their destinations tend to be the United States, Australia, and Britain rather than the former colonial powers. The French are trying to rebuild their connections with Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia; The Netherlands maintains a special contact with Indonesia; and Britain maintains contact with Malaysia and Singapore. However, political decolonization has been in progress for nearly 50 years, and postcolonial identities in Southeast Asia have evolved significantly, in parallel with nationalist sentiments. Yet a broader sense of being part of Southeast Asia, or a pan-Asian sense of identity, has been slower to evolve, despite high levels of economic integration within the Asia Pacific region. Q: Why did so many farmers support billionaire Thaksin Shinawatra in the January 2001 election in Thailand? A: Good question. Thaksin Shinawatra is the wealthiest man in Thailand, yet he and his Thai Rak Thai Party were swept to victory in the election on the back of widespread popular support. His success in gaining votes from the farmers was in part because of his image as a man of the people. Indeed, the name of his party literally means “Thai Love Thai.” In addition, Thaksin advocated populist policies, with a heavy emphasis on government spending. For instance, he promised farmers a development fund of 1 billion baht ($23,000) for each of Thailand’s 70,000 villages. Thus Thaksin successfully differentiated himself from his predecessor, Prime Minister Chuan Leekpai, whose approach to solving Thailand’s economic problems focused on reform and austerity, not big spending. Q: What are some of the most interesting attractions for a visitor to Thailand? A: The Thai capital, Bangkok, has enough to keep visitors busy for some time. Thailand also offers beach resorts, coral islands, jungle areas, orchid farms, and wonderful Thai culture. The Grand Palace and Wat Phra Kaeo, probably Thailand’s most famous landmark, is a huge compound in Bangkok that occupies an area of about 3 sq km (about 1 sq mi). The palace is more than 200 years old and has richly decorated buildings. The compound’s Royal Chapel houses the most sacred Emerald Buddha. Another special attraction is Vimanmek Palace, the world’s largest building made entirely of golden teak.

10 Outside Bangkok are two centers where visitors can see elephants perform. Elephants in Thailand have long been trained to undertake many tasks, though now they are less frequently used to help with forest work than they once were. The beaches and coral reefs of Thailand are some of the best in the world. Near Pattaya, a significant resort that developed after a United States naval base was established in the area in the 1950s, the beaches offer facilities for water-skiing, parasailing, swimming, snorkeling, and sailing. Visitors can go out to the reefs to dive or view them through glass-bottomed boats. No visit to Thailand would be complete without viewing the orchids for which Thailand is renowned. The Nong Nooch Orchid Wonderland is one of many orchid farms, with hundreds of varieties of orchids, ferns, and other blooms all displayed in a lavish garden. Visitors can watch cultural performances set among the orchids. The rituals and traditions of Thai classical dance are beautiful and different. One of the most important dances is the khon. The formalized movements of khon performances make the acting and dancing inseparable. Each step has a meaning, emphasized by the appropriate music, narration, and song, and each part of a khon costume, including ornate headdresses and masks, has its own significance. Music is as important as dance. There are about 50 types of Thai musical instruments, including flutes, stringed instruments, and gongs. They are used for all kinds of occasions: festivals, folk theater, marriages, funerals, and social evenings after harvesting. Q: How did Thailand avert colonialism, making it the only country in Southeast Asia that has never been under foreign control? A: Astute management was the key. The Chakri kings who assumed power in 1782 recognized potential threats from Burma and Europe. They therefore expanded Siamese territory into Laos, western Cambodia, and the northern Malay Peninsula, creating buffer zones. They also improved administration and tax collection. Later kings, such as Chulalongkorn, further improved the administration and learned from Western ideas and technology. Thai rulers later conceded parts of Laos and Cambodia to France and several Malay states to Britain, and they negotiated trade arrangements favorable to the increasingly powerful Europeans. Although Thailand succeeded in preventing colonization, it effectively became part of Britain’s sphere of influence. Q: Are there clear differences between the culture of Thailand, which was not subject to colonialism, and the cultures of other countries in Southeast Asia? A: There are differences between the cultures of Thailand and the rest of Southeast Asia, but this is not because the other countries avoided colonial control. The differences are a product of the history of the peoples of Thailand. Doubtless there are aspects of Thai beliefs and behavior that might have been different if Thailand had been colonized, but not significantly so. As an illustration, most Thai are Buddhist, and fewer than 1 percent are Christian. By contrast, nearby Vietnam is also a Buddhist country, but Christians constitute 7 percent of Vietnam’s population, largely due to the impact of the French colonizers. In general, cultural beliefs and practices in most of Southeast Asia have been built up over centuries. The cultures of Southeast Asia have been influenced by those of India,

11 China, and a variety of others. In the last half century, the powerful influence of American culture has provided another cultural layer across the entire region. Q: Why did Vietnam invade Cambodia in 1978? A: Although Vietnam and Cambodia (or Kampuchea, as it was known from 1976 to 1989) both established socialist regimes after 1975, relations between the two deteriorated to the point that Vietnam invaded Cambodia in December 1978. Cambodia was closely aligned with China, and China had been a threat to Vietnam for centuries. At the same time, the Vietnamese worried about possible encroachment into Vietnamese territory by the aggressive Cambodian regime. When the Vietnamese invaded, they cited support for the Khmer National United Front for National Salvation as their reason. The Khmer Rouge regime that ran Cambodia had been exposed as murderous thugs, and there was international support for Vietnam’s actions, although many people suspected that the Vietnamese were not driven by altruism. A government friendly to Vietnam, led by Heng Samrin, took power in Cambodia after the invasion. Q: What was the feared domino effect that helped spur the Vietnam War, and why didn’t it actually occur? A: The domino effect was the concern that if Vietnam fell to Communist forces, then all of the Southeast Asian countries to the south—including Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia—would also become Communist. The theory provided a justification for the deployment of American troops to Vietnam in 1965. It was argued that such a step would prevent the anti-Communist government of South Vietnam from collapsing and therefore prevent the spread of Communism from China through Vietnam and to the rest of Southeast Asia. Anti-Communist forces eventually lost the Vietnam War, and Vietnam became the unified Socialist Republic of Vietnam in 1976. However, Communists did not win power in any other Southeast Asian countries except Cambodia and Laos, which were inevitably drawn into the Vietnam conflict. The domino theory was thus proved false. Why did the domino effect never materialize? Because to be successful, Communist insurgents needed to have a strong platform within their own countries and successfully woo grassroots support. Communist revolutionaries were active in most Southeast Asian countries in the 1960s and 1970s, but their major activities were confined to specific rural regions. They struggled to have much impact in the larger urban areas, where economic development had begun to accelerate by the 1980s. By the 1990s Communist insurgents existed only in small, isolated clusters in countries such as the Philippines, and today they lack any real influence in Southeast Asia. Q: How does the history of the Vietnam War affect the Vietnamese people’s views about the West? A: The Vietnamese people are friendly and welcome visitors to their country. I have never encountered any hostility at all, and I have been visiting the country regularly since 1982. However, it is important to remember that the Vietnamese people and their environment were seriously damaged by the war. Chemical defoliants, such as Agent Orange, were spread over large tracts of forest in the south to destroy the protective cover that helped hide the guerrilla fighters of the National Liberation Front, or Viet Cong (as they were called in the West). The chemical residues remain in the soil, causing birth deformities

12 and illnesses. Unexploded bombs still pose a danger to farmers plowing their fields. Also, the Vietnamese feel that the war prevented their country from developing economically like their neighbors Thailand and Malaysia. Vietnam struggled to find its place in the world after the Soviet Union crumbled in the early 1990s. Since the thaw in relations between the United States and Vietnam in the mid-1990s, however, Vietnam has joined in more activities with neighboring countries and is making its way on the world stage. There still seems to be some lingering suspicions about the West in senior government circles, but the Vietnamese in general appear to hold no grudges about wartime events. A huge amount has been written about the impact of the Vietnam War in the United States and other countries, such as Australia, but relatively little about the long-term impact on Vietnam. Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006. © 1993-2005 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.