Thesis Book 2006

Existence Confluence An Exploration of Social Interaction Through the Study of a Marketplace

Stacey Westenberger Senior Design Thesis 2 0 0 5 - 2 0 0 6

Stacey Westenberger Senior Design Thesis 2 0 0 5 - 2 0 0 6

Architecture provides a setting for interaction and reflection at every junction in which we encounter it. Not only can we physically interact with the built form, but architecture also shapes a place for interaction to occur between users. Architecture, which engages the senses on an intimate level elicits a sense of consciousness among a user, thereby increasing their awareness of their environment as a whole. A public market place is a catalyst for this consciousness to occur as well as a stimulating physically interactive environment. The surrounding activities within the market are daily routines, but experiencing the confluence of site, users, and purpose results in enhancement of overall existence. The created opportunity for reflection on daily life allows for understanding and intrigue to form in regard to the world around them, further increasing one’s respect for life. The atmosphere as a whole influences the user subtly, almost unrecognizable and unexplainable to the common eye, yet stimulating a chain of reactions within the individual and community. Located on the Eads Bridge in St. Louis, Missouri, the market space allows for a renewed perception of the historically significant site and provides an opportunity for reflection on the city.

Existence Confluence An Exploration of Social Interaction Through the Study of a Marketplace

ex•ist \ig’zist\ vb 1 : have real or actual being 2 : live - ex•ist•ence n con·flu·ence \knfl-ns\ n 1 : a flowing together of two or more streams 2 : a gathering, flowing, or meeting together at one juncture or point 1

Stacey Westenberger • 2005-2006 • Senior Thesis Project • California Polytechnic State Univeristy

San Luis Obispo • College of Architecture and Environmental Design • Professor Jonathan Reich

Dedication

This book is dedicated to my parents, Bob and Linda Westenberger, for their continued support through my education, travels, and life.

Special thanks to: Meghan, Anne Marie, Sarah Bradshaw, and Samantha DeLeuw for all their help whether it was physical labor, borrowing a truck, loaning money, or just someone to talk to.



Table of Contents Research: Fall 2005 Thesis

3

Public Market Place Case Studies Successful Markets Program

13 15 25 27

Place Vicinity Community Redevelopment Climate Analysis

29 31 35 39 51



Site Adaptive Reuse Eads Bridge Understanding the Bridge Access / Proximity Terminology

57 59 61 65 67 69

Initial Concept Ideas: Fall 2005 Precedents 73 Conceptual Studies 83 Fall Review 11/21/2005 97 Schematic Design: Winter 2006 Precedents 101 Experiments 111 Patterns 115 Site Analysis 117 Plan Analysis 121 Adjacencies 123 Study Model 02/18/2006 125 Revisions 127 Design Development: Spring 2006 Precedents 143 Process 157 Final Documetation 171

Thesis What do all of these things have in common? They all represent LIFE. The images are small clips of a special moments in our lives, almost unrecognizable until we stop and draw attention to them. Architecture is not just about the physical building, but a culmination of building, existence, and beauty; shaping our lives.



Can architecture make us aware

basis for things extraordinary.

of our surroundings and the

Something extraordinary stands

beauty in the “ordinary” mo-

out from the rest and demands

ments in our lives? It begins

one’s attention. However, this

with how we define ordinary.

does not negate the inherit

Ordinary is defined by Merriam-

significance and beauty in the

Webster’s Dictionary as:

ordinary. Koren uses the term

Architecture

Wabi Sabi to express the beauty

not blare out ‘I am important’

or•di•nar•y

in ordinary things. He first

or demand to be the center of

adj: of common occurrence,

describes beauty; “Beauty can

attention. They are understated

quality, or ability.1

spontaneously occur at any

and unassuming, yet not without

moment given the proper cir-

presence or quiet authority.

Ordinary does not mean the

cumstances, context, or point of

Things wabi-sabi easily co-exist

object in which it describes is of

view. Beauty is thus an altered

with the rest of their environ-

low quality or lacking in ability;

state of consciousness, and

ment” (Koren 68). After realizing

it refers, however, to something

extraordinary moment of po-

there is potential for beauty in

that is usual or customary.

etry and grace” (Koren 51). He

habitual things, the question

These familiar instances do not

further explains Wabi Sabi with

remains, how can we recognize

lack quality because we have

the ideas of ordinary versus ex-

environmental influence on our

experienced them before, how-

traordinary. Koren demonstrates

everyday life?

ever, this quality becomes harder

Wabi Sabi as coexisting, rather

to recognize when it is all around

than imposing. “Unpretentious.

In an urban environment,

us. The “ordinary” moments

Things wabi-sabi are unstudied

architecture sets a scene for

are necessary in order to be a

and inevitable looking. They do





his surroundings” (Alexander

against each other. “Places

to occur. The presence of a

106). Cooperative relationships

which have this quality, invite

structure or lack of can impose

between environments and users

this quality to come to life in us”

However, these instances do

psychological dispositions on

create a balance in energy. This

(Alexander 53). It is recogniz-

not result from the architecture

the user. These psychological

equilibrium allows a user to be-

ing each one for their positive

alone. This is why, often,

effects of the environment can

come aware of the other factors

attributes and finding glory in

architecture is not even needed

affect moods, evoke emotions,

influencing their attitude and

the smaller imperfections that

to evoke our sense of tranquility,

and promote actions. Concur-

become strengthened by them.

exist. Harmony emerges from

as we often observe through

rently, these predispositions

Everyday activities can become

the conversation between archi-

natural beauty. External forces,

created from the environment have the ability to enhance or hinder the user’s overall well-being. “A person is so far



neously life is magnified.

these moments of consciousness

Harmony emerges from the conversation between architecture and life.

formed by his surroundings that

a building block for overall well

tecture and life. Often times,

his state of harmony depends

being when the surroundings

architecture may go unnoticed

entirely on his harmony with

and person are not competing

to the observer, though simulta-

not created by man, are able to more easily catch our senses and therefore evoke responses. Engaging the senses is the lure to awareness. I learned to notice the ray of sunlight that was 

person to become even more and take in every aspect of the

Architecture should be unimpos-

will make the architecture alive,

dust, and to realize that that column of light was indeed a power, influencing the air currents by its warmth, and indeed influencing the whole mood of the room; although I had not consciously seen it before, it had already been structuring my experience. (Abrams 20)

world around them. As one

ing, but influential on our daily

rather than forcing our attention

sense is engaged, the other

lives. Subliminal messages are

through imposition. Connec-

senses become more acute in

sent through its relationship

tions and materials are smaller

Sensual experiences cause a



well being.

The more intimate ways in which

then pouring through a chink in the roof, illuminating a column of drifting

a building engages our senses

conscious of their surroundings

segments of architecture, which

Engaging the senses is the lure to awareness. scanning the environment. This

to site, surroundings, light,

conscientious approach to a

material, space, and most

person’s daily life helps them

importantly its users. Not only

to become more attentive to

does the user receive these

the positive effects everyday

messages, but they also become

activities have in one’s overall

a part of the greater dialogue.

stimulate one’s senses almost subconsciously, but are unarguably the most important factors in overall recognition.



People The experience of architecture should not be limited to a certain age group, social class, or economic level. As diversity grows among the populations of our global world, a common

“The encounter with other perceivers continually assures me that there is more to any thing, or to the world, than I myself can perceive at any moment.” (Abrams 39) ground is needed for which all people can experience and understand. Architecture provides a place to bring people 10

together under a common purpose, therefore promoting interaction between social strata. Through this interaction, results understanding and respect. There is a realization that we, as members of a global society may not be equal, but we all have common daily activities. An understanding of the world around you is needed on a large and small scale; recognizing the role of nature, people, and the built environment on your everyday activities. Do they enhance or hinder your own development and the development of the world (big or small) around you? Our interactions with people in a place become moments

within our lives. Through these interactions, emotions are drawn out of all the indicators affecting our lives at that one moment in time. Time, place, weather, people, etc. all play into the feelings we perceive at a specific moment. Factors such as being cold, wet, tired, sick, etc. all af-

visitors, races, etc. Architecture should be for everyone to enjoy. It should create public places for interaction to occur between each end of the spectrum, simultaneously creating understanding and recognition of the diversity within the community

Architecture creates public places for interaction to occur. fect how a person perceives and instance. History also affects what the person feels at the present moment. Who is the user group then? It is everyone! Old, young, tall, short, rich, poor, one, many,

and the greater world. Since 2001, there are 1426 new residential units that have opened in St. Louis City. And an additional 1,000 units began construction at the end of 2004. (CID)

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Public Market Place

“Markets are seen as neutral spaces that belong to no single age group, giving them a multi-generational character and sense of community like few other places.” (Freid) 13

Case Studies The concept of public markets emerged in the 8th Century B.C. in ancient Greece. However, the type of public markets found today is most closely linked with beginnings in England during the 17th Century. New Orleans’

advancing technology in grocery stores and intense development of suburban areas and highways diminished dependence on downtown areas thus leading to a decline of markets throughout the country.3 More recently, the

Markets are “the original human gathering place” (O’Neil) French Quarter Market, originating in 1794, is considered the longest continuously operating public market in the U.S. At the end of World War I, the United States had 237 municipal public markets in 128 cities.2 However

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value of markets as a unique interactive experience is again being recognized and modern public markets are being integrated into many cities.

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Soulard Market The Soulard Farmer’s Market is the last survivor of the numerous markets once located in St. Louis, and the oldest market west of the Mississippi. The market began in 1838 on two blocks of land donated by Julia Soulard for a marketplace. The market grew and perspired to consist of two market halls throughout the 20th century. Today, the market is the site of many cultural events such as Oktoberfest and Mardi Gras, due to the diverse community in which it stands. However, on a daily basis, the market economy is declining and now attracts only few customers as a one-time experience. 4

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The Soulard Market lacks prosperity of location and amenities. It is located outside of downtown limits, making it an obstacle to access without a car. Pedestrians are unable to conveniently walk to the market or take public transportation, such as the metro. Although the market thrives during seasonal and cultural events, its popularity is short lived. Throughout the year, Soulard lacks marketing and awareness to bring people to the marketplace. Its hours of operation are also inconvenient to many people living in the city who work during the week.

The Market sells a variety of goods, focusing mainly on food. However the various products are dispersed throughout the market hall. The Soulard Market also offers two structures, one indoor and one outdoor for expanding the market during temperate months of the year.

Established: 1838 Location: 7th & Lafayette, St. Louis, MO Hours of Operation: Year Round Wed.-Fri. 8:00a.m. to 5:30p.m. Sat. 6:00a.m. to 5:30p.m. Categories: Produce; Flowers and Plants; Bakery, Miscellaneous; Farmer/ Grower; Apparel; Meat, Fish, Eggs, & Cheese; Spices and Grains; Snacks and Meals

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Pike Place Market Often referred to as “the soul of Seattle,” the Pike Place Market has operated for almost 100 years on 9 acres of land. Internationally recognized as America’s premier farmers’ market, it is home to nearly 200 year-round commercial businesses; 190 craftspeople and 120 farmers who rent table space by the day; 240 street performers and musicians; and 300 apartment units. The market attracts 10 million visitors a year, making it one of Washington’s most frequently visited destinations. 5 The Pike Place Market has become the precedent for many markets across the country. Although its size is immense, the atmosphere of interaction flour18

ishes. However, the market was started in 1905 and much of its success is representative of its deep-rooted history. The Market location is also prominent within the city, located along the waterfront and near an active dis-

Consequently, Pike Place has evolved into a community within itself.

...a community within itself. trict of the city. The metro bus system also offers stops near the market, alleviating transportation difficulties. The wide variety of goods and services offered at the Pike Place Market can be a bit overwhelming, but the market has become a community-centered icon, and its goal is to offer all necessary services in a convenient location.

Established: 1905 Location: 1531 Western Ave., Seattle, WA Hours of Operation: Pike Place/1st Avenue level: Mon. - Sat, 10am to 6pm Sunday, 11am to 5pm Down Under stores: Mon. - Sun., 11am to 5pm

Categories: Food; Handmade Crafts; Other Merchandise; Services (bank, healthcare, shoe repair, tailoring, portraits, ministry, etc.); Dining and Take-out; among many others

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Milwaukee Public Market The Milwaukee Public Market opened late summer 2005, projecting 20,000 customers to visit the market each week. Although unlike many other public markets, the Milwaukee Market is focusing solely on food, no arts and crafts will be sold. However, along with the usual food stands,

denominator”(McCann). 6 The Market’s ability to expand for different seasons shows acceptance of its environment and adaptations from the traditional model to respond to its context. Transparent doors connect the seasonal outdoor vendors to the interior market as well as pro-

Food’s the great common denominator. Milwaukee’s market provides a 55-seat theater on a mezzanine level for cooking demonstrations as well as chances to participate in classes. They have also teamed up with a local bookstore to provide cookbook signings and demonstrations. Schafer, a market investor, shares her outlook, “It’s going to be a fun place to hang out and will be good for our city. Food’s the great common 20

vide a seamless transition to the outdoors. The Milwaukee Public Market takes advantage of its city’s amenities and relates to the lakefront and the River walk (just across the street). This juxtaposition helps the market form closer relationships with the city as well as creates a community identity for itself, reflecting the root influences of Milwaukee.

Architect: Kubala Washatko Architects Established: 2005 Location: 400 N. Water St., Milwaukee, WI Hours of Operation: Closed Mondays Tues. – Fri., 10am-7pm Sat. ,8am-5pm Sun., 8am-4pm Outdoor Farmer’s Market: July – Nov. Categories: Cooking Classes; Mezzanine for eating or people watching (overlooking market activities); Food Sales (dairy, cheese, fish, bulk items, breads, pastries, fresh meats, ethnic specialties, fresh soups, flowers, Wisconsin specialties, and organic foods)

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Temporary Markets Traditionally farmer’s markets were set up temporarily in the streets. Today, many of these temporary markets create colorful street scenes, as in the case in Gerona, Italy as well as many other European cities. These street scenes have become favorites among many Europeans and in some cases became permanent fixtures along the streets, such as San Lorenzo Market in Florence, Italy. However, in the U.S. the temporary markets are just that and often offer a one-day social affair to gather and browse while fulfilling everyday shopping needs. In San Luis Obispo, the farmer’s market is not only a town favorite, but a highly visited tourist attraction. Although, fair weath22

er conditions contribute to its popularity, the unusual sounds of bustling life on the streets with music and food in the background provide a thriving atmosphere for social interaction.

Locations: Everywhere Gerona, Italy San Lorenzo, Florence, Italy San Luis Obispo, California Today, 3,000 markets exist throughout Europe including 41 neighborhood locations in Barcelona alone.

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Ten Qualities of Successful Public Markets The reason that always pops to the top (of surveys asking why people use markets) is the experience; seeing other people, opportunities for impromptu conversations, the unexpected sensory delights.n (Listed are the qualities and description based on relationships to St. Louis as a site.) The ten qualities that power successful markets are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 24

Right vendor Right location a. Confluence-places where people naturally come together Right mix Right mission a. Community health- healthy food at low prices b. Make people happy Right public spaces a. Sense of entry- the market as oasis Right connections a. Reflect community- a symbol of community identity b. Bike trails/greenways



c. Local economy- use the market as a hub for local revitalization 7. Right economics 8. Right promotion a. Community connections- provides a forum for interaction 9. Right value a. Social capital- shared experiences build community b. Psychic Well-being- a fun way to feel good 10. Right management a. Outreach-a diverse market is a strong market

By David O’Neil

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Program A public marketplace is about the experience of interaction and observation first, but also has an overlying purpose of offering fresh and nutritious foods to those living in an urban environment. In that case, along with vendor stalls, a market provides

such as restrooms and places to relax. While thriving due to its proximity to tourist attractions and the metro line, easy access from highways and the city streets, as well as parking accommodations for bikes and cars.

They are home to endless hand to hand transactions, evolving relationships. 7

-Vendor stalls -Cafes/Restaurants -Nutrition Education -Observation Kitchen -Cookbook Retail -Restrooms -Bike Racks -Metro Station

places to sit, relax, and observe (i.e. benches and cafes), as well as educational programs (i.e. observation kitchens, nutrition information, and helpful tips about food). There is a basic support system allowing a market to be a place of gathering, 27

Place

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Geographically defined by the Mississippi River, in 1764, Pierre Laclede formally named St. Louis in honor of the patron saint of France. Originally established as a trading outpost near the confluence of the Missouri and Mississippi rivers, Laclede showed remarkable foresight by saying, “By its locality and central position, St. Louis was to become one of the finest of cities”(McNulty 5). In the beginning, St. Louis

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possessed a natural sand levee, sheltering limestone bluffs, and a convenient location less than twenty miles downriver from the confluence with the Missouri River. Growing to become the second largest inland port and the western edge of civilization, St. Louis established the reputation as “Gateway to the West”, because of its natural location as a point of departure and return on journeys westward. 8

Vicinity St. Louis, Missouri USA Elevation: 465 feet Land area: 61.9 square miles

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Population change in the 1990s: -47,163 (-11.9%)

In more recent years, St. Louis has fallen from its spot among the largest bustling cities within the U.S. and is now steadily declining. Although the St. Louis region ranks 17th in population nationwide, the Metropolitan Statistical Area consists of 6,391 square miles, with a population of 2.6 million people, only 16% of which live in the City of St. Louis. In the 1950’s, St. Louis experienced “white flight” from the city and still suffers from its trend today. White flight is a colloquial term for the demographic trend of white people, generally but not always upper and middle class, moving away

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from increasingly and predominantly non-white areas, finding new homes in nearby suburbs or even moving to new locales entirely. 9 Most businesses eventually moved out of the city to the suburbs in order to be closer to their work force; thus economically devastating the cities growth. As a result, the city has been under plans of redevelopment since the 1960’s, although it is just beginning to show signs of resolve. 10

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Community

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The diversity among city residents becomes the motivator for a place of social interaction. Contrary to segregation, a common place for interaction allows for dissemination of the diverse makeup within the city. The history of misunderstanding among social classes and races, leading to the giant urban sprawl and “white flight” further supports the need for a common place where all people feel welcome. The number of visitors to the city each year is of major economic wealth to the city. Increasing the number of attractions and amenities will further enhance the tourism market and sustain its success. Visitors are another user group who will benefit from a common place of interaction. Often times, visitors also like to observe their travel destination in its raw atmosphere. A place for visitors and residents allows for them to interact and learn from each other. 36

Demographics10

Population (year 2000): 348,189 Est. population in July 2004: 343,279 (-1.4% change) Males: 163,567 (47.0%) Females: 184,622 (53.0%) Races in St. Louis: Black (51.2%) White Non-Hispanic (42.9%) Hispanic (2.0%) Two or more races (1.9%) Vietnamese (1.0%) American Indian (0.8%) Other race (0.8%) Daytime population change due to commuting: +122,234 (+35.1%) Workers who live and work in this city: 82,480 (58.6%) Houses: 176,354 (147,076 occupied: 68,917 owner occupied,

78,159 Median Median Median

renter occupied) resident age: 33.7 years household income: $27,156 (year 2000) house value: $63,900 (year 2000

For population 25 years and over in St. Louis High school or higher: 71.3% Bachelor’s degree or higher: 19.1% Graduate or professional degree: 7.6% Unemployed: 11.3% Mean travel time to work: 25.1 minutes For population 15 years and over in St. Louis city Never married: 41.5% Now married: 32.7% Separated: 4.4% Widowed: 9.2% Divorced: 12.3%

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Redevelopment

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Washington Avenue The key development principles and programs set forth for the district include: renovation and reuse of existing buildings; support of existing arts district uses; infill of new buildings; location of support parking behind buildings; enhanced streetscaping; the creation of new urban greens; active recreational areas, and a public square. Downtown Now! Development Plan

Washington Ave. runs east-west through Downtown, linking the Downtown West district and the Riverfront. Due to the longevity of the garment business, the area is the best preserved section of St. Louis from the turn of the century. Currently the old garment factories are being converted into artists’ lofts and offices, focusing on enhancing streetscapes and visual quality of urban life. 40

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Gateway Mall and Arch The plan calls for the reintegration of the Arch Grounds into the downtown through a landscaped lid over I-70 and enhanced activities in the open spaces of both the Arch Grounds and the Mall. Downtown Now! Development Plan

The mall stretches the entire east-west length of Downtown, linking the Arch grounds and Union Station. The Mall, in conjunction with the Arch Grounds, is the organizing open space around which all of Downtown revolves. Many public venues are connected to the Mall via boulevards, providing ease of circulation around Downtown. However, the Mall and the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial are dramatically underused open spaces, under current development plans. 42

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Laclede’s Landing The key development principles and programs set forth for the district include: rehabilitation of historic buildings for loft, office, and retail uses; a new urban entertainment center; a new residential neighborhood with apartments and townhouses; new commercial and office spaces; and residential support uses such as daycare. Also included in the plan are urban greens that will serve the residential neighborhood, biking and jogging paths along the riverfront and enhanced pedestrian connections to the Arch Grounds and Downtown core. Downtown Now! Development Plan 44

Located at the Northern edge of the downtown core, a number of thriving restaurants, clubs, retail, institutions, and businesses as well as a hotel are accredited to the district’s success. The 33 block stretch preserves the original waterfront’s Creole street layout. Original cobblestone streets, brick walks, and quaint gas lamps enhance the area’s charm. 45

Old Post Office District The key development principles and programs set forth for the district include: reuse of the Old Post Office as an educational facility, a a new public square and the rejuvenation of the surrounding blocks. Downtown Now! Development Plan

The Old Post Office District is located in the central business district of the Downtown. The district consists of the new Convention Headquarters Hotel, America’s Center, St. Louis Center, and many other businesses, which make up most of the Central Business Core. Development plans include reusing the Old Post Office as an educational facility by Webster University as a home for their business and communications schools. 46

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Eads Bridge Promenade use of Eads bridge, in addition to satisfying pedestrian and bicycle transportation needs, will create a regional downtown destination that unites the local communities while helping to revitalize the decaying downtown area. Owen D. Dutt

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Built: 1874 Span: +1520 feet Clearance: 55 feet Width: 54 feet Materials: Steel and Limestone

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Climate Analysis

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12

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Humidity

Average Temperature

Temperature is a major determinant for the design of a public market in St. Louis. Typical of the Midwest, St. Louis experiences four seasons with temperature extremes. 52

Wind Speed (mph)

Summer months are very hot with high humidity, making outdoor venues almost unbearable. The heat however remains in the evenings, creating a warm night environment. 53

Precipitation

Snowfall

Thunderstorms are typical during the spring and summer months, alleviating the humid atmosphere. Contrastingly, winter months are plagued with extremely cold temperatures and light snowfall. Mostly, the colder temperatures lead to ice storms rather than snow. 54

Sunshine

Cloudy Days

Deceivingly the sun shines but does not create enough heat in the atmosphere, thus the frigid temperatures remain. Spring and Fall are moderate climates in St. Louis and pleasant. Even though the sun shines yearround, precipitation is possible at any time. Recently, weather fronts have come across the region creating abnormal temperatures and conditions. In summary, St. Louis residents must be prepared for all types of weather conditions at any moment. 55

Site

“From Venice to Brooklyn, Bangkok to Chicago, bridges have the ability to reach beyond the mere length of their spans. When approached as design opportunities rather than structural problems, bridges can make connections. Bridges can write communities, provide places to gather; and serve as powerful symbols.” (Chicago Architecture Foundation) 57

Adaptive Reuse With all the unused existing developed space, why are we spending more money to develop new land leading to an exhaustion of a nonrenewable resource. Motivators existed for the development of the current brownfields, which most likely apply today or can be redefined under the current conditions. Unused square footage around the globe sits vacant. These deserted properties do not add to the economical or physical growth of their context. However, demolition of these properties strips cities of character created in their history. We must accept our past and mistakes, thinking now of how to develop these places so they become an enrichment to the area in which

they reside. Through the rehabilitation of these facilities, cities maintain their sense of identity and continue to grow economically and under safe, sustainable conditions.

Design places in harmony with the stream of the past (everything that has contributed to the future) inspired out of the future- the world of ideals, inspiration, and imagination-but have their feet in the reality of the present. (Alexander 16) 59

Eads Bridge The Eads Bridge was the built in 1874 as the first structure to cross the Mississippi River, the largest river in North America. Built to allow trains to cross the river, it reaffirmed St. Louis as a major trading capital. The Eads Bridge was a marvel of engineering during its erection and even today. Not only did James Eads design the world’s first steel trusses, his construction method also proved innovative; building the spans out from central piers simultaneously in both directions, thus foregoing construction scaffolding which would interfere with necessary boat traffic.13 However, the last train crossed the Eads Bridge in 1974 and since 1993 the tracks have

carried the St. Louis Metro Link to Illinois. After restoration in 2003, the Eads Bridge accommodates bus, automobile, bike, and pedestrian traffic on its upper deck. Pedestrian and bicycle accommodation was a major player in the renovation of the bridge, as well as opportunities for special events to occur on the bridge, such as “Taste of St. Louis” and “Fair St. Louis”. Today, the Eads bridge is a grand promenade at the entrance to the city.13 The Eads bridge consists of three spans; the center span is 520 feet, and the other two are 500 feet each, with a clearance of over 55 feet at the center span. The spans rest on limestone piers carried down to

bedrock. The bridge, originally built for pedestrian and train traffic is 54 feet wide, with two lines of rails.15

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10. Incorporate the Eads Bridge as a public event venue in conjunction with the riverfront by improving the bicycle and pedestrian connections between the riverfront and the Eads Bridge, By providing vertical circulation/access to the Bridge Deck, the Metro Link Station and connecting the Riverfront, By providing horizontal / lateral circulation connections, Arch grounds, parking and bridges. -St. Louis Community Development Plan 16

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Understanding the Bridge

At 6,442’ overall, the Eads Bridge is longer than the width of Cal Poly’s campus.

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Although the Eads Bridge has accommodated the changing times, the waterfront transformed from a bustling boardwalk to a barren flood ground. The waterfront has become a bleak wharf slope into the Mississippi made of asphalt and a few cobblestones, the only vestige of the riverfront’s commercial past. A levee is lined with a massive floodwall, separating the city from water access. The need for connection between the higher level of the city and the waterfront is imminent in recognizing St. Louis’s prosperous past relationship with the river. Currently the Eads Bridge connects to the interior of the city streets, overlooking the riverfront and further restricting access to the river. A connection between travellers along the bridge, entering at city level, and the waterfront, below the levee, would take advantage of the city’s natural amenity, the Mississippi River, to help St. Louis thrive in terms of community life and tourism.

Access / Proximity

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Abutment_Part of a structure which supports the end of a span or accepts the thrust of an arch; often supports and retains the approach embankment. Arch_A curved structure which supports a vertical load mainly by axial compression.

500’

Arch barrel_The inner surface of an arch extending the full width of the structure.

Arch_ Abutment_

520’ 500’

Arch barrel_

Fill_

55’ Pier_ Revetment_ Embankment_

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Embankment_Angled grading of the ground. Fill_Earth, stone or other material used to raise the ground level, form an embankment or fill the inside of an abutment, pier or closed spandrel. Pier_A vertical structure which supports the ends of a multispan superstructure at a location between abutments.

Terminology

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Revetment_A facing of masonry or stones to protect an embankment from erosion. Rise_The measure of an arch from the spring line to the highest part of the intrados, which is to say from its base support to the crown. Substructure_The portion of a bridge structure including abutments and piers which supports the superstructure. Superstructure_The portion of a bridge structure which carries the traffic load and passes that load to the substructure.

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Initial Concept Ideas: Fall 2005

Precedents Precedents include inhabitable bridges and buildings over water. The Eads Bridge site will become a habitable bridge for a market, while the market becomes a structure over water due to its location over the flood plain and the river. In Europe, the concept of the inhabitable bridge most often takes place as a shopping arcade. The bridges possess their own street scene with designated views to the water. From the waterfront, the bridge then appears as a building connecting two sides of the river, rather than merely an engineering structure. The bridge purpose becomes two fold, providing a destination as well as a functional crossing point within the city.

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Ponte Vecchio Florence, Italy A thriving space is created through merchants on the first level with housing above. Framed views of the Arno River are experienced at the center point of the bridge. The vendors’ shops add another architectural dynamic to the bridge through their extruding form from the main bridge structure.

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Rialto Bridge Venice, Italy The bridge is arched over the canal, but is experienced as a gradual stairway through a vibrant shopping corridor. While walking along the interior passageway, the sense of being on a bridge is unnoticeable, however, an exterior walkway allows for a traditional experience with full views of the canals. Openings behind vendor stalls bring natural light in from the sides of the bridge and offer hints of the canal’s presence.

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Pulteney Bridge Bath, England The bridge creates a barrier between the river and the path. Looking at the bridge from beyond, an observer views it as a introverted space. However, experiencing the pathway, one perceives the space as another street within the city, unaware of the water below. The corridor does not feel enclosed due to its exposure to the sky and the articulation of the buildings along the walkway. Even though the bridge blends seamlessly into the city fabric, it ignores its juxtaposition with the river.

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Soneva Gili Resort

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Male, Maldives The structure is delicately raised on piers above water, physically separating it from the water, however interacting with it through human experience. The resorts relation to the water allows for controlled interaction with the element. The water becomes an extension of the floor to an observer, continuing infinitely in all directions.

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Conceptual Studies Harvard University Graduate School of Design developed a project for a pedestrian bridge in Bilbao. Their concepts include ideas of making the bridge more than a connection point, but also a site in itself. They’ve considered the overall experience of the bridge and the necessity for allowing different paths. These paths connect to the waterfront and the interior city streets. Evaluating their ways of connection to varying points relates to the need for similar connections at the Eads Bridge. Although their project creates a new structure crossing the river, their ideas for connecting vertically to the river and creating spaces within a procession structure are precedents for tying the Missis-

sippi Riverfront to the city of St. Louis, via the Eads Bridge. Each concept has varying goals and approaches, but offers insight to the bridge as a destination and connection point.

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“A pedestrian bridge in Bilbao” Harvard Design School Studio Prof. Spiro N. Pollalis

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The “Crossing Paths” Bridge “This multiplicity includes diversity in the way the bridge is used, be it as a means of passage, as a destination, a place to people-watch, sit, rest, walk, gather with friends, view surrounding architecture and learn the history of Bilbao.”

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Juliet Hernandez

• The structure uses carving and addition to create varying settings along the path. The volumes also provide places to rest. • Overlapping and simultaneous paths with small variations, such as smooth ramps versus gradual stairs for texture, enhance awareness of one’s surroundings. • The landscaping of the bridge allows a pedestrian to cross in a flowing, but esoteric experience, heightening perception of the surroundings through path and manipulations.

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The “Pleats” Bridge Kei Takeuchi “Thus, this bridge is not a mere passage connecting two points but a part of the city where people can enjoy the potentialities of the site.”

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• At each end of the bridge, a person can choose which path to take, dependent upon where they would like to go; into the city, the waterfront, or the museum. • The gradual slope of the walkway provides a place for relaxation and to observe events along the riverfront. • Covered portions are created by the overlapping walkways, allowing for more intimate spaces in contrast to the wide open.

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The “Intersecting Belts” Bridge “One belt is the ramp which connects the university on one river side and extends to the river park on the other river side. The other belt is the stairs which connect the two sidewalks along the river.”

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Yue Gong • Intersecting planes allow for many points of interaction between the paths. • Overlapping “belts” also create spaces of varying experience due to the amount of enclosure or exposure formed. • Connection to the riverfront is met through a gradual staircase, while the connection to the city is a slope.

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Explorations

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Cross Section Exploration In exploration of possible ways to build on the bridge, bricks, twine, and wax were used to represent possible relationships between what exists and what is added. The brick represents the solid mass of the bridge with three holes, signifying the levels of the bridge; top deck, rail line, and viaduct. The twine represents the added structure to the bridge. It is light in weight and contrasts the bricks solidity. The wax is what connects the two medium to make them coexist. The wax permeates the twine and also forms a layer over the brick. It makes the combination hard, therefore signifying its existence as one new object. Attached to... 92

Inside of...

On top of...

Terracing from... 93

Longitudinal sections explore the relationship between the bridge deck and the riverfront. The bridge deck is even with the city level, while sloping into the flood plain and riverfront walk.

Longitudinal Section Exploration

A structure can be attached to the bridge in one section with smaller appendages reaching out from the main core. Focus is on vertical circulation. 94

Terracing many levels in a gradual way, expresses a more horizontal circulation. Levels are different sizes and uses allowing for variations among experiences. 95

Fall Review 11/21/2005 WHAT’S THE BIG IDEA? • Architecture for space, not art…. for people • Architecture to make people aware • Simplicity, beauty in details

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Schematic Design: Winter 2006

Precedents Precedents include art and architecture which guide an experience for the observer. Although changing what initially exists in their site, these precedents enhance the experience through their intervention and create interactive enviroments for the occupants.

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Highline The Highline is a current project focusing on reclaiming underutilized city space. The old train tracks which once served the city are currently barren and desolate, however, slowly being converted into public green space within the dense city structure. This elevated park space represents effective use of an existing city structure.

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Architect: Diller, Scofidio, + Renfro Year: 2002 Location: New York, USA

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Christo & Jean Claude Inspired not only by the physical work of Christo and Jean Claude, their drawing representation is also influential. Their installations are large, yet subtle, directing the focus of the observer. The installation allows a person to see this everyday space in a new light and recognize the beauty, which has always existed in it. The Running Fence draws attention to the undulating hills, while The Gates bring life to Central Park in the middle of winter. The Valley Curtain emphasizes the shape of size of the valley through the contrasting orange curtain.

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Projects: The Gates New York City, NY 1979-2005

Running Fence Sonoma and Marin, CA 1972-1976 Valley Curtain Rifle, CO 1970-1972

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Castelvecchio Carlo Scarpa’s use of new materials in conjunction with existing palette is sensitive to the beauty of the existing structure. Gaps are left between the existing structure and the new architecture. The materials complimenting the original stone include concrete capped in steel, steel, and wood to add warm to the occupant’s experience.

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Architect: Carlo Scarpa Year: began 1956 Location: Verona, Italy

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Hedmark Cathedral Sverre Fehn celebrates the existing structure by placing a flat pane of glass over the bombed out section of the building. He embraces the history of the church and rather than restoring it to its once grand state, he recognizes the importance of what it has gone through and forms it into a beautiful piece of architecture once again. Added materials consist of warm wood and board formed concrete which compliment the existing stone structure.

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Architect: Sverre Fehn Year: 1979 Location: Hamar, Norway

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Experiments The Eads Bridge, although currently used as a traditional bridge offers many other opportunities. As a connection between Illinois and Missouri, the bridge currently acts as a minor passageway for car traffic. Future plans include closing the bridge to car traffic permanently, while promoting a promenade, hosting public events such as the existing, Taste of St. Louis. To promote the bridge as a public gathering space and utilize its great length, what options exist for the bridge?

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Bridge As Public Park

Bridge As Amusement Attraction

Bridge As Bike and Pedestrian Path

Bridge As Mall

The Eads Bridge becomes a combination of all of these to once again make this a vital connection point.

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Patterns

What are the existing properties of the bridge with which a new structure must relate to and/or work from? Silhouette

Heavy/Light

Repitition

Solid/Voids

Proportions

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Site Analysis •Traffic Flow •Accessibility •Light Rail/ Railroad Access •Main Connection Points

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Site Connections

What are the key points within the site and how are they connected?

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The major points of interest are predominantly on the West side of the Mississippi River. Connections need to be made between the bridge and water level, bridge and Arch grounds, bridge and Laclede’s Landing, bridge and city, and between levels of the bridge.

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Plan Analysis Major Points of Consideration: • Continuing outdoor recreation space • Vendor connection to indoor and outdoor spaces • Mezzanine over market space to provide a place for reflection on activity • Vendor Space Analysis:

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Adjacencies The stacked spaces provide circulation between bridge levels. The experience of circulation is enhanced by simultaneously experiencing the bridge.

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Study Model 02/18/2006

• Raised mass above the bridge deck • Continuous plane rises from bridge deck becoming the roof of structure for the market and connects to a second roof structure, which terminates in the arch grounds. •Enhance vertical circulation, integrating cafe.

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Revisions • Building interacts with users - a place for interaction in all senses • Ramping connection - bikes, handicap accessibility - smooth connection • Protruding through the bridge - a place of movement = linear • Building at different levels • Awareness - places for observation

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South Elevation Characterized by a floating mass above the bridge level with repetitive circulation towers as a means of access, complimentary to sloping ramps. The ramp becomes the roof on the West Side offering a place to sit and look back to the city.

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Sections

The East side of the building is two levels offering a demonstration kitchen on the bridge deck as a base to the market hall. The cafe space is within the bridge opening and brings the occupants closer to the barrel vault of the bridge. It is also at the same level as the train tracks, which cross perpendicular to the bridge allowing a new perspective on the many forms of transportation integrated within the historic structure.

The cross section shows the connection of the bridge to the arch grounds. The level which fills the space between the bridge and floodwall provides office space, as well as the two-story glass wall offers views to the city (west) and river (east). The multiple stories of space also provide circulation to the cafe within the vault, three floors below the main market. Like the main market entry from the bridge, the access point from the arch grounds into the market space is a sloping plane, which becomes the roof/deck for the market hall. Again the sloping plane also offers a nice place for sitting to look back at the arch from the bridge. 130

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Plans Floor 1 The main market space provides vendor spaces as well as an eating area, both inside and outside. The circulation to the main elevated market space is through the circulation towers, stairs and elevator, as well as a sloping pathway which rises out of the existing bridge and wraps around the outside of the building with access points through the towers. Floor 0 The space at the bridge level offers restrooms, circulation, and a demonstration kitchen and bookstore. Floor -1 This floor provides office space for the market administration as well as restrooms for the cafe. The area acts as an atrium in combination with the floor above which is a pathway to the bookstore on top of the arch grounds. The atrium opens the circulation to the cafe. Floor -2 The cafe space is located inside the barrel vault with areas at each end reaching out to allow for views of the city and bridge. The cafe offers a quiet more remote experience, somewhat disconnected from the rest of the market. The barrel vault provides a darker, more intimate experience with the warmth of the limestone.

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Floor 1

Floor -1

Floor 0

Floor -2

Perspectives

View from St. Louis and the Arch grounds towards the bridge

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Approach from Illinois into Missouri, on the Eads Bridge

View of bridge deck looking East

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Model Photos The newspaper topography represents “everyday life” with the bridge rising from it. The streets are delinated by white spray paint and the river is exposed torn cardboard. The railroad tracks are represented by black chip board. The market building is made up of a pliable material, one-sided cardboard, to form the smooth transition to the roof, while structure is represented by basswood. The circulation towers are wrapped in mesh to signify a translucency and texture.

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Design Development: Spring 2006

Precedents Precedents suggest form and an overall experience with which the building must evoke. Smooth forms, transitions between spaces, and materials are all considered and examined for use in the market hall.

Suggestions and Considerations for futher design: • Experiment with creating a language in the landscape • Set the stage for observation to occur • Integrate forms fully into bridge • Continuity of movement and experience

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Maritime Youth Center The undulating form makes the building inhabitable in all aspects. The roof and walls become places to experience teh surrounding areas. Each point on the grid is connected to teh next, so that raising one point changes the entire experience.

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Architect: Plot Year: 2004 Location: Copenhagen, Denmark

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Zentrum Paul Klee The building is formed out of the earth, with a smooth transition between land and architecture. Inside the building, the light is diffused through translucent panels and draped cloth. Secondary ceiling forms create alternative environments and spaces within the larger gallery space.

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Architect: Renzo Piano Year: 2005 Location: Bern, Switzerland

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Yokohama Ferry Terminal A dynamic environment is created by the blurred distinction between wall, roof, and floor. The architecture directs an observers view and experience. Inside, a wide span is achieved through repetative folding members, creating an open free space.

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Architect: Foreign Office Architects Year: 2002 Location: Yokohama, Japan

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Oxo Tower Brasserie The glass facade creates a reflection of the city beyond. At night, the light transparent structure is perceived on top of the existing building. The louvre system protects the interior from the extreme sun exposure bringing the building to life as it changes throughout the day.

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Architect: Lifschutz Davidson Year: 2003 Location: London, England

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Soejima Hospital The mesh material over the glass provides protection from the sun while maintaining views. The mesh material extends to the necessary point before being revealed to allow for complete unobstructed views.

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Architect: Tezuka Architects Year: 1996 Location: Ootakara, Saga-shi, Saga

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Seattle Public Library Expanded metal lath is used inside the glass to protect the interior from direct sunlight. the structural frame also provides some shading qualities for the all glass facade building.

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Architect: Rem Koolhaas OMA Year: 2005 Location: Seattle, Washington

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Process

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Experience 04/10/2006

Relationship of spaces: indoor and outdoor, bridge deck, market, pathway to archgrounds, and riverfront.

• Smaller environments created at market vendors. • Interaction occurs on all sides, no back side exists. 159

Form 04/15/2006

what is the relationship between the market and the arch?

Varying Width

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Varying Height and Width

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Occupiable Space 04/20/2006

What areas are accessible by occupants and what experience does it provide?

• Angle guides attention up and out towards the arch and city. • Reveal of skin guides view downward toward Laclede’s Landing. • Mezzanine provides space for looking over market operations. • The bridge deck provides an unobstructed path and experience. • At bridge deck, the platform is extended.

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Ciruclation 04/20/2006 • Stair at both ends of the linear building • Direct access to riverfront via stairs and elevator • Access to mezzanine, with 2 means of egress • Ramps 1:20 and 1:12 • How many elevators?

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Climate 04/23/2006 • Ventilation and shade consideration without jeopardizing views • Building lacks a front/back/side • Building comes alive to ventilate, promoting open/closed mode • Consider sun angles to bring light to bridge deck

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Materiality 04/24/2006

What is the back/front?

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•The building is a mass lifted out of the bridge and held up by structure. • Preserve views • What is translucent, transparent, solid? • Which side, North or South, should the building connect to? Consider views to/from and climate. • How does the structure connect to the bridge? • Does the exterior material wrap around edges, and how? • The stair tower material, is it translucent? • Skin reveal to provide unobstructed view

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Final Documetation 05/2006

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Integration of Building with Site

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Skyline A non-pretentious addition to the skyline, the market building is not in competition with the famous Arch or existing bridge for attention, but rather compliments the rhythms of the bridge and emphasizes the technology and materials used in the Arch.

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Market Plan • 22+ Permanent Vendor Stalls, separated by Produce, Meat Fish & Cheese, and Prepared Food • The main bridge deck provides opportunities for temporary vendors • The cafe space celebrates its separation from the main market space and provides a relaxed atmosphere focusing on the appreciation of the bridge. • The circulation to the cafe also allows users access to the riverfront and bridge deck. • An outdoor deck wraps around the East side of the market providing outdoor places to retreat and reflect on the city and water.

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Elevation/Sections • The south elevation reveals the market as a mass lifted out of the existing bridge deck. • The openings in the 2’ thick wall mimic the openings in the limestone bridge and offer places for sitting or resting in the market space. • The cafe protrudes through the front opening of the bridge at the same level as the existing railroad tracks. • The Switzer building is still exposed from the gradual increase in height of the market building as it extends along the bridge. • The sloping paths reach out in both directions toward the city and beyond. • In section, the building provides a varying experience at all levels in width and height. • The structure cantilevers over the bridge deck, separating it from the historic structure.

South Elevation

Sequential Cross Section

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Perspective Montage Combining the old and new creates simultaneity between both structures and the times in which they were designed. In form and materials they are each complimentary to the other. The Eads Bridge is highlighted by the new structure, demanding attention to its historic beauty, while the new structure becomes grounded in the historic bridge and grows from its established repetition and character.

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Interior Perspectives • The open structure blurs the spaces into one interacting environment. • The draping material enhances the repetition of the bridge, as well as, diffuses light to the main market floor. • The main floor offers two pathways, one for market shopping and the outside path for observing and meandering.

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Model (1/32” = 1’-0”) Materials: basswood plywood wire reacted metal mesh sound deafening board plexi-glass

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Section Model (1/4” = 1’-0”) Basswood structure attached to a limestone base with metal rods.

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Final Presentation 05/22/2006 and 05/26/2006 The main idea behind the final presentation was to create a similar feeling as evoked by the designed market place. The 11x17 drawings create a similar repetition as found in the bridge, while the sketch of St. Louis unpretentious slowly revealing itself to the observer as one passes around the project. The timeline portrays not only a history of St. Louis and why a market is vital, but also the design process, and when precedents also were built. The orange string, which suspended the drawings, held by magnets creates a light almost floating feeling, similar to the raised structure of the market. The limestone bricks also grounded the presentation much like 190

the bridge grounds the entire project and designed building. The models were displayed on the converted coffee table submission to the Vellum competition. The base of the coffee table was placed on its side to form the X shaped base for the larger model, where as the stools were stacked to form a higher podium for the section model.

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Footnotes 1. Merriam-Webster’s Pocket Dictionary. 2. Milwaukee Public Market 3. Fried, Benjamin 4. Soulard Market 5. Pike Place Market 6. Milwaukee Public Market 7. O’Neil, David. 8. McNulty, Elizabeth. 9. Wikipedia Encyclopedia 10. St. Louis, Missouri. 11. Phase II_Understanding of the Physical Setting and Market Opportunities. 12. Climate Information 13. McNulty, Elizabeth. 14. Phase II_Understanding of the Physical Setting and Market Opportunities. 15. “Eads Bridge.” Historic American Engineering Record. 16. Dutt, Owen. 17. Cridlebaugh, Bruce S. 18. Soneva Gili Resort & Six Senses Spa. 19. “a pedestrian bridge in Bilbao.”

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“a pedestrian bridge in Bilbao.” 2005 Prof. Spiro N. Pollalils; Harvard University Graduate School of Design. 21 Nov 2005 www. gsd.harvard.edu/people/faculty/ pollalis/courses/bilbao_studio_publication.pdf Abram, David. The Spell of the Sensuous. New York, USA: Vintage Books, 1996. Alexander, Christopher. The Timeless Way of Building. New York: Oxford University Press, 1979. Barreneche, Raul A. New Retail. London: Phaidon, 2005. “Bridging the Drive.” Jan 2005. Chicago Architecture Foundation. 15 Nov 2005 http://www.architecture.org/drivesite/intro0.html Cridlebaugh, Bruce S. “Terminology Structures: Bridge.” 9 Nov 1999. 26 Nov 2005 http://pghbridges.com/termsBrg.htm Davies, Steve. “The Great Revival of Public Markets.” Making Places October 2005. Project for Public Spaces. 09 Nov 2005 http://www.pps.org/info/newsletter/october2005/market_gall ery?referre=newsletter_conte.. Day, Christopher. Places of the Soul. Massachusetts, USA: Architectural Press, 2004. “Downtown Progress Report.” 2004. Downtown St. Louis Partnership. May 2005 www.downtownstlouis.org

Bibliography Dutt, Owen. “Eads Bridge Pedestrian Promenade.” 10 Nov 2005 http://www.mvs.usace.army.mil/pm/riversweb/eadsbridge. htm “Eads Bridge.” 06 Feb 2004. Bridgepros. 10 Nov 2005 http://bridgepros.com/projects/eads/ “Eads Bridge.” Historic American Engineering Record. The Library of Congress 10 Nov 2005 http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/am page?collId=hhphoto&fileName=mo/mo0300/mo0361/photos/ browse.db&action=browse&recNum=0&title2=Eads%20Bridge ,%20Spanning%20Mississippi%20River%20at%20Washington %20Street,%20St.%20Louis,%20%20County,%20MO&display Type=1&itemLink=D?hh:2:./temp/~ammem_biFU:: Florida, Richard. The Rise of the Creative Class. New York, USA: Basic Books, 2002. Fried, Benjamin. “Shedding Light on Markets.” Making Places November 2003. Project for Public Spaces. 09 Nov 2005 http:// www.pps.org/info /newletter/Nov_2003/Nov2003_Feature Google Images

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Hesselgren, Sven. Man’s Perception of Man-made Environment. Lund, Sweden: Studentlitteratur ab, 1975. Koren, Leonard. Wabi Sabi for Artists, Designers, Poets & Philosophers. California, USA: Stone Bridge Press 1994. Lawrence, Roderick. “Housing, Health and Aesthetics: Reconnecting the Senses.” Aesthetics, Well-being, and Health. Vermont, USA: Ashgate Publishing, 2001. McNulty, Elizabeth. St. Louis Then & Now. Thunder Bay Press: San Diego, CA USA 2000 Merriam-Webster’s Pocket Dictionary. Massachusetts, USA: Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, 1995. “Milwaukee Public Market” Dancing Crane Publishing 29 Nov 2005 http://www.milwaukeepublicmarket.org/index.shtml O’Neil, David. “Markets at Their Best.” Making Places October 2005. Project for Public Spaces. 09 Nov 2005 http://www.pps. org/info/newsletter/october2005/market_gallery?referre=new sletter_conte.. “Phase II_Understanding of the Physical Setting and Market Opportunities.” 06 Sep 2000. Downtown Now! 24 Oct 2005 http://stlouis.missouri.org/development/downtown-now/reports/phase2report.html

Bibliography “Soneva Gili Resort & Six Senses Spa.” 25 Oct 2005 http://www. sixsenses.com/soneva-gili/index.php “Soulard Market” Community Information Network. City of St. Louis 29 Nov 2005 http://stlouis.missouri.org/citygov/soulardmarket/index.html “St. Louis, Missouri.” City-Data.com 30 Nov 2005 http://www. city-data.com/city/St.-Louis-Missouri.html “St. Louis Missouri Satellite Image Map.” Geology.com 06 Dec 2005 http://geology.com/satellite/cities/st-louis-satellite-image.shtml Toy, Maggie. Architecture of the Borderlands. Editions, 1999.

Italy:

Academy

“Wikipedia Encyclopedia.” 2 Dec 2005 http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/White_flight

“Pike Place Market” 29 Nov 2005 http://www.pikeplacemarket. org/frameset.asp?flash=true 196

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Printing Specifications: Mustang Graphics Paper _ Printer _ Cover _ Bind _