The_nuts_and_bolts_of_arabic_english.pdf

The Nuts and Bolts of Arabic-English Translation

The Nuts and Bolts of Arabic-English Translation: An Introduction to Applied Contrastive Linguistics By

Ali Almanna

The Nuts and Bolts of Arabic-English Translation: An Introduction to Applied Contrastive Linguistics Series: Sayyab Translation Series By Ali Almanna This book first published 2018 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2018 by Ali Almanna All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-5275-1112-X ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-1112-5

CONTENTS

List of Abbreviations ................................................................................ viii Introduction ................................................................................................. 1 Key features of the book 2 Objectives of the book 2 Main elements of methodology 3 Aspects of difference 4 Chapter One ................................................................................................. 6 Pre-translation Techniques 6 Syntactic parsing 6 Semantic parsing 12 Revision 14 Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 17 Narrating Events in the Past 17 Verbs: finite & non-finite verbs 17 Cognate accusative 25 Negation in the past ‫ ﻟﻢ‬and ‫ ﻣﺎ‬30 Negation in the past + ability 39 Shift 41 Adverbs of manner 47 Interrogative sentences in the past 53 Revision 60 Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 62 Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses 62 Tense versus aspect 62 Past tenses 64 Present tenses 81 Future tenses 93 Revision 102

vi

Contents

Chapter Four ............................................................................................ 108 Causativity & Transitivity 108 Transitivity 108 Passivization & activization 125 Causativity 135 Analytic causatives 136 Lexical causatives 140 Morphological causatives 140 Revision 145 Chapter Five ............................................................................................ 149 Translating Modes of Narration 149 Types of sentences 149 Speech acts 153 The main changes & translation 157 Reporting verbs in the news media 164 Modes of narration in literary texts 175 Revision 181 Chapter Six .............................................................................................. 185 Translating Articles, Expressions of Quantity & Partitives 185 Articles & cognitive operations 185 a/an, Ø & nunation 185 the, Ø & ‫ أل‬188 Expressions of quantity & cognitive operations 197 Partitives & state of dividedness203 Revision 209 Chapter Seven .......................................................................................... 213 Translating Modality 213 Modal verbs & more 213 Modality & (ir)reality 219 Modality & force dynamics 220 Types of modality 222 Deontic modality 222 Epistemic modality 223 Revision 226 Chapter Eight ........................................................................................... 232 Conjunction 232 Conjuncts introduced 232

The Nuts and Bolts of Arabic-English Translation

vii

Addition 235 Clauses of concession 240 Clauses of reason 246 Clauses of purpose 251 Result clauses 258 Time clauses 261 Conditional clauses 269 Transition & contrasting 277 It is/was + adjective/past participle + that/to ... 281 Back to simple sentences 285 Revision 292 Chapter Nine ............................................................................................ 297 Discourse Markers 297 Summarizing & rounding off 297 Numbering & ordering points298 Reformulation 299 Replacement & correction 301 Comparison: similarity 302 Comparison: dissimilarity 303 Exemplifying & narrowing down 306 Elaborating 308 Ignoring & discounting 309 Emphasizing 310 Order of importance 311 Particularizing 311 Generalizing 312 Balancing contrasting points 313 Attitude markers 314 Revision 318 References ............................................................................................... 320 Index ........................................................................................................ 324

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Adj AdjP Adv AdvP C Conj CP Det e Infl NP P PP Pro S Sb Sth TT V VP

Adjective Adjective phrase Adverb Adverb phrase Complementizer Conjunction Complementizer phrase Determiner Empty Inflection Noun phrase Preposition Preposition phrase Pronoun Sentence Somebody Something Target text Verb Verb phrase

INTRODUCTION

The Nuts and Bolts of Arabic-English Translation: An Introduction to Applied Contrastive Linguistics is an academic textbook. Contrastive linguistics, as a linguistic approach adopted here (also known in the literature as ‘differential linguistics’), is a branch of linguistics which is concerned with showing differences and similarities between two or more languages (Fries 1945; Fisiak 1981; Aziz 1989, among others). Contrastive linguistics covers two main areas, viz. theoretical contrastive linguistics and applied contrastive linguistics (Aziz 1989: 7). As this book is designed for translation students, it falls in the area of applied contrastive linguistics, which can be useful for those who are interested in either this topic or foreign language learning, not to mention translation (ibid.). In describing the most effective materials that can be used to teach a foreign language, Fries states that they are those materials that “are based upon a scientific description of the language to be learned, carefully compared with a parallel description of the native language of the learner” (1945: 9). In 1957, this view was developed and put into practice by Robert Lado. In the actual act of comparing two languages, different methods can be used. While some researchers focus on form, others pay extra attention to function. In this book, however, an attempt is made to strike a balance between form and function. The book is designed primarily for those whose mother tongue is either Arabic or English and who have some knowledge of both linguistics and translation. It is aimed primarily at undergraduate students of translation along with their instructors throughout the world in view of the growing number of universities in the UK, USA, Canada, Australia, and the Arab world that are now offering such courses in translation. The book aims at: ! !

raising awareness of the pitfalls specific to translation and developing and honing translators’ competences, in particular linguistic, translational, contrastive, and evaluative competence.

2

Introduction

The ‘core’ language of this publication is English in order to appeal to a wider audience. Traditionally, the golden rule has been that one should translate only into one’s native language. However, for various reasons this rigid position is no longer being applied and translators are increasingly encouraged to work in both directions. The book does not confine itself to one direction, but focuses on translation in both directions: translating from Arabic into English and vice versa. It features authentic materials taken from a wide range of sources, including: ! ! ! ! !

media, business, religious texts, literature, and legal texts.

Key features of the book ! ! ! ! ! !

It highlights the main similarities and differences between Arabic and English. It provides the readers with different types of assignments to develop and hone their competences (be they linguistic, translational, contrastive, or evaluative). It provides the students and instructors with a great number of supporting exercises and assignments that can be used for a range of purposes. It provides translation students with limited previous experience in translation with materials to help them reach an acceptable professional level of translation competence. It highlights the importance of some pre-translation techniques, such as syntactic parsing and semantic parsing. Each chapter closes with a wide-ranging selection of exercises.

Objectives of the book The overall aim of the book is to develop a professional translation competence in all essential areas in students and trainees, whether their mother tongue is Arabic or English, by providing a suitably wide range of bidirectional (i.e. Arabic>English and English>Arabic) practice materials for them and their teachers/trainers. Such competence is to be developed from the basis of a contrastive study of this language pair, and is to

An Introduction to Applied Contrastive Linguistics

3

embrace not just contrasting grammar but also such matters as awareness of collocations, stylistics and cohesive devices, and the identification of text types. The intention behind this very practical course is to gradually build up familiarity with the linguistic and stylistic norms of the target language, whether English or Arabic, through examples and practical tests that also demonstrate and highlight the professional skill of translation annotation. Being a practical course, the book seeks to develop the application of intelligent translation procedures, with reference as necessary to the theories underpinning them.

Main elements of methodology With all this in mind, the first chapter emphasizes and illustrates certain pre-translation techniques as a necessary starting point for translation training. These are syntactic parsing (i.e. analysing the units of the source text syntactically) and semantic parsing (i.e. identifying the semantic roles assigned to each noun phrase in the clause). These techniques are seen to enable would-be translators to gain a better insight into their source texts, thus helping them plan suitable and effective translation procedures. The general pedagogical approach here is to provide students and their instructors or trainers with sufficient closely-examined examples of short source texts in both languages, systematically building up understanding of (and the ability to recognize) simple, compound and complex sentences, dependent clauses, and other such elements of text. The problems caused by failure to clearly identify the subject of a sentence are also illustrated. All such explanations and elucidations are highlighted for greater ease of study and reference, and at the end of the chapter revision materials are offered (source texts in both languages) in order that students may check and consolidate their understanding of the chapter’s main points (with help and feedback of course from those training them). The succeeding chapters continue in the same way, tackling in sequence translation issues arising from such areas of language as narration in the past, tense and aspect, articles, quantifiers, partitives, causatives, transitivity processes, modality, and connectors (and cross-referencing as necessary for greater ease of study), before finally presenting discourse markers in both languages. In addition to providing a wealth of annotated examples for study, these chapters aim constantly to build up the student’s lexical and collocational stock as well as grammar knowledge, and also to give reasonably challenging translation, often with suggestions for background factual or cultural research. Each distinct section of a chapter

4

Introduction

is followed by an assignment, and these are sufficiently varied in type to obviate boredom or predictability. The general and pervasive aim, then, is to encourage and train students to be creative in their thinking and overall approach, to analyse texts and always pay attention to detail, to be active and regular researchers, and to regularly hone their own skills as writers and re-writers. Such habits are bound to make them both more confident and more competent as translators.

Aspects of difference There are a number of books available that explain the principles of translation with a focus on contrastive grammar, such as: ! ! !

Aziz, Y. (1989). A Contrastive Grammar of English and Arabic. Iraq: Mosul University Press. Khalil, A. (1999). A Contrastive Grammar of English and Arabic. Jordan: Jordan Book Centre Company Limited. Husni, R. and Newman, D. (2013). The A-Z of Arabic-EnglishArabic Translation. London: Saqi Books.

However, they use short examples focusing on the similarities and differences between the two languages rather than on the mechanics of translating. In this book, the trainees, in addition to developing a contrastive competence by being fully aware of the differences between Arabic and English, will learn how to analyse the text syntactically and semantically, and adjust it prior to translating it, thus obtaining a better insight into the source text. Further, unlike the aforementioned books, this book is designed in a way that helps the trainees build their own vocabulary. A great number of verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and idiomatic expressions used in different genres and text types have been used in this book. Trainees receive clear guidance to enable them to re-write the source texts used in the book and thus to improve their writing skills, thus becoming fully aware of the different styles that may be used in certain registers and text types. Each sentence or text is followed by certain annotations to help the trainees identify the differences between particular structures, levels of

An Introduction to Applied Contrastive Linguistics

5

meaning, and different styles while at the same time conceptualizing certain socio-cultural experiences. To sum up, unlike the other contrastive books on the market, this book does not confine itself to showing the differences between the two interfacing languages in terms of traditional grammar only, but gently extends to the discussion of such issues as functional grammar, syntax, cohesion, semantics, pragmatics, cognitive linguistics, stylistics, texttypology, translation procedures and, to a certain degree, translation theories.

CHAPTER ONE PRE-TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES

In this chapter, an attempt is made to highlight the importance of some pre-translation techniques to the actual work of translators. The view is taken here that acquiring these skills will lead to translation competence that each and every translator should have.

1 Syntactic parsing Syntactic parsing here refers to the act of analysing the units of the original text (be they sentences, clauses, phrases, and the like). Before embarking on translating any sentence/paragraph/text, the translators need to identify (depending on their level, and the level of the text, of course): ! ! ! ! ! ! !

the type of each sentence (simple, compound, complex, or compound complex/nominal versus verbal), the subject of each clause/sentence (one word or a group of words), the tense of each clause/sentence (past, present, or future), the aspect of each clause/sentence (simple, progressive, perfect, or progressive perfect), the voice of each clause/sentence (active or passive), the adverbs used in each clause/sentence, and other details.

To begin with, let us consider the following simple sentences: ‘Who went to school?’ =

the subject

= ‫َﻣﻦ اﻟﺬي ذھﺐ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﺪرﺳﺔ؟‬

.‫ﻤﻊ أﺒﻲ ﺎﻟ ﺎرة‬

‫ذﻫ ُ إﻟﻰ اﻟ رﺴﺔ أﻤ‬

~

Pre-translation Techniques

7

ُ‫ذھﺒﺖ‬

In this verbal sentence, there is only one finite clause. The subject can be identified by raising this question ‫َﻣﻦ اﻟﺬي‬ ‫ذھﺐ؟‬ = the subject of which is the implicit pronoun ‫‘ أﻧﺎ‬I’ َ ‘to go’. expressed by the letter ‫ ت‬attached to the verb ‫ذھﺐ‬ َ The tense is ‘past’ indicated by the letter ‫ ت‬suffixed to the verb as well as the time marker ‫‘ أﻣﺲ‬yesterday’, and the emphasis is placed on its completion. A number of circumstances that answer different questions are utilized by the language user, as follows:

‫إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﺪرﺳﺔ‬ ‫أﻣﺲ‬ ‫ﻣﻊ أﺑﻲ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﻟﺴﯿﺎرة‬

where? when? with whom? how? (to learn more about ‘Circumstances’, see Chapter 4)

.‫ﺴﺄذﻫ ُ إﻟﻰ اﻟ رﺴﺔ ﻏ ً ا ﻤﻊ أﺨﻲ‬

~

‫ = َﻣﻦ اﻟﺬي ﺳﯿﺬھﺐ؟‬the subject of which is the implicit pronoun ‫‘ أﻧﺎ‬I’ expressed by the letter ‫ أ‬attached to the verb ‫ذھﺐ‬ ‘to go’. The tense in this َ sentence is in the future, as indicated by the letter ‫ ﺳــ‬and the time marker ‫‘ ﻏﺪًا‬tomorrow’. . ‫ﺎرﺘﻲ وﺤ‬

‫ﻋﺎدة ﻤﺎ أذﻫ ُ إﻟﻰ اﻟ رﺴﺔ‬

~

‫ = َﻣﻦ اﻟﺬي ﻋﺎدة ﻣﺎ ﯾﺬھﺐُ ؟‬the subject of which is the implicit pronoun ‫‘ أﻧﺎ‬I’ ‘to go’. The tense is a expressed by the letter ‫ أ‬attached to the verb ‫ذھﺐ‬ َ simple present tense, as the emphasis placed on the frequency of the action as a matter of routine is indicated by ‫‘ﻋﺎدة ﻣﺎ‬usually’.

.‫ﻗ أذﻫ ُ إﻟﻰ اﻟ رﺴﺔ ﻏ ً ا ﻤﻊ ﺼ ﻘﻲ‬

~

‫ = َﻣﻦ اﻟﺬي ﻗﺪ ﯾﺬھﺐ؟‬the subject of which is the implicit pronoun ‫‘ أﻧﺎ‬I’ ‘to go’. The tense is in expressed by the letter ‫ أ‬attached to the verb ‫ذھﺐ‬ َ the future, as indicated by the time marker ‫‘ ﻏﺪًا‬tomorrow’. As can be observed, the verb ‫ أذھﺐ‬in this example and the previous one have the same morphological structure even though the previous instance describes a real event while the one in this example is preceded by a modalized particle ‫‘ ﻗﺪ‬may’ that is used to refer to likelihood (to learn more about likelihood, see ‘Modality’ in Chapter 7).

8

Chapter One

To elaborate, let us syntactically analyse the following sentences:

.‫ ﺠﺎء ﺼ ﻘﻲ ﻟ ورﻨﻲ‬،‫ُ أﺸﺎﻫ اﻟ ﻠﻔﺎز اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ‬

‫ﺒ ﺎ‬

~

Here, there are two finite clauses and an embedded clause that starts with ‫ﻟـ‬ ‘to’. The subject of the first finite clause ‫ ﻛﻨﺖ أﺷﺎھﺪ اﻟﺘﻠﻔﺎز اﻟﺒﺎرﺣﺔ‬is ‫‘ أﻧﺎ‬I’ and the tense is ‘past’, as indicated by the verb ‫ ﻛﺎن‬and the time marker ‫‘ اﻟﺒﺎرﺣﺔ‬last night’. The emphasis, i.e. the aspect, is put on the continuity of the described activity ‫ﻣﺸﺎھﺪة‬/َ‫ ﺷﺎھﺪ‬in a specific period in the past. The act of watching in such a process of behaving is characterized by atelicity, that is having no natural finishing point, but the behaver has to stop watching for a particular reason. The subject of the second finite clause ‫ﺟﺎء ﺻﺪﯾﻘﻲ‬ is ‫‘ ﺻﺪﯾﻘﻲ‬my friend’ and the tense is ‘past’ where the emphasis is put on the completion of the action which occurred in the middle of the act of watching.

.ً‫ﻔﻼ‬

ُ

‫ًا ﻋ ﻤﺎ‬

‫ﻛ ُ أﺸﺎﻫ اﻟ ﻠﻔﺎز‬

~

As can be observed, the same verb form ‫ ﻛﻧت أﺷﺎھد‬is used in these two examples. However, in this example, there is an implicit word ‫ ُﻣﻌﺗﺎدًا‬that gives rise to a habitual interpretation of a simple past tense clause. To express habituality in the past in English, ‘used to’ may be used. ~

In order to apply for this job, you must speak two languages, but you don’t have to have a degree in international relations.

Here, there are two finite clauses conjoined by a coordinating conjunct, such as ‘but’ and a non-finite clause, that is, ‘in order to apply for this job’. In the first finite clause, the subject is ‘you’ and the tense is ‘present’ charged with necessity indicated by the modal verb ‘must’. In the second finite clause, the subject is ‘you’ followed by a modalized phrase ‘do not have to’ that indicates that obligation/necessity is removed (for more details on ‘Modality’, see Chapter 7). Now, let us distinguish between the morphological tense and contextual tense, by comparing these two examples:

.‫ﻟ ﯿ ّ ﻞ ﺒﻲ ِاﺒ ﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻵوﻨﺔ اﻷﺨ ة‬ ّ

~

Pre-translation Techniques

9

. ‫ﻟ ﯿ ّ ﻞ ﺒﻲ ِاﺒ ﻲ أﻤ‬ ّ

~

As can be seen, the morphological tense in both examples is ‘past’ indicated by the particle ‫ﻟﻢ‬. However, by the effect of the phrase ‫ﻓﻲ اﻵوﻧﺔ‬ ‫‘ اﻵﺧﯿﺮة‬in recent days’ used in the first example, the emphasis is put on the whole period that began in the past and is seen as relevant to the moment of speaking as modelled below:

past

in recent days

present

future

To reflect both the morphological tense and contextual tense, one may opt for a present perfect tense, that is ‘have/has + past participle’. On the other hand, in the second example, by the effect of the time marker ‫أﻣﺲ‬ ‘yesterday’, the emphasis is placed on the completion of the act of not calling in a specific period in the past; therefore, it can be translated into a simple past tense. To show how failing to determine the subject of the sentence may lead to an inaccurate translation, the following example along with three selected translations (TT) offered by three BA translation students may be discussed:

.‫ﺎء ﻻ أﺨﻲ وﻻ أﺨ ﻲ‬ ً ‫ﻤ‬

‫ﻟ ﯿ رﻨﻲ أﻤ‬

~

‫ = َﻣﻦ اﻟﺬي ﻟﻢ ﯾﺰرﻧﻲ؟‬the subject of which is ‫‘ أﺧﻲ وأﺧﺘﻲ‬my brother and sister’. The tense is ‘past’ indicated by the particle ‫ ﻟﻢ‬and time marker ‫أﻣﺲ‬, and the emphasis (aspect) is placed on the completion of the action, which is in the negative form. TT 1: I did not visit neither my brother nor my sister yesterday evening. Here, the translation trainee has been confused, and accordingly, changed the subject of the sentence to ‘I’, thus producing an inaccurate translation. Further, she has used the negative form with ‘neither … nor’, thereby producing an ungrammatical structure. TT 2: Neither my brother nor my sister visited me yesterday in the evening.

10

Chapter One

Here, the translation trainee has succeeded in figuring out the subject of the sentence and the other important elements, such as the tense, aspect, negation, etc. thus producing an accurate translation. TT 3: My brother and sister could not visit me yesterday evening. Here, the translation trainee has succeeded in figuring out the subject of the sentence ‘my brother and sister’. However, she has opted for the modal verb ‘could’ in the negative form, thus emphasizing the doers’ inability to visit somebody. Had the translation students analysed the sentence and identified its main elements, in particular the particle ‫ﻟﻢ‬, which is used in Arabic to indicate both ‘past’ and ‘negation’, they could have suggested renderings such as: My brother and sister did not visit me yesterday evening. Neither my brother nor my sister visited me yesterday evening. Or, one may go for a passive voice, as in: I was not visited yesterday evening by my brother or my sister. But, there will be a ‘structure shift’ to use Catford’s (1965) terminology (for more details on ‘Shift’, see Chapter 2). Let us now try to identify the types of the sentences used in the following text, the subject of each clause/sentence, the tense and aspect of each clause/sentence, and so forth:

‫( أﺗﻘﺎﻋﺪ ﻋﻦ ﻋﻤﻠﻲ‬also ‫أﺗﻘﺎﻋﺪ ﻣﻦ‬ ‫ )ﻋﻤﻠﻲ‬in such a context means ‫ أﺳﺘﻘﯿﻞ‬or ‫أﻗﺪّم اِﺳﺘﻘﺎﻟﺘﻲ‬. In English, the verb ‘to resign’ means to give up a job or position by telling your employer that you are leaving your job. However, the verb ‘to retire’ means to leave your job or stop working because of old age or ill health.

َ ‫أﺘﻘﺎﻋ‬ ٍ‫ﻓ ﺼﺔ‬ ‫ﺠ ﯿ ٍة‬

‫رت اﻷﺴ ع اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ أن‬ ُ ‫ﻗﱠ‬ ‫ﻋ ﻋ ﻠﻲ ﻓﻲ أﻗ ِب‬ ٍ ‫ ﺴﺄُﻗ م ﻋﻠﻰ و‬.‫ﻤ ِ ﺔ‬ ‫ﻔﺔ‬ ُ ُّ ِ ‫ﻓﻲ اﻷ ﺎ ِم اﻟ ﻘ‬ ‫ُﺤ‬ ‫أ‬ ‫ﻲ‬ ‫ﻠﺔ‬ َّ ُ ِ ‫أوﻀﺎﻋﻲ‬ ‫ أو ُرّ ﺎ‬،‫اﻻﺠ ﺎﻋ ﺔ‬ ِ ‫أ‬ ‫ُﺴﺎﻓ ُ إﻟﻰ أورو ﺎ ﻟِﻔ ِﺢ ﻤ وٍع‬

~

. ‫ﺼﻐ‬

Here, there are two sentences as ‫‘ أو‬or’ is a conjunction that introduces a new conjoined clause rather than a sentence.

Pre-translation Techniques

11

In the first sentence, in addition to the finite clause ُ‫ﻗﺮرت‬ ‫‘ ﱠ‬I decided …’, there is an embedded clause that functions as the complement of the verb ‫ﻗﺮر‬ ‫‘ ﱠ‬to decide’, that is, ... ‫( أن أﺗﻘﺎﻋﺪ‬for more details, see next section). In this mental process ُ‫ﻗﺮرت‬ ‫‘ ﱠ‬I decided’, the scope of intention is greater than the extent of causation as the speaker may change his mind later (for more details, see Chapter 4). Similarly, in the second sentence, there is a non-finite clause that begins with ‫‘ ﻛﻲ‬in order to’. Finally, let us analyse the following text titled ‘The Farmer and His Sons’ syntactically prior to translating it into Arabic: In a small village, there was a farmer with five sons. His sons were strong and hardworking. But they always quarrelled with one another. Sometimes, they even fought. The farmer wanted his sons to stop quarrelling and fighting; he wanted them to live in peace. But, unfortunately, plain words of advice or scolding did not have much effect on these young people. The farmer always thought what to do to keep his sons united. One day, he called all his sons together. He showed them a bundle of sticks and said, “I want to see if any of you can break these sticks without separating them from the bundle”. Each of the five sons tried one by one. They used their full strength and skill. But none of them could break the sticks. Then the old man separated the sticks and gave each of them just a single stick to break. They broke the sticks easily. The farmer said, “A single stick by itself is weak. It is strong as long as it is tied up in a bundle. Likewise, you will be strong if you are united. You will be weak if you are divided”.

How many verbs are used in the text? Identify the nonfinite verbs (go to page 17). How many adverbs are used in the text? How many adjectives are used in the text? How many connectors are used in the text? How many partitives are used in the text? (go to page 203) Identify the modes of narration used in the text? (go to page 149)

12

Chapter One

Semantic parsing

2

Semantic roles (also known as ‘thematic roles’, ‘theta roles’, and ‘thematic cases’) are classified in this section into verb-specific semantic roles, i.e. semantic roles that are derived from the verb itself. To explain, the following example can be discussed:

. ‫~ أﻋ ﻰ اﻟ ُ ِّر ُس اﻟ ﺎﻟ َ ﻫ ًﺔ ﻗ ﻞ ﯿ ﻤ‬

Here, ! ! ! !

‫اﻟﻤﺪرس‬ ‘the teacher’ fills a verb-specific semantic role of Giver. ِّ ‫‘ اﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ‬the student’ fills a verb-specific semantic role of Receiver. ‫‘ ھﺪﯾﺔ‬a gift’ fills a verb-specific semantic role of something Given. ‫‘ ﻗﺒﻞ ﯾﻮﻣﯿﻦ‬two days ago’ is an adverb of time answering the question ‘when’.

This can be modelled as follows:

.[Adverb of time] ‫[ ﻗﺑل ﯾوﻣﯾن‬sth Given] ‫[ ﻫ ًﺔ‬Receiver] َ ‫[ اﻟ ﺎﻟ‬Giver] ‫أﻋ ﻰ اﻟ ُ ِّر ُس‬

It is worth mentioning that what was Given was first with the teacher and then with the student. We can also notice that what was Given was not affected, but it was moved from the Source ‫ﺪرس‬ ّ ِ ‫‘ اﻟ ُﻤ‬the teacher’ to the Goal ‫‘ اﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ‬the student’.

Now, let us compare these five sentences expressing the same idea to answer these questions: 1. Who was the sender? a. ______ b. ______ c. ______ d. ______ e. ______. 2. Who was the receiver? a. ______ b. ______ c. ______ d. ______ e. ______. 3. What was sent? a. ______ b. ______ c. ______ d. ______ e. ______. a.

I sent an email to my supervisor two days ago.

b.

I sent my supervisor an email two days ago.

c.

My supervisor received an email from me two days ago.

Pre-translation Techniques

13

d.

My supervisor was sent an email by me two days ago.

e.

An email was sent by me to my supervisor two days ago.

Unlike simple and compound sentences, complex sentences can be analysed at different levels. By way of illustration, the following sentence can be examined:

.‫ﻫ ﺎك‬

‫رت أن أﺒ ﻊ ﺸﻘ ﻲ وأﺴﺎﻓ إﻟﻰ ﻟ ن ﻷﺴ‬ ُ ‫ﻗﱠ‬

‫ﻗﺮ َر؟‬ ‫ﻣﺎذا ﱠ‬

~

‫ﻘﺮر؟‬ ّ ِ ‫َﻣﻦ اﻟ ُﻤ‬

.[sth Decided] ‫ﻫ ﺎك‬

‫أن أﺒ ﻊ ﺸﻘ ﻲ وأﺴﺎﻓ إﻟﻰ ﻟ ن ﻷﺴ‬

[Decider]

‫رت‬ ُ ‫ﻗﱠ‬

In the above sentence two main verb-specific semantic roles can be identified, viz. Decider and sth Decided, as shown above. Inside the clause that fills a verb-specific semantic role of sth Decided (also known as the ‘‫أن‬-clause’ and ‘complementizer clause’), there are three clauses, namely:

‫[ ﺷﻘﺘﻲ‬Seller] ‫أﺑﯿﻊ‬

!

‫[ إﻟﻰ ﻟﻨﺪن‬Traveller] ‫أﺳﺎﻓﺮ‬

!

‫[ ھﻨﺎك‬Inhabitant] ‫أﺳﻜﻦ‬

!

[sth Sold] [Adverb of place]

[Adverb of place]

So, when we translate from language A to language B, extra attention should be paid to the semantic roles rather than to the syntactic structures. Now, let us produce more than one translation of the following sentences without changing the semantic roles:

.[Adverb of time] ‫اﻟ ّ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎﻀ ﺔ‬ .[sth Eaten] ‫ﻤ أﺨﻲ‬ [sth

‫ﺘﻔﺎﺤ‬

[Adverb of time]

‫ﺴ اﻻً ُﻤ ًﺠﺎ‬

[sth Written]

[Adverb of time]

‫ﻗ ﻞ أ ﺎ ٍم‬

[Adverb of time]

‫روا ًﺔ‬

‫ﻗ ﻞ ﻗﻠ ٍﻞ‬

[sth Bought]

‫ﯿ م أﻤ‬

‫ﻛ َ أﺤ ُ أﺼ ﻗﺎﺌﻲ‬

~

‫أﻛﻠ ْ أُﺨ ﻲ اﻟ ّ ﻐ ة‬

~

[Writer] [Eater]

‫ﺴّﺎرًة ُﻤ ﻌ ﻠ ًﺔ‬

[Asker]

‫ِاﺒ ﻲ‬

[Buyer]

.[Seller]

[Addressee]

ُ ‫اﺸ‬ ‫اﻷﺼﻐ‬

‫ﺴﺄﻟ ﻲ‬

.Asked]

~ ~

14

Chapter One

[Adverb of place]

‫ﻤ‬

‫ﻓﻲ ﺴﺎﺤﺔ اﻟ رﺴﺔ‬

[sth Offered/Accepted]

‫ﻀﺎ‬ ً ‫ﻋ‬

[sth Played]

‫[ َة اﻟﻘ م‬Player] ‫ﻻد‬ ُ ‫ﻟﻌ َ اﻷو‬ .[Adverb of time] ‫ﯿ م أﻤ‬

[Adverb of time]

‫[ ﻗ ﻞ أﺴﺎﺒ َﻊ‬Accepter] ُ ‫ﻗ ﻠ‬ .[Offerer] ‫إﺤ اﻟ ﺎﻤﻌﺎت‬

~ ~

3 Revision EX 1: The following text is adapted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟ ﻘﺔ‬The Garden’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb. Complete the translation suggested by Sadkhan and Pragnell (2012: 44-5) by paying extra attention to the semantic roles assigned to each noun phrase.

‫ﺤﻰ‬

‫ ﻤﺎ إن ﻓ ﺢ ﺎب اﻟ‬... ‫ﺒ ﺎﻤ ﻪ وﺨ ج ﻤ ﻏ ﻓ ﻪ‬

‫ ﺜ ﻓ ﺢ اﻟ ﻔ ﺔ ﻓﺎﻟ ﻊ‬،‫اﻟﻌﺎﻟ ﺒ ﻬﺎﯿ ﻪ‬

‫واِرﺘ‬

‫ﻨﻬ‬

‫ﺘ ﺎول اﻨ ب اﻟ ﺎء اﻟ ﺎ وأزال اﻟ‬ .‫ﻘﻲ ﺤ ﻘ ﻪ‬

‫ و أ‬،‫ﻗ س اﻟ ﺎء‬

___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ He took the rubber hosepipe, removed the mud which caked its end, and then turned on the tap. The arc of water glistened and he began watering his garden. EX 2: Translate the following dialogue written for the purposes of this course, paying extra attention to the author’s intention, text-type focus, and semantic roles assigned to each noun phrase. ~ ~ ~ ~

I’ve told you many times not to put fruit and vegetables in the freezer, but you do not listen to me. Mom, please don’t be angry with me. I meant to put them in for five minutes, but it completely slipped my mind. Come on. This is not the first time, honey. Is it? True. I promise I won’t do it again.

Pre-translation Techniques

15

EX 3: Analyse the following text titled ‘As you sow, so shall you reap’ syntactically prior to translating it into Arabic. One night, three thieves stole a lot of money from a rich man’s house. They put the money in a bag and went to the forest. They felt very hungry. So, one of them went to a nearby village to buy food. The other two remained in the forest to take care of the bag of money . The thief that went for food had an evil idea. He ate his food at a hotel. Then he bought food for his two mates in the forest. He mixed a strong poison with the food. He thought, “Those two will eat this poisoned food and die. Then I will get all the money for myself ”. Meanwhile, the two wicked men in the forest decided to kill their mate on his return. They thought that they would divide the money between the two of them. All the three wicked men carried out their cruel plans. The thief who wanted all the money for himself came to the forest with the poisoned food. The two men in the forest hit him and killed him. Then they ate the poisoned food and died. Thus, these evil people met with an evil end.

How many verbs are used in the text? Identify the semantic roles assigned to each noun phrase used in the first two sentences. Identify the non-finite verbs in the text. How many adverbs are used in the text? How many adjectives are used in the text? How many connectors are used in the text? How many partitives are used in the text? Identify the modes of narration used in the text.

EX 4: Before translating the following sentences, try to identify: ! ! ! ! ! ! !

the type of each sentence (simple, compound, complex, or compound complex), the subject of each clause/sentence (one word or a group of words), the tense of each clause/sentence (past, present, or future), the aspect of each clause/sentence (simple, progressive, perfect, or progressive perfect), the voice of each clause/sentence (active or passive), the adverbs used in each clause/sentence, and the semantic roles assigned to each noun phrase.

16

Chapter One

‫ﺎت ﻓﻲ‬

‫اﻟ ﺠ ﺔ ﺤ ﻰ ﺒ أ اﻟﻌ ﻞ ﻓﻲ واﺤ ٍة ﻤ أﻛ ِ اﻟ‬

‫ ﻤﺎ إن ﺘ ّج ﻤ ﻗ‬.1 .‫اﻟ ﻼد‬

ِ .‫ﺼﺎت اﻟ ّﺔ‬ ‫ﻌ َ اﻟﻔ‬

‫ﻟ‬ ُ ‫ﻘ ور واﻟ اﻟ ﻔ إﻟﻰ ﺒ ﺎﻨ ﺎ ﻲ‬ ٍ ِ . ‫ﻼﻤ ِﻪ ﯿ م أﻤ‬ ‫ ﻟ أﻛ ْ ُﻤ ِﻋ ً ﺎ ًا ﻤ‬،‫اﺤﺔ‬ ِ ِ .‫ُﻋ ِﻘ ﯿ م أﻤ إﻻ ﻤ ﻔﺎن‬ ‫اﻻﺠ ﺎع اﻟ‬ ‫ﻟ‬ ٍ ‫ ﻟ اﺘﻠ أ ِاﺘ‬، ‫ﻟﻐﺎ ﺔ ﯿ م أﻤ‬ .‫ﺎل ﻻ ﻤ أﺼ ﻗﺎﺌﻲ اﻟ ُ ﻘّ وﻻ ﻤ زﻤﻼﺌﻲ‬ ّ َ ٍ ِ .‫ ُ ﻗ ﻨ ُ ﻷﻛ ِ ﻤ ﺴ ِﻊ ﺴﺎﻋﺎت‬، ِ ‫َﻞ أﺒﻲ ﻤ اﻟ ﻔ‬ ‫ ﻗ ﻞ أن‬،‫اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ‬

.2 .3 .4 .5 .6

7.

She invited all her friends to her birthday party, but no one attended.

8.

Next month, I will have been teaching in this university for 12 months.

9.

While I was talking with my friend, somebody threw a car key at me.

10. Yesterday, neither the dean nor the head of the department attended the meeting. EX 5: Identify the verb-specific semantic role of each noun phrase used in the following sentences. Then, translate them into English without changing the semantic roles.

.‫اﻟﻌ ﯿ َ ﻤ اﻹ ﻼت إﻟﻰ ﺼ ِﻘ ِﻪ اﻟ ﻘّ ب‬

.1 ‫أرﺴﻞ أﺨﻲ ﯿ م أﻤ‬ َ ِ .‫اﺌﻌﺔ‬ ً ‫ ﻛ ْ اﺒ ﻲ اﻟ ّ ﻐ ة ﻗ ﻞ ﯿ ﻤ ﻗ ً ﺔ ر‬.2 ِ ّ ‫ ﺴﺄل اﻟ ّرس أﺤ َ اﻟ‬.3 .‫ﻼب ﺴ اﻻً ﺼﻌًﺎ ﻗ ﻞ أ ﺎم‬ ُ ُ َ

CHAPTER TWO NARRATING EVENTS IN THE PAST

1 Verbs: finite & non-finite verbs Generally speaking, the forms of finite verbs (also known as ‘tensed verbs’) indicate tense, person, and number, while non-finite verbs (also known as ‘non-tensed verbs’) do not indicate tense, person, or number. In English, for example, a verb has three non-finite forms, viz. !

Infinitive: I have moved to another city to find a job. (to find = a non-finite verb) so that I can find > to find

!

Past participle: The question asked by you was very difficult. (asked = a non-finite verb) which was asked > asked

!

Gerund: Having cleaned my flat, I went out. (having = a nonfinite verb) After I had cleaned > Having cleaned

However, in some languages, such as Arabic, non-finite verbs still indicate person and number, but not the tense. By way of explanation, let us consider the following example in which two verbs are used: one finite verb ُ‫ ﺳﺎﻓﺮت‬indicating tense (past), number and person (the first person singular), and one non-finite verb ‫ أﻟﺘﻘﻲ‬preceded by ‫‘ ﻛﻲ‬in order to’, indicating only number and person (the first person singular):

.‫إﻟﻰ اﻟﻘﺎﻫ ة ﻲ أﻟ ﻘﻲ)ﺒـ( ﺼ ﻘﻲ‬ I

‫ﺴﺎﻓ ُت ﻗ ﻞ ﯿ ﻤ‬

~

The Actor is the implicit pronoun ‫‘ أﻧﺎ‬I’ indicated by the letter ‫ ت‬attached to the verb ‫‘ ﺳﺎﻓﺮ‬to travel’. It fills the verbspecific semantic role of Traveller (see Chapter 1).

18

Chapter Two

travelled

Here, the finite verb ‫ ﺳﺎﻓﺮ‬can be translated as ‘to travel’. The verb ‫ ﺳﺎﻓﺮ‬is in the past indicated by ‫‘ ﻗﺒﻞ ﯾﻮﻣﯿﻦ‬two days ago’ and the emphasis is placed on its completion; therefore, it can be translated into a simple past tense ‘travelled’. Cognitively speaking, the open path utilized here is approached from a distal perspective, thus being seen as a point on the timeline.

to Cairo

‫إﻟﻰ اﻟﻘﺎھﺮة‬, which is an equivalent of ‘to Cairo’, is a location circumstance construing the extent of the unfolding of the process in space and answering the question ‘where’.

two days ago

‫ ﻗﺒﻞ ﯾﻮﻣﯿﻦ‬is an equivalent of ‘two days ago’. The difference between ‘ago’ and ‘before’ in English is that the former is used with a past tense and a time expression to count back from the present while the latter is used for past times from another time in the past, as in: I met my friend two weeks before I graduated. I graduated from this school three years ago.

to meet my friend.

Here, the scope of intention is greater than the extent of causation as the Actor/Traveller may change his mind later. To borrow terms from cognitive grammar, this non-finite verb ‘to meet’ is not grounded, that is, its reality status has not been established in such an example. Building on this, it cannot stand on its own as a communicative speech event. In such a context, the verb ‫‘ اﻟﺘﻘﻰ‬to meet’ can be translated as ‘to visit’. ‫‘ ﻛﻲ أﻟﺘﻘﻲ )ﺑـ(ﺻﺪﯾﻘﻲ‬to meet my friend’ is a non-finite clause. However, when it is translated as ‘so that I could meet my friend’, then it will be regarded as a finite clause.

Now, let us discuss the following text adapted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﻘﻄﺎر اﻟﺼﺎﻋﺪ إﻟﻰ ﺑﻐﺪاد‬The Train Headed up to Baghdad’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 11):

‫ﻬﺎ وﺴّﻠ ﻲ‬

‫أﻤﻲ ﻋﻘ ة ﻓ‬

ّ ‫ﻋ ﻤﺎ ﺼﻔ اﻟﻘ ﺎر ﺼﻔ ﺘﻪ اﻟ ﺎﻨ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎدة اﻟ ﻘ ﻌﺔ ﻓ‬ ... ‫اﻟ ﯿ ﺎر اﻟ ﺤ اﻟ ﺘ ﻠ ﻪ‬

When the train gave its second, sharp shrill whistle, my mother untied the knot of her apron and gave me the only dinar she had …

Narrating Events in the Past

19

As can be seen in both texts, there are four finite clauses. They are When

‫ﻋ ﻤﺎ ﺼﻔ اﻟﻘ ﺎر ﺼﻔ ﺘﻪ اﻟ ﺎﻨ ﺔ‬

the train gave its second, sharp shrill whistle

‫ﻬﺎ‬

my mother untied the knot of her apron

, and

gave me the only dinar

(that)

‫اﻟ ﺎدة اﻟ ﻘ ﻌﺔ‬

‫أﻤﻲ ﻋﻘ ة ﻓ‬

ّ‫ﻓ‬

،

‫ﺴّﻠ ﻲ اﻟ ﯿ ﺎر اﻟ ﺤ‬

‫و‬

‫ﺘﻠﻪ‬

she had

‫اﻟ‬

In these four clauses, three processes of doing and a process of having are employed by the writer and reflected by the translators (for more details on ‘Processes’, see Chapter 4). The emphasis in the first three processes is placed on the completion of the acts of whistling, untying, and handing/giving in the past. In the fourth clause although the morphological tense in the process of having is in the present, the emphasis is also placed on its completion as there is an implicit ‫( ﻛﺎن‬see Chapter 3, for more details). Cognitively speaking, all these acts in such a context are approached from a distal perspective, thus being seen as points on the timeline. To put this differently, these finite verbs in these processes are grounded, that is to say they have established a relationship with ‘now and then’. As a consequence, the speaker construes them as part of known reality. In the first finite clause ‫ﺻﻔﺮ اﻟﻘﻄﺎر ﺻﻔﺮﺗﮫ‬, a cognitive operation of actionalizing is used by the writer (for more details, see Talmy 2000: 45). However, such an operation of actionalizing, i.e. ‫‘ ﺻﻔﺮ‬to whistle’, has been reified to an object, i.e. ‘whistle’ by the translators to avoid the repetition resulting from the use of the cognate accusative ‫اﻟﻤﻔﻌﻮل اﻟﻤﻄﻠﻖ‬ (see Section 2). EX: Translate the following sentences using the notes that follow some of them, paying extra attention to the finite and non-finite clauses and verbs.

ِ ‫ات ﻷﻋ ف ﻤ ﺎن اﻟ‬ ٍ ‫ﻤ ﺨ ِ ﻤ‬ .‫ﻔﻠﺔ‬ َ َ !

‫أﻛ‬

‫ا ّﺘ ﻠ ُ ﻪ ﻗ ﻞ ﯿ ﻤ‬

~

The finite verb ‫ اﺗّﺼﻞ‬can be rendered as ‘to call’ or ‘to phone’.

20

Chapter Two

However, it can be translated as ‘to give somebody a call’, ‘to give somebody a buzz’, ‘to give somebody a ring’, and the like.

!

Particles such as ‫ﻛﻲ‬, ‫ﻟﻜﻲ‬, ‫ﻟـ‬, and ‫ ﺣﺘﻰ‬used to express purpose, are synonyms in Arabic and can be translated as ‘to’, ‘in order to’, ‘so as to’, or ‘with a view to’.

!

While ‘to’, ‘in order to’, and ‘so as to’ are followed by the base form, i.e. the first form of the verb, ‘with a view to’, which is used in a formal register, is followed by the first form + ‘–ing’.

ِ ‫ﻫ ًﺔ ﻷُ ِﺨ ﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻋ ِ ﻤ‬ .‫ﻼدﻫﺎ‬

‫أن ﺘ‬

‫ادت أﻤ‬ ْ ‫أر‬

~

!

Here, there are two verbs, viz. ْ‫ أرادت‬and ‫ﺗﺸﺘﺮي‬. While the verb ْ‫ أرادت‬is finite, indicating tense (past), gender (feminine), number, and person (the third person singular), the verb ‫ ﺗﺸﺘﺮي‬is nonfinite as it does not indicate any tense because it is preceded by ‫أن‬.

!

The word ‫ ھﺪﯾﺔ‬can be translated into ‘gift’ or ‘present’. The two words are used with things given to other people without expectation of return or compensation. In English, it is common to say ‘I gave her a gift/present on her birthday’. The difference between them is that a ‘gift’ tends to be much more valuable than a ‘present’.

!

Attention should be paid to ‫‘ اﻟﺘﻨﻮﯾﻦ‬nunation’ in ‫ ھﺪﯾﺔ‬as it lends itself here to the indefinite article ‘a’ (for more details on ‫ﺗﻨﻮﯾﻦ‬ ‘Nunation’, see Chapter 6).

.‫ٍة‬

.‫ﺤﻠ ُ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ ﺤﻠ ً ﺎ ُﻤ ِﻋ ً ﺎ‬ ٍ ‫ﺄﺸ ﺎء ﺠ‬ ‫ﻠﺔ‬ ْ ‫ ﺤﻠ‬،‫ﻓﻲ ﺤﻠ ِ ﻬﺎ‬

~ ~

!

‘Dream’ as a noun collocates well with verbs like ‘to have’ or ‘to haunt’.

!

The adjective ‫ ُﻣﺰﻋِﺞ‬in the first example can be translated into ‘disturbing’, ‘awful’, or ‘bad’ as they collocate well with the noun ‘dream’. Or, one may go for ‘nightmare’ ‫ ﻛﺎﺑﻮس‬to stand for the phrase ‫ﺣﻠﻢ ﻣﺰﻋِﺞ‬.

!

The adjective ‫ ﺟﻤﯿﻞ‬in the second example can be rendered into

Narrating Events in the Past

21

‘pleasant’ as it collocates well with the noun ‘dream’.

ِ ‫ﻻ ﯿ ال ﻤ ﻬ اﻟ‬ ِ .‫أﺤﻼﻤ ِﻪ ُﻤ ُ ﺴ ٍﺔ‬ ‫ﺎدث ُ ِﺎرُد ُﻩ ﻓﻲ‬ ُ !

~

In this example, extra attention should be paid to the tense and aspect. The tense is ‘present’ ‫ﯾﻄﺎرد‬ ِ , and the emphasis (aspect) is on: 1. the continuity of the described action ‫ﯾُﻄﺎرد‬/َ‫ طﺎرد‬indicated by ‫‘ﻻ ﯾﺰال‬still’. 2. the duration of the described action indicated by the word ‫‘ﻣﻨﺬ‬since/for’.

To reflect both the tense and aspect, one may opt for the present perfect continuous, i.e. ‘have/has + been + Verb 1 + –ing’, as in: The image of the crash (or: the scene of the accident) has been haunting his dreams for a year.

ِ ‫اﻷﻛﻼت اﻟ ﻌ ِﺔ ﻟﻠ‬ َ ‫ْ واﻟ ﺘﻲ أﻤ ﻌ‬ .‫ﻛ ُ ﺘﻘ ًا ﻋ اﻟ ﺎﻛﻞ اﻟ ﻲ ﻌﺎﻨﻲ ﻤ ﻬﺎ اﻟ ﻠ ﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻌّﻠ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻹﻨ ﻠ ﺔ‬ .‫ف‬

.‫ﻋﻠ ﻬﺎ‬

‫ﻞ ﺄﻤﻬﺎ ﻟ‬

‫ ﺤﺎوﻟ ْ أن ﺘ‬،‫ ﻗ ﻞ أن ﺘ ﻠ إﻟﻰ اﻟ م‬،‫اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ‬

~ ~ ~

!

The verbs ‫طﺒﺦ‬, ‫ﻛﺘﺐ‬, and ‫ ﺣﺎول‬lend themselves to ‘to cook’, ‘to write’, and ‘to try’ respectively.

!

We need to make some pre-transferring adjustments prior to embarking on the actual act of translating the text. Here, the clause ‫ ﻗﺒﻞ أن ﺗﺨﻠﺪ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻨﻮم‬simply means ‫ﻗﺒﻞ أن ﺗﻨﺎم‬, i.e. ‘before going to bed’ or ‘before falling asleep’.

!

The verb ‫ ﯾﻄﻤﺌﻦ‬lends itself to ‘to check on’, ‘to rest in comfort’, ‘to feel better’, etc.

ِ .‫ﺎن ﺼﻌًﺎ ﺠ ً ا‬ ُ ‫ﻛﺎن اﻻﻤ‬ ٍ ِ ‫ﺨ ﺠ ْ أﻤ ﻗ ﻞ ِاﻨ‬ ِ ‫ﻬﺎء اﻟﻌ ِﻞ ِﺒ‬ .‫ﺴﺎﻋﺔ‬ ‫ﻒ‬ ٍ .‫ف ﺴ َ ﺘﻌِ ﻬﺎ اﻟ ُ ﻔﺎﺠﺊ‬ َ ‫أﺨ ُت واﻟ ﺘﻲ إﻟﻰ أﻗ ِب ﻋ ﺎدة ﻲ ﻨﻌ‬ .‫ وﻟ أﺘ ّ ﻤ اﻟ م‬،‫ﻘ ُ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ أﺘﻘّﻠ ُ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻔ اش‬

~ ~ ~ ~

22

Chapter Two

!

ُ‫ ﺑﻘﯿﺖُ أﺗﻘﻠﺐ‬can be slightly adjusted into ‫ﺑﻘﯿﺖُ ﺻﺎﺣﯿًﺎ‬, thus lending itself to ‘I stayed awake last night rolling/turning over and over’ or ‘I stayed awake last night tossing and turning’. In this context, the adjective ‘awake’ collocates well with verbs, such as ‘to stay’, ‘to keep’, ‘to remain’, ‘to lie’, and ‘to be’, and adverbs such as ‘fully’, ‘wide’, ‘only half’, and ‘still’, as in:

Last night, the mother remained awake, her hand on her son’s shoulder. Later, she fell asleep. When her husband arrived home, she was only half awake, and her son was wide awake.

!

‫ﻟ ﺎﻗ ِﺔ‬

‫ ﻟﻢ أﺗﻤ ّﻜﻦ‬in the second sentence lends itself to ‘could not’ or ‘was not able to’ to reflect both ‘negation’ in the past expressed by ‫ﻟﻢ‬ and ‘ability’ expressed by ‫( ﺗﻤ ّﻜﻦ‬for more examples, see the lesson on ‘Negative Sentences’ in this Chapter). ِ ‫دﻋﺎﻨﻲ ﺼ ﻘﻲ إﻟﻰ‬ ِ ‫ﺤﻔﻠﺔ ﻋ ِ ﻤ‬ .‫ﻼدِﻩ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ‬ ‫ﻏﺎدر اﻷردن ﯿ م أﻤ ﺠﻼﻟ ُﺔ اﻟ ﻠ ِ ﻋ ﷲ اﻟ ﺎﻨﻲ ُﻤ ّﺠ ًﻬﺎ إﻟﻰ اﻟ‬ ِ . ‫ﺔ ﺒ اﻟ ﻠ ﯿ‬ ُ ‫ﻌ اﻟﻘ ﺎ ﺎ اﻟ‬

~ ~

!

The verb ‫دﻋﺎ‬, which means ‘to invite’, can be translated as ‘my friend invited me …’. However, when it is translated as ‘I was invited by my friend …’, which is in the passive form, there will be a ‘structure shift’ to use Catford’s (1965) terminology.

!

The structure ... ‫ ﻣﺘﻮ ّﺟ ًﮭﺎ إﻟﻰ‬... ‫ ﻏﺎدر ﻓﻼن‬can be rendered as ‘X left … heading for …’ or ‘X left … heading up to …’.

ُ‫ّ ﻨ َﻩ‬

‫اﻟ اﺨﻠ ﺔ اﻟ‬

‫ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﺎر اﻟﻘﺎﻫ ة اﻟ وﻟﻲ وز‬

‫ِاﺴ ﻘ َﻞ ﯿ م أﻤ‬ .‫اﻟ ّ داﻨﻲ‬ ّ

~

!

The expression ‫ وزﯾﺮ اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﯿﺔ‬is translated into ‘the minister of the interior’ (note UK: ‘home secretary’). As for ‫وزﯾﺮ اﻟﺪﻓﺎع‬, ‫رﺋﯿﺲ‬ ‫اﻟﻮزراء‬, and ‫وزﯾﺮ اﻟﺨﺎرﺟﯿﺔ‬, they can be translated into ‘the minister of defence’, ‘the prime minister’, and ‘the minister of foreign affairs’ respectively.

!

The word ‫ ﻧﻈﯿﺮ‬can be translated into ‘counterpart’.

Narrating Events in the Past

‫دوﻟﺔ‬

‫أﺨ ﻪ أﻤ‬

!

‫رﺴﺎﻟﺔ ﺨ ّﺔ ﻤ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ﺨﺎدم اﻟ ﻤ‬ ‫ﺘﻠﻘﻰ‬ ّ ُ . ‫اﻟ‬

~

‫أﻟﻘﻰ اﻟ ﻠ ﺎن ﻗﺎﺒ س ﺒ ﺴﻌ ﯿ م أﻤ‬

~

.ً‫َوَﻟ ْت أُﺨ ﻲ ﻗ ﻞ أ ﺎ ٍم ﻔﻼً ﺠ ﻼ‬

~

In the above examples, the verbs ‫ أﻟﻘﻰ‬and ْ‫ َوﻟﺪت‬lend themselves to ‘to deliver’ and ‘to give’ respectively, as in: to deliver a speech to give birth to.

‫اﻟ ﻠ ﺔ اﻟﻌ ﺔ‬

!

‫ﻔ‬

The expression ‫ ﺧﺎدم اﻟﺤﺮﻣﯿﻦ اﻟﺸﺮﯾﻔﯿﻦ‬lends itself to ‘the guardian of the sacred shrines’.

.‫ﺨ ﺎًﺎ ﺘﺎر ًﺎ‬

!

‫ﯿ م أﻤ‬

23

‫اﻟ ﻗ ﺔ ﻤ‬

‫أﻤ ٌﺎر ﻏ ةٌ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎ‬

‫ﻫ ﻠ ْ ﯿ م أﻤ‬ .‫اﻟ ﻌ د ﺔ‬

~

Here, you need to make a pre-transferring adjustment at the syntactic level before translating the sentence. As such, ‫ھﻄﻠﺖ أﻣﻄﺎر‬ ‫ ﻏﺰﯾﺮة‬simply means ‫ﻣﻄﺮت )اﻟﺪﻧﯿﺎ( ﺑﻐﺰارة‬, i.e. ‘it rained heavily’.

‫ﺴﻠ ﺔ ُﻋ ﺎن ﻟ ﺠﺔ ﻤ اﻷﻤ ﺎر اﻟﻐ ة ﺼﺎﺤ ﻬﺎ رﺎح‬

‫ﺘﻌّ ﻀ ْ ﯿ م أﻤ‬ .‫ﺸ ﯿ ة‬

~

!

The verb ‫ﺗﻌﺮض‬ ّ can be translated into ‘to be subject to’ or ‘to be exposed to’.

!

The expression ‫ ﺻﺎﺣﺒﺘﮭﺎ‬lends itself to ‘to be accompanied by’. The phrase ‫ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻷﻣﻄﺎر‬can be rendered into ‘a rain front’.

ِ ‫ا ﺨﺎرج‬ ‫أرﻀ ِﻪ وﺠ ﻬ ِِرﻩ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﺎراة اﻟ ﻫﺎب ﺒ ﻬﺎﺌﻲ ﺄس‬ ً !

‫ﺤﻘ ﻤ ﻼﻨ ﻓ ًاز‬ .‫إ ﺎﻟ ﺎ ة اﻟﻘ م‬

~

ً ‫ ﺣﻘﻖ ﻣﯿﻼن‬can lend itself to ‘Milan won a The structure ‫ﻛﺒﯿﺮا‬ ‫ﻓﻮزا‬ ً

24

Chapter Two

great victory’. !

The phrase ‫وﺟﻤﮭﻮره‬ ‫أرﺿ ِﮫ‬ ‫ ﺧﺎرج‬can be translated into ‘away from ِ ِ home and fans’.

!

The phrase ‫ ﻧﮭﺎﺋﻲ ﻛﺄس إﯾﻄﺎﻟﯿﺎ‬lends itself to ‘the Italian Cup Final’.

EX: Change the following underlined clauses to non-finite clauses, and then translate them into Arabic: 1.

The man who was arrested by the police yesterday was found guilty.

_________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 2.

After he had bought a gift for his brother, he went to the gym.

_________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 3.

My brother went to the nearest shopping centre yesterday so that he could buy a new laptop.

_________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ EX: Translate the following text titled ‘Mohandas Gandhi’ into English, paying extra attention to the linguistic and stylistic norms of the target language:

َ ‫ ﺴﺎﻓ‬.‫ ﻤ ﻋﺎﺌﻠﺔ ﻤ ﺎﻓ ﺔ‬1869 ‫ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم‬Porbandar ‫ُوِﻟ َ ﻤ ﻫﺎﻨ س ﻏﺎﻨ ﻓﻲ ﺒ ر ر‬ ‫ ﻋﺎد ﻏﺎﻨ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻬ‬،1890 ‫ وﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم‬.1882 ‫ﻏﺎﻨ إﻟﻰ ﻟ ن ﻟ راﺴﺔ اﻟﻘﺎﻨ ن ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم‬ ِ ‫ﺎﺠﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫ ﻗﱠ ر ﻏﺎﻨ أن‬،1932 ‫ وﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم‬.‫ﻞ ﺸﻬﺎدة اﻟﻘﺎﻨ ن‬ ً ‫م ﺤ ﻰ اﻟ ت اﺤ‬ .79 َ ‫ﻨﺎﻫ‬ ‫وﺘ ﻓﻲ ﻋ ﻋ‬ ‫ ﺘ ّ ِاﻏ ﺎل ﻏﺎﻨ‬،1948 ‫ وﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم‬. ‫ﺴ ﺎﺴﺔ اﻟ‬ !

The verb َ‫ ُو ِﻟﺪ‬, which is in the past and passive, lends itself to ‘was born’ in English.

!

The adjective (‫ ُﻣﺤﺎﻓِﻆ)ـﺔ‬in this context lends itself to ‘conservative’.

Narrating Events in the Past

25

!

The word ‫ اِﺣﺘﺠﺎ ًﺟﺎ‬lends itself to ‘protesting against’.

!

The expression ‫ ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺔ اﻟﺘﻤﯿﯿﺰ‬can be translated into ‘segregation’ or ‘discrimination’.

!

The noun ‫ اِﻏﺘﯿﺎل‬is derived from the verb ‫‘اِﻏﺘﺎ َل‬to assassinate’.

!

As for the expression َ‫ﻋﻤﺮ ﻧﺎھﺰ‬ ‫ﻋﻦ‬, which is frequently used in ٍ Arabic, it lends itself to ‘at the age of’.

EX: Identify the finite and non-finite verbs used in the source text extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ ودّت ﻟﻮ ﺗﺠﻠﺲ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮﺻﯿﻒ‬She Wanted to Sit on the Pavement’ by Karīm ‘Abid. Then compare them with their equivalents in the target text (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 108-9): She went to her room and closed the door. She took off the plaster and looked at the wound … She put on it a little of that blue antiseptic with a slight sting and replaced the bandage.

.‫ﻋﻠ ﻬﺎ اﻟ ﺎب‬

‫إﻟﻰ ﻏ ﻓ ﻬﺎ وأﻏﻠﻘ‬

‫اﻟ ﺎﺌﻞ اﻷزرق‬

‫ﻋﻠ ﻪ ﻗﻠ ﻼً ﻤ‬

... ‫إﻟﻰ اﻟ ح‬

.‫ﺎد‬

‫ﻠﻌ‬ ّ ‫اﻟﻼﺼ وﺘ‬

‫ذﻫ‬

‫رﻓﻌ‬ ‫وﻀﻌ‬

‫ وأﻋﺎدت اﻟ‬، ‫اﻟ ﻔ ﻒ اﻟ ﺎو‬

2 Cognate accusative ‫اﻟﻤﻔﻌﻮل اﻟﻤﻄﻠﻖ‬ The cognate accusative (also known as ‘absolute accusative’ or ‘absolute object’) is a verb’s object used after the verb; it is etymologically related to the verb, that is, it is derived from the same root, as in:

ِِ ِ (‫ ُﺤ ًﻨﺎ‬... ‫)ﺤ َ َن‬ ‫ﺤ ﻨ ُ ُﺤ ًﻨﺎ ﺸ ﯿ ً ا ﻟ‬ َ .‫وﻓﺎة أﻤﻪ‬ ِ (‫ﺎء‬ ً ُ ‫ْ اﺒ ﻲ اﻟ ﻐ ة‬ ً ... ‫ )َ ﻰ‬.‫ﺎء ُﻤ ا اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ‬ (‫ ﻏ ًﺎ‬... َ ‫ )ﻏ‬. ‫ﻏ ْ واﻟ ﺘﻲ ﻏ ً ﺎ ﺸ ﯿ ً ا ﯿ م أﻤ‬

~ ~ ~

The cognate accusative is not only acceptable in Arabic, but it is a fine style and used fairly frequently for: ! !

emphasis, as in ‫ﻀ ً ﺎ‬ َ ‫ﻲ‬

‫ﺠﻞ اﻟ‬ َ. ُ ‫ﻀ َب اﻟ‬ ْ ‫ا‬. explanation of the type, as in ‫ِﻋﻤﻞ ﻋَﻤﻼً ﻧﺎﻓِﻌًﺎ‬

26

Chapter Two

!

telling a number, as in

‫ُﻤ ﺎﻟ‬

‫اﻟ ﺎﻋ ُﺔ دﻗ‬

‫دﻗ‬.

However, in translating the cognate accusative from Arabic into English, extra attention should be paid to the linguistic differences between the two languages. As such, it can be translated as an adverb of degree, an adverb of manner or a (phrasal) verb collocating well with the noun, as in the translations of the above sentences: I felt so/extremely sad at the news of his mother’s death. an adverb of degree My youngest daughter cried bitterly last night. an adverb of manner My mother was extremely angry yesterday. an adverb of degree To reinforce this point, let us consider the following authentic examples. In the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻤﺰاﺑﻞ‬ ‘Among the Dustbins’ by ‘Abdulmalik Nūrī, the cognate accusative ‫ﯾﺼﯿﺢ‬ ‫ ﺻﯿﺎ ًﺣﺎ‬has been translated by Pragnell and Sadkhan (2011: 154-5) into a verb followed by an adverb of manner, that is, ‘to shout loudly’:

‫ أﺠﻞ ﻤﺎذا‬... ‫ ﻤﺎذا أﻓﻌﻞ‬:‫ﺎﺤﺎ ﻋ ً ﺎ‬ ‫ﻓﻲ ﻨﻔ ﻪ و ّ ﻞ إﻟ ﻪ أﻨﻪ‬ ‫ﯿﻬ‬ ً ‫ﺢ ﺼ‬ ... ً‫ وﺴﺄ ﻘﻰ ال ﺤ ﺎﺘﻲ زّﺎﻻ‬... ‫! ﻫ ﻩ ﻫﻲ ﺤ ﺎﺘﻲ‬... ‫أﻓﻌﻞ‬ He whispers to himself and it appears to him that he is shouting loudly: “what shall I do? Yes, what shall I do?! This is my life. I will remain a garbage collector all my life”. Cognitively speaking, the act of screaming in the above example is characterized by multiplexity, that is, the quantity consists of more than one element/scream. Being fully aware of this, the translators have opted for the present continuous tense in the target text, thus stretching out the act of screaming over the timeline on the one hand, and reflecting its multiplexity on the other. However, in the following example taken from a short story titled ‫اﻣﺮأة‬ ‫‘ وﺣﯿﺪة‬A Lonely Woman’ by Zakariyyā Tāmir (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 44-5) the cognate accusative ‫ ﺿﺤﻚ ﺿﺤﻜﺔ‬and the adjectives ‫‘ ﻗﺼﯿﺮة‬short’ and ‫‘ ﺣﺎدة‬sharp’ have been translated as

Narrating Events in the Past

27

‘grinned’, thus resulting in a ‘unit shift’, to use Catford’s (1965) terminology (for more details, see ‘Shift’ in this Chapter).

‫ﺴ‬

‫ﻗﻠ ﻼً وﻟ‬

‫ ))ﺴ‬:‫ة ﺤﺎدة ﺜ ﻗﺎل‬

.((‫ ))ﻻ أﺤ ﻪ‬:

‫ﻋ ة‬

‫اﻟ ﺦ ﻀ ﺔ ﻗ‬ ‫ﻪ؟(( ﻏ ﻐ‬

‫ﻀ‬

‫ أﺘ‬. ‫زوﺠ‬

The Sheikh grinned, and said: “You will lose a little, but you will regain your husband. Do you love him?” Aziza angrily muttered under her breath: “No, I don’t”. By the effect of the grammatical form ‫‘ ﺿﺤﻜﺔ‬a laughter’, the act of laughing is characterized by uniplexity, that is, its quantity consists of one element: laughter. This has been reflected by the translators when opting for a simple past tense where the three paths (initial, medial, and final) of the act of grinning are reduced to being seen as a point on the timeline. However, the act of laughing ‫ ﺿﺤﻚ‬in the behavioural process ‫ﺿﺤﻚ اﻟﺸﯿﺦ‬ ‫ ﺿﺤﻜﺔ ﻗﺼﯿﺮة‬employed by the writer evokes in the mind of the hearer or reader the sound-frame and movement-frame in addition to the other frames that may be evoked by the act of grinning, that is, to smile broadly, especially in an unrestrained manner and with the mouth open. Had the translators given the frames associated with the act of laughing adequate consideration, they would have suggested a rendering like this: ‘The Sheikh let out a short laugh and said…’. EX: Translate the following sentences followed by certain notes into English, paying extra attention to the cognate accusative.

.‫ﺔ‬

‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗ ﺎﻋﺎﺘ ﺎ اﻟﻌ‬

‫َﻫ َ َ اﻟﻌ ُو ﻫ ًﻤﺎ ﺎﺴ ً ﺎ ﯿ م أﻤ‬

~

!

The verb ‫ ھﺠﻢ‬can be translated into ‘launch’, ‘make’, or ‘carry out’, as they collocate well with the noun ‘attack’ ‫ھﺠﻮم‬.

!

As for the adjective ‫ﻛﺎﺳﺢ‬, it can be translated into ‘all-out’, ‘fullscale’, ‘major’, and the like, as they collocate well with the noun ‘attack’. Or one may go for ‘crushing’, ‘overwhelming’, etc. to be very close to the original text.

!

Further, one may make a pre-transferring adjustment at the lexical level ‫( ﻗﺎم ﺑﮭﺠﻮم‬X carried out/made/launched an attack …) and at the syntactic level ‫ﺗﻌﺮﺿﺖْ ﻗﻄﺎﻋﺎﺗﻨﺎ‬ ّ (X was/were subject to …), as in:

28

Chapter Two

.‫ﺔ‬

‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗ ﺎﻋﺎﺘ ﺎ اﻟﻌ‬

.‫ﻤ ﻗ ﻞ اﻟﻌ و‬/‫ﻟﻬ م ﺎﺴﺢ ﻗﺎم ﻪ‬

‫ﻗﺎم اﻟﻌ و ﺒﻬ م ﺎﺴﺢ ﯿ م أﻤ‬

‫ﺔ ﯿ م أﻤ‬

‫ﺘﻌّ ﻀ ْ ﻗ ﺎﻋﺎﺘ ﺎ اﻟﻌ‬

ِ ‫ﻼب ﻀ ً ﺎ ﻋﺎﻟًﺎ أﻤ‬ ُ ّ ‫ﻀ اﻟ‬ .‫َﻀَ َ ُﻪ ﻀ ً ﺎ ُﻤ ًﺤﺎ ﺤ ﻰ أُﻏ ﻲ ﻋﻠ ﻪ‬

ِ ‫داﺨﻞ اﻟ ﱠ‬ ِ .‫ﻒ‬ ‫ﻓﻲ‬

~ ~

!

The expression ‫ح‬ ٌ ‫ ﺿﺮبٌ ُﻣﺒﺮ‬normally lends itself to ‘intense beating’. How would you translate it here?

!

The verb (‫ أﻏﻤﻲ )ﻋﻠﯿﮫ‬can be translated into ‘to faint’ or ‘to lose consciousness’, and the like.

. ‫ﺴﺎﻋ ْﺘ ﻲ ﻤ ﺎﻋ ًة ﻋ ًﺔ ﻗ َﻞ ﯿ ﻤ‬ ِ ِ ٍ ‫ ﺒ ون اﺴ‬،‫ ﺸﺎرك ﻤ ّ ﻔ اﻟ ِﺔ‬،‫ﻗ ﻞ أﺴ ع‬ ‫ورﺸﺔ‬ ‫ًة ﻓﻲ‬ ‫ ﻤ ﺎر ًﺔ‬،‫ﺎء‬ .‫اﻟﻌ ِﻞ‬ ِ . ‫ف ﻋ ﻨﻬﺎ ﺔ ِاﺠ ﺎع أﻤ‬ ‫ًﺔ ﻟ ﻊ اﻟ‬ ‫ِاﺒ ﺎﻤ ًﺔ ﻋ‬ ‫ِاﺒ‬ !

~

~

The cognate accusative ‫ ﻧﺠ َﺢ ﻧﺠﺎ ًﺣﺎ‬lends itself to the verb ‘to succeed’ in the past followed by an adverb, such as ‘admirably’, ‘brilliantly’, or ‘pretty well’.

.‫ًا‬ !

~

The cognate accusative ‫اﺑﺘﺴﻢ اِﺑﺘﺴﺎﻣﺔ‬ along with the adjective ‫ﻋﺮﯾﻀﺔ‬ َ can be translated into ‘X smiled widely or broadly …’, or more idiomatically ‘X smiled from ear to ear …’.

ِ ‫ ﻨ ﺢ أﺨﻲ ﻨ ﺎﺤﺎ‬،‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ‬ .‫ﺎﻫ ًا‬ ً َ !

~

ِ ‫ﻌﺎﻀﺎ‬ ً ‫ﻤ اﺒ ﺎﻤ ﻲ ِاﻤ‬

‫أﻤ‬

‫زﻤ ﻠﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬

‫ِاﻤ ﻌ‬

~

The verb (‫ اِﻣﺘﻌﺾ )ﻣﻦ‬can be translated into ‘to be annoyed’, ‘to resent’, ‘to be resentful’, ‘to be displeased’, and the like.

Narrating Events in the Past

29

EX: Translate the following text written for the purposes of this course into English, paying extra attention to the linguistic and stylistic norms of the target language:

ِ ‫ﺨ ج ﯿ م أﻤ ٍ ﻤ ﺎت اﻟﻌ اﻗ إﻟﻰ اﻟ ارع‬ ‫ﻟﻼﺤ ﺎ ِج ﻋﻠﻰ ﺴ ء اﻟ ﻤﺎت واِﻨﻘ ﺎع اﻟ ﺎر‬ ُ َ َ ِ ِ ‫ ﻓﻲ‬.ً‫ ﻗﺎﻤ ا ﺒ ﻒ اﻟ ارع ﺘ ًﻔﺎ ﺸﺎﻤﻼ‬،‫ ﻌ ﻫﺎ‬. ‫ ﺘ ﺎﻫ وا ﻷﻛ ﻤ ﺴﺎﻋ‬.‫اﻟ ﻬ ﺎﺌﻲ‬ ‫ﺎﻫ‬

‫ر ﻤﻊ اﻟ‬

‫ إذ ﻗﺎﻤ ا ﺎﻟ ﻘﺎ اﻟ‬.‫ات اﻷﻤ ِ ﻤﻌﻬ ﺘﻌﺎﻤﻼً ﺠّ ً ا‬ ُ ‫ ﺘﻌﺎﻤﻠ ْ ﻗ‬،‫اﻟ ﻘﺎﺒﻞ‬ . ‫و ﻟ ﺘ زﻊ اﻟ ﺎء ﻋﻠ ﻬ‬

!

The verb (‫ ﺧﺮج )إﻟﻰ اﻟﺸﻮارع‬can be translated into ‘to go out’ or ‘to take to the streets’ in the past.

!

The expressions ‫ ﺳﻮء اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت‬and ‫ اِﻧﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﺘﯿﺎر اﻟﻜﮭﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ‬can be translated into ‘bad services’ and ‘power cut’ respectively. ‘Power outage(s)’ is possible in more technical writing, but generally not a common usage in British English.

!

The verb ‫ اِﺣﺘ ﱠﺞ‬and ‫ ﺗﻈﺎھﺮ‬lend themselves to ‘to protest against’ and ‘to demonstrate’ respectively.

!

The expression ‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻘﺎﺑﻞ‬can be translated into ‘in return’.

!

Attention should be paid to the translation of the weak verb ‫ﻗﺎم‬ along with its prepositional phrase. ‫ﻗﺎم ﺑﺘﻨﻈﯿﻒ‬, ‫ﻗﺎم ﺑﺎِﻟﺘﻘﺎط‬, and ‫ﻗﺎم‬ ّ respectively. ‫ ﺑﺘﻮزﯾﻊ‬mean ‫ﻧﻈﻒ‬, ‫اِﻟﺘﻘﻂ‬, and ‫ع‬ َ ‫وز‬

30

Chapter Two

3 Negation in the past Semantically speaking, inserting any negative particle, such as ‫ ﻟﻢ‬in Arabic or ‘not’ along with what is traditionally known as DO-support in English would challenge the validity of the prediction in a sentence. To illustrate, let us consider the following example: My mother cleaned the flat yesterday. In this sentence, there is a process of doing where ‘my mother’ fills a semantic role of Actor and a verb-specific semantic role of Cleaner, ‘the flat’ fills a semantic role of Affected Participant and a verb-specific semantic role of sth Cleaned, and yesterday is just an adjunct as modelled below: My mother Actor/Cleaner cleaned yesterday adjunct.

process of doing

the flat

Affected Participant/sth Cleaned

Grammatically speaking, ‘my mother’ is the subject and ‘cleaned the flat yesterday’ is the predicate. As there is no auxiliary, ‘cleaned the flat yesterday’ represents the predication of the sentence, as shown here: Sentence Subject

Predicate prediction

auxiliary My mother

Ø

didn’t

cleaned the flat yesterday.

clean the flat yesterday

When this sentence is changed from affirmative to negative by inserting ‘did not’, not only will the validity of prediction be challenged (Quirk and Greenbaum 1973: 22), but ‘my mother’ is not a Cleaner any more on the one hand, and on the other hand, ‘the flat’ did not undergo any change; therefore, it cannot be regarded as an Affected Participant any more. Now, let us translate these Arabic sentences which are in the past into English:

ِ ‫ﻓﻲ‬ (... ُ ‫ )ﻤﺎ ﻓﻬ‬.‫اﻻﺠ ﺎع‬

‫ﻟ أﻓﻬ ْ ﺴ اﻟ َ أﻤ‬

~

Narrating Events in the Past

31

ٍ ِ (... ‫أت‬ ‫ ﻟ ﺘﻘ أ ﺠّ ً ا أﻤ‬،‫اﺤﺔ‬ َ ‫ )ﻤﺎ ﻗ‬.‫ﻟﻼﻤ ﺎن‬ (... ُ ‫ )ﻤﺎ ﻨ‬.‫ﻟ أﻨ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ ﺠّ ً ا‬

~

‫ﻟ‬

~

ٍ (... َ‫ )ﻤﺎ ﺸﻌ‬.‫اﺼﻞ‬ ‫ﻌْ ﺼ ﻘﻲ ﺎﻟ ﻌ ِ أﻤ ﻌ ﻋ ٍﻞ ﻤ‬ (... َ ‫ )ﻤﺎ ﺤ‬. ‫ِ اﻟﻌ ِاﺠ ﺎع أﻤ‬ ‫ﯾﺤﻀﺮ‬ ‫ ﻟﻢ‬became ْ

‫ِ ْاﻟﻌ‬

‫ﻟ‬

~ ~

‫ ﻟﻢ‬to avoid ‫اِﻟﺘﻘﺎء اﻟﺴﺎﻛﻨﯿﻦ‬

As shown above, in English the negative form in the simple past tense is formed by inserting ‘did not’ before the main verb and changing the main verb to the first form, as in: Subject

did not

first form

I You I My friend The dean

did not did not did not did not did not

understand read sleep feel attend

… … … … …

It is worth noting that the particle ‫ ﻟﻢ‬along with the verb is not always translated into ‘did not + the base form of the verb’. To illustrate, let us consider the following two examples extracted from a short story titled ‫ﺑﺌﺮ‬ ‫‘ اﻵﺑﺎر‬The Well of Wells’ by ’Ahmad Khalaf (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 57):

‫أﻨ ﺎل ﻓ وﺴ ﺎ‬

‫اﻟ ﺎﻩ ﺘ‬

‫ وﻟ ّ ﺎ ﻟ ﻨ‬،

‫اﺜ‬

‫ﻤ‬

‫ﺤﻔ ﻨﺎ داﺨﻞ اﻷرض و ﻌ‬

... ‫آﺨ‬

‫ﻤ‬

‫ﻌ‬

‫ﺤﻔ ﻨﺎ أﻛ‬

We dug down to a depth of two metres; having found no water under the blades of our axes, we dug one more metre. Following is the second example:

. ‫ﻀ ًءا أو ﺸ ً ﺎ ﺘ ّﻞ ﻤ ﻓ ﺔ اﻟ‬

‫رﻓﻌ ﺎ اﻟ ؤوس ﻓﻠ ﻨ‬

We raised our heads and found no light or sun appearing from the well opening.

32

Chapter Two

At times, we use ‘no one’, ‘nobody’, ‘neither … nor’, or ‘was/were not’ in place of ‘did not’ followed by the first form of the verb. By way of explanation, let us translate the following sentence:

.‫ِاﺠ ﺎعَ أﻤ ٍ إﻻ ﻤ ﻔﺎن‬

‫ﻟ‬

~

Poor: Nobody attended yesterday’s meeting, except two officers/employees. Better: Only two officers/employees attended yesterday’s meeting. The structure ...‫ وﻻ‬... ‫ ﻻ‬can be translated into English as ‘neither … nor …’, as in the following example adapted from a short story titled ‫ﻗﺴﻤﺘﻲ‬ ‫‘ وﻧﺼﯿﺒﻲ‬Qismati and Nasibi’ by Mahfouz (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 136-7):

‫ وﻓﻲ ﻤﻌﺎﻨﺎﺘﻪ أﻋﻠ ﻤﺎ‬.

‫ وﻟ ﺘ ﻔﻌﻪ اﻟﻌ ﺎرة وﻻ اﻟ‬.

... ‫اﻟﻠﻌ ﺔ‬

‫ﻤ ﺴ ء اﻟﻬ‬

‫ ﺤ ﺘ ﻲ ﻋﻠ‬:ً‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺼﺎﺤ ﻪ ﻗﺎﺌﻼ‬

‫وراح‬

‫ﺊﻤ ﺤ‬

He started to complain about indigestion. Neither herbal potions nor conventional medicine succeeded in improving his condition. In his pain, he expressed the suppressed rage he felt towards his brother, accusing him: “You were jealous of me, damn you!” However, when we have ‫ ﻟﻢ‬followed by ‫أﻛﻦ‬/‫ﯾﻜﻦ‬/‫ﺗﻜﻦ‬, etc. it is translated into either ‘was/were not’ or ‘did not + the base form of the verb’, depending on the verb per se. By way of explanation, let us consider the following text extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ ﻋﻠﻲ اﻷﺣﻤﺮ‬Ali the Red’ by Lu’aī Hamza ‘Abbas (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 85):

.

‫ﺢ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻠ ﻠﺔ اﻟ ﻲ ﻻ ﯿ ﺎت ﻓ ﻬﺎ ﺠﺎﺴ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬

‫ﻟ أﻛ أﺤ ّ اﻟ م ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ‬

I did not like sleeping on the roof of the house when Jassem was not at home. In the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫ﺷﻌﻮر اﻷﺳﻼف‬ ‘Ancestral Hair’ by Salwa Bakr (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 212-3), the translators have opted for ‘was not’:

‫ و ﻋﺔ ﻟ أﻛ أﺘ ﻗﻌﻬﺎ‬، ‫ﺘ‬

‫دﻗﺔ ﻤ ﺎ ﻗ ﻤﻪ اﻟ‬

‫ﻟﻲ إﺠﺎ ﺔ أﻛ‬ ّ

‫ﺠﺎرﺘﻲ اﻟﻌ ة ﻗ ﻤ‬

.‫أﺒ ً ا‬

My dear neighbour’s answer was more accurate than that given by the computer, and with a speed I was not expecting at all.

Narrating Events in the Past

33

However, in the following example adapted from a short story titled ‫ﺑﺌﺮ‬ ‫‘ اﻵﺑﺎر‬The Well of Wells’ by ’Ahmad Khalaf, ‫ ﻟﻢ ﯾﻜﻦ‬has been translated by Pragnell and Sadkhan (2011: 55) differently, as in:

‫اج اﻟ ﺎﻩ‬

‫أﻤﺎﻤ ﺎ إﻻ دﻋ ة ﺠ ﻊ اﻟ ﺎس ﻟ ﻔ اﻵ ﺎر واﺴ‬

‫ﺎن إﻻ أن ﻌ ﻠ ا ﻟ ﻞ‬

‫أﻤﺎم اﻟ ﺎء واﻟ ﺠﺎل واﻟ خ واﻟ‬

‫ ﻟ‬:‫ﻗﺎل أﺤ اﻟﻔ ﺎن‬

‫ ﻟ‬.‫اﻷرض‬

‫ﺎ‬

‫ﻤ‬

…‫ﻨﻬﺎر‬

“We had no option”, said a young man, “but to call people to dig wells and extract water from the depth of the earth”. Women, men, the elderly and the young had no choice but to work day and night … It is worth noting that in English, certain adjectives, verbs, and nouns can be changed from affirmative to negative by adding a negative prefix, such as un–, dis–, a–, il–, im–, etc. For example, the prefix un– can be attached to the adjective ‘happy’ to create another adjective, i.e. ‘unhappy’ to refer to the opposite meaning. He is not happy. He is happy. He is unhappy.

. ٍ ‫إﻨﻪ ﻏ ُ ﺴﻌ‬

ٌ ‫‘ إﻧﮫ‬he is sad’ Translating ‘he is not happy’ or ‘he is unhappy’ into ‫ﺣﺰﯾﻦ‬ will result in what is called by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958/1995) ‘modulation’. Modulation, according to them, refers to the act of changing the message by way of twisting the point of view without changing the meaning (p. 89). To reinforce this point, following is an example quoted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﻘﻄﺎر اﻟﺼﺎﻋﺪ إﻟﻰ ﺑﻐﺪاد‬The Train Heading up to Baghdad’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 22-3) can be considered: ‫ﻒ اﻟ اﺒﻞ ﯿ ّ س اﻵن ﻤﻐ ًار ﻓﻲ ﺘ ﺎر‬

‫ واﻟ‬، … ‫اﻟ أة اﻟ ﻠ ﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ أور‬

‫ﻨﻟ‬

... ‫اﻟ ﺎس ﻫ وزوﺠ ﻪ و ﻔﻠ ﻪ‬

The injured woman had got off at Ur … and the withered functionary slipped unnoticed into a flood of people with his wife and daughter … Here, as one may observe, the word ‫ﻣﻐﻤﻮرا‬ has been translated into ً ‘unnoticed’, i.e. ‫ ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﻼﺣﻆ‬or ‫ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﺮﺋﻲ‬, thus resulting in what is called ‘modulation’ by Vinay and Darbelnet (ibid.).

34

Chapter Two

Following are some English negative prefixes. Try to translate them into Arabic: Prefix

Affirmative

Negative

a–

political ‫ﺳﯿﺎﺳﻲ‬ symmetry ________

apolitical ‫ﻻ ﺳﯿﺎﺳﻲ‬ asymmetry ________

il–

legal________ legible________ literate________ logical ________

illegal________ illegible________ illiterate________ illogical________

in–

accurate________ eligible________ organic________ decent________ sane________ convenient ________ correct ________ efficient ________ dependent ________ expensive ________ visible ________ tangible ________

inaccurate________ ineligible________ inorganic________ indecent________ insane________ inconvenient ________ incorrect ________ inefficient ________ independent ________ inexpensive ________ invisible ________ intangible ________

ir–

rational________ reconcilable________ resistible________ regular________

irrational________ irreconcilable________ irresistible________ irregular________

un–

able ________ usual________ interesting________ prepared________ comfortable________ helpful________ fortunate ________ just ________ healthy ________ important ________ truthful ________ successful ________ fair ________

unable________ unusual________ uninteresting________ unprepared________ uncomfortable________ unhelpful________ unfortunate ________ unjust ________ unhealthy ________ unimportant________ untruthful________ unsuccessful ________ unfair ________

Narrating Events in the Past

dis–

non–

lucky ________ popular ________ intelligent ________ doubtful ________ true________

unlucky ________ unpopular ________ unintelligent ________ undoubtful________ untrue ________

agree ________ appear ________ honest ________ loyal ________ similar ________ enable (V.) comfort________

disagree________ disappear ________ dishonest ________ disloyal ________ dissimilar ________ disable (V.) ________; disabling (Adj.) _______ discomfort________

conformist________ essential________ sense________ fiction________ moral________ perfect________ possible________ mature ________ mobile ________ patient ________ probable ________

nonconformist________ nonessential________ nonsense________ nonfiction________ immoral________ imperfect________ impossible________ immature ________ immobile ________ impatient ________ improbable ________

35

To finish off this point, the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺸﺒﺎك واﻟﺴﺎﺣﺔ‬The Window and the Courtyard’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 201) may be considered:

ٍ ‫ﺎن ﻻ‬

‫اﻟ‬

،‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎﺤﺔ‬،‫ر‬

‫ن ﻤ‬ .‫ﻲء‬

ً‫ ﯿ و ُﻤ ًﻌﺎ ﻤ ﻼ‬،‫ ﻤ اﻟ ﺎرج‬،‫اﻟ ﺎك‬ ،‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎرع‬،‫ اﻟ ﺎس‬.‫ﺔ ﺼﻐ ة‬ ‫ ﺠ اول‬،‫ﻌ ﻀﻪ ﺸﻲء‬

‫ﻻ ﯿ ﺎﻟﻲ‬

‫ﺘ‬.

‫ﯿﻬ‬

‫ﺎء اﻟ‬

‫ واﻟ‬، ‫ و ﺎﻗﺎت ﺴ ﻫ‬، ‫ و ﺎﻟ اﺌ‬،‫ﻓﺎت اﻟ ﺎزل‬

The window, from the outside, appears square, wet with rain. In the yard little muddy streams run down in an uninterrupted flow. People, in the street, shelter from the rain under the balconies of houses, newspapers, and their coat collars, while rain pours down unconcerned.

36

Chapter Two

As can be seen, the sentences ‫ ﺑﺠﺮﯾﺎن ﻻ ﯾﻌﺘﺮﺿﮫ ﺷﻲء‬and ‫ﯾﻨﮭﻤﺮ ﻻ ﯾﺒﺎﻟﻲ ﺑﺸﻲء‬ have been translated into ‘in an uninterrupted flow’ and ‘to pour down unconcerned’ respectively, thus resulting in a ‘unit shift’ to borrow Catford’s (1965) terminology (see ‘Shift’ in this Chapter, for more details). As for the negation expressed by ‫ ﻻ‬in ‫ ﻻ ﯾﻌﺘﺮﺿﮫ‬and ‫ﻻ ﯾﺒﺎﻟﻲ‬, it has been reflected by the use of the prefix un– attached to the words ‘interrupted’ and ‘concerned’. EX: Translate the following sentences into English, paying extra attention to the negative forms:

ِ ‫ﻟ ﯿ ﺢ ﻓﻲ‬ ‫اﻻﻤ ﺎن أﻤ‬

~

‫ﻟ ﯿ ُ رﻨﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺒ ﻲ أﻤ إﻻ ﺼ ﻘﻲ اﻟ‬ . ‫ﻟ ﺘ اﻷﺴ ﻠ ُﺔ ﺴﻬﻠﺔ ﺠ ً ا ﻓﻲ ِاﻤ ﺎن أﻤ‬ ٍ ِ . ‫ﻼﻤ ِﻪ ﯿ م أﻤ‬ ‫ ﻟ أﻛ ُﻤ ِﻋ ً ﺎ ًا ﻤ‬،‫اﺤﺔ‬ .‫ﻟ ﺘ إﺠﺎ ﺎﺘُ َ دﻗ ﻘﺔ ﺠ ً ا‬

~

. ٍ ‫ﺎﻟ‬

. ‫ أﺤ‬،

!

‫أﱡ‬

When we have ‫ ﻟ‬followed by ‫أﻛ‬/ ‘was/were not’.

~ ~

/ ‫ﺘ‬, etc. it is translated into

ِ ‫ﻟ ﺘ اﻷوﻀﺎع‬ .‫اﻻﻗ ﺎد ﺔ ﻓﻲ أورو ﺎ ُﻤ ﻘّ ًة ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ‬ ُ ٍ ‫ِﻞ ﺼ‬ .‫ ﻟ ُ ﻤ ﻫﻼً ﻟﻠ ﻔﺔ‬،‫اﺤﺔ‬ ّ .‫ﻟ ﯿ ُ رﻨﻲ أﻤ ﻓﻲ ﺒ ﻲ ﻻ ﺠ اﻨﻲ وﻻ زﻤﻼﺌﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌ ﻞ‬ !

~

~ ~ ~

The structure ...‫ وﻻ‬... ‫ ﻻ‬lends itself to ‘neither … nor ….’ in English, as in:

Neither my neighbours nor my colleagues visited me at home yesterday.

.‫ﻟ ﯿ ّ ﻞ ﺒﻲ اﻷﺴ ع اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ ﻻ أﺨﻲ وﻻ أُﺨ ﻲ‬ ّ .‫ﻟ ُ ج إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﺎﻫ ِة ﻻ أﺼ ﻗﺎﺌﻲ وﻻ أﻗﺎرﻲ‬ !

~ ~

The verb (‫ ﺧﺮج )إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﻈﺎھﺮة‬means ‫;ﺧﺮج إﻟﻰ اﻟﺸﺎرع ﻟﻠﺘﻈﺎھﺮ‬ therefore, it can be translated into ‘to go out to …’ or ‘to take to the

Narrating Events in the Past

37

streets …’. The word ‫ ﻣﻈﺎھﺮة‬lends itself to ‘demonstration’. Other similar words, such as ‫اِﻋﺘﺼﺎم‬, ‫ﻣﺴﯿﺮة‬, and ‫ اِﺣﺘﺠﺎج‬can be translated into ‘sitin’, ‘march’, and ‘protest’ respectively.

!

.‫ﻻ وﺠ ﺔ اﻟﻐ اء وﻻ وﺠ ﺔ اﻟﻌ ﺎء‬

‫ﻟ أﺘ ﺎول أﻤ‬

~

! The verb ‫ ﺗﻨﺎول‬lends itself to ‘to eat’, ‘to have’, or ‘to take’ as they collocate well with ‘breakfast’, ‘lunch’, and ‘dinner’. However, the three verbs here are not interchangeable. ‘Have you taken dinner?’ is not the same as ‘Have you taken your medicine?’. Similarly, the verb ‘to eat’ is different from the verb ‘to have’ as the former implies that although the meals were put before me, I did not eat them, perhaps because I was ill. ! u

Do not use ‘neither … nor …’ when the verb is in the negative form. So, it is wrong to say: I did not eat yesterday neither my lunch nor my dinner.

It can be translated in this way: I did not eat my lunch yesterday, neither did I eat my dinner. I did not eat my lunch yesterday, nor did I eat my dinner. I did not eat my lunch or my dinner yesterday.

ِ ‫اﻵداب وﻻ ﻠ ُﺔ ﻠ ِﺔ اﻟﻬ‬ ِ .‫ﺴﺔ‬ ‫أﻤ ﻻ ﻠ ُﺔ ﻠ ِﺔ‬ ‫ﻟ‬ ِ ‫ ﻟ ﻘ م ِاﺴ ﻘﺎﻟ ﻪ ﻻ وز اﻟ ﻔ ِ وﻻ وز اﻟ ر‬،‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ‬ .‫اﻋﺔ‬ ّ َُ ُ ُ ِ ‫ﻟ ﻘّ م ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻔﺔ أﻤ ﻻ ﺤ ﻠﺔ ﺸﻬﺎدة اﻟ راﻩ وﻻ ﺤ ﻠﺔ ﺸﻬﺎدة‬ .‫وﻻ رؤﺴﺎء اﻷﻗ ﺎم‬

.

~ ~ ~

‫اﻟ ﺎﺠ‬

‫ﻟ ﯿ ّﻠ راﺘَ ُﻪ اﻟ ﻬ اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ ﻻ اﻟﻌ‬ .‫ ﻟ ﻠ ﻟﻲ ﻫ ًﺔ ﻻ أﺨﻲ وﻻ أﺨ ﻲ‬، ‫ﻓﻲ ﻋ ِ ﻤ ﻼد ﻗ ﻞ ﯿ ﻤ‬ ّ

~ ~

EX: Translate the following text, written for the purposes of this course, into English, paying extra attention to the tense/aspect and negation.

َ ‫ﻌ‬ ‫ﻓﻊ‬ َ ‫ﻲ ﺘ‬

‫ادت أن ﺘ‬ ‫ﺨ ﺠ ْ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋ ٍﻞ إﻟﻰ ﻤ‬ ْ ‫ أر‬،‫ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ِ اﻟ ّ ّ ِق‬. ‫اﻟ ّ ق أﻤ‬ ِ ‫اﻷﻏ‬ ‫ وﻀﻌ ِ اﻷﻏ اض ﻓﻲ اﻟ ّ ﻠﺔ وﺘ ّﺠﻬ ْ ﻨ اﻟ ُ ﺎﺴ‬. ِ ّ ‫اض ﻤ اﻟ‬

38

Chapter Two

ِ ‫ﺎﻗﺔ‬ ‫ راﺤ ْ ﺘ ﻲ ﻤ‬،‫ ﻋ ﻫﺎ‬.‫اﻻﺌ ﺎن‬

‫ ﻟ ﺘ ْ ﻻ اﻟ ﻘ د وﻻ‬، ِ ‫ ﻋ اﻟ ُ ﺎﺴ‬.‫ﺎب‬ ‫اﻟ‬ َ .‫ﻫ ل اﻟ ﻔﺎﺠﺄة‬

!

The expression ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﺠ ٍﻞ‬simply means ‫ﺑﺴﺮﻋﺔ‬.

!

‫ راﺣﺖْ ﺗﺒﻜﻲ‬can be translated into ‘to begin/start’ in the past followed by Verb 1 + ‘–ing’ .

!

The sentence ‫ راﺣﺖْ ﺗﺒﻜﻲ ﻣﻦ ھﻮل اﻟﻤﻔﺎﺟﺄة‬can be translated into ‘being shocked, she …’, or more idiomatically ‘reeling in shock, she …’ or ‘reeling at the shock, she …’.

EX: Translate the following text adapted from a novel titled ‘The Secret Garden’ by Frances Hodgson Burnett (1994: 3) into Arabic, paying extra attention to the negative forms used in the text. She saw her mother coming into the garden, with a doctor. They did not notice the child, who listened to their conversation. “It’s very bad, isn’t it?” her mother asked the doctor with a worried voice. “Very bad”, the doctor answered gravely. “People are dying like flies. It is dangerous to stay in this village. You should leave the place immediately; you should go to a place where there is no disease”. “Oh, I know!” she said while shivering from fear. “We must leave as soon as possible”. Suddenly they heard loud cries coming from the servants’ rooms, at the side of the house. “What’s happened?” cried Mary’s mother wildly. “I think one of your servants has just died. You didn’t tell me the disease is here, in your house!” “I didn’t know!” she screamed.

To learn more about the negative forms in different tenses, see next chapter.

Narrating Events in the Past

39

4 Negation in the past + ability In Arabic, to express ability in the negative form and in the past tense, you may use:

... ‫ْﻊ‬ ‫ﺘ‬/‫ْﻊ‬ /‫ﻟ أﺴ ْﻊ‬ ِِ ُ ‫ ﻘ‬/ ‫ور‬ ِ ‫ ُﻘ‬/‫ورﻫﺎ‬ ِ ُ ‫ ﻘ‬/‫ورﻩ‬ ِ ُ‫ﻟ ْ ﻘ‬ ... ‫ك‬ َ ‫ور‬ ِ ‫ِﺎﺴ‬/‫ِﺎﺴ ﺎﻋِ ِﻪ‬/‫ِﺎﺴ ﺎﻋ ﻲ‬ ... َ ِ‫ ِﺎﺴ ﺎﻋ‬/‫ﺎﻋ ﻬﺎ‬ ْ ‫ﻟ‬ ... ّ ‫ﻟ ﺘ‬/ ّ ‫ﻟ ﯿ‬/ ّ ‫ﻟ أﺘ‬ In English, however, you may use ‘could not’ or ‘was/were not able to’. By way of explanation, let us consider the following text extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻋﻦ ﻓﯿﺪور‬Hunting for Fidor’ by Jāsim ‘Asī (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 122-3):

‫و ﺄة‬

‫ل‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ﺘ‬

‫ﻨ اﺼﻞ اﻟ‬

‫ وﻨ‬،‫ل ﺘﻠ ﻊ وﺘ ﺘ ﻒ ﺎﻟ ﻘ ورة‬

‫ ﻓ ﺎ أﺘﻌ ّ ﺠ اء ذﻟ وأﺴﻘ ﻋ ﻫﺎ ﺘ‬،‫إﻟ ﻪ‬

‫ﺒ ت أﺠ ﺎد اﻟ‬

‫ ﻟ أﺴ ﻊ اﻟ‬.‫ب‬ …

‫اﻟ‬

‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺠ‬

The bodies of the horses seemed to glisten and tremble like being caught by cold, and we continued running under the violence of the lashing. I could not get a look at him. Perhaps, I, owing to that, stumble and fall down; at that moment, the horses would step on my body … In the following example quoted from a short story titled ‫‘ ﺑﺌﺮ اﻵﺑﺎر‬The Well of Wells’ by ’Ahmad Khalaf (2011: 59), by the effect of ‫ﺑﻮﺿﻮح‬ ‘clearly’, ‫ ﻟﻢ ﻧﺴﻤﻊ‬means ‫ ﻟﻢ ﻧﺘﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺳﻤﺎع‬or ‫ﻟﻢ ﻧﺴﺘﻄﻊ ﺳﻤﺎع‬:

.

‫ﺘ ﻠ ﺎﻩ ﯿ ﺎدﯿ ﺎ ﻼم‬

‫ت ﺒ ﻀ ح وﻟ‬

‫ﻟ ﻨ ﻊ اﻟ‬

Building on this, it can be translated into: We were not able to hear the sound clearly, but we imagined it shouting to us in human speech. Or We could not clearly hear the sound, but we imagined it shouting to us in human speech.

40

Chapter Two

EX: Translate the following four sentences into English, using the table following them:

. ِ ‫ِ وﺼ ِل أﺨﻲ ﻤ اﻟ ﻔ‬ .‫ﺔ‬

‫ﻊ أن أﺘّ َﻞ ِ َ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ ﻲ أُﺒﻠﻐ‬ ِ ِ . ‫ك ﻗ َﻞ ﯿ ﻤ‬ َ ‫ﻘ ور أن أﺤ َ ﺤﻔﻠ َﺔ ﻋ ﻤ ﻼد‬ ‫اﻟ ﻬﺎرات اﻟ‬ ‫ِﺎﺴ ﺎﻋ ﻲ أن أﺴ ّ ﻓﻲ ﺒ ﻨﺎﻤﺞ ﺘ‬ .ٍ‫ﻤ زﺎرِﺘ َ ﻓﻲ ﺒ ِ َ ﻗ ﻞ أ ﺎم‬

Subject

could

not

Verb 1

I ___ ___ ___ ___

could ___ ___ ___ ___

not ___ ___ ___ ___

call ___ ___ ___ ___

‫ﻟ أﺴ‬

~

‫ﻟ‬

~

ُ

ُ ‫ﻟ‬ ّ ‫ﻟ أﺘ‬

~ ~

_________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________ _________________________

EX: Translate the following text into English, paying extra attention to the linguistic and stylistic differences between the interfacing languages:

‫ﻗ ﻞ ﺴ ٍﺔ ﻗﱠ َر أﺨﻲ اﻷﻛ أن ﯿ َﻊ ﺒ َ ُﻪ اﻟ ّ ﻐ وﺴّﺎرﺘَ ُﻪ و ﻘﻞ ﻟﻠﻌ ﻓﻲ إﺤ اﻟ ن‬ ‫ﻊ ﺒ ﻊ ﺒ ِ ِﻪ‬ ‫ وﻟ ﻪ ﻟ‬، ‫ ﺎعَ ﺴّﺎرﺘَ ُﻪ ﻓﻲ ﻏ ن ﯿ ﻤ‬.‫اﻟ ﺎورة ًﺎ ﻋ ﻋ ﻞ‬ ،‫ أﻨﻪ ﻟ ﯿ ّ ﻤ إ ﺎد أ ّ ﻋ ٍﻞ‬، ‫ ﻓ ﺎ ﻌ‬، ُ ‫ ﺴ ﻌ‬. ‫ ﻟ ا أﺠّﻩ ﻋﻠﻲ وﺴﺎﻓ‬،‫ﻬ ﻟﺔ‬ ّ . ‫ﻊ إﺒﻼﻏﻲ ﺒ ﻟ‬ ‫ ﻟ‬،‫وﻟ ﻪ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻗ ﻨﻔ ﻪ‬ EX: Translate the following text titled ‘The Man and the Spectacles’ into Arabic, paying extra attention to the linguistic and stylistic differences between the interfacing languages: There was a man. The man was illiterate. He did not know how to read and write. He often saw people wearing spectacles for reading books or papers. So, he decided to buy a pair of spectacles for himself. One day he went to the town. There, he entered a spectacles shop and asked the shopkeeper for a pair of spectacles for reading. The shopkeeper gave him various pairs of spectacles and a book. The man tried all the spectacles one by one, but he could not read anything.

Narrating Events in the Past

41

He told the shopkeeper that all those spectacles were useless for him as he wasn’t able to read. The shopkeeper didn’t understand him. Then he looked at the book. It was upside down! EX: The following text extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﻄﻮﻓﺎن‬The Flood’ by ‘Alī Muhammad al-Ja‘kī (translated by and cited in Zagood and Pragnell 2017: 66). Re-translate it by using ‘was/were able to’ in place of ‘could’, and ‘could’ in place of ‘was/were able to’: He could not make her love him in spite of his lands and property.

‫ﻊ أن ﯿ ﻔ إﻟﻰ أﻋ ﺎﻗﻬﺎ رﻏ أ ﺎﻨﻪ‬

‫ﻟ‬

... ‫وأﻤﻼﻛﻪ‬

She felt nothing for him but revulsion.

... ‫اﻟ اﻫ ﺔ‬

He could possess her body every day but was not able to tame her rebellious spirit (p. 66).

‫ﻤ‬

‫ﻊ أن ﺘ ﻞ ﻟﻪ ﻏ‬

‫وﻟ ﺘ‬

ّ ‫ وﻟ ﻪ ﻟ ﯿ‬،‫ﻤﻠ ﺠ ﻫﺎ أ ﺎ ًﻤﺎ‬ .‫روﺤﻬﺎ اﻟ دة‬ ‫ﺘو‬

5 Shift Shifts are defined by Catford (1965: 73) as “departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL” (p. 73). Catford argues (ibid.) that there are two main types of translation shifts, namely: a)

Level shifts where the SL item at one linguistic level (e.g. grammar) has a TL equivalent at a different level (e.g. lexis). For example, to express a progressive aspect in English, one can express it grammatically as in: He is reading a novel. He has been reading a novel. He will be reading a novel. However, to express it in Arabic, which has no grammatical category for a progressive aspect, one can resort to lexical items and expressions, such as ‫ﻻﯾﺰال‬, ‫ﻣﺎ ﯾﺰال‬, ‫اﻵن‬, ‫ﻓﻲ ھﺬه اﻷﺛﻨﺎء‬, etc.

b) Category shifts which are divided into four types: 4. Structure shifts which involve a grammatical change between the structure of the ST and that of the TT. Consider the following

42

Chapter Two

example extracted from Samīra al-Māni‘ (1997: 7) in which an active voice is changed to a passive voice:

‫ ﺘ ﻌ ﻬﺎ‬.

‫ﻊ اﻟ‬

‫ﻘﺔ ﻻ ﺘ‬

‫أﺸﺎرت ﻓ ﺎة ﺎﻟ ﺴﺎء ﺒ ﻫﺎ ﻟﻠ ﺎﻓ ة اﻟ ّﻠﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ‬ ْ ... ‫ ﺜ اﻟ ﺎﻗ ﺎت‬، ‫اﻷﺨ‬

A girl gestured with her hand at the window overlooking the garden, like a dumb person, unable to speak. She was followed by another girl, then by the others… (Starkey 2008: 1; emphasis added) 5. Class shifts occur when a SL item is translated into a TL item which belongs to a different grammatical class (cf. Catford 1965; Almanna 2016a). For example, there are a great number of verbs in Arabic that are best substituted with a linking verb (verb ‘to be’, ‘to feel’, ‘to become’, ‘to get’, etc.) plus an adjective in English, as in: be/feel happy be/feel sad be/become bored be/feel thirsty be/feel/become hungry be/become surprised be/become annoyed be/become content be/become shy be/become optimistic be/become pessimistic be/become excellent be patient be/become tired be/feel sorry be/become/get angry become/go bankrupt be hurt/injured

‫ﻓﺮ َح‬ َ‫ﺣﺰن‬ ‫ ﻣ ﱠﻞ‬/‫ﺳﺌﻢ‬ َ ‫ﺶ‬ َ ِ‫ﻋﻄ‬ ‫ع‬ َ ‫ﺟﺎ‬ ‫ِﻧﺪھﺶ‬ ‫ا‬ َ ‫اِﻧﺰﻋ َﺞ‬ ‫اِﻗﺘﻨ َﻊ‬ ‫ﺧﺠ َﻞ‬ ِ ‫ﺗﻔﺎء َل‬ ‫ﺗﺸﺎءم‬ َ َ‫أﺟﺎد‬ (‫)ﺑﺎﻟﺼﺒﺮ‬ ‫ﻰ‬ ‫ﺗﺤﻠ‬ ِ ‫ِﺐ‬ َ ‫ﺗﻌ‬ ‫أﺳﻒ‬ َ ‫ﻏﻀﺐ‬ َ ‫أﻓﻠﺲ‬ َ ‫ﺗﺄذى‬

To explain, the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫اﻟﺘﺒﺎس‬ ‘Confusion’ by Fu’ād al-Takarlī (translated by and cited in Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009: 196-7) can be considered:

Narrating Events in the Past

‫ﻩ‬

‫ﻪ وﻗ ﻠ ﻩ وﻓ‬

‫ ﻓ ﺤ‬...‫ﺤ ًار‬

43

‫ ِاﻤ ﻸ اﻟ‬. ‫أﺘ‬

‫ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﺔ ﻛ ة ﺤ‬

... ‫ﻀﻌﻔﻪ اﻟ ﯿ وﺤﺎﺠ ﻪ ﻟﻠﻐ اء‬

‫ﻛ‬

ّ ‫وﺸ‬

I was in deep distress when you arrived. The house was filled with joy. You were happy, you kissed him, examined him and diagnosed his severe weakness and need for food. As can be seen, the verb ‫ ﻓﺮح‬in ‫ ﻓﺮﺣﺘﻢ‬has been translated into an adjective ‘happy’ preceded by verb ‘to be’ in the past, thus resulting in a ‘class shift’. Similarly, in the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﻘﻄﺎر اﻟﺼﺎﻋﺪ إﻟﻰ ﺑﻐﺪاد‬The Train Heading up to Baghdad’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 24-5) the nouns ‫‘ ﻣﻠﻞ‬boredom’ and ‫‘ ﺗﻌﺐ‬tiredness’ have been rendered into adjectives ‘bored’ and ‘tired’ preceded by verb ‘to feel’ in the past, thereby leading to an example of ‘class shift’:

...

‫ﺎﻟ ﻠﻞ واﻟ ﻌ‬

‫ﻌ‬

‫أﻨﻪ ﺒ أ‬

‫ﻏ‬

‫أﻤﺎ اﻟ ﺎﺌ ﻓ ﺎ زال ﯿﻬ‬

… while the driver was still raving on but he began to feel bored and tired … To make this point clear, the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ ﺛﻼث ﻗﺼﺺ ﻟﯿﺴﺖ ﻟﻠﻨﺸﺮ‬Three Stories not for Publishing’ by ‘Abdulsattar Nāsir (ibid. pp. 14-15) can be examined:

‫ وﺘ ج اﻤ أة‬، ‫واﻟ ﺜﺎر‬

‫واﻟ ﺎﻓﻘ‬

‫ﺜ وزع اﻟ ﻠ ﻨ ﻒ أﻤ اﻟﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻔﻘ اء واﻟ ﻌ ﻤ‬

... ‫ وﻋﺎش اﻟ ﺎس ﻓﻲ ﻓ ح واﺒ ﻬﺎج‬،‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋ ش اﻟ ﻠ ﺔ‬

‫أﺨ‬

Then, the king distributed half of his wealth to the poor, the needy, the hypocrites and the gossips. He also crowned another queen to sit on the throne of the kingdom. The people lived in great happiness. Here, in an attempt to avoid the use of what is called a ‘semantic repetition’ where two synonyms, or near synonyms, are employed by the language user in juxtaposition, the translators have opted for changing the noun ‫‘ اﺑﺘﮭﺎج‬joy’ to an adjective ‘great’, thus resulting in a ‘class shift’. It is worth mentioning that what is called a ‘class shift’ by Catford (1965) is labelled ‘transposition’ by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958/1995). 6. Unit shifts or rank shifts which involve changes in rank, such as translating a word, a phrase in one language into a phrase, sentence, etc. in another or the other way round. Consider this

44

Chapter Two

example quoted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺸﺒﺎك واﻟﺴﺎﺣﺔ‬The Window and the Courtyard’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 20-1) where the sentence ‫ ﺳﺎرتْ ﻋﻠﻰ طﺮﻓﻲ ﻗﺪﻣﮭﺎ‬lends itself to one word, i.e. ‘to tiptoe’:

‫ﻓﻲ ﻗ ﻤﻬﺎ‬

‫ وﺴﺎرت ﻋﻠﻰ‬،‫ﻀﻠﻔﺔ اﻟ ﺎك اﻟ ﻰ‬

.‫ﺎب اﻟﻐ ﻓﺔ وراءﻫﺎ‬

‫ وأﻏﻠﻘ‬،‫ﻤ ﻤﻘﻌ ﻫﺎ ﺒﻬ وء‬

‫ ووﺠﻬﻬﺎ ﺼ ﻪ ﺜ أﻏﻠﻘ‬،‫ر‬

‫ﻗﺎﻤ‬

She got up quietly from her seat, and closed the right side of the window, and tiptoed carefully, her face towards him and then closed the door behind her. 7. Intra-system shifts where the SL and TL possess systems which approximately correspond formally as to their constitution, but the translator resorts to selecting a non-corresponding term in the TL system (p. 80). As an illustration, the following example taken from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺰر‬The Button’ by ‘Alī Muhammad al-Ja‘kī (translated by and cited in Zagood and Pragnell 2017: 3-4) may be considered:

‫ﻓﻲ ﺤ ﺎﻨﻲ أﻨﻪ ﺴ ﺎم‬

،‫ﻌ ﻬ ﺎ‬

‫ ﻟ‬...

‫ﻬ ﻩ اﻟﻌ‬

‫ ﻟ ﻬ ﺎ ﻗ ﺎن ﻤ‬،‫ﺨ ﻲ ﻤ ﻔ د‬

‫أدار وﺠﻬﻪ ﻨﺎﺤ ﺔ اﻟ ار ﻓ اﺠﻬ ﻲ‬

‫ ﻼﻨﺎ ﯿ ﺎم ﻓﻲ ﺴ‬... ‫ﺎﻤﻞ ﻤﻼ ﻪ‬

... ‫أﻋ ج‬

‫ﻔ ﻞ ﺒ ﻬ ﺎ ﺼ ان ﻤﻼ‬

He turned his face towards the wall, his wide back facing towards me. It hadn’t occurred to me that he would sleep with all his clothes on… We each slept on a single wooden bed. They were close to each other, separated by a broken wardrobe … As can be seen, in ‫ ﻛﻼﻧﺎ ﯾﻨﺎم‬which has been translated into a simple past tense ‘slept’, there is an example of ‘intra-system shift’ to use Catford’s (1965) terminology. To explain, although the morphological tense in ‫ﻛﻼﻧﺎ‬ ‫ ﯾﻨﺎم‬is in the present, the emphasis is placed on a specific period in the past as there is an implicit ‫ﻛﺎن‬, i.e. ‫‘ ﻛﻼﻧﺎ ﻛﺎن ﻧﺎﺋﻤﺎ‬we both were sleeping’. By the effect of this implicit ‫ﻛﺎن‬, the emphasis is shifted from the beginning and end of the event of sleeping towards the middle phase, thus presenting the event as an ongoing activity. Had the translators taken this into account, they would have suggested a rendering of the following kind: ‘we were sleeping …’.

Narrating Events in the Past

45

EX: Translate the following short text written for the purposes of this course, and then annotate your translation by touching on the types of shifts that may occur through translation:

‫ ﻋ ﻫﺎ‬... ٍ ‫ة و اﺘ ٍ ﻤﻐ‬ ‫ ﻟ‬،‫ ﻌﺎدﺘﻲ‬، ‫ وﻟ‬،‫ﻔﺔ‬

ٍ ‫ ﻋ و‬،ٍ‫ ﻗ ﻞ أ ﺎم‬،‫أﺨ ﻨﻲ ﺼ ﻘﻲ‬ ‫ﻔﺔ ﺸﺎﻏ ٍة ﻓﻲ ﺸ ﺔ‬

ِ ‫ﺎم ﺤ ﻰ ﻗّ ﻤ ُ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ‬ ٌ ‫أ‬

‫ وﻓﻌﻼً ﻟ ﺘ‬.‫ًا‬ ُ ‫ﺘﻔﺎءﻟ‬ . ‫ﺎﻟﻔ ﻲ اﻟ‬

Annotation: I have translated ______________________ into ____________________. This is an example of __________________________________________. According to Catford (1965), ______ shift refers to __________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________. EX: Identify any type of shift in the translation of the following texts quoted from different literary sources: As so often, I wasn’t lucky enough to choose the right place to stand. Instead of finding a door in front of me, I found a window through which appeared the face of a boy who seemed to have been asleep and suddenly woken up. (Almanna and Hall 2015: 24-5)

‫ ﻟ أﻛ ﻤ ﻓًﻘﺎ ﻓﻲ‬،‫و ﺎ اﻟﻌﺎدة‬ ‫ و ل أن أﺠ‬،‫اﺨ ﺎر ﻤ ﺎن اﻟ ﻗ ف‬

‫ وﺠ ت أﻤﺎﻤﻲ ﻨﺎﻓ ة‬،‫أﻤﺎﻤﻲ ﺎً ﺎ‬ ‫ّﻞ ﻤ ﻬﺎ وﺠﻪ ﺼ ﻲ ﺒ ا ﻋﻠ ﻪ أﻨﻪ‬

.‫ﻛﺎن ﻨﺎﺌ ً ﺎ واﺴ ﻔﺎق ﻓ ﺄة‬

Comment The translators have translated _______________________________into ___________________________. This is an example of___________shift, to use Catford’s (1965) term. ___________shift means_______________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________

46

Chapter Two

At first he thought that they had all, for some reason, decided to play truant that morning.

،‫ﺠ ًﻌﺎ‬ ‫ر إﻟﻰ‬

(Husni and Newman 2008: 72-73)

‫ أﻨﻬ‬،‫ّ ﻟﻠ ﻫﻠﺔ اﻷوﻟﻰ‬ ‫ ﻗ ﺘﻐ ّ ا ﻋ اﻟ‬،‫وﻷﻤ ﻤﺎ‬ .‫ﺎح‬

‫اﻟ رﺴﺔ ﻫ ا اﻟ‬

Comment ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ As the days went by, he became increasingly convinced of the fact that he was the victim of a secretly hatched conspiracy …

‫و م وراء اﻵﺨ ﻨ ﺎ ﻓﻲ ذﻫ ﻪ‬ ‫ﺎﻤﻞ ﺄﻨﻪ ﻀ ﺔ ﻤ اﻤ ة‬

‫ﻘ‬

... ‫دﺒ ت ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻔﺎء‬

(Husni and Newman 2008: 71-75) Comment ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________

Narrating Events in the Past

47

6 Adverbs of manner In general, adverbs add specific information (about time, place, manner, etc.) to the meaning of the verb used, for example an adverb of time ‫‘ﻏﺪًا‬tomorrow’, an adverb of place ‫‘ ُھﻨﺎ‬here’, an adverb of manner ‫ُﻣﺴﺮﻋًﺎ‬ ‘quickly’, and so forth. Further, adverbs sometimes add specific information to adjectives, as in ‫‘ ﺳﮭﻞ ﺟﺪًا‬very easy’. These adverbs are called adverbs of degree, which are a subcategory of manner adverbials (for more details, see ‘Cognate Accusative’ in this Chapter). Adverbs of manner, such as ‘quickly’, ‘slowly’, ‘sadly’, ‘happily’, ‘angrily’, ‘greedily’, ‘softly’, and so forth (see what follows) are adverbs that describe the verb and answer the question of how an action/activity occurs/occurred, etc. In Arabic, adverbs of manner (known as ‫ )ﺣﺎل‬can be one word, such as ‫ﺴﺮﻋًﺎ‬ ِ ‫ ُﻣ‬, ‫ﺿﺎﺣِ ًﻜﺎ‬, ‫ﺑﺎ ِﺳ ًﻤﺎ‬, etc. or a prepositional phrase followed by an adjective, such as ‫ﺑﻄﺮﯾﻘﺔ ﺳﺮﯾﻌﺔ‬, ‫ﺴﺮع‬ ِ ‫ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ُﻣ‬, ‫ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺧﺎطﺊ‬, ‫ﺑﺤﺮﻛﺔ رﺷﯿﻘﺔ‬, ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺤﻮ ﻣﻔﮭﻮم‬, etc. By way of explanation, let us consider the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ ﯾﻮم ﻓﻲ ﻣﺪﯾﻨﺔ أﺧﺮى‬A Day in another City’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 24-5):

... ‫ﺎت واﺜﻘﺔ‬

‫ّ ﻟﻬﺎ اﻟ ﺎ‬

‫ث‬

‫ﻛﺎن وﻫ ﯿ‬

In the above example, two explicit processes and one implicit process are employed by the writer. They are: Explicit verbal process Explicit material process Implicit behavioural process

he was speaking he was deftly pouring tea for her she was listening

‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﺘﺤﺪّث‬ ‫)ﻛﺎن( ﯾﺼﺐّ ﻟﮭﺎ‬ ‫اﻟﺸﺎي ﺑﺤﺮﻛﺎت واﺛﻘﺔ‬ ‫ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺗﺼﻐﻲ‬

To describe the act of pouring tea for her in the second process, the writer employs a manner circumstance that construes the way in which the material process is actualized and presented, thus answering a question like ‘how’. Being fully aware of these types of processes along with their participants and circumstances, the translators have produced the following translation: As he spoke, he was deftly pouring tea for her …

‫‪48‬‬

‫‪Chapter Two‬‬

‫‪EX: Translate the following sentences into English by using the following‬‬ ‫‪notes:‬‬

‫‬ ‫‬ ‫‬ ‫‬ ‫‬ ‫‬ ‫‬ ‫‬ ‫‬ ‫‬

‫ﺑﺸﻜﻞ‪/‬ﺑﻄﺮﯾﻘﺔ ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﺘﻮﻗﻊ)ـﺔ(‬ ‫ﻓﺠﺄة‬ ‫ﺑﺜﻘﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬ ‫ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﻠﻔﺖ‬ ‫ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺧﺎطﺊ‬ ‫ﺑﺼﻮت ھﺎدئ وﻣﻨﺨﻔﺾ‬ ‫ﺑﻄﺮﯾﻘﺔ ﺧﺎطﺌﺔ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺤﻮ ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﺘﻮﻗﻊ‬ ‫ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ُﻣﺴﺘﮭﺠّﻦ‬ ‫ﺑﻐﻀﺐ واِﺳﺘﻨﻜﺎر‬

‫‪in an unexpected way; unexpectedly‬‬ ‫‪suddenly‬‬ ‫‪with self-confidence‬‬ ‫‪dramatically; noticeably‬‬ ‫‪in a wrong way; wrongly‬‬ ‫‪in a quiet and low voice; quietly‬‬ ‫‪in a wrong way; wrongly; mistakenly‬‬ ‫‪in an unexpected way; unexpectedly‬‬ ‫‪disapprovingly‬‬ ‫‪angrily and disapprovingly.‬‬

‫!‬ ‫‬ ‫‬ ‫‬ ‫‬ ‫‬ ‫‬ ‫‬ ‫‬ ‫‬

‫~‬

‫رﺸ َﺢ ﻨﻔ َ ُﻪ )‪ِ (to propose himself as a candidate‬ﻟﻼﻨ ﺎ ﺎت ﻓﻲ داﺌ ﺘﻪ‬ ‫ّ‬ ‫ِ‬ ‫ﻞ ﻏ ﻤ ّﻗﻊ‪.‬‬ ‫اﻻﻨ ﺎﺒ ﺔ‬ ‫ِ‬ ‫)‪ (to withdraw‬ﻤ ِ‬ ‫ﻘﺔ ﻏ‬ ‫اﻻﻨ ﺎ ﺎت اﻟ ﺌﺎﺴّﺔ ﻗ ﻞ أﺴ ٍع‬ ‫اﻨ َ‬ ‫ﻤ ّﻗﻌﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫ِ‬ ‫ﻏﺎدر ِت )‪ (to leave‬اﻟ ﺎن أﻤ ﻗ ﻞ اﻻﺠ ﺎع ﻓ ﺄ ًة‪.‬‬

‫~‬

‫ﻞ‬

‫~‬ ‫~‬ ‫~‬

‫ﻓﻲ ﻤﻘﺎﺒﻠﺔ أﻤ ‪ ،‬أﺠﺎب )‪ (to answer‬ﺠ ﻊ اﻷﺴ ِ‬ ‫ﻠﺔ ﺒ ﻘ ٍﺔ ﻋﺎﻟ ﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫َ‬ ‫ﺘ ّ َ )‪ (to improve‬ﻤ اﻩ اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻨ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻹﻨ ﻠ ﺔ‬ ‫ﻤﻠﻔ ٍ ‪.‬‬

‫~‬ ‫~‬ ‫~‬ ‫~‬ ‫~‬ ‫~‬

‫ﻤّ َر )‪ (to pass‬اﻟ ة ﻓﻲ آﺨ دﻗ ﻘﺔ ﻤ ﻤ ﺎرِاة أﻤ ٍ‬ ‫رﱠد )‪ (to reply‬ﻋﻠﻰ ﺴ اﻟﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﺎﻀ ِة أﻤ‬

‫ﻞ ﺨﺎ ﺊ‪.‬‬ ‫ٍت ﻫﺎدئ وﻤ ﻔ‬

‫‪.‬‬

‫ِ‬ ‫اﻟﻌ ﺎﻨﻲ ﻓﻲ آﺨ ﻋ‬ ‫ُ‬

‫ﺤﺎرس ﻤ ﻤﻰ اﻟ‬ ‫َ‬ ‫َد )‪ (to send out‬اﻟ ُ‬ ‫ﻘﺔ ﺨﺎ ﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫دﻗﺎﺌ ﻤ ﻤ ﺎراة أﻤ‬ ‫ِاﻨ َ )‪ِ (to deflate‬اﻗ ﺎد اﻟ ﺎ ﺎن ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻒ اﻷول ﻤ اﻟ ّ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎﻀ ﺔ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻨ ٍ ﻏ ﻤ ّﻗﻊ‪.‬‬ ‫وﻀﻌ ْ )‪ (to place/put/impose‬ﻌ ُ اﻟ ِ‬ ‫ول ﻗ ًدا ﻋﻠﻰ ِاﺴ ا ِم اﻟﻌ ﺎﻟﺔ‬ ‫ٍﻞ ُﻤ ﻬ ٍ ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻨ )‪ (to look‬ﻤﻌ رو ِاد اﻟ ﻘﻬﻰ إﻟﻰ اﻟ ِ‬ ‫ﺎب أﻤ ﻐ ٍ واِﺴ ٍﺎر‪.‬‬ ‫َ‬ ‫ُ‬

Narrating Events in the Past

49

EX: Following is an alphabetical list of single-word manner adverbs commonly used in English. Try to: ! ! ! !

find equivalents to them in Arabic. change them to adjectives, verbs, and nouns. learn their meanings in English and how to use them properly. learn their equivalents in Arabic

Adverb accidentally angrily anxiously awkwardly

badly beautifully blindly boldly bravely brightly busily calmly carefully carelessly cautiously ceaselessly cheerfully clearly correctly courageously

Translation

Adjective

Noun

/‫ﻲ‬ ّ ‫ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺮﺿ‬ ً‫ﻣﺼﺎدﻓﺔ‬ ‫ﺑﻐﻀﺐ‬ ‫ِﻧﺰﻋﺎج‬ ‫ﺑﺎ‬/‫ﻖ‬ ٍ ‫ﺑﻘﻠ‬ ٍ /‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺤﻮ أﺧﺮق‬ ‫ﺑﺼﻮرة ﻏﯿﺮ‬ ‫ﻣﻼﺋﻤﺔ أو‬ ‫ُﻣﺤﺮﺟﺔ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺤﻮ‬ ‫ﻏﯿﺮ‬/‫ﺳﻲء‬ ‫ﻣﺮض‬ ٍ ‫ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺟﻤﯿﻞ‬ /‫ﺑﺼﻮرة ﻋﻤﯿﺎء‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺤﻮ أﻋﻤﻰ‬ ‫ﺑﺒﺴﺎﻟﺔ‬/‫ﺑﺸﺠﺎﻋﺔ‬ ‫ﺑﺒﺴﺎﻟﺔ‬/ٍ‫ﺑﺸﺠﺎﻋﺔ‬ /‫ﺑﺈﺷﺮاق‬/ٍ‫ﺑﺎﺑﺘﮭﺎج‬ ‫ﺑﺄﻟﻮان زاھﯿﺔ‬ ٍ‫ﺑﺎِﻧﮭﻤﺎك‬ ٍ‫ﺑﮭﺪوء‬ ‫ﺑﺪﻗﺔ‬/‫ﺑﺎِﻧﺘﺒﺎه‬/‫ﺑﺤﺬر‬ ٍ ‫ﺑﻼ ﻣﺒﺎﻻ ٍة‬ ‫ﺑﺤﺬر‬ ٍ

accidental

accident

‫ﺑﻼ اِﻧﻘﻄﺎع‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺑﺘﮭﺎج‬/‫ﺑﻤﺮح‬ ‫ﺑﻮﺿﻮح‬ ٍ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺤﻮ‬ ‫ﺻﺤﯿﺢ‬ ‫ﺑﺒﺴﺎﻟ ٍﺔ‬/ٍ‫ﺑﺸﺠﺎﻋﺔ‬

Verb ---

angry anxious awkward

anger anger/be angry anxiety --awkwardness ---

bad

badness

---

beautiful blind

beauty blindness

beautify blind

bold brave bright

boldness bravery brightness

busy calm careful careless cautious/ cautionary ceaseless cheerful clear correct courageous

--brave brighten (up) business busy calm(ness) calm (down) care(fullness) (take) care carelessness be careless cautiousness/ caution caution --cease cheerfulness cheer (up) clearness clear correction/ correct correctness courage encourage

50

cruelly daringly deliberately doubtfully eagerly easily elegantly enormously enthusiastically equally eventually exactly faithfully fast fatally fiercely fondly foolishly fortunately frankly frantically generously gently gladly gracefully greedily happily hard hastily healthily honestly hungrily hurriedly inadequately ingeniously innocently inquisitively

Chapter Two

‫ﺑﺸﻜﻞ‬/‫ﺑﻘﺴﻮة‬ ‫ﻲ‬ ّ ‫وﺣﺸ‬ ‫ب‬ ٍ ‫ﺑﺸﻜ ٍﻞ ﻣﺤﺒﻮ‬ /ٍ‫ﻋﻦ ﻗﺼﺪ‬/‫ﻋﻤﺪًا‬ ‫ﺑﺘﺄن‬ ٍ ‫ﺑﻌﺪم ﺛﻘﺔ‬/‫ﺑﺸﻚ‬ ‫ﺑﺘﻠﮭﻒ‬ ‫ﺑﺴﮭﻮﻟﺔ‬ ‫ﺑﺄﻧﺎﻗﺔ‬

cruel

cruelty

---

daring deliberate

--deliberation

--deliberate

doubtful

doubt

eager easy

eagerness ease/easiness

elegant

elegance

doubt/cast doubt on be eager (make it) easy/ease ---

Narrating Events in the Past

irritably joyously justly kindly lazily loosely loudly madly mortally mysteriously neatly nervously noisily obediently openly painfully patiently perfectly politely poorly powerfully promptly punctually quickly quietly rapidly rarely recklessly regularly reluctantly repeatedly rightfully roughly rudely sadly safely selfishly sensibly seriously sharply shyly

51

52

silently sleepily slowly smoothly softly solemnly speedily straight stupidly successfully suddenly suspiciously swiftly tenderly tensely thoughtfully tightly truthfully unexpectedly victoriously violently vivaciously vividly warmly weakly wearily well wildly wilfully wisely

Chapter Two

Narrating Events in the Past

53

7 Interrogative sentences in the past In English, there are two main types of interrogative sentences, namely !

‘wh question’, that is, a question that begins with words like ‘why’, ‘when’, ‘where’, ‘how’, etc.

!

‘yes-no question’, that is, a question, that begins with a helping verb, such as ‘is’, ‘are’, ‘will’, ‘can’, ‘did’, ‘do’, etc.

Similarly, in Arabic, we have two main types of questions, namely !

‘wh question’, that is, a question that begins with words like ‫ﻣﺘﻰ‬, ‫ﻛﯿﻒ‬, ‫أﯾﻦ‬, ‫ﻟ َِﻢ‬/‫ﻟﻤﺎذا‬, etc.

!

‘yes-no question’, that is, a question, that begins with ‫ ھﻞ‬or ‫ھﻤﺰة‬ ‫ا ِﻻﺳﺘﻔﮭﺎم‬.

To begin with, let us start with yes-no questions in English. In a sentence like this, which is not in the past, ‘she will travel to London’ there is an auxiliary verb ‘will’ after the subject of the sentence ‘she’. To form a yesno question in English, a transformation known as ‘inversion’ is needed. In the example we are considering, the auxiliary ‘will’ is moved from the Infl (short for inflection) to the left of the subject, as shown in these two trees: S NP

Infl

Pro

She

VP V

will

travel

PP

to London

54

Chapter Two

Somebody asked CP C

S

Infl

NP

Infl

Pro Will

She

VP V

e

travel

PP to London

As can be observed, this yes-no question is formed by applying the inversion transformation to the deep structure ‘She will travel to London’ to produce a surface structure of the following kind: ‘Will she travel to London?’. Approached from a functional grammatical perspective, in all types of questions (be it a yes-no question or wh question), there should be a process of saying/asking, as in: He Sayer/Asker asked process of saying: “Will she travel to London?” Content Syntactically speaking, what is called ‘Content’ or ‘Verbiage’ is labelled CP (short for ‘Complementizer Phrase’). When the mode of narration is direct, the auxiliary is moved by applying the inversion transformation to occupy the C position (see below). However, when the mode of narration is indirect, as in: He asked if she would travel to London. there will be no inversion, as the C position is occupied by the Complementizer ‘if’, and the auxiliary remains in its Infl position, as shown in the following tree:

Narrating Events in the Past

55

S NP

Infl

VP V

Pro

C

past, simple

He

CP

asked

If Will

s she would travel to London. she __e__ travel to London?

To form a wh question in English, in addition to the inversion transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to the left of the subject, another transformation called ‘wh movement’ that can move the wh phrase from its normal position (indicated by the symbol e that stands for the word ‘empty’) to a position at the beginning of the sentence is used. To illustrate, let us consider these examples: ~ He can speak English fluently. (Deep structure) What can he ___e____ speak ___e__ fluently? (Surface structure) ~ John wrote a short story last night. (Deep structure) What did John ___e____ write ___e____ last night? (Surface structure) As one may observe, in ‘John wrote a short story last night’, there is no auxiliary which carries grammatical properties such as tense, aspect, mood, modality, and the verb ‘to write’, which is in the past tense, does not itself permit inversion, but rather requires what is traditionally known as DO-support, i.e. do, does, did, depending on the tense and subject. This DO-support needs to be inserted before the subject, thus making inversion possible. In Arabic, however, we do not need any support to form interrogative sentences. What we need to form a yes-no question is the word ‫ ھﻞ‬or the interrogative particle ‫ أ‬to be inserted at the beginning of the sentence without any change. This is because in verbal sentences the verb typically comes before the subject.

56

Chapter Two

To conclude this point, the following two sentences in Arabic can be compared with their equivalents in English:

. ‫ﻗ ﻞ ﺴﻔ ِﻫﺎ إﻟﻰ ﻤ ﻘ‬

‫ﻗ ﻞ ﺴﻔ ِﻫﺎ إﻟﻰ ﻤ ﻘ ؟‬

‫أ ﻔﺄت اﻷﻨ ار أﻤ‬

‫ﻫﻞ أ ﻔﺄت اﻷﻨ ار أﻤ‬

She switched off the lights yesterday before travelling to Muscat. Did she switched off the lights yesterday before travelling to Muscat? To form a wh question in Arabic, the wh movement transformation is needed without the inversion transformation. By way of explanation, the following example in Arabic can be compared with its equivalent in English:

‫ﺎع أﺒ ك ﺒ َ ُﻪ اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ؟‬ َ ‫ﻤﻰ‬ When did your father sold sell his house last year? As can be noticed, in the wh questions formed in both languages, the interrogative words (‫ ﻣﺘﻰ‬and ‘when’) appear at the front of the sentences

‫_؟‬e_ ‫ﻤ ﻰ ﺎع أﺒ ك ﺒ َ ُﻪ‬

When did your father_e_ sell his house _e_?

in place of in their unmarked position indicated by the symbol e. This results in what is called ‘long distance dependency’ indicated by the long curved line that links the symbol e with the interrogative word. EX: Try to translate the sentences below by using the following table: Whquestion

helping verb

subject

verb

____

?

Why

did

you

allow/let

____

?

____

Did

you

switch off

____

? ? ? ? ?

‫‪Narrating Events in the Past‬‬

‫‪57‬‬

‫?‬ ‫?‬ ‫?‬ ‫?‬ ‫~‬

‫ﻟِ َ ﺴ‬

‫~‬

‫ﻔﺄت اﻷﻨ ار ﻗ ﻞ ﻤﻐﺎدرِﺘ َ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻫﻞ أ َ‬

‫َ ﻟﻪ ﺎﻟ ﺨ ل ﻌ ك إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﺎﻀ ِة؟‬ ‫ِ اﻟ‬

‫~‬ ‫~‬

‫ﻤ ﻰ وﺼﻠ ْ أُﺨ ُ َ ﻤ اﻟ ﻔ ِ ؟‬

‫~‬

‫ﻤ ﻰ أﻨﻬ َ دراﺴ َ اﻹﻋ اد ﺔ؟‬ ‫ﻒﺘ‬

‫ﻤ أﺴ ﻠﺔ اﻟ‬

‫َ ﻤ اﻟ ّﻠ‬

‫~‬

‫ﻫﻞ‬

‫~‬

‫ﻫﻞ ِاﺴ ﺎعَ اﻟﻠ ﱡ اﻟﻔ ار ﻤ رﺠﺎل اﻟ‬

‫~‬ ‫~‬

‫~‬ ‫~‬

‫أﻤ‬

‫ِﺔ ﻟ ﻲ ﺘُ َﻫ ﻋ ّ ﺎ ﺤ ث ﻟ َ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ؟‬

‫ﻟ ﺎذا ﻟ ﺘ‬

‫~‬

‫َﻞ‬

‫ﺎء؟‬ ‫ﻤ ً‬

‫ﻔ‬

‫اﻟ ُ ِﺠﺔ؟‬

‫ُﻤ ﻌًﺎ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ؟‬

‫ﻤ ة ِاﺘّ ﻠ َ ِ ِﻪ أﻤ‬

‫ﺔ؟‬

‫ﺎء؟‬ ‫ﻤ ً‬

‫ِ‬ ‫ِ‬ ‫ك ﻓﻲ ﺤﻘ َ‬ ‫ك وﻨﻘ َد َ‬ ‫ﻫﻞ وﻀﻌ َ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ ﺠ ﻊ أوراﻗ َ اﻟ ُ ﻬ ّ ﺔ وﺠ َاز ﺴﻔ ِ َ‬ ‫اﻟ و ِﺔ؟‬ ‫ﻫﻞ ِاﻨ ﻋ ِ ﻤ أﺴ ﻠ ﻲ ﻓﻲ ِاﺠ ﺎ ِع أﻤ ؟‬ ‫أﯿ ﻗ‬

‫َ إﺠﺎزة اﻟ‬

‫ﻒ اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ؟‬

‫‪ ‘A‬ﻗﺮار ﻣﻮﺟﺰ ‪EX: Read the original text extracted from a short story titled‬‬ ‫‪Pithy Maxim’ by Ghasān Kanafānī (translated by and cited in‬‬ ‫‪Almanna, forthcoming), and then complete the translation, paying‬‬ ‫‪extra attention to the interrogative sentences:‬‬

58

Chapter Two

:ً‫ﺎن ﻔﻼ‬

‫ﻟﻘ ﺒ أ ﯿ ﻔﻠ ﻒ ﻤ‬

He had started to philosophize about things since he was a child: ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________

‫اﻹﻨ ﺎن اﻟﻘ ﻌ َﺔ ﻓﻲ ر ِأﺴ ِﻪ واﻟ اء‬

____________________________ ____________________________

‫ﻗ ﻌﺔ‬

On another occasion, he thought about a new question: ~ “Why ____________________ ____________________ ____________________? Wouldn’t ____________ ____________________?”

‫ﻟ ﺎذا ﯿﻠ‬ ِ ‫ﻓﻲ ﻗ ِﻤﻪ؟‬

‫ﻊ ﻋﻠﻰ ر ِأﺴ ِﻪ ﺤ اء و ﻠ‬ : ‫ال ﺠ ﯿ‬

‫اﻹﻨ ﺎن ﻋﻠﻰ‬

‫ﻟ ﺎذا ﻻ‬ ‫ﻓﻲ ﻗ ِﻤ ِﻪ؟ ﻟ ﺎذا؟‬ ‫وﻓ ّ ﻤ ة أﺨ‬

‫ﻟ ﺎذا ﻻ‬

‫ﯿ ﻪ ورﺠﻠ ﻪ ﺸﺄن ﺴﺎﺌ‬

‫ﻩ ذاك ﻤ ﻋﺎة‬

‫؟‬.. ‫اﻨﺎت‬ ‫نﻤ‬

~

‫اﻟ‬

‫أﻻ‬

‫ﻟ اﺤﺔ أﻛ ؟‬

EX: Read the original text extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺒﺪﯾﻠﺔ‬The Stand-in’ by Mahmūd Sa‘īd (cited in Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009: 68-9), and then complete the translation, paying extra attention to the interrogative sentences:

:‫ﺳﺄﻟﺘﻨﻲ ﺑﻠﮭﺠﺔ ﻣﺮﻋﻮﺑﺔ‬

She asked me in a horrified voice: ___________________________ “Don’t worry, just go downstairs, start the car and I’ll be with you in a few minutes”, I said pretending to be in agony.

‫ﻣﺎ اﻟﻌﻤﻞ؟‬

~

:‫ﻗﻠﺖُ وأﻧﺎ أﺗﻈﺎھﺮ ﺑﻤﺼﺎرﻋﺔ اﻷﻟﻢ‬ ‫ اِﻧﺰﻟﻲ وﺷﻐﻠﻲ‬... ‫ﻻ ﻋﻠﯿﻚ‬ ‫ﺴﯿﺎرة وﺳﺄﻛﻮن ﺧﻼل‬ ّ ‫اﻟ‬ .‫دﻗﺎﺋﻖ ﻋﻨﺪك‬

~

:‫ﺳﺄﻟﺘﻨﻲ‬

She asked me: ______________________________

‫وﻣﺎذا ﻋﻦ اﻟﻤﻐﺺ؟‬

~

.‫ﯾﻜﺎد ﯾﻨﺘﮭﻲ‬

~

:‫أﺟﺒﺖ‬

I replied: ______________________________

Narrating Events in the Past

59

EX: Translate the following dialogue extracted from a short story titled ‘Work is Worship’ into Arabic: He went up to the ants and asked them humbly, “Can you, please, spare few grains for me. I haven’t eaten anything since yesterday. So, I am almost starving to death”. One of the ants asked him, “What were you doing the whole summer? Why didn’t you store up the food for the winter season?” EX: Translate the following dialogue written for the purposes of this course into English.

ِ ِ ‫ﺒﻼء ﺤ ًﺎ؟‬ َ ‫ﻛ ﻒ ﺎن اﺨ ُﺎر اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻹﻨ ﻠ ﺔ أﻤ ؟ ﻫﻞ أﺒﻠ‬ ً

ِ ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻏ ﻤ أن‬. ‫ﻻ أﺨﻔ‬ ‫ إﻻ إﻨ ﻲ‬،‫اﻻﻤ ﺎن ﺎن ﺴﻬﻼً ﺠ ً ا‬ َ ‫ وذﻟ ﻷﻨ ﻲ ﻟ أﻗ أ‬.‫ﻟ أﺘ ّ ﻤ اﻹﺠﺎ ﺔ ﻋ ﺠ ﻊ اﻷﺴ ﻠﺔ‬ ِ ‫ﺠ ا‬ ،‫أﺒﻲ وأﻤﻲ ﺎﻟ ﻀ ع ﻷﻨﻬ ﺎ‬ .‫ﻟﻼﻤ ﺎن‬ ُ‫رﺠﺎء ﻻ ﺘ‬ ًّ ً .‫ ﺴ ﻐ ﺎن ﻤ ﻲ‬،‫ﺤ ً ﺎ‬

!

~ ~

ِ ‫ اﻟ ﻬ أن ﺘ ﺎول أن ﺘﻘ أ‬.‫ﺘ ﺎم‬ ‫ ﻤ ﻰ ﺴ ن؟‬.‫ﻟﻼﻤ ﺎن اﻟ ُ ﻘ ﻞ‬

~

.‫ ون ﺸﺎء ﷲ ﺴﺄﺒ ل ّﻞ ﻤﺎ ﺒ ﺴﻌﻲ‬.‫ﻌ أﺴ ع‬

~

‫ أﺑﻠﯿﺖ ﺑﻼ ًء ﺣﺴﻨًﺎ‬needs to be adjusted before the actual act of translation. Try to bring it in line with your linguistic competence.

!

The discourse marker ‫( ﻻ أﺧﻔﯿﻚ‬also ‫ )ﻣﺎ أﺧﻔﯿﻚ‬lends itself to ‘to be honest with you’, ‘honestly’, ‘frankly speaking’, and the like.

!

Unlike English, in Arabic we can use ... ‫أن‬/‫ إﻻ إن‬،... ‫ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ‬/‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮﻏﻢ‬. However, in English we have to use one connector. So, it is wrong to say: ‘although … but …’.

!

‫( ﺑﺬل ﻛ ّﻞ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻮﺳﻌﮫ‬also ‫ ﻓﻌﻞ ﻛﻞ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻮﺳﻌﮫ‬or ‫ )ﺑﺬل ﻗﺼﺎرى ﺟﮭﺪه‬lends itself to ‘to do his best’, ‘to make every possible effort’, etc.

60

Chapter Two

8 Revision EX 1: Translate the following dialogue between two friends, paying special attention to the tenses and syntactic structures:

‫ﺎﺤﺎ؟‬ ً ‫ﻓﻲ ﺘ ﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻋﺔ اﻟ ﺎﺴﻌﺔ ﺼ‬

‫أﯿ ذﻫ َ أﻤ‬ .‫ﻟ أﺨ ْج ﻤ ﻏ ﻓ ﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻔ ق‬

‫ وﻤﺎذا ﻋ َ أﻨ َ ؟‬.‫ُ أﺸﺎﻫ ُ اﻟ ﻠﻔﺎز‬ ‫ ﺠﻠ ﺎ‬، ‫ ﻌ ذﻟ‬. ‫ ﻤﻊ ﺼ ﯿ ﺤ‬pyramids ‫أﻨﺎ ذﻫ ُ إﻟﻰ زﺎرة اﻷﻫ اﻤﺎت‬ ‫ و ﻠ ﻫ‬،‫ﺎن ﻗﻬ ٍة‬ َ ‫ ﻠ ُ أﻨﺎ ﻓ‬.‫ﻓﻲ إﺤ اﻟ ﻘﺎﻫﻲ ﻟ ﺎول اﻟ ﺎ واﻟﻘﻬ ة‬

. ٍ ‫ﻛ َب ﺸﺎ‬ .‫ﻌ ﻲ َ ﺘ ﻔ ّ ﺢ؟ وأﻨﺎ ﺠﺎﻟ ٌ ﻓﻲ ﻏ ﻓ ﻲ‬

~ ~

~

~

EX 2: Before translating the following sentences, try to identify: ! !

the subject of each sentence the main verb along with its tense and voice: 1. Yesterday, the Iraqi government accused the neighbouring countries, particularly Turkey, of destabilizing the country. 2. Two days ago, the Syrian government called upon other countries to hold an urgent meeting to discuss the latest developments in the Arab world, in particular the bilateral relations between Arabs and Israel. 3. On 9 January 1968, three of the Arab oil states Kuwait, Libya, and Saudi Arabia agreed at a conference in Beirut to found the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries. !

The verb ‘to accuse’ takes the preposition ‘of’. How would you translate it along with its preposition?

!

The word ‘particularly’ or its synonyms (such as ‘in particular’, ‘specially’, etc.) lends itself in Arabic to ‫ﺻﺔ‬ ّ ‫وﺑﺨﺎ‬, ‫ﺻﺔ‬ ّ ‫ﺧﺎ‬, ‫وﻻ ﺳﯿّﻤﺎ‬, etc.

!

The verb ‘destabilize’, which is the opposite of ‘stabilize’, derives from the adjective ‘stable’ ‫ ُﻣﺴﺘﻘِﺮ‬. How would you

Narrating Events in the Past

61

translate the verb ‘to destabilize’? !

The adjective ‘bilateral’ can be rendered into ‫ﺛﻨﺎﺋﯿﺔ‬.

!

The verb ‘to found’ is different from the second form of the verb ‘to find’. Here ‘to found’ means ‫ﯾﺆﺳﺲ‬, thus we have words like ‘foundation’ ‫ ﻣﺆﺳﺴﺔ‬or ‫ أﺳﺎس‬and ‘founder’ ‫ﻣﺆﺳﺲ‬.

!

The verb ‘to export’, which means ‫ﯾﺼﺪّر‬, is the opposite of ‘to import’, which means ‫ﯾﺴﺘﻮرد‬ . ّ

EX 3: Read the original text extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺒﺪﯾﻠﺔ‬The Stand-in’ by Mahmūd Sa‘īd (cited in Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009: 78-9), and then evaluate the translation, paying extra attention to the interrogative sentences: His wife had vented her wrath on her faithful housemaid who had gone on holiday “What’s so wrong about asking to go on holiday? ” I asked.

‫ﻨﺎر ﻏ ِ ﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ‬ َ ‫ﺼّ ْ زوﺠ ُ ُﻪ‬ .‫ﺨﺎدﻤِ ﻬﺎ اﻷﻤ ﺔ اﻟ ﻲ ذﻫ ﻓﻲ إﺠﺎزة‬ ‫ﺘ‬

‫ﺎﻨ‬

‫ وﻤﺎ ذﻨ ﻬﺎ إن‬: ُ ‫ﻓﻘﻠ‬ ‫اﻹﺠﺎزة؟‬

“She was responsible for selecting my husband’s clothes and matching their colours”, she replied.

‫ ﻫﻲ اﻟ ﻲ ﺎﻨ ﺘُ ِ ف‬:‫ﻓ ّد ْت ﻋﻠﻲ‬ ّ ‫وﻤﻼءﻤﺔ أﻟ ان ﻤﻼ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺘ‬

“As she’s not here, could you please do the choosing? You’re chic and have excellent taste”, she added.

‫ وﻷﻨﻬﺎ ﻏﺎﺌ ﺔ أرﺠ ك أن‬: ْ ‫أﻀﺎﻓ‬ .‫ أﻨ ِ ذواﻗﺔ وأﻨ ﻘﺔ‬... ‫ﺘ ﺎر‬

~

Me?

~

“Yes, you, why not? I don’t have anyone but you”.

.‫زوﺠﻲ‬

‫أﻨﺎ؟‬ .‫ﻟﻲ ﻏ ك‬ ّ

~

‫ ﻟ ﺎذا ﻻ؟ ﻟ‬...

‫ﻨﻌ أﻨ‬

CHAPTER THREE TRANSLATING MORPHOLOGICAL AND CONTEXTUAL TENSES

1 Tense versus aspect In this chapter, we focus on the verb phrase to study ‘tense’ and ‘aspect’, which relate “the happening described by the verb to time in the past, present, or future” (Leech and Svartvik 2002: 66). To put this differently, tense and aspect convey temporal information about a described activity, event, or situation. The difference between them is that while tense refers to when it happens, aspect refers to how it happens (Kearns 2000/2011; Almanna 2016a, 2016b). In English, for instance, there are four types of aspect (cf. Kreidler 1998; Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman 1999; Kearns 2000/2011; Griffiths 2006; Almanna 2016a, 2016b): ! ! ! !

Simple aspect Perfect aspect Progressive aspect Perfect progressive aspect

past

I get up at 8.00 a.m. every day. I have waited for you for half an hour. I’ll be teaching tomorrow. I have been working in this company since 2016.

present simple perfect progressive perfect progressive

future

Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses

63

In Arabic, there is no grammatical category for aspect, but there are two types of tense, that is, ‘morphological tense’ ‫ زﻣﻦ اﻟﺼﯿﻐﺔ‬and ‘contextual tense’ ‫ﺴﯿﺎق‬ ّ ‫زﻣﻦ اﻟ‬. When we translate from Arabic into English, the contextual tense should be given full consideration. To illustrate, let us consider the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫اﻣﺮأة‬ ‫‘ وﺣﯿﺪة‬A Lonely Woman’ by Zakariyyā Tāmir (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 44-5):

.(( ‫ ))ﺴﺄدﻓﻊ ﻟ ﻤﺎ ﺘ‬:‫ﻬﺎ‬

‫ار ذﻫ ًﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻤﻌ‬ ‫ﻗﺎﻟ وﻫﻲ ﺘ ﻤ ﺴ ًا‬ In the above example, the morphological tense of ‫‘ ﺗﺮﻣﻖ‬to give a look at’ is ‘present’, but the contextual tense is ‘past’ as there is no time lapse between the act of saying, which is in the past, and the act of giving a look at the gold bracelet on her wrist. Being fully aware of the contextual tense, as opposed to the morphological tense, the translators have opted for a non-finite clause ‘staring at the gold bracelet on her wrist’ followed by a finite clause ‘she said’, as in: Staring at the gold bracelet on her wrist, she said: “I’ll pay you what you want”. To reinforce this point, following is another example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻣﺮأة ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ‬A Different Woman’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 623):

‫ودس ﺎﻤ ﻌﺎض داﺨﻞ‬ ّ ،‫دﺨﻞ اﻟ ﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﻠ ﻠ ﺔ ﻌ أن أﻨﻬﻰ ﻤ ﺎﻟ ﻪ اﻟ ﻠﻔ ﻨ ﺔ ﻤﻊ زوﺠ ﻪ‬ .‫ اﻟ رﻗﺔ اﻟ ﻌ ة اﻟ ﻲ ﺎن ﻌ ﻫﺎ ﺒ أﺼﺎ ﻌﻪ‬،‫ﺠ ﻪ‬ In this example, four material processes (see Chapter 4) are employed by the writer. They are Morphological tense

‫دﺧﻞ اﻟﺼﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﻠﯿﻠﯿﺔ‬

Past (entered= ‫)دﺧﻞ‬ Past (finished = ‫)أﻧﮭﻰ‬ Past (stuffed = ‫)دس‬ ّ

‫أﻧﮭﻰ ﻣﻜﺎﻟﻤﺘﮫ اﻟﺘﻠﻔﻮﻧﯿﺔ ﻣﻊ زوﺟﺘﮫ‬ ‫ اﻟﻮرﻗﺔ اﻟﻤﺠﻌﺪة‬،‫دس ﺑﺎﻣﺘﻌﺎض داﺧﻞ ﺟﯿﺒﮫ‬ ّ

Past continuous (was pressing = ‫)ﻛﺎن ﯾﻌﺼﺮ‬

‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﻌﺼﺮھﺎ ﺑﯿﻦ‬ .‫أﺻﺎﺑﻌﮫ‬

‫ﺑﻌﺪ أن‬ ‫و‬ ‫اﻟﺘﻲ‬

64

Chapter Three

By the effect of ‫‘ ﺑﻌﺪ أن‬after’, the act of calling his wife occurred before the act of entering the evening bar. Further, there is no time gap between the act of entering the evening bar and stuffing a piece of paper into his pocket. Both are approached from a distal perspective, thus being seen as points on the timeline. Cognitively speaking, in the act of calling, an open path with windowing over the final portion of the path is employed by the writer. By the effect of ‫ ﻛﺎن‬employed by the writer in the last material process ‫ﻛﺎن‬ ‫ﯾﻌﺼﺮھﺎ ﺑﯿﻦ أﺻﺎﺑﻌﮫ‬, the emphasis is placed on the continuity of the act of pressing the piece of paper which occurred shortly before the act of stuffing it into his pocket. That is, the aspect is perfect progressive in the past ‘had been pressing’. Giving full consideration to the contextual tenses rather than adhering to the morphological tenses, the translators have managed to produce an accurate translation, thus reflecting a similar mental image in their readers’ minds: He came into the evening bar after he had finished telephoning his wife, and in annoyance stuffed into his pocket the crumpled piece of paper he had been pressing between his fingers. Some grammarians (see Quirk and Greenbaum 1973) limit the strict use of ‘tense’ to a grammatical, marked form of a verb, thus having two tenses only, that is, ‘past’ and ‘present’. Future for them is not a tense but can be expressed by many constructions. In this study, however, for the sake of simplicity and consistency, tenses are divided into ‘past’, ‘present’, and ‘future’. This view has been adopted by a number of scholars (see for example Biber et al. 2002; Coe et al. 2006; Freeborn 1987, among others). In this respect, Freeborn (1987: 149) states: “The statement that there are only two tenses in English […] seems puzzling, because it is quite clear that we can refer to ‘past’, ‘present’ and ‘future’ time, and that there should be at least three tenses to do this” (emphasis added).

2 Past tenses As indicated above, in English, there are four aspects, viz. ‘simple’, ‘perfect’, ‘progressive’, and ‘perfect progressive’, thus having four different combinations of tenses and aspects in the past, namely: ! ! ! !

Simple past tense Past continuous tense Past perfect tense Past perfect continuous tense

Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses

65

In what follows, each combination will be explained in detail in a direct link with translation.

Simple past tense It is normally used with words/expressions, such as ‘ago’, ‘yesterday’, ‘in the past’, ‘last week’, ‘last month’, ‘last Friday’, and the like to express an action or event completed in the past, so the emphasis (aspect) is on the completion of the described action or event. In this combination of tense and aspect (simple past tense), the described action, activity, event, or situation is approached from a distal perspective; therefore, the three portions of the path (initial, medial, and final) are reduced to being viewed as a point on the timeline. By way of explanation, the following example can be considered: My father past, simple travelled to Egypt yesterday to meet his friend.

Verb 2 travelled went gave asked ate drank replied bought sold brought met . . .

‫ﻣﺎض‬ ‫ﻓﻌﻞ‬ ٍ ‫ﺳﺎﻓﺮ‬ َ ‫ذھﺐ‬ َ ‫أﻋﻄﻰ‬ ‫ﺳﺄ َل‬ ‫أﻛ َﻞ‬ ‫ﺷﺮب‬ َ ‫أﺟﺎب‬ َ ‫اِﺷﺘﺮى‬ ‫ع‬ َ ‫ﺑﺎ‬ ‫ﺟﻠﺐ‬ َ ‫اِﻟﺘﻘﻰ‬ . . .

66

Chapter Three

Here in this simple sentence, the tense is ‘past’ and the emphasis is on the completion of the action, thus the aspect is ‘simple’. It lends itself in Arabic to ‫ﺳﺎﻓﺮ‬ َ .

.‫ﻟ ﻠ ﻘﻲ ﺼ َﻘ ُﻪ‬/‫ِﻘ ِﻪ‬

‫ﻟ ﻠ ﻘﻲ‬

‫أﻤ‬

‫إﻟﻰ ﻤ‬

‫ﺴﺎﻓَ واﻟ‬

The negative form is formed by inserting ‘did not’ before the main verb which should be changed to the base form, i.e. Verb 1, as in: My father did not travel to Egypt yesterday to meet his friend.

‫ ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﻀﺎرع ﻣﺠﺰوم‬+ ‫ﻟﻢ‬

did not + Verb 1

‫ﯾﺴﺎﻓﺮ‬ ‫ﻟﻢ‬ ْ ْ‫ﻟﻢ ﯾﺬھﺐ‬ ِ‫ﻟﻢ ﯾﻌﻂ‬ ‫ﻟﻢ ﯾﺴﺄ ْل‬ ْ ‫ﯾﺄﻛﻞ‬ ‫ﻟﻢ‬ . .

did not travel did not go did not give did not ask did not eat . . .

.

In translating negative sentences in the simple past tense into Arabic, one may use the particle ‫ ﻟﻢ‬followed by a verb in the jussive case ‫ﺟﺰم‬, as in:

.‫ﺼ َﻘ ُﻪ‬/ ‫ِﻘ ِﻪ‬

‫ﻟ ﻠ ﻘﻲ‬

‫أﻤ‬

‫إﻟﻰ ﻤ‬

‫ﺎﻓْ واﻟ‬

‫ﻟ‬

Following is an example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺰر‬The Button’ by ‘Alī Muhammad al-Ja‘kī (translated by and cited in Zagood and Pragnell 2017: 6-7):

‫ ﻀﻐ‬... ‫أﻨﻔﺎﺴﻲ اﻟ ﻼﺤﻘﺔ‬

، ‫ﺔ ﺎﻟ ﺎﺌ‬

‫إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﺎﻓﺔ اﻟ‬

... ‫ة ﺤ ﻰ أﻛ ﺴ ﻞ دﻗﺎﺘﻪ اﻟﻠﻌ ﺔ‬

‫أﺴ ت ﻬ‬

‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺼ ر‬

In this short passage, five clauses are utilized by the writer. Apart from the non-finite clause ‫‘ ﺣﺘﻰ أﻛﺘﻢ ﺳﯿﻞ دﻗﺎﺗﮫ‬to suppress the infernal heartbeats’, the extent of causation in the clauses used in the source text is greater than the scope of intention. This is because it is asserted that he leaned back to the headboard, the headboard was fixed to the wall, he held his breath, and he pressed down hard on his chest. The emphasis in all these clauses is placed on the completion of the actions. Being fully aware of the grammatical forms utilized by the writer, the translators have produced an

Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses

67

accurate translation where the emphasis is also put on the completion of the acts: I leaned back to the headboard fixed to the wall and held my breath …. I pressed down hard on my chest to suppress the infernal heartbeats. It is worth noting that the simple past tense is sometimes used by the participants as a means to show their ‘awareness’ of the other’s face, whether negative or positive (Yule 1996: 60). As an illustration, let us consider the following example:

!‫ﺘﻌ ف رﻗ ﻫﺎﺘﻔﻬﺎ‬

‫ﺘﻔ ﻞ‬

‫أردت أن أﻋ ف ﻓ ﺎ إذا‬ ‫ﻻ ﺸﻲء ﻓﻘ‬ ُ

~ ~

~ Yes, please. ~ Oh, nothing, I just wanted to know if you had her telephone number. Here, the use of the past tense does not indicate that the process of desideration expressed by ُ‫‘ أردت‬I wanted’ occurred in the past, but it is normally used to distance the situation in time, thus softening the severity of the face-threatening mode of action achieved by the use of a bald onrecord strategy. The use of the past in this example lets the addressee reflect on what s/he has been asked to do and decide to cooperate or not. EX: Make the following sentences negative. Then, translate them into Arabic: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Last year, the new tax hurt a great number of families on low incomes. One of the large companies in the country declared bankruptcy due to its inability to properly market its products. Yesterday, I got up at the crack of dawn because I had an important appointment. My wife meant to tell me that my brother had phoned, but it completely slipped her mind. Two employees attended yesterday’s meeting.

EX: Change the following sentences to yes-no questions. Then, translate them into Arabic: 1. 2.

He hurt himself when he fell off his bicycle. My boss sent me many emails two days ago.

68

Chapter Three

3.

The publisher put the first edition of the book to bed three days before the deadline. I remained fully awake last night. The policemen surprised the thief while leaving the house.

4. 5.

Idiomatic expressions x x x

the crack of dawn = ‫ ﺑﺰوغ اﻟﻔﺠﺮ‬or ____________________ . it completely slipped one’s mind = ‫ ﻏﺎﺑﺖ ﻋﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﮫ‬or _______ . to put something to bed = ‫ أﺗ ّﻢ‬،‫ أﻧﺠﺰ‬،‫ أﻧﮭﻰ‬or ___________ .

Past continuous tense In English, the past continuous tense is formed by ‘was/were’ followed by Verb 1 + the suffix ‘–ing’, as in: At this time, I was reading a novel last night. was/were + Verb 1 + ing was/were reading was/were playing was/were writing was/were singing was/were drinking . .

‫ ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﻀﺎرع‬+ ‫ﻛﺎن‬ ‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﻘﺮأ‬ ‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﻠﻌﺐ‬ ‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﻜﺘﺐ‬ ‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﻐﻨّﻲ‬ ‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﺸﺮب‬ . .

In Arabic, however, as there is no grammatical category for ‘aspect’, that is, how an action, activity occurs/occurred, such a tense is formed by 1. ‫ ﻛﺎن‬followed by a verb in the present tense, as in:

. ‫ﻛ ُ أﻗ أ روا ﺔ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﻗ‬ ِِ .‫ﺎء ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﺎﻋﺔ‬ ً ‫ﻛﺎن ﯿ ّ ُﻞ ﺄﻫﻠﻪ أﻤ ﻤ‬ 2. ‫ ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﺎض‬+ ‫وھﻲ‬/‫ وھﻮ‬+ ‫ … ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﻀﺎرع‬when we talk about two activities, actions, etc. occurred in the past without any time gap, as in:

... ‫ﻗﺎل وھﻮ ﯾﺒﺘﺴﻢ‬

Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses

69

... ‫ﺻﺮﺧﺖ وھﻲ ﺗﻨﻈﺮ إﻟﻰ ﺳﺎﻋﺘﮭﺎ‬ By way of explanation, let us consider the following two examples taken from a short story titled ‫‘ ﻣﻄﺮ أﺳﻮد‬Black Rain’ by Salām ‘Abūd (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 94-5):

‫ﺎم‬

‫واﻟ اب واﻟ‬

‫ﻘﺎت اﻟ‬

‫ﻤﻌﺎﻟ ﻬﺎ‬

‫ أﺨﻔ‬،‫ﻤ ﺌ ﺔ‬

‫اﺒ ﺎﻤﺔ ﻏ‬

‫أﻨﺎ ﻤ‬

~

‫أﺠﺎب وﻫ ﯿ‬

.‫اﻟ ﻲ ﺘﻐ ﻲ وﺠﻬﻪ‬

“It’s me, Muntasir”, he answered with an invisible smile the traces of which were hidden by layers of grime, dust and soot that covered his face. In the original text, by the effect of the grammatical form ‫ أﺟﺎب وھﻮ‬..., the act of smiling stretches over a period of time in the past and the emphasis is placed on its continuity in a specific period in the past. The act of answering occurred in the middle of the act of smiling. The act of answering, characterized by having a natural finishing point, is scanned sequentially, and the emphasis is placed on its completion at a point of time in the past. This has been reflected by the translators when opting for the preposition ‘with’. It can be also reflected by opting for a finite clause as in ‘while he was wearing a smile’ or a non-finite clause such as ‘while wearing a smile’. However, when a grammatical form, such as ‘while he was smiling’, is resorted to, the emphasis will be reflected, but the process will be actionalized as the verb ‘to smile’ from the noun ‘smile’ is used. In this regard, Talmy (2000: 45) states when a “noun referring to an object or mass […] associated with grammatical forms, including verb-forming derivations” is excluded and, instead, the verb is used, there will be a cognitive operation of actionalizing. Following is the second example (pp. 104-5):

‫إﻟ ﻪ ﻤ ﺘﻌ ﺔ‬

‫ﻫﻲ ﺘ‬

‫ ﺒ ﺎ ﻟ‬،‫ُﻤ ﻌ ً ا ﻋ ﻬﺎ ﺎﺘ ﺎﻩ اﻟ ﺎب‬ ‫ذﻟ وﻫ‬ ‫ﻨ‬ ... ‫ ﺤﺎﺌ ة وﻤ ﻫ ﺔ‬،‫ﺨﺎﺌﻔﺔ‬

He said this as he was walking away from her to the door, while she kept watching him trembling, frightened, baffled and nonplused … In the original text, an open path with gapping over the medial and final portions of the path is utilized by the writer. The act of uttering occurred at the beginning of the path of the act of walking away from her. This scene narratively presented in the original text has been reflected in the target

70

Chapter Three

text by the translators’ selection of the finite clause ‘while he was walking away from her …’. Further, the act of watching conceptually presented in the original text stretches over a period of time in the past by the effect of the verb ‫‘ ﻟﺒﺚ‬to keep’. This has been given full consideration by the translators. By opting for certain grammatical forms and content specifications, the writer induces his readers to place their perspective point somewhere inside the depicted place looking at the mother while she is standing or sitting and watching her son while he is walking away from her towards the door. To reinforce this point, following is another example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻣﺮأة وﺣﯿﺪة‬A Lonely Woman’ by Zakariyyā Tāmir (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 44-5):

، ‫زوﺠ‬

‫ ))ﺴ ﻌ د إﻟ‬:‫ر‬

‫ﻨ ًﻔﺎ ﻤ اﻟ‬

‫ﻗﺎل اﻟ ﺦ ﺴﻌ وﻫ ﯿ ﻤﻲ ﻓﻲ وﻋﺎء اﻟ‬

.((‫وﻟ ﯿ ّوج ﻤ ة ﺜﺎﻨ ﺔ‬

He threw bits of incense into the dish filled with live coal, and said: “Your husband will return to you, and he will not take another wife”. In the first part, two processes are employed by the writer, namely the process of saying and the process of doing. The emphasis in the process of saying occurred in the middle of the act of throwing is placed on its completion. However, by the effect of the grammatical form ‫ وھﻲ‬..., the emphasis in the original text is placed on the continuity of the act of throwing bits of incense into the dish filled with live coal. The act of throwing in such a context is characterized by unboundedness, that is, having no boundaries on both sides, and atelicity, that is, having no natural finishing point, but the Actor/Thrower has to stop throwing for a particular reason. In the target text, the translators have resorted to a different grammatical form where the process of saying occurred shortly after the act of throwing. Further, the emphasis is placed on the completion of these two acts. Had the translators paid extra attention to these construal operations, they could have suggested a rendering, such as ‘while he was throwing bits of incense into the dish filled with live coal, he said …’, or ‘while throwing bits of incense into the dish filled with live coal, he said …’, thereby stretching the act of throwing over a period of time and emphasizing its continuity in a specific period in the past. In English, this tense is used frequently with words like ‘while’, ‘as’, ‘when’, and the like to indicate the occurrence of two actions/activities;

Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses

71

normally one in the simple past tense, and the other in the continuous past tense, as in: While I was watching TV, my friend came to visit me. past continuous tense

simple past tense

.‫ ﺟﺎء ﺻﺪﯾﻘﻲ ﻟﯿﺰورﻧﻲ‬،‫ﺑﯿﻨﻤﺎ ﻛﻨﺖُ أﺷﺎھﺪ اﻟﺘﻠﻔﺎز‬ The negative form is formed by inserting ‘not’ after ‘was/were’ without any change, as in: He was not reading a novel yesterday at this time. was/were + not + Verb 1 + ing

ْ ‫ﻟﻢ‬ ‫ ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﻀﺎرع‬+ ‫ﯾﻜﻦ‬

was/were not reading was/were not playing was/were not writing was/were not singing was/were not drinking . .

ْ ‫ﻟﻢ‬ ‫ﯾﻜﻦ ﯾﻘﺮأ‬ ْ ‫ﻟﻢ‬ ‫ﯾﻜﻦ ﯾﻠﻌﺐ‬ ْ ‫ﻟﻢ‬ ‫ﯾﻜﻦ ﯾﻜﺘﺐ‬ ْ ‫ﻟﻢ‬ ‫ﯾﻜﻦ ﯾﻐﻨّﻲ‬ ْ ‫ﻟﻢ‬ ‫ﯾﻜﻦ ﯾﺸﺮب‬ . .

In translating negative sentences in the past continuous tense into Arabic, ْ ‫ ﻟﻢ‬followed by a verb in the present, as in: one may use ‫ﯾﻜﻦ‬

. ‫ﻓﻲ ﻤ ِﻞ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﻗ‬

‫ْ ﻘ أ روا ًﺔ أﻤ‬

‫ﻟ‬

EX: Translate the following dialogue between two girls into English by using the table below:

‫ﻤﺎذا ُ ِ ﺘﻔﻌﻠ‬

~

‫ُﻛ ُ أ ُ ﻓﻲ ﻤ‬ ‫ﻛ ِ ﺘﻔﻌﻠ ؟ ﻫﻞ ِ ﺘ‬

~

‫ ُ أﺘ ّ ﻰ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ‬.‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻘ ﻘﺔ ﻻ ﻫ ا وﻻ ذاك‬ .‫ و ُ أﻨﺎ أُﺼﻐﻲ إﻟ ﻬﺎ‬.‫ﺘ ﻲ ﻟﻲ ﻋ ﻤ ﺎﻛﻠﻬﺎ اﻟ ّ ّﺔ‬ ّ .‫ﻛ ًا‬

~

‫ﺎء ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﻗ ؟‬ ً ‫ﻤ‬

‫ ﻤﺎذا‬، ِ ‫ وأﻨ‬.‫ﻋ ﺸﻘﺔ أرﺨ ُ ﻤ ﺸﻘ ﻲ ﻫ ﻩ‬ ‫دروﺴ ؟‬ ّ ‫أم ﺘ‬ ‫واﻟ ﺘﻲ‬ ‫أﺘﺄﻟ‬

‫ ﺎﻨ‬.‫ﻤﻊ واﻟ ﺘﻲ‬ ،‫اﺤﺔ‬

‫أﻤ‬

‫ﺎت اﻟ‬

72

Chapter Three

~ ~

What were you doing _________________________________? I was searching for ___________________________________. And you ____________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________

Past perfect tense In English, the past perfect tense is formed by ‘had’ followed by verb 3, as in: In 2005, I had worked in that company for two years. I had worked …

2003 2005

present

In Arabic, however, as there is no grammatical category for ‘aspect’, such a tense can be formed by: !

‫ ﻛﺎن‬followed by an optional ‫ ﻗﺪ‬plus a verb in the past, as in: .

!

‫ﺔ )ﻟ ة( ﺴ‬

‫ ﻛ ُ ﻗ ﻋ ﻠ ُ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻠ اﻟ‬،2005 ‫ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم‬

or a simple past tense along with an aspectual indicator, such as ‫ﻟﻤﺪة‬, ‫ﺑﻌﺪ‬, ‫ﻗﺒﻞ‬, and so forth that indicates that an activity/event was completed before another, as in:

.

‫ﺔﻟ ةﺴ‬

‫ ﻋ ﻠ ُ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻠ اﻟ‬،2005 ‫ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم‬

To put it differently, it is used to show that the described action, event, or situation started in the past and continued up until another time in the past. Let us consider the following example: By 2002, I had worked in that university for two years.

Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses

had + Verb 3 had worked had played had written had sung had drunk . . .

73

‫ﻣﺎض‬ ‫( ﻓﻌﻞ‬+ ‫)ﻛﺎن ﻗﺪ‬ ٍ ‫)ﻛﺎن ﻗﺪ( ﻋﻤ َﻞ‬ ‫ﻟﻌﺐ‬ َ (‫)ﻛﺎن ﻗﺪ‬ ‫ﻛﺘﺐ‬ َ (‫)ﻛﺎن ﻗﺪ‬ ‫ﻰ‬ َ ّ‫)ﻛﺎن ﻗﺪ( ﻏﻨ‬ ‫ب‬ َ ‫ﺷﺮ‬ ِ (‫)ﻛﺎن ﻗﺪ‬ . . .

In the above example, the tense is ‘past’ indicated by 2002. The emphasis is put on the duration of the described action, i.e. working, that began in the past (in this example in 2000) and is seen as relevant to 2002. To reflect both the tense and aspect, the translator may use ‫ ﻛﺎن ﻗﺪ‬followed by a verb in the past, as in:

.

‫ ﻛ ُ ﻗ ﻋ ﻠ ُ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻠ اﻟ ﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻟ ة ﺴ‬،2002 ‫ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم‬

Now, let us consider the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺰر‬The Button’ by ‘Alī Muhammad al-Ja‘kī (translated by and cited in Zagood and Pragnell 2017: 1-2):

‫ﻨ ﻬﺎ‬

‫ ﻤ ﺎ ﺠﻌﻠ ﻲ أراﺠﻊ ﻤﻌﻠ ﻤﺎﺘﻲ اﻟ ﻲ‬،‫ﻤ أﻤ ر اﻟ ﺎة‬

‫ﺒ ا ﻟﻲ أﻨﻪ ﻌ ف اﻟ‬

.‫ﻋ ﺨ ﺘﻪ اﻟ ﺎرﺔ‬

In the relative clause introduced by ‫ اﻟﺘﻲ‬in ‫اﻟﺘﻲ ﻛﻮﻧﺘﮭﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺧﺒﺮﺗﮫ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‬, the emphasis is placed on the period that began in the past and is seen as relevant to another act in the past, as modelled below: I had formed it

present the state of realizing that he knows a lot

74

Chapter Three

It is worth noting that ‫ اﻟﺘﻲ ﻛﻮﻧﺘﮭﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺧﺒﺮﺗﮫ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‬can be re-written as ‫اﻟﺘﻲ‬ ‫ﻗﺪ ﻛﻮﻧﺘﮭﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺧﺒﺮﺗﮫ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‬. Having given adequate consideration to these issues, the translators have produced an accurate translation: He seemed to me to know a lot about life, which led me to revise the impressions that I had formed about his commercial experience. Cast in less technical terms, in English this tense is used: !

with words like ‘for’ and ‘since’ when there is a time reference to the past, as in:

When I was at the age of 30, I had studied English for two years.

. !

‫ ﻛ ُ ﻗ درﺴ ُ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻹﻨ ﻠ ﺔ ﻟ ة ﺴ‬،‫ ﺴ ﺔ‬30

‫ﻋ ﻤﺎ ﺎن ﻋ‬

in complex sentences, after ‘after’ and before ‘before’, as in:

After she had cleaned her flat and tidied it up, she went out with her close friend to buy a gift for her youngest daughter. Or: Before going out with her close friend to buy a gift for her youngest daughter, she had cleaned her flat and tidied it up.

‫ﺔ )اﻟ ُ ﻘّ ﺔ( ﻟ اء ﻫ ﺔ ِﻻﺒ ﻬﺎ‬

‫ ﺨ ﺠ ْ ﻤﻊ ﺼ ﻘ ﻬﺎ اﻟ‬،‫ﻌ أن ﻨ ّ ﻔ ْ ﺸﻘ ﻬﺎ ورﺘ ﻬﺎ‬

.‫اﻟ ﻐ ة‬

‫ﻗ ﻞ أن ﺘ ْج ﻤﻊ ﺼ ﻘ ﻬﺎ اﻟ‬ ‫ ﻨ ّ ﻔ ْ ﺸﻘ ﻬﺎ‬،‫ﺔ )اﻟ ُ ﻘ ّﺔ( ﻟ اء ﻫ ﺔ ِﻻﺒ ﻬﺎ اﻟ ﻐ ة‬ .( ‫ وﺘ ﺘ‬... ‫ورﺘ ﻬﺎ )أو ﻗﺎﻤ ْ ﺒ ﻒ‬ !

in complex sentences after ‘as if’, as in: At the party, he behaved in a way as if nothing had happened.

.‫ث‬

‫ﺎ ﻟ أن ﺸ ًﺎ ﻟ‬

‫ﻘﺔ‬

‫ف‬ َ ّ ‫ ﺘ‬،‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻔﻠﺔ‬

!

in complex sentences, after ‘if’(the third type), as in: If you had studied hard, you would not have failed such an easy exam. Or: Had you studied hard, you would not have failed such an easy exam.

ٍ ‫ﺎن‬ ٍ ‫ﻞ ﻫ ا ِاﻤ‬ .‫ﺴﻬﻞ‬

ِ ‫ﻟ أﻨ ﻗ درﺴ َ ﺠ ا‬ َ ‫ ﻟ ﺎ أﺨﻔﻘ‬،‫ﻟﻼﻤ ﺎن‬ ًّ

Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses

!

in reported speech to replace present perfect or simple past when the introductory verb is in the past, as in: He said: “I have taught at this university for two years”. He said that he had taught at that university for two years.

. . !

75

‫درﺴ ُ ﻓﻲ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻟ ة ﺴ‬ ّ :‫ﻗﺎل‬

‫درس ﻓﻲ ﺘﻠ اﻟ ﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻟ ة ﺴ‬ ّ ‫ﻗﺎل إﻨﻪ ﻗ‬

in complex sentences with correlative conjunctions such as ‘no sooner … than …’, ‘hardly … when …’, ‘scarcely … when …’, ‘barely … when …’, and the like, as in: No sooner had he finished one project than he began working on the other.

ِ ‫ﻤﺎ إن أﻨﻬﻰ ﻤ وﻋﺎ‬ . ‫)اﻨ ﻬﻰ ﻤ ﻤ وع( ﺤ ﻰ ﺸ َع ﻓﻲ ﻤ وع آﺨ‬ ً ... ‫وﻋﺎ )ِاﻨ ﻬﻰ ﻤ ﻤ وع( ﺤ ﻰ‬ ً ‫ﻤﺎ ﻟ أن أﻨﻬﻰ ﻤ‬

Hardly had we won the match when one of our fans had a heart attack. Or: Scarcely had we won the match when one of our fans had a heart attack. Or: Barely had we won the match when one of our fans had a heart attack.

.‫ﻌ ﺎ إﻟﻰ ﻨ ﺔ ﻗﻠ ﺔ‬

‫ﻤﺎ إن ﻓ ﻨﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎرة ﺤ ﻰ ﺘﻌّ ض أﺤ ﻤ‬ ... ‫ﻤﺎ ﻟ ﺎ أن ﻓ ﻨﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎراة ﺤ ﻰ‬

Note that while ‘hardly’, ‘scarcely’, and ‘barely’ are followed by ‘when’, ‘no sooner’ is followed by ‘than’. However, they lend themselves to the following correlative conjunctions in Arabic:

... ‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬... ‫أن‬/‫ﻤﺎ إن‬ ... ‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬...

... ‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬...

‫ﻤﺎ ﻟ‬

‫ﻟ ﯿﻠ‬

To reinforce this point, the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﻤﻼﻋﻖ‬The Spoons’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 114-5) may be considered:

.‫أﻗﻒ وراءﻫﺎ ﺤ ﻰ ﺸﻌ ت ﻏ ًﺎ دﺨﻞ ﻤ ﻌ ﺎ‬

‫ﺔ اﻟ ﻲ‬

‫ﻤﺎ إن ِاﻗ ب ﻤ اﻟ‬

76

Chapter Three

The moment he approached the platform I was standing behind, I felt that a strange person had come into our restaurant. In the above example, four processes are utilized by the writer, namely: A material process where the implicit pronoun ‫‘ ھﻮ‬he’ is the Actor, ‫ﯾﻘﺘﺮب‬/‫‘ اِﻗﺘﺮب‬to approach’ is the process of doing, and ‫‘ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻨﺼﺔ‬from the platform’ is an adverb of place. A material process where the implicit pronoun ‫أﻧﺎ‬ ‘I’ is the Actor, ‫ﯾﻘﻒ‬/‫‘ وﻗﻒ‬to stand’ is the process of doing, and ‫‘ وراءھﺎ‬behind it’ is an adverb of place. A mental process where the implicit pronoun ‫أﻧﺎ‬ ‘I’ is the Senser and ‫ﯾﺸﻌﺮ‬/‫‘ ﺷﻌﺮ‬to feel’ is the process of sensing. A material process where ‫‘ ﻏﺮﯾﺐ‬a strange person’ is the Actor, ‫ﯾﺪﺧﻞ‬/‫‘ دﺧﻞ‬to enter’ is the process of doing, and ‫‘ ﻣﻄﻌﻤﻨﺎ‬our restaurant’ is an adverb of place.

‫ﻣﺎ إن اِﻗﺘﺮب ﻣﻦ‬ ‫اﻟﻤﻨﺼﺔ‬

‫اﻟﺘﻲ ﻛﻨﺖ أﻗﻒ وراءھﺎ‬

‫ﺣﺘﻰ ﺷﻌﺮت‬ ‫)أن( ﻏ ًﺎ دﺧﻞ‬ ‫ﻣﻄﻌﻤﻨﺎ‬

The act of approaching the platform and the act of entering the restaurant (referring here to the same referent) occurred shortly before the process of sensing in ‫‘ ﺷﻌﺮت‬I felt’. Cognitively speaking, the three portions of the path of the acts of approaching and entering are reduced to being seen as two points on the timeline. However, the emphasis is put on the initial portion in the act of entering and on the medial portion in the act of approaching. This can be modelled as follows:

the act of entering

the act of approaching

the process of sensing

present

Further, by the effect of the correlative conjunction ... ‫ ﺣﺘﻰ‬... ‫ﻣﺎ إن‬, there is no time lapse between the act of approaching and the process of sensing in

Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses

77

‫‘ ﺷﻌﺮت‬I felt’. The immediate sequencing has been reflected by the translators when opting for ‘the moment’. Correlative conjunctions, such as ‘no sooner … than …’, ‘hardly … when …’, and the like can be used to reflect the immediate sequencing, as in: No sooner had he approached the platform I was standing behind than I felt that a strange person had come into our restaurant. Or: Hardly had he approached the platform I was standing behind when I felt that a strange person had come into our restaurant. EX: Translate the following sentences into Arabic: 1.

4.

No sooner had I heard the explosion than I jumped out of the place and rushed to the scene. Barely had I put the phone down when it started ringing again. No sooner had the electricity gone off than the teacher cancelled the class. Hardly had she finished her studies when she got a good job.

5.

No sooner had the company launched its new product than it

2. 3.

6. 7.

went bankrupt. Scarcely had she closed her eyes when she fell asleep and started snoring. No sooner had she read the letter than she started crying.

EX: In the following sentences there are a number of grammatical mistakes. Correct them and then translate them into Arabic: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

After I bought a gift for my brother I had gone to the gym. Hardly I had not gotten up from bed, I took a bath. If they had played well, they will not have lost the match. In 1999, my brother has lived in the UK since three years. When she was in Paris, she had not study French in one of the language schools. Had you call him earlier and ask him to help you, he would not have hesitated at all.

EX: Translate the following sentences into English, paying special attention to the tenses/aspects:

‫ﻤ ﺴ ِﻊ‬

‫ُ ﻗ ِﻨ ُ ﻷﻛ‬

، ِ ‫َﻞ أﺒﻲ ﻤ اﻟ ﻔ‬

‫ وﻗ ﻞ أن‬،‫ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ‬-‫ أ‬.1 ٍ .‫ﺴﺎﻋﺎت‬

‫‪Chapter Three‬‬

‫وﺼﻞ أﺒﻲ ﻤ اﻟ ﻔ ِ‬ ‫ب‪ -‬اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ‪ ،‬ﻋ ﻤﺎ‬ ‫َ‬

‫‪78‬‬

‫ُ ﻨﺎﺌ ً ﺎ‪.‬‬

‫ِ‬ ‫اﺠﻊ دروﺴﻲ ﻤﻊ ﺼ ﯿ ٍ آﺨ ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .2‬أ‪ -‬ﻋ ﻤﺎ اﺘّ ﻠ ُ َ أﻤ ‪ ُ ،‬أُر ُ‬ ‫ب‪ -‬ﻗ ﻞ أن اﺘّ ﻞ َ ُ ﻗ راﺠﻌ ُ دروﺴﻲ ﻤﻊ ﺼ ﯿ آﺨ ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺔ ﻤﻊ ﻤ‬

‫‪ .3‬أ‪ -‬ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم ‪ ُ ،2007‬أﻋ ُﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻠ اﻟ‬ ‫ب‪ -‬ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم ‪ ُ ،2007‬ﻗ ﻋ ﻠ ُ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻠ‬ ‫اﻷﺼ ﻗﺎء‪.‬‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ٍ‬ ‫ﻋﺔ ﻤ اﻷﺼ ِ‬ ‫ﻗﺎء‪.‬‬ ‫ﺔ ﻤﻊ ﻤ‬

‫‪ .4‬أ‪ -‬ﻟﻐﺎ ﺔ ﯿ ِم أﻤ ٍ ‪ ،‬ﻟ ﯿ ّﻠ أ ﱡ ﻤ ّ ٍ‬ ‫ﻒ رِاﺘَ ُﻪ ﻤﺎ ﻋ ا اﻟﻌ‬ ‫ْ‬ ‫ب‪ -‬ﻟ ﯿ ّﻠ أﻤ أ ﱡ ﻤ ّ ٍ‬ ‫ﻒ رِاﺘَ ُﻪ ﻤﺎ ﻋ ا اﻟﻌ ورﺌ اﻟﻘ ِ‪.‬‬ ‫ْ‬ ‫ورﺌ‬

‫‪ .5‬أ‪ -‬ﻟ ﺘ ْﺢ ﻟﻲ اﻟﻔ ﺼ ُﺔ ﻷﻋ َﻞ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬ ‫ّ‬ ‫ب‪ -‬ﻟﻐﺎ ﺔ اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ‪ ،‬ﻟ ﺘ ْﺢ ﻟﻲ اﻟﻔ ﺼ ُﺔ ﻷﻋ َﻞ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬ ‫ّ‬

‫ﻋﺔ ﻤ‬

‫اﻟﻘ ‪.‬‬

‫اﻟﻌ ﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ‪.‬‬

‫اﻟﻌ ﻲ‪.‬‬

‫‪Past perfect continuous tense‬‬ ‫‪It is used to express a continued or ongoing action or activity that began in‬‬ ‫‪the past and continued up until another time in the past. By way of‬‬ ‫‪explanation, let us consider the following example:‬‬ ‫‪By 2002, I had been working in that company for two years.‬‬

‫ﻛﺎن ‪ +‬ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﻀﺎرع‪/‬اِﺳﻢ ﻓﺎﻋﻞ‬

‫‪had + been + Verb 1 + ing‬‬

‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﻌﻤﻞ‪/‬ﻋﺎﻣﻼ‬ ‫ﻛﺎن ﻧﺎﺋ ًﻤﺎ‬ ‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﺸﺨﺮ‬ ‫ﺳﺎ‬ ‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﺪرس‪/‬دار ً‬ ‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﺮﺳﻞ‪/‬ﯾﺮاﺳﻞ‬ ‫‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬‬

‫‪had been working‬‬ ‫‪had been sleeping‬‬ ‫‪had been snoring‬‬ ‫‪had been studying‬‬ ‫‪had been sending‬‬ ‫‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬‬

‫‪.‬‬

Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses

79

In the above example, the tense is ‘past’, indicated by 2002. The emphasis is on both: 1.

the duration of the described action, i.e. working, that began in the past (in this example in 2000) and is seen as relevant to 2002 and

2.

the continuity of the described action or event in a specified period in the past (2002).

While translating this tense into Arabic, one may use ‫ ﻛﺎن‬followed by a verb in the present tense or ‫ ﻛﺎن‬followed by ‫‘ اﺳﻢ ﻓﺎﻋﻞ‬present active participle’, thus reflecting the tense ‘past’ and the continuity of the described event.

.

‫ﺔﻤ ﺴ‬

‫ ﻛ ُ أﻋ ﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻠ اﻟ‬،2002 ‫ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم‬

Or, one can change the verb or the structure, thus shifting the emphasis slightly as in:

.2000 ‫ﺔ و أت )اﻟﻌ ﻞ( ﻓ ﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم‬

‫ ﻛ ُ أﻋ ﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻠ اﻟ‬،2002 ‫ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم‬

To reinforce this, let us discuss the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ ع اﻟﻤﺴﺮح‬At the Theatre’ by Idwār al-Kharrāt (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 182-3):

‫ ارﺘﻔﻌ‬،‫ﺎﻤﺎ ﻤﺎ أﻓﻌﻞ‬ ،‫وﻗﻔ ُ ﻤ ّو ًﻋﺎ‬ ً ‫ﻗ ﺼ ﺨ ُ دون أن أﻋﻲ ﺘ‬ ‫ اﻟ ﯿ ﺎﻨ ا ﻋﻠﻰ ﺠﺎﻨ ﻲ ﺨ ﺔ‬،‫ اﺘ ﻪ إﻟﻲ اﺜ ﺎن ﻤ ﺸ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎﻓﺊ‬، ‫إﻟﻲ ﻤ ﺘ‬ ّ ّ .‫ ﺄﻨ ﺎ ﻟ ﻌﺎﻨﻲ ﻤ اﻟ ﺔ‬،‫اﻟ ح‬ ‫اﻷﻨ ﺎر‬

‫ﻌ‬

I stopped, alarmed. I had let out a scream without fully realizing what I was doing. Some people from below looked up at me. Two firemen who had been standing next to the stage proceeded towards me as though they were going to stop me from making any movement. In the original text, the act of letting out a scream occurred before the act of stopping; hence the use of past perfect in the target text ‘had let out a scream’. Further, there is an implicit ‫ ﻛﺎن‬before the verb ‫ أﻓﻌﻞ‬in ‫ﻣﻦ دون أن‬ ‫أﻋﻲ ﻣﺎ )ذا ﻛﻨﺖ( أﻓﻌﻞ‬, thus lending itself to a past continuous tense in the target text ‘was doing’. The emphasis on the acts of ‘looking up’ and ‘proceeding towards’ is placed on their completion at a specific point in

80

Chapter Three

the past. However, the emphasis on the implicit act of standing in ‫اﻟﺬﯾﻦ‬ ‫ ﻛﺎﻧﻮا ﻋﻠﻰ ﺧﺸﺒﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺮح‬is put on (1) the continuity of the act indicated by the grammatical form ‫ ﻛﺎﻧﻮا‬and (2) the period of the act of standing that began in the past (unmentioned) and is seen as relevant to another act in the past, that is, the act of coming up to me. Cognitively speaking, the act of standing in this scene is partially bounded as it has a right boundary, as modelled below: the act of standing

the act of coming up to

present

EX: Translate the following sentences into Arabic, paying extra attention to the tenses/aspects: 1.

They had been talking for over an hour before their friend arrived. 2. She had been working at that company for three years when it went out of business. 3. How long had you been waiting to get on the bus? 4. My father wanted to sit down because he had been standing all day at work. 5. Noor had been teaching at the university for more than a year before she left for Asia. 6. A: How long had you been studying Turkish before you moved to Ankara? B: I had not been studying Turkish very long. 7. She was tired because she had been jogging. 8. Sam gained weight because he had been overeating. 9. Tom failed the final test yesterday because he had not been attending class. 10. Before you bought your new house, how long had you been living in a flat?

Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses

81

3 Present tenses In English, there are four tenses in the present, namely: ! ! ! !

Simple present tense Present continuous tense Present perfect tense Present perfect continuous tense

In what follows, each tense will be explained in detail in a direct link with translation.

Simple present tense It is used when we talk about facts, habits, unchanging situations, repeated actions, and the like. So, the emphasis (aspect) is placed on the regularity and frequency of the action as a matter of routine, unchanging situations or general truth. Cast in less technical terms, it is used with: ! ! ! ! !

‘every day’, ‘every week’, ‘every month’, ‘every year’, ‘every Friday’, ‘every Sunday’, and the like, ‘daily’, ‘weekly’, ‘monthly’, ‘annually’, and so on, ‘per day’, ‘per week’, ‘per month’, ‘per year’, and the like, ‘once a day’, ‘once a week’, ‘twice a month’, ‘three times a day’, and so forth, and ‘always’, ‘often’, ‘usually’, ‘sometimes’, ‘at times’, ‘generally’, ‘frequently’, ‘occasionally’, ‘seldom’, ‘scarcely’, and the like.

By way of explanation, let us consider the following example: I present, simple brush my teeth three times a day.

Verb 1 (+ s/es)

‫ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﻀﺎرع‬

brush (es) smoke (s) call (s) buy (s) speak (s) . .

‫ﯾﻔﺮش‬ ّ ‫ﯾُ ِﺪ ّﺧﻦ‬ ‫ﯾﺘّﺼﻞ‬ ‫ﯾﺸﺘﺮي‬ ‫ﯾﺘﻜﻠّﻢ‬ . .

82

Chapter Three

In the above example, the tense is ‘present’. The emphasis (aspect) is placed on the regularity and frequency of the act of brushing as a matter of routine indicated by the phrase ‘three times a day’. So, here the language user does not talk about a single event, but rather, s/he talks about a series of events approached from a distal perspective. To reflect both the tense and aspect, one may use a verb in the present, as in:

ٍ ‫ش أﺴ ﺎﻨﻲ ﺜﻼت ﻤ‬ .‫ات ﻓﻲ اﻟ م‬ ُ ِّ‫أﻓ‬ َ The negative form is formed by inserting ‘does not’ or ‘do not’ before the main verb which should be changed to the base form, i.e. Verb 1, as in: my father does not sit in the garden in the morning.

‫ ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﻀﺎرع‬+ ‫ﻻ‬ ‫ﻻ ﯾﺠﻠﺲ‬ ‫ﻻ ﯾﺮﺳﻢ‬ ‫ﻻ ﯾﺪﻓﻊ‬ ‫ﻻ ﯾﻐﯿّﺮ‬ ‫ﯾﻠﺘﻘﻲ ﺑـ‬/‫ﻻ ﯾﻼﻗﻲ‬ . .

does not + Verb 1 does not sit does not draw does not pay does not change does not meet . . .

.

In translating negative sentences in the simple present tense into Arabic, the translator may use the particle ‫ ﻻ‬followed by a verb in the present, as in:

.‫ﺎﺤﺎ‬ ً ‫ﻘﺔ ﺼ‬

‫ﻠ ُ أﺒﻲ )ﻋﺎدة( ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬

‫ﻻ‬

To elaborate, let us consider the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ طﺎﺋﺮ اﻟﻔﯿﻨﯿﻖ‬The Phoenix’ by ‘Alī Muhammad al-Ja‘kī (translated by and cited in Zagood and Pragnell 2017: 94-5):

... ‫ﻤ ﻲ‬

‫اﻗ ا‬

‫وراﺌﻲ ﺤ ﻰ ﻻ أﻋ ف ﻤ‬

‫ ﻻ أﻨ‬...

‫ﺨﻠﻔﻲ وأﺠ‬

‫داﺌ ً ﺎ أﺘ‬

I always leave you behind me and run. I do not look back so as not to know how close to me you are.

In the above example, by the effect of the adverb of frequency ‫داﺋ ًﻤﺎ‬ ‘always’, the emphasis is put on the frequency and regularity of the act of leaving his mate behind him while running. In this example, as stated above, we do not talk about a single event, but we talk about a series of

Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses

83

events being seen as a state. The same holds true for ... ‫‘ ﻻ أﻧﻈﺮ وراﺋﻲ‬I do not look back …’ where the emphasis is placed on the habit of not looking back while running. Again, the series of events is seen as a state. Having given full consideration to these events, the translators have opted for a simple present tense to reflect the frequency and regularity of the act as a matter of routine. Following is another example from a short story titled ‫ﯾﺤﺪث ھﺬا ﻛ ّﻞ ﺻﺒﺎح‬ ‘This Happens every Morning’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 58-9):

‫ أﻨﺎ ﺎﻨ ﺎر اﻟ ﺎرة اﻟ ﻲ ﺘ ﻘﻠ ﻲ واﺜ‬.‫ ﻞ ﺼ ﺎح ﻤ اﻟ ﺼ ﻒ اﻟ ﻘﺎﺒﻞ‬،‫ ﻋﺎدة‬،‫أراﻗ ﻬﺎ‬ ... ‫ ﺘﺄﺘﻲ ﻫﻲ ﻗ ﻠﻪ داﺌ ﺎ‬،‫ﺔ‬

‫ وﻫ ﺎ ﺎﻨ ﺎر ﺎص اﻟ‬،‫ﻤ زﻤﻼﺌﻲ إﻟﻰ اﻟ اﺌ ة‬

I watch her, usually every morning from the pavement opposite. I’m waiting for the car that takes me and two of my colleagues to the office, as they wait for the company bus. She always comes before him … In the process of behaving ... ‫‘ أراﻗﺒﮭﺎ‬I watch her …’, the emphasis is put on the frequency and regularity of the act of watching her every morning as a matter of routine. These events are seen here as a state. Similarly, by the effect of the adverb of frequency ‫‘ داﺋ ًﻤﺎ‬always’ in ... ‫‘ ﺗﺄﺗﻲ ھﻲ ﻗﺒﻠﮫ‬she comes before him …’, these events are cognitively reduced to being seen as a state. Being fully aware of this, the translators have opted for a simple present tense in both cases, thus reflecting the frequency and regularity of the act of watching her and the act of coming before him. The interrogative form is formed by placing ‘does’ or ‘do’ before the subject and changing the main verb into the base form, i.e. Verb 1, as in: She often calls her family at the weekend. Does she often call her family at the weekend?

Do/Does + S. + Verb 1

‫ ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﻀﺎرع‬+ ‫ھﻞ‬

Do you like / Does he like Do you eat / Does he eat Do you go out / Does he go out Do you sleep / Does he sleep . .

ّ‫ﯾُﺤﺐ‬/ ّ‫ھﻞ ﺗُﺤﺐ‬ ‫ﯾﺄﻛﻞ‬/‫ھﻞ ﺗﺄﻛﻞ‬ ‫ﯾﺨﺮج‬/‫ج‬ ‫ﺗﺨﺮ‬ ُ ُ ‫ھﻞ‬ ‫ﯾﻨﺎم‬/‫ھﻞ ﺗﻨﺎم‬ . .

84

Chapter Three

In translating interrogative sentences in the simple present tense into Arabic, one may use ‫ ھﻞ‬followed by a verb in the present, as in:

‫ﻞ ﻌﺎﺌﻠ ﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻋ ﻠﺔ ﻨﻬﺎ ﺔ اﻷﺴ ع؟‬

‫ﻫﻞ ﺘ‬

EX: Make the following sentences negative. Then, translate them into Arabic: 1. My family often watches TV in the evening. __________________________________________________________ 2. Unlike my father, my grandfather usually drinks tea at breakfast. __________________________________________________________ 3. She only eats vegetables. __________________________________________________________ 4. In the UK, it rains heavily in some cities in winter. __________________________________________________________ 5. They drive to London every summer. __________________________________________________________ EX: Make the following sentences interrogative. Then, translate them into Arabic: 1. She does yoga twice a week. __________________________________________________________ 2. The train to Newcastle leaves every hour. __________________________________________________________ 3. My father drinks coffee a lot in the evening. __________________________________________________________ 4. She gets up at seven o’clock every day. __________________________________________________________ 5.

At the weekend, we usually go to the market.

Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses

85

Present continuous tense The present continuous tense (‘am/is/are’ + Verb 1 + ‘–ing’) is used to express an ongoing action at the time of speaking. So, the emphasis (aspect) is shifted from the beginning and end of the action towards the middle phase, thus presenting the action as an ongoing activity. It is used with words and expressions, such as ‘now’, ‘right now’, ‘at the moment’, ‘currently’, ‘presently’, ‘nowadays’, ‘these days’, and so forth. By way of explanation, let us consider the following example: I present, progressive am writing a novel. be + Verb 1 + ing

‫اِﺳﻢ ﻓﺎﻋﻞ‬/‫)ﻻ أزال( ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﻀﺎرع‬

am/is/are + writing am/is/are + sleeping am/is/are + playing am/is/are + working am/is/are + teaching . . .

ُ‫)ﻻ أزالُ( أﻛﺘﺐ‬ ً ‫)ﻻ أزالُ( ﻧﺎﺋﻤﺎ‬ ُ‫)ﻻ أزالُ( أﻟﻌﺐ‬ ‫)ﻻ أزالُ( أﻋﻤ ُﻞ‬ ‫س‬ ّ (ُ‫)ﻻ أزال‬ ُ ‫أدر‬ . . .

In the above example, the tense is ‘present continuous tense’ marked by verb ‘to be’ followed by the base form of the verb plus the suffix ‘–ing’. The emphasis (aspect) is on the continuity of the action at the time of speaking, so there is an implicit time marker, such as ‘right now’, ‘currently’, and the like. To reflect the tense, one may use a verb in the present, as in:

.‫أﻛ ُ روا ًﺔ‬ However, to reflect the emphasis (aspect), one may opt for words or expressions, such as ‫‘ ﻻ ﯾﺰال‬still’, ‫‘ اﻵن‬now’, ‫‘ ﻓﻲ ھﺬه اﻷﺛﻨﺎء‬at this moment’, ‫‘ ﺣﺎﻟﯿًﺎ‬currently’, and so forth, as in:

.‫ال أﻛ ُ روا ﺔ‬ ُ ‫ﻻ أز‬ .‫ال ُﻤ ﻬ ً ﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺎ ﺔ روا ٍﺔ‬ ُ ‫ﻻ أز‬ .‫أﻛ ُ روا ﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻫ ﻩ اﻷ ﺎم‬

86

Chapter Three

More examples:

ِ ‫ذاﻫ إﻟﻰ ﻋ‬ .‫ﺎدﺘ ِﻪ اﻵن‬ ٌ ُ ‫اﻟ‬ ِ ‫اﻷﺴ ﺎ ُذ ﻋﺎﻛﻒ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺘﺄﻟ‬ ٍ ‫ﻒ‬ .‫ﺎب ﻫ ﻩ اﻷ ﺎم‬ ٌ ِ ‫ﻘ م ﺼ ﻘﻲ ﻫ ﻩ اﻷ ﺎم ﺒ ر‬ .‫اﻋﺔ ﺤ ﻘِ ِﻪ‬ ُ

At times, the present continuous tense is used with action verbs, such as ‘leave’, ‘move’, ‘fly’, ‘travel’, ‘go’, etc. to show that something is planned and will be done in the near future, thus lending itself in Arabic to ‫ ﺳــ‬or ‫ﺳﻮف‬, as in: He is moving to London in October.

.‫اﻷول‬

‫ﺘ‬/

‫ﺴ ﻘﻞ إﻟﻰ ﻟ ن ﻓﻲ اﻛ‬

Approached from a cognitive perspective, the act of moving does not represent immediate reality that covers the portion of time in which the speech event occurs, but rather it refers to a certain event that has not occurred yet, thereby being considered as part of irreality (for more details, see ‘Modality’ in this book). To reinforce this point, the following two examples extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ ﺻﯿﺤﺔ دﯾﻚ أﺣﺐّ اﻟﺤﯿﺎة‬The crow of a cock that loves life’ by Jubrān ‘Abdulmarwān al-Karnāwī (translated by and cited in Almanna and Hall 2015: 42-3) may be considered:

‫ﺎﺘﻪ‬

‫ﻟ‬

‫إﺤ‬

‫ ﻤ ﯿ ر ﻟﻌّﻠﻪ اﻵن ﻌ‬. ‫ﺎرد وﺤ ﺘ‬

‫ﻫ ا اﻟ ﺎﻤ س ﺤ ﺎ‬ ‫آﻩ ﻤﺎذا أﻛ ؟‬

.‫ﻠﺔ‬ ~

‫ﻟﻌ‬

‫اﻟ‬

That damned mosquito disturbing one’s solitude, who knows… perhaps it is living one of its most precious moments! Oh…what am I writing? … The morphological tense of ‫ ﯾﻌﯿﺶ‬is present, but the emphasis is shifted from the beginning and end of the act of living towards the middle phase, thus presenting the event as an ongoing activity. The same holds true for the act of writing where the emphasis is put on its continuity at the moment of speaking. This has been given serious consideration by the translators when opting for ‘is living …’ and ‘am writing …’ respectively. Following is the second example (pp. 44-5):

Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses

‫ﻋﻠ‬

‫ﺎ‬

‫ﺘ ﺘﺎح وﻟ‬

‫اﻵن ﻓﻘ‬

‫ أﻨﺎ أﻓﻬ أﻨ‬.‫ﻨﺎﺌ أﻋ رﻨﻲ‬ .

‫ ﻫﻼّ اﻨ ﻔ‬.

87

‫ أﻨ‬.

‫ﺼ ﺎح اﻟ‬

.‫وﺤ ﺘﻲ‬

‫أﻨﺎﺠ‬

‫ ﻫﻼّ ﺼ‬. ‫أﺤ ﺎج ﻨ ات ﺼ ﺘ‬

Good morning. You’re sleeping. I’m so sorry, I know you’re only having a rest right now, but, for God’s sake, I’m relying on you in my loneliness. I need the rhythm of your voice. Why don’t you crow? Why don’t you get up? Here, by the effect of the present active participle ‫اﺳﻢ اﻟﻔﺎﻋﻞ‬, that is ‫ﻧﺎﺋﻢ‬, the emphasis is shifted towards the middle phase of the state of sleeping, thus presenting the event as an ongoing activity. Similarly, the emphasis is put on the continuity of the act of having rest by the effect of the time marker ‫‘ اﻵن‬now’. The continuity of the act of sleeping and the act of having rest is given full consideration by the translators when resorting to ‘are sleeping…’ and ‘are having rest…’ respectively. In Arabic dialects, to form such a tense, certain words are employed by speakers, as in: Dialect

Example

Iraqi Baghdadi Iraqi Egyptian Omani Tunisian Sudanese Syrian Kuwaiti

I’m writing ‫ﮔﺎﻋﺪ أﻛﺘﺐ‬/‫ﺟﺎي‬ I’m writing ‫دَ أﻛﺘﺐ‬ I’m writing ‫ﻋ ّﻤﺎل أﻛﺘﺐ‬ I’m writing ‫ﮔﺎﻋﺪ أﻛﺘﺐ‬/‫ﺟﺎﻟﺲ‬ I’m writing ‫ﻗﺎﻋﺪ أﻛﺘﺐ‬ I’m writing ‫ﮔﺎﻋﺪ أﻛﺘﺐ‬ I’m writing ‫ﻋﻢ ﺑﻜﺘﺐ‬ I’m writing ‫ﮔﺎﻋﺪ أﻛﺘﺐ‬

Tense marker

‫ ﮔﺎﻋﺪ‬/‫ﺟﺎي‬ َ‫د‬ ‫ﻋ ّﻤﺎل‬ ‫ ﮔﺎﻋﺪ‬/‫ﺟﺎﻟﺲ‬ ‫ﻗﺎﻋﺪ‬ ‫ﮔﺎﻋﺪ‬ ‫ﻋﻢ‬ ‫ﮔﺎﻋﺪ‬

EX: Translate the following sentences into Arabic: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

I’m riding a bike to get to work because my car is broken. They are not talking with each other after the last argument. Currently, my sister is working at McDonald’s; she is working there only during the summer holidays. I am training to become a professional footballer. My friend is studying hard nowadays to become an engineer. a- Can I speak with the boss?

88

Chapter Three

b- He is currently visiting one of the departments of the company. Currently, my brother is studying law in the UK. I’m studying these days to pass the exam. The author is currently writing a children’s book titled ‘The Ball’. 10. They are swimming in the pool right now. 7. 8. 9.

Present perfect tense The present perfect tense (‘have/has’ + Verb 3) is used to express an action or event that began in the past and is seen as relevant to the present. So the emphasis (aspect) is on the duration of the described event or situation that began in the past and has continued to the present. To put it differently, it is used with: ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

‘for’ or ‘since’, ‘many times’, ‘never’ or ‘ever’, ‘all day’, ‘all week’, ‘all month’, etc., ‘recently’ or ‘lately’, ‘in recent days’, ‘in recent months’, etc., ‘already’ or ‘just’, ‘yet’, ‘so far’, ‘up to now’, ‘till now’, ‘before’, and ‘in the last few hours/days/weeks/months’ …

By way of explanation, let us consider the following example: My friend has visited me recently. have/has + Verb 3 have/has + visited have/has + gone have/has + finished have/has + lived have/has + met . . .

‫ﻣﺎض‬ ‫ ﻓﻌﻞ‬+ (‫)ﻟﻘﺪ‬ ٍ ‫زار‬ َ (‫)ﻟﻘﺪ‬ ‫ذھﺐ‬ (‫)ﻟﻘﺪ‬ َ ‫)ﻟﻘﺪ( أﻧﮭﻰ‬ ‫ﻋﺎش‬ (‫)ﻟﻘﺪ‬ َ ‫)ﻟﻘﺪ( اِﻟﺘﻘﻰ ﺑـ‬ . . .

In the above example, the tense is ‘present perfect tense’ marked by the verb ‘have/has’ followed by Verb 3. The emphasis (aspect) is on the

Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses

89

duration of the action that began in the past and is seen as relevant to the present. To reflect the tense, one may use the particle ‫ ﻟﻘﺪ‬followed by a verb in the past, or just the past, as in:

.‫ﻟﻘ ازرﻨﻲ ﺼ ﻘﻲ ﻤ ﺨ ًا‬ To elaborate, let us discuss the following example taken from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﻄﻮﻓﺎن اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ‬The Second Flood’ by Alī Muhammad al-Ja‘kī (translated by and cited in Zagood and Pragnell 2017: 127-8):

... ‫أر ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻗﺎ ﺑﮭﺬه اﻟﺴﺮﻋﺔ‬ َ ‫ ﻟﻢ‬... ‫أﻗﺴﻢ اﻧﮫ ﻻ ﯾﺴﯿﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷرض ﻛﻤﺎ ﻧﺴﯿﺮ‬ I swear that he doesn’t walk on earth as we do. I have never seen a creature as quick as him. In the last clause, that is, ‫أر ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻗﺎ ﺑﮭﺬه اﻟﺴﺮﻋﺔ‬ َ ‫ﻟﻢ‬, there is an implicit phrase ‫‘ ﻓﻲ ﺣﯿﺎﺗﻲ‬in my life’ that emphasizes the whole period of not seeing such a creature that began in the past (since the speaker was born) and is seen as relevant to the moment of speaking, as modelled below: he has not seen

he was born …

present

This has been reflected by the translators when resorting to ‘have never seen a creature …’. With respect to the act of walking in the negative form, it is a series of events occurred at different times but approached from a distal perspective, thus being viewed as a point on the timeline, on the one hand, and being considered as a state rather than an event, on the other. EX: Translate the following sentences into Arabic: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

I think I have met him once before. There have been many earthquakes in California. Have you read the book yet? Nobody has ever climbed that mountain. Joan has studied two foreign languages. You have grown since the last time I saw you. The government has become more interested in arts education.

90

Chapter Three

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Japanese has become one of the most popular courses at the university since the Asian studies programme was established. My English has really improved since I moved to London. Doctors have cured many deadly diseases. The army has attacked that city five times. I have had four quizzes and five tests so far this semester. We have had many major problems while working on this project. She has talked to several specialists about her problem, but nobody knows why she is sick. My car has broken down three times this week.

Present perfect continuous tense The present perfect continuous tense (‘have/has’ + ‘been’ + Verb 1+ ‘– ing’) is used to express a continued or ongoing action or activity that began in past and continued up until the time of speaking. By way of explanation, let us consider the following example: I have been working in this company since 2005. have/has + been + Verb + ing have/has been working have/has been sleeping have/has been snoring have/has been studying . . . In the above example, the tense is ‘present’ indicated by ‘have’. The emphasis is on both: 1.

the duration of the described event, i.e. working, that began in the past (in this example in 2005) and is seen as relevant to the time of speaking.

2.

the continuity of the described action or event at the moment of speaking.

While translating this tense into Arabic, one may use a verb in the present, as in:

Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses

91

.2005 ‫أﻋ ُﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﺔ ُﻤ ُ ﻋﺎم‬ Or, one may start his/her sentence with 2005 ‫ ﻣﻨﺬ ﻋﺎم‬followed by a nominal sentence ‫ أﻧﺎ أﻋﻤﻞ ﻓﻲ ھﺬه اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ‬preceded by an additive connector ‫‘ و‬and’, as in:

.‫ﺔ‬

‫ وأﻨﺎ أﻋ ُﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ‬2005 ‫ﻤ ﻋﺎم‬

Alternatively, one may add ‫‘ﻻ أزال‬still’ followed by a verb in the present, thus emphasizing the continuity of the action, i.e. working, at the time of speaking, as in:

.2005 ‫ﺔ ﻤ ﻋﺎم‬

‫ال أﻋ ُﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ‬ ُ ‫ﻻ أز‬

By doing so, there will be an example of ‘level shift’ to use Catford’s (1965) term. According to Catford, level shifts occur when the source language item at one linguistic level (e.g. lexis) has a target language equivalent at a different level (e.g. grammar). To reinforce this point, following is an example taken from a novella titled ‫‘ اﻟﻔﺮاﺷﺔ واﻟﺰھﺮة‬The Butterfly and the Blossom’ by Zahrā’ Nāsir (translated by and cited in Fred Pragnell 2017: 2-3):

ٍ ‫ﺴﺎﻋﺎت ﺘُ ﺎﺠ اﻟ ﱠ‬ ‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬.‫واﻷزﻫﺎر واﻷﺸ ﺎر‬ ‫وﻫﺎ أﻨ ِ ﻫ ﺎ واﻗﻔ ٌﺔ ﻤ‬ ِ ِِ ‫أﺴ ُﻪ ﺒﻬ ا اﻟ ﻼ ِم‬ ُ َ ‫ ﻫ ب ﺴ ﻌﺎً ﻌ أن أوﺠﻌ ﻟﻪ ر‬. ‫ﺼﺎر ﻟ ﯿ ُﺞ ﻤ ُﻤ ﺎﺠﺎﺘ‬ ُ ‫اﻟ‬ ِ ‫اﻟﻔﺎرِغ؟‬

You have been standing here for hours, talking to the sun, the flowers and the trees. Even the cricket did not escape your talking. He ran away after you had made his head ache with this nonsense. In the first sentence, by the effect of the grammatical form ‫ واﻗﻔﺔ‬and time marker ‫‘ ﻣﻨﺬ‬since’, the emphasis is placed on the period that started in the past (some hours ago) and is seen as relevant to the present. Further, there is no time lapse between the act of standing and the act of talking. In the second sentence, however, the event is approached from a distal perspective, thus being viewed as a point on the timeline. In the third sentence, the act of making one’s head ache occurred before the act of running away. This can be modelled below:

92

Chapter Three You have been standing He did not escape + run away

you had made his head ache

present You have been talking

Now, let us discuss the following example taken from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﻄﻮﻓﺎن‬The Flood’ by Alī Muhammad al-Ja‘kī (translated by and cited in Zagood and Pragnell 2017: 66-7):

‫ ﻟن ﺗﻧﻛﻔﺊ إﻟﻰ داﺧﻠﮭﺎ ﺳﺗﺷﮭر ﻛل‬... ‫اﻵن ﺑدأت اﻟﻣواﺟﮭﺔ اﻟﺗﻲ ﻛﺎﻧت ﺗﻧﺗظرھﺎ‬ .‫أﺳﻠﺣﺗﮭﺎ وإذا ﻗﺗﻠت ﻻﺑد أن ﺗﻣوت واﻗﻔﺔ‬ Now, the confrontation she has been waiting for has started. She will not retreat inside herself, but she will make use of all her weapons and if she is to be killed, she will die fighting. In the relative clause introduced by ‫اﻟﺘﻲ‬, by the effect of ‫ﻛﺎن‬, the emphasis is placed on the continuity of the act of waiting. Further, there is an implicit time phrase such as ‫‘ ﻣﻨﺬ وﻗﺖ طﻮﯾﻞ‬for a long time’ that emphasizes the whole period of waiting that began in the past and is seen as relevant to the moment of speaking. This has been reflected by the translators when opting for ‘have been waiting’. EX: Correct the following sentences and then translate them into Arabic: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

He has watering the plants for half an hour. I have been studied since 3 O’clock. Has it raining for three day? Have I been living in America since 2003? Has he been playing cricket since two hour. Has they been watching television for 6 O’clock? Has she be working in this office for 2007?

Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses

93

4 Future tenses In both Arabic and English there are several words and expressions that indicate future, such as: ‘tomorrow’ ‫ﻏﺪًا‬, ‘next week’ ‫اﻟﻘﺎدم‬/‫اﻷﺳﺒﻮع اﻟ ُﻤﻘﺒﻞ‬, ‘next month’ ‫اﻟﻘﺎدم‬/‫اﻟﺸﮭﺮ اﻟ ُﻤﻘﺒﻞ‬, ‘next year’ ‫اﻟﻘﺎدﻣﺔ‬/‫اﻟﺴﻨﺔ اﻟ ُﻤﻘﺒﻠﺔ‬, ‘next summer’ ‫اﻟﻘﺎدم‬/‫اﻟﺼﯿﻒ اﻟ ُﻤﻘﺒﻞ‬, ‘next Friday’ ‫اﻟﻘﺎدﻣﺔ‬/‫اﻟﺠﻤﻌﺔ اﻟ ُﻤﻘﺒﻠﺔ‬, ‘in (the) future’ ‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ‬, ‘soon’ ‫ﻗﺮﯾﺒًﺎ‬, and so forth. In what follows, future tenses will be explained in detail with reference to translation.

Simple future tense The simple future tense in Arabic and English is used to express an action or event that will happen in the future. In English, it is formed by the modal verbs ‘will’ or ‘shall’ followed by the base form of the verb, or by the modalized phrase ‘be going to’ followed by the base form of the verb, as in: I will get married next year. (just future) I am going to get married next year. (future + a plan) will/be going to + Verb 1

‫ﺳﻮف‬/‫ﺳـــ‬

will/be going to + get married will/be going to + buy will/be going to + sell will/be going to + invite will/be going to + hold . . .

‫أﺗﺰو ُج‬ ّ ‫ﺳﻮف‬/‫ﺳــ‬ ‫ﺳﻮف أﺷﺘﺮي‬/‫ﺳــ‬ ‫ﺳﻮف أﺑﯿ ُﻊ‬/‫ﺳــ‬ ‫ﺳﻮف أدﻋﻮ‬/‫ﺳــ‬ ُ‫ﺳﻮف أﻋﻘﺪ‬/‫ﺳــ‬ . . .

In Arabic, it is formed by ‫ ﺳــ‬or ‫ﺳﻮف‬, as in the following translations of the above examples:

ِ ‫ )أو ﺴ ف أﺘ وج ﻓﻲ اﻟ ِﺔ اﻟ ﻘ‬.‫ﻠﺔ‬ ِ ‫ﺴﺄﺘ وج ﻓﻲ اﻟ ِﺔ اﻟ ﻘ‬ (‫ﻠﺔ‬ ُّ َ ُّ ّ ّ ُ ُ ِ ِ ِ (‫ﺴﺄﺘ ّو ُج ﻓﻲ اﻟ ّ ﺔ اﻟ ُ ﻘ ﻠﺔ )أو ﻓﻲ ﻨ ﻲ أن أﺘ ّو َج ﻓﻲ اﻟ ّ ﺔ اﻟ ُ ﻠﺔ‬

94

Chapter Three

The negative form is formed by inserting ‘not’ after ‘will/shall’ or after ‘am/is/are’ in ‘be going to’ without any change, as in: She will buy a new building next year. She will not buy a new building next year. will/be not going to + Verb 1 will not/be not going to + buy will not/be not going to + ask will not/be not going to + water will not/be not going to + paint will not/be not going to + plant . . .

Also, she won’t buy … ‫ ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﻀﺎرع‬+ ‫ﻟﻦ‬ ‫ﻟﻦ أﺷﺘﺮي‬ ‫ﻟﻦ أﺳﺄ َل‬ ‫ﻟﻦ أﺳﻘﻲ‬ ‫ع‬ َ ‫ﻟﻦ أزر‬ ‫ﻟﻦ أﺻﺒﻎ‬ . . .

In Arabic, however, the particle ‫ ﻟﻦ‬is used without ‫ ﺳــ‬or ‫ ﺳﻮف‬as it has the potential resource to reflect both negation and futurity. As an illustration, the following two examples quoted from a collection of short stories titled ‫‘ أﻣﻮتُ ﻛ ّﻞ ﯾﻮم‬I Die Every Day’ by Alī Muhammad al-Ja‘kī (translated by and cited in Zagood and Pragnell 2017) may be considered:

... ‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺤﻞ‬

‫ﻤ اﻟ‬

‫ ﻟ أﺘ ك اﻟﻔ ﺼﺔ ﻟ‬... ‫ﺴﺄوﻗﻒ اﻻﻨﻐ ﺎس ﻓﻲ اﻫ اﺌ‬

In these two finite clauses, the speaker talks about two events in the future indicated by ‫ ﺳـ‬in ‫ ﺳﺄوﻗﻒ‬and ‫ ﻟﻦ‬in ‫ﻟﻦ أﺗﺮك‬. These two acts do not represent immediate reality that covers the portion of time in which the speech event occurs, but rather they refer to certain events that have not been occurred yet, thereby being considered as part of irreality (for more details, see ‘Modality’ in this book). To put it differently, they are approached from a distal perspective, thus being seen as two points on the timeline, as modelled below: I will stop … present This has been translated as:

I won’t give

Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses

95

I will stop giving in to your nagging. I will never give up the chance for more wading around in mud. (pp. 83-4) Following is the second example (pp. 127-8):

‫ﻓﻬ‬

‫ ﺴ‬... ‫رة ﺘ ﻔ ﺦ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺤﻞ‬

‫ل اﻟﻘ ﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺠ ﻒ ﻤ‬

‫اﻟ ﻓﺎن ﺴ ﻌ وﺘ‬

.‫اﻟ ﻘ ﻞ‬

‫اﻟ ﻞ اﻷﺤ‬

In the above example, four finite clauses are employed by the writer to talk about different events in the future. They are: Morphological tense

Clause

‫اﻟﻄﻮﻓﺎن ﺳﯿﻌﻢ‬

The morphological tense in this clause is ‘future’ indicated by ‫ ﺳـ‬in ‫ﺳﯿﻌﻢ‬. The morphological tense in this clause is ‘present’ ‫ﺗﺘﺤﻮل‬ ّ .

‫ﺟﯿﻒ‬

‫إﻟﻰ‬

‫اﻟﻘﺮﯾﺔ‬

‫وﺗﺘﺤﻮل‬ ‫ﻣﻄﻤﻮرة‬

The morphological tense in this clause is ‘present’ ‫ﺗﺘﻔﺴّﺦ‬.

... ‫ﺗﺘﻔﺴﺦ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮﺣﻞ‬

The morphological tense in this clause is ‘future’ indicated by ‫ ﺳـ‬in ‫ﺳﯿﺠﺮف‬.

‫ﺳﯿﺠﺮﻓﮭﻢ اﻟﺴﯿﻞ اﻷﺣﻤﺮ اﻟﺜﻘﯿﻞ‬

As indicated above, all these clauses are in the future as there is an implicit ‫ ﺳـ‬or ‫ ﺳﻮف‬in the second and third clauses, that is, ‫ﺳﺘﺘﺤﻮل اﻟﻘﺮﯾﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺟﯿﻒ‬ ّ ‫ ﻣﻄﻤﻮرة‬and ‫ﺳﺘﺘﻔﺴّﺦ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮﺣﻞ‬. Being fully aware of the morphological and contextual tenses used in the original text, the translators have opted for the use of a simple future tense in all clauses, as in: The flood will cover the village and it will transform it into underground corpses that will disintegrate in the mud. The heavy red stream will sweep them away. To reinforce this point, the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ ﺣﻜﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﻘﻨﺪﯾﻞ‬The Tale of the Lamp’ by ‘Izz al-Dīn al-Madanī (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 30-1) may be considered:

‫ وﻫ ﺎك ﺘ‬،‫ واﺴﻠ اﻟ ﺎدة إﻟﻰ ﻤ ﻬﺎﻫﺎ‬، ‫ ))ارﺤﻞ ﺎ أﺨﻲ ﻋ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﻠ‬:‫أﺠﺎ ﻪ اﻟ ﺠﻞ‬ .((... ‫– إﻟﻰ ﺴﻠ ﺎﻨﻬﺎ‬

‫ ﻤ ﺸ و دﺨ ﻟﻬﺎ أن ﺘﻘ م ﻫ ﺔ – أ ﺎً ﺎﻨ‬،‫ﻤ ﯿ ﺔ‬

The traveller replied: “Leave this land, my friend, and follow the road until its end. There, you will find a city, and one of the conditions for entering it is that you offer a gift – any gift – to its Sultan…”.

96

Chapter Three

In the fourth clause ... ‫وھﻨﺎك ﺗﺠﺪ ﻣﺪﯾﻨﺔ‬, there is an implicit ‫ ﺳـ‬or ‫ ﺳﻮف‬as the emphasis is put on the act of finding a city in the future. It is approached from a distal perspective, thus being seen as a point on the timeline. This has been taken into account by the translators when opting for ‘you will find a city …’. At times, some of the future constructions can be used in the past, particularly in a direct mode of narration. As an illustration, let us consider the following example taken from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻣﺮأة وﺣﯿﺪة‬A Lonely Woman’ by Zakariyyā Tāmir (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 144-5):

.(( ‫ ))ﺴﺄدﻓﻊ ﻟ ﻤﺎ ﺘ‬:‫ﻬﺎ‬

‫ار ذﻫ ًﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻤﻌ‬ ‫وﻫﻲ ﺘ ﻤ ﺴ ًا‬

‫ﻗﺎﻟ‬

In the above example, a direct mode of narration is utilized by the writer where a verbal process is employed. To begin with, the letter ‫ ت‬attached to the verb ‫ ﻗﺎل‬is the Sayer of the process, the verb ‫‘ ﻗﺎل‬to say’ in the past is the process of saying, ‫ﺳﻮارا ذھﺒﯿًﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻌﺼﻤﮭﺎ‬ ‫‘ وھﻲ ﺗﺮﻣﻖ‬while giving a look ً at the gold bracelet on her wrist’ is a manner circumstance construing the way in which the process is actualized and presented, and ‫ﺳﺄدﻓﻊ ﻟﻚ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺮﯾﺪ‬ ‘I’ll pay you what you want’ is the Verbiage of the process, that is, what has been said. In the Verbiage of the process ‫‘ ﺳﺄدﻓﻊ ﻟﻚ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺮﯾﺪ‬I’ll pay you what you want’, a material process is employed by the writer where: ~ ~ ~ ~

the implicit pronoun ‫‘ أﻧﺎ‬I’ indicated by the letter ‫ أ‬attached to the verb ‫‘ دﻓﻊ‬to pay’ is the Actor. ‫‘ دﻓﻊ‬to pay’ which is in the future indicated by the letter ‫ ﺳـ‬is the process of doing. ‫‘ ﻟﻚ‬to you’ is a participant filling the role of Recipient. ‫‘ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺮﯾﺪ‬what you want’ is the Goal. Here a desideration process is used where the implicit pronoun َ‫‘ أﻧﺖ‬you’ is a participant filling the role of Senser, ‫‘ أراد‬to want’ is the process of sensing/desiring (for more details, see Chapter 4).

This verbal process can be modelled as follows: She said …

I’ll pay you what you want

present in the past

present

Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses

97

As can be seen, there are two timelines, and the process of saying occurred in the past and is approached from a distal perspective, thus being viewed as a point in the future on the past-timeline (indicated by a horizontal dotted line), but in the past on the present-timeline (indicated by a horizontal straight line). Being fully aware of the modes of narration along with the process and its participants and circumstances, the translators have suggested: Staring at the gold bracelet on her wrist, she said: “I’ll pay you what you want”.

Future continuous tense The future continuous tense in Arabic and English is used to express an action or event that will be in progress in the future. So, the emphasis will be on the continuity of the described action or activity in the future. In English, it is formed by the modal verbs ‘will’ or ‘shall’ followed by ‘be’ plus the base form of the verb + ‘–ing’, as in: I will be teaching at this time tomorrow. Tomorrow, I will be sleeping when my father arrives home. I will be waiting for you tonight. Please, do not be late. I won’t be at home at ten tomorrow. When you wake up, I will be going to work. will be + Verb 1 + ing will be teaching will be sleeping will be waiting will be … will be going . . .

... ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن‬/‫ﺳـــ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺪرﯾﺲ‬ ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮنُ ُﻣﻨﺸﻐﻼ‬/‫ﺳــ‬ ِ ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮنُ ﻧﺎﺋ ًﻤﺎ‬/‫ﺳــ‬ ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮنُ ﺑﺎِﻧﺘﻈﺎر‬/‫ﺳــ‬ ُ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن‬/‫ﺳــ‬ ‫ﺘﻮﺟ ًﮭﺎ‬ ‫ﻣ‬ / ّ ُ ً ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮنُ ذاھﺒﺎ‬/‫ﺳــ‬ . . .

In Arabic, the future continuous tense is formed by

.... ‫ﺘ ن‬/‫ن‬

followed by:

/‫ﺴ ف أﻛ ن‬/‫ﺴـ‬

98

Chapter Three

1. a prepositional phrase followed by a verb in the present, a present active participle ‫ اِﺳﻢ ﻓﺎﻋﻞ‬or nothing depending on the action/activity itself, as in:

.‫ﻏ ً ا‬

ِ ‫ﺴﺄﻛ ن ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﱠ‬ ِّ ‫ﻒ أ‬ ‫س ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﻗ‬ ُ ‫ُدر‬ ‫ُﻞ أﺒﻲ اﻟ‬ ‫ﺴﺄﻛ ن )ﻓﻲ ﺴ ( ﻨﺎﺌ ﺎً ﻋ ﻤﺎ‬

.‫ﻏ ً ا‬

. ‫ﺠﺎء ﻻ ﺘ ﺄﺨ‬ ‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬/ ‫ﺴﺄﻛ ن )ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬ ً ‫ ﻓ‬،‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎﻟﺔ( أﻨ ُ َك اﻟﻠ ﻠﺔ‬/ ِ ‫ﻟ أﻛ ن ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬ .‫ﺎﺤﺎ ﻏ ً ا‬ ً ‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎﻋﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﺸ ة ﺼ‬ .‫ﻘﻲ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻌ ﻞ‬

‫ ﺴﺄﻛ ن ﻓﻲ‬، ‫ﻘ‬

‫ﻋ ﻤﺎ ﺘ‬

2. a present active participle ‫اِﺳﻢ ﻓﺎﻋﻞ‬, as in:

.‫ﻏ ً ا‬

‫ﻤ ﻬ ِ ً ﺎ ﺎﻟ ر‬/ ُ ً‫ﻤ ﻐ ﻻ‬/ً‫ﺴﺄﻛ ُن ُﻤ ﻐﻼ‬ .‫ﻏ ً ا‬ ‫ُﻞ أﺒﻲ اﻟ‬ ‫ﺴﺄﻛ ُن ﻨﺎﺌ ً ﺎ ﻋ ﻤﺎ‬ ِ ِ ‫ن‬ . ‫ﺠﺎء ﻻ ﺘ ﺄﺨ‬ ً ‫ ﻓ‬،‫ﺴﺄﻛ ُ ﺎﻨ ﺎر َك اﻟﻠ ﻠﺔ‬ .‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎﻋﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﺸ ة ﺼ ﺎﺤﺎً ﻏ ً ا‬ ‫ﻟ أﻛ ن ﺠﺎﻟ ً ﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬ .‫ ُﻤ ّﺠ ًﻬﺎ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻌ ﻞ‬/‫ ﺴﺄﻛ ُن ذاﻫً ﺎ‬، ‫ﻋ ﻤﺎ ﺘ ﻘ‬ ‫ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﻗ‬

As an illustration, the following example quoted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﻘﻄﺎر اﻟﺼﺎﻋﺪ إﻟﻰ ﺑﻐﺪاد‬The Train Heading up to Baghdad’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 1011) may be considered:

... ‫اﻟﻠ ﯿ ﺴﺄﺘ ﻬ ﺎ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫أودع اﻟ ﺠﻬ‬ ّ ‫ﺒ اﺴﻲ ﻤ اﻟ ﺎﻓ ة‬

‫أ ﻠﻠ‬

I looked down out of the window to bid farewell to the two dear faces that I would be leaving. In the relative clause introduced by ‫اﻟﻠﺬﯾﻦ‬, the emphasis is shifted from the beginning and end of the action towards the middle phase, thus presenting the act of leaving as an ongoing activity. This is an example of continuous future in the past where there are two timelines, as modelled below:

The act of looking

present in the past

I would be leaving

present

Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses

99

As can be seen, the act of leaving (indicated by a zigzagged line) stretched over the past-timeline (indicated by a horizontal dotted line) is characterized by having a left-hand boundary, that is, the moment in which the train moves off; therefore, it is partially bounded. Having taken into account that the act of leaving is stretched over the past timeline and not the present one, the translators have opted for ‘would be leaving’: I looked down out of the window to bid farewell to the two dear faces that I would be leaving. Had the translators, for instance, resorted to a rendering such as ‘… that I would leave’, they would have imposed on the scene different specifications where the act of leaving is approached cognitively from a distal perspective, thus being seen as a point on the past-timeline.

Future perfect tense The future perfect tense in Arabic and English is used to talk about an action or event that began/will begin and will be completed in the future. So, the emphasis is on the duration of the described action or activity that began/will begin and completed in the future. In English, it is formed by the modal verbs ‘will’ or ‘shall’ followed by ‘have’ + Verb 3, as in: Next year, I will have taught at this university for 10 years (meaning I have been teaching for 9 years so far). In the above example, the emphasis is placed on the whole period in which the act of teaching began nine years ago and is seen as relevant to another point on the timeline in the future, as modelled below:

the whole period = 10 years next year

9 years ago

present

Following is another example: Within three years, she will have worked in this company for 20 years (meaning she has been working for 17 years so far).

100

Chapter Three

In this process of doing, the Actor has been working in the company for 17 years, but she needs more three years to complete 20 years. As such, the emphasis is put on the period that began in the past and is seen as relevant to another point of time in the future. In Arabic, the future perfect tense is formed by

... ‫ﺗﻜﻮن ﻗﺪ‬/‫ﯾﻜﻮن‬/‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن‬/‫ﺳـ‬ followed by a verb in the past, as in: will have + Verb 3 will have taught will have worked will have waited will have achieved will have learnt . . .

‫ﻣﺎض‬ ‫ ﻓﻌﻞ‬+ ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن ﻗﺪ‬/‫ﺳـــ‬ ٍ ُ‫درﺳﺖ‬ ّ ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن ﻗﺪ‬/‫ﺳــ‬ ُ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن ﻗﺪ ﻋﻤﻠﺖ‬/‫ﺳــ‬ ُ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن ﻗﺪ اِﻧﺘﻈﺮت‬/‫ﺳــ‬ ُ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن ﻗﺪ ﺣﻘﻘﺖ‬/‫ﺳــ‬ ُ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن ﻗﺪ ﺗﻌﻠ ّﻤﺖ‬/‫ﺳــ‬ . . .

ِ ‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺔ اﻟ ﻘ‬ ِ ‫ﺴ‬ ِ ‫ﻟ ة ﻋ‬/‫ات‬ ‫ ﺴﺄﻛ ن ﻗ‬،‫ﻠﺔ‬ ّ َ ‫درﺴ ُ ﻓﻲ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻋ‬ ّ ِ ‫ )أو ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺔ اﻟ ﻘ‬.‫ات‬ ٍ ‫ﺴ‬ ‫ ﺴﺄﻛ ن ﻗ أﻛ ﻠ ُ ﺴ ﻲ اﻟﻌﺎﺸ ِة ﻤ اﻟ ر ﻓﻲ‬،‫ﻠﺔ‬ ّ ُ ِ .(‫ﺎﻤﻌﺔ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ِ ‫ﻓﻲ ﻏ ن‬ ‫ )أو ﻓﻲ‬.‫ﺴ ٍﺔ‬ ‫ ﺴ ن ﻗ ﻋ ﻠ ْ ﻓﻲ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ِﺔ ﻋ‬،‫ﺜﻼث ﺴ ات‬ ِ ‫ﻏ ن‬ .(‫ﻤ اﻟﻌ ﻞ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ِﺔ‬ ‫ ﺴ ن ﻗ أﻛ ﻠ ْ ﺴ ﻬﺎ اﻟﻌ‬،‫ﺜﻼث ﺴ ات‬ EX: Translate the following sentences into Arabic: 1.

I will have had my dinner by 10 o’clock.

2.

Come back in half an hour. I will have revised my lessons, so we can go out for a walk.

3.

In two months’ time, she will have finished her studies; therefore, she may start working with us.

4.

By the end of this semester, hopefully, I will have learned to speak French.

5.

She will have graduated from college this time next year.

Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses

101

Future perfect continuous tense The future perfect continuous tense in Arabic and English is used to talk about an action or event that began in the past and will continue up to a specified period of time in the future. So, the emphasis is on: 1. the duration of the described action or activity that began and is seen as relevant to a specified time in the future, and 2. the continuity of the described action or activity in the future. In English, it is formed by the modal verbs ‘will’ or ‘shall’ followed by ‘have’ + ‘been’ + Verb 1 + ‘–ing’, as in: Next year, I will have been teaching in this university for 10 years (meaning I have been teaching for 9 years so far). Within three years, she will have been working in this company for 20 years (meaning she has been working for 17 years so far). In Arabic, the future perfect continuous tense is formed by:

... ‫ﺴ ف أﻛ ن ﻻ أزال‬/‫ﺴـ‬

It is worth noting that this tense is rarely used in Arabic.

... ‫ن ﻻ ﯿ ال‬

‫ﺴ ف‬/‫ﺴـ‬

... ‫ﺴ ف ﺘ ن ﻻ ﺘ ال‬/‫ﺴـ‬ followed by a verb in the present, as in: will have been + Verb1 + ing will have been teaching will have been working will have been waiting will have been learning . . .

‫ ﻓﻌﻞ ﻣﻀﺎرع‬+ ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن ﻻ أزال‬/‫ﺳـــ‬ ‫س‬ ّ ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن ﻻ أزا ُل‬/‫ﺳــ‬ ُ ‫أدر‬ ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن ﻻ أزا ُل أﻋﻤ ُﻞ‬/‫ﺳــ‬ ‫ِﻧﺘﻈﺮ‬ ُ ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن ﻻ أزا ُل ا‬/‫ﺳــ‬ ‫ﺳﻮف أﻛﻮن ﻻ أزا ُل أﺗﻌﻠ ُﻢ‬/‫ﺳــ‬ . . .

Now, let us compare the following sentences:

.

‫ﻟ ة ﺴ‬/ ‫ ﺴﺄﻛ ن ﻗ ِﻋ ُ ﻓﻲ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﯿ ﺔ ﻤ‬،‫( ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻬ اﻟ ُ ﻘِ ﻞ‬a ‫ ﺴﺄﻛ ن ﻻ أزال أﻋ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﯿ ﺔ ﻨﻔ ﻬﺎ ﻤ ُ ﺴ‬،‫( ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻬ اﻟ ﻘ ﻞ‬b

102

Chapter Three

ٍ .‫ﺴﺎﻋﺔ‬ ‫ﻟ ِة‬/ ُ ‫ وﺴﺄﻛ ن ﻗ ِاﻨ َك ﻤ‬، َ ‫( ﻟ ِ ﯿ َ إﻻ ﺨ ُ دﻗﺎﺌ‬a ٍ .‫ﺴﺎﻋﺔ‬ ُ ‫ ِﺎﻨ ﺎرك ﻤ‬/‫ وﺴﺄﻛ ن ﻻ أزال أﻨ ك‬، َ ‫( ﻟ ﯿ َ إﻻ ﺨ ُ دﻗﺎﺌ‬b ‫ﻟ ِة ﺴ‬/ ُ ‫ ﺴﺄﻛ ن ﻗ ﻋ ﻠ ُ ﻓﻲ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻤ‬،‫ﻌ ﺜﻼﺜﺔ ﺸﻬ ٍر‬ ِ .‫ال أﻋ ُﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻤ ُ ﺨ ِﺔ أﻋ ا ٍم‬ ُ ‫ ﺴﺄﻛ ن ﻻ أز‬،‫ﻌ ﺜﻼﺜﺔ ﺸﻬ ر‬ .

(a (b

In the above sentences, the tense is future, indicated by ‫ﺳــ‬. However, the emphasis is different. In group (a), the emphasis is put on the duration of the described actions and events, viz. ‫ﻋﺎش‬ َ ‫ا‬, and ‫ ﻋﻤ َﻞ‬that began in the past and will be َ , ‫ِﻧﺘﻈﺮ‬ completed in the future, indicated by ‫ ﻗﺪ‬followed by a verb in the past, thus lending themselves to ‘the future perfect tense, i.e. ‘will have lived/waited/worked’. The emphasis in group (b), however, is on: 1.

the duration of the described actions that began in the past and are seen as relevant to a specified time in the future, and

2.

the continuity of these actions in the future.

As such, to reflect the tense (future) and the aspect (perfect + progressive), one may well resort to using the future perfect continuous tense, i.e. ‘will have been living/waiting/working’.

5 Revision EX 1: Translate the following dialogue between two friends, paying extra attention to the tenses:

.‫ﻔﻰ‬ .‫ﺔ‬

‫ﻗﺎدر ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ‬

‫ﻔﻰ وﻏ‬

‫ﻤﺎذا ﺘﻘ ل؟‬

‫ ﻓﻬ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬. َ ‫ﻤ ﻠ ﺎ ﺴ ﻌ‬ ‫ﻔﻰ؟‬ ‫وﻤ ﻰ دﺨﻞ اﻟ‬

‫ﻤ ﺨ ﺔ ﺸﻬ ر وﻫ راﻗ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻔﻰ؟‬

‫ﻤ أﻛ‬

‫ﯿ و أﻨ ﻻ ﺘﻌ ف؟‬

‫ وﻫﻞ زرﺘﻪ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬.‫ف‬ ُ ‫ﻨﻌ ﻻ أﻋ‬

~ ~

~ ~

~

‫‪Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses‬‬

‫‪103‬‬

‫~‬ ‫~‬ ‫~‬

‫~‬

‫~‬

‫ﻨﻌ زرﺘﻪ ﻋ ة ﻤ ٍ‬ ‫ات‪.‬‬ ‫ّ‬ ‫ﻋ ﺤﺎﻟ ﻪ؟‬ ‫وﻤﺎذا ﻗﺎل اﻟ‬

‫ﻘ ل إﻨﻪ ﻌﺎﻨﻲ ﻀ ًﻘﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ّﻔ‬ ‫ﺴﺄزورﻩ ﻏ ً ا‪ .‬ﻫﻞ ﺘ ّد أن ﺘ ﻫ ﻤﻌﻲ‪.‬‬

‫ﻨﻌ ‪ ،‬ﺴﺄﺼﺎﺤ َ ‪ ،‬ﻓﻬ ﺼ ﯿ ٌ ﻋ‬

‫ﻤ ﻓ ة‬

‫ﻠﺔ‪ ،‬ﻟ ﻪ ﻟ‬

‫ﻌ ف‪.‬‬

‫‪.‬‬

‫‪EX 2: Translate the following sentences into English, paying special‬‬ ‫‪attention to the morphological and contextual tenses:‬‬

‫‪ .1‬ﻤﺎ إن ﺘﻠ ِت اﻟ ﺎء ﺎﻟﻐ م ﺤ ﻰ ﻤ ْت ﻤ ًا ﻏ ًا‪.‬‬ ‫ﺸ ًا ﻗ ًﺎ‪.‬‬ ‫أت ﺘ‬ ‫‪ .2‬ﻤﺎ إن أﻏ‬ ‫ْ ﻋ ﻬﺎ ﺤ ﻰ ﺒ ْ‬ ‫‪ .3‬ﻤﺎ إن ﺴ ﻌ ﺎ ﺼ ت ِ‬ ‫اﻻﻨﻔ ﺎر ﺤ ﻰ ﻫ ﻋ ﺎ إﻟﻰ ﻤ ﺎن اﻟ ﺎدث ﻟ‬ ‫َ‬ ‫ﺠ اﻨ ﺎ‪.‬‬

‫‪ .4‬ﻤﺎ إن أﺒ َل اﻟ ّر ُب أﺤ َ ﻻﻋ ﻲ اﻟ ﻓﺎع ﺒﻼﻋ ِ ﻫ م ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬ ‫ﺴ ّﻠ ا ﻫ ﻓ ‪.‬‬ ‫رت ﻤ ﻪ ﻟ ﺎ ﺤ ث ﱡﻞ ﻫ ا‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .5‬ﻟ إﻨ َ ﻗ ﺴ ﻌ َ ﻨ‬ ‫ﻲ واِﻋ َ‬

‫ُ ﻤ ﺎﻨ ‪ ،‬ﻟ ﺎ ﺴﺄﻟ ﻪ ﻋ ﺴ ﺘﺄﺨّﻩ إﻟﻰ أن ﯿﻬ أ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .6‬ﻟ‬ ‫‪ .7‬ﻟ إﻨﻬﺎ ﻗ ﺎﻋ ْ ﺴ ﺎرﺘﻬﺎ وﺴ دت ﻤﺎ ﺒ ﻤ ﻬﺎ‪ ،‬ﻟ ﺎ وﻀﻌ ْ ﻨﻔ ﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﻤ ﻗﻒ ﺤ ج‪.‬‬ ‫ِ ﺴ‬

‫‪ .8‬ﻟ‬

‫دراﺴ ﻬﺎ‪.‬‬

‫‪ .9‬ﻟ‬

‫‪ .10‬ﻟ‬

‫ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫اﻟ ﺎﻨﻲ ﺤ ﻰ‬

‫ﻞ ﻫ ا‬

‫أﺸﻬ ﻗﻠ ﻠﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ وﻓﺎة أﻤﻬﺎ ﺤ ﻰ ﺴﺎﻓ ت إﻟﻰ ﻓ ﻨ ﺎ ﻹﻛ ﺎل‬

‫ِ‬ ‫ك اﻟﻘﺎﻋ َﺔ‬ ‫ِ وﻗ ٌ‬ ‫ٌﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺒ ء اﻟ ﺎﻀ ِة ﺤ ﻰ ﻗ َر اﻷﺴ ﺎ ُذ أن ﯿ َ‬ ‫ِ ﺴ ِء ﺘ ِ‬ ‫ف ﻌ اﻟ ﻠ ﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫ّ‬ ‫ِ إﻻ ﺴ ﺎن ﻋﻠﻰ ﺘﺄﺴ‬

‫أﻋ ﺎﻟﻬ ‪.‬‬

‫‪ .11‬ﻤ أﻛ‬ ‫‪ .12‬ﻤ ﻋ‬ ‫‪ .13‬ﻤ اﻟ‬

‫أرﺎﺤﺎ‬ ‫ﺸ ﻬ ﺤ ﻰ ﺤﻘﻘ ا‬ ‫ً‬

‫ﻤ ﺜﻼث ﺴﺎﻋ ٍ‬ ‫ﺎت وﻫ ﯿ اﻛ دروﺴﻪ ِاﺴ ﻌ ادا ِ‬ ‫ﻟﻼﻤ ﺎن‪.‬‬ ‫ً‬ ‫َُ‬ ‫دﻗﺎﺌ وﻫﻲ ﺘ ﻎ أ ﺎﻓ ﻫﺎ‪.‬‬

‫ﺎح اﻟ ﺎﻛ واﻟ ﺎء ﺘ‬

‫ﻐ ارة‪.‬‬

‫ووﺴﻌ ا‬ ‫ة ّ‬

104

Chapter Three

.‫ﻘ ور أن أﻨﺎم‬

‫وأﻨﺎ ﺼﺎ ِح ﻟ‬

. ‫ﺴ ات وﻫﻲ ﺘ ّﺨ‬

‫ ﻤ ﺒ وغ اﻟ‬.14

‫ﻤ ﻋ‬

‫ ﻤ أﻛ‬.15

EX 3: Correct the following sentences and then translate them into Arabic, paying special attention to the differences between the two languages: 1.

I did not see you for ages.

2.

My brother has been living in London for 2005.

3.

My teacher asked us to bring our books with us recently.

4.

I called my friend before my father arrived home.

5.

Last semester, there was 40 students in my class.

6.

At the weekend, my youngest daughter usually sleep in till 10 a.m.

7.

I heard that my friend has fight bravely before he dies.

8.

The teacher promised us that he will explain a new topic.

9.

By the end of this year, I will publish 3 articles.

10. Last night, I did not slept well; I stayed tossing and turning. EX 4: Translate the following dialogue into English, paying special attention to the morphological and contextual tenses:

‫ ﻫﻞ ﺴ ن‬.‫ﺎء ﻓﻲ ﺘ ﺎم اﻟ ّ ﺎﻋﺔ اﻟ ّ ﺎ ﻌﺔ‬ ً ‫ﻏً ا ﻤ‬ ِ ‫ﺎر ِﺎﻨ‬ ِ ‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬، ‫ﺎر أُﺨ ﻲ اﻟ ﻲ‬ ‫ ُ َ أن‬،‫ ﻟ ا‬.‫ِ وﻟ أﺨ َج ﺜﺎﻨ ﺔ‬ ‫اﻟ اﺠ ﺎت‬ ‫ ﻗ أﻨﻬ ُ ﻌ‬،‫ِﻋ ﻫﺎ‬

‫أزورك ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬ ‫أر ُ أن‬ َ ‫ﻤ ﺠ ًدا؟‬

~

‫ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﻗ‬،‫ ﺴﺄﻛ ُن‬،‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻘ ﻘﺔ‬ ‫ ﺴﺄﻛ ُن ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬،‫ ﻌ ﻫﺎ‬. ‫ﺴ ُﻞ ﻤ ﺎر‬ ِ ِ ،‫ ﺴﺄﻛ ُن‬.‫ﺎء‬ ً ‫ﺘﺄﺘﻲ ﻌ اﻟ ﺎﻋﺔ اﻟ ﺎﺴﻌﺔ ﻤ‬ . َ ‫و ﻟ ﺴﺄﻛ ُن ُﻤ ﻔّ ًﻏﺎ ﻟ‬

~

ِ .‫ﺎء‬ َ ‫ ﺴﺄﻛ ُن ﻋ‬،‫ﺤ ًﺎ‬ ً ‫ك ﻓﻲ ﺘ ﺎ ِم اﻟ ّ ﺎﻋﺔ اﻟ ﺎﺴﻌﺔ ﻤ‬

~

Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses

105

EX 5: The following text extracted (with a slight modification) from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺨﯿﻮل‬The Horses’ by ‘Abdulrahmān alRubaī‘ī (cited in Dickins et al. 2002: 86-7). Try to identify: !

the verbs used in Arabic along with their tenses, and then compare them with their suggested translations, and

!

the interrogative sentences along with their types in both texts:

:‫ﺴﺄﻟ ْﻪ‬

She asked: ~

‫أﺤ َت أﻤ ؟‬

Did you check in yesterday?

He shook his head and said ~

Almost.

~

Did you ask for a room with a bathroom?

~

Yes.

~

Well, give me the number as my room hasn’t got one.

She added: ~ As you see, I get fed up with the dirt.

‫ّ ﺎم؟‬

~

:‫أﺴ ُﻪ وﻗﺎل‬ َ ‫ﻫّ ر‬ . ‫~ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺸ‬

‫أ ﻠ َ ﻏ ﻓﺔ‬

~

. ‫ﻨﻌ‬

~

‫ ﻓﻐ ﻓ ﻲ‬.‫ ِاﺨ ﻨﻲ ﻋ رﻗ ِ ِﻬﺎ‬.‫ﺤ ًﺎ‬

~

.‫ﺒﻼ ﺤ ّ ﺎم‬

.‫ﺎ ﻘ ﻲ‬

‫ اﻟ ﺴﺦ‬، ‫ﻛ ﺎ ﺘ‬

: ْ ‫وأﻀﺎﻓ‬ ~

EX 6: Evaluate the translation of the following text extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺬي أﺿﺎع أﻣﮫ‬He Who Lost His Mother’ by Zaīd Mutī’ Dāmāj (translated by and cited in Almanna, forthcoming), paying extra attention to the morphological and contextual tenses.

... ‫اﻟﺬي أﺿﺎع أﻣﮫ‬

He who lost his mother ~ “I’ve lost my mum, sir”. The man didn’t look at him; rather,

... ‫أﻤﻲ‬ ‫ﺴ ﻩ‬

‫ ﻟﻘ أﻀﻌ‬..

‫ﺴ‬

‫اﻟ ﺠﻞ إﻟ ﻪ ﺒﻞ واﻛ‬

~ ‫ﻟ ﯿ‬

106

Chapter Three

he continued walking quickly as the boy hurried to keep up with him.

.‫ﺎذ ﻪ‬

‫ﻲ ﯿﻬ ول ﻟ ﻲ‬ ... ‫أﻤﻲ‬

~ “I’ve lost my mum, madam…”. The lady looked at him askance and automatically ran her hand over her handbag. The boy walked alongside her until he reached the starting point that he had set limits for himself that he would not cross. It was on the pavement in front of the big store that occupied the ground floor of a giant building touching the sky.

~

“I’ve lost my mum”.

~

“Oh…you’ll find her, my lad”.

‫ﻟﻘ أﻀﻌ‬

‫اﻟ‬

~

‫ﻨ ت اﻟ أة إﻟ ﻪ ﺸ ًار وﺘﻠ‬

‫ﻤ ﻔ ﻬﺎ‬

... ‫ﺔ ﺘﻠﻘﺎﺌ ﺔ‬

‫ارﻫﺎ إﻟﻰ أن وﺼﻞ إﻟﻰ‬

‫اﻟ و ﺔ‬

‫ﻲ‬

‫وﺴﺎر اﻟ‬

‫ودا ﻻ‬ ً ‫ﺎن ﻗ وﻀﻊ ﻟ ﻔ ﻪ ﺤ‬

‫ﻨﻘ ﺔ‬ .‫ﯿ ﻌ اﻫﺎ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﺼ ﻒ أﻤﺎم اﻟ‬

‫ﻛﺎﻨ‬

‫ﻞ اﻟ ور اﻷرﻀﻲ ﻟﻌ ﺎرة ﻋ ﻼﻗﺔ‬ ... ‫ﺎب‬ ‫ ﻫﻼ ﺴﺎﻋ ﺘ ﻲ؟‬..‫م‬

“Could you help me, sir?” With his hands inside the pockets of his warm coat, the man looked at him and continued walking …

‫ واﻟ‬... ‫ع‬

‫اﻟ‬ ‫ﺘﻌﺎﻨ اﻟ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫أﯿﻬﺎ اﻟ‬

‫إﻟ ﻪ اﻟ ﺠﻞ و اﻩ ﻓﻲ ﺠ ﻲ ﻤﻌ ﻔﻪ‬ ... ‫ﺴ ﻩ‬ ... ‫أﻤﻲ‬ ...

‫ﻫﺎ ﺎ ﻋ‬

‫ﻨ‬

‫ وواﻛ‬،‫اﻟ اﻓﺊ‬

‫ﻟﻘ أﻀﻌ‬

~

‫! ﺴ‬... ‫أوﻩ‬

~

EX 7: Complete the translation of the following text adapted from a short story by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb titled ‫‘ اﻟﻘﻄﺎر اﻟﺼﺎﻋﺪ إﻟﻰ ﺑﻐﺪاد‬The Train Heading up to Baghdad’ (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 10-11): Once the train (to give)_______ its second, sharp shrill whistle, my mother (to untie) _______ the knot of her apron and (to give) _______ me the only dinar she (to have) _______.

‫اﻟﻘ ﺎر ﺼﻔ ﺘﻪ اﻟ ﺎﻨ ﺔ‬

‫ﻋ ﻤﺎ ﺼﻔ‬

‫ﻬﺎ‬

ّ‫ﻓ‬

‫ﻓ‬ .‫ﺘ ﻠ ﻪ‬

‫ﻋﻘ ة‬

‫أﻤﻲ‬

‫اﻟ ﺎدة‬

‫وﺴّﻠ ﻲ اﻟ ﯿ ﺎر اﻟ ﺤ اﻟ‬

Translating Morphological and Contextual Tenses

My friend Oda, the carpenter, who (to stand) _______ on his own and whose roving glances (to sweep up and down) ________ the station platform, (to come up to) _______me. He (to shake) _______ my hands so firmly that my own palm (to sink) _______ into his broad sticky palm. His huge face was (to flash) _______, and his thick black moustache, yellow from excessive smoking, (to twitch) _______. He (to mutter) _______ some words I (not catch) _______, while my mother (not take) _______ her eyes off my face. The train (to give a jolt) _______, and so I (to hurry) _______ to the carriage and (to take) _______ my seat beside a man who was shaking in a fit of coughing ... I (to look down) _______ out of the window to bid farewell to the two dear faces that I (to leave) _______. I (to find) _______ my mother pressing her eyes on my carriage window while Oda (to smile) _______ bitterly.

107

‫ﺘﻘّ م ﻤ ﻲ ﺼ ﻘﻲ ﻋ دة اﻟ ﺎر اﻟ‬ ‫ﻨ اﺘﻪ‬ ‫ﻛﺎن واﻗ ًﻔﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ِاﻨﻔ اد ﺘ‬ .‫ﺔ‬ ‫ﻔﻲ‬

‫اﻟ ﺎﺌﻬﺔ رﺼ ﻒ اﻟ‬

‫ﻌ ﻒ وﻗ ة ﻓﻐ ﻗ‬

‫ﻓ ّ ﻋﻠﻰ ﯿ‬

‫ﺔ اﻟ ﻘﺔ‬ ‫اﻟ ﻼﻤﺢ وارﺘ ﻒ‬ ‫ﻤ‬

‫ﻔ‬

‫ﻓﻲ ﻔﻪ اﻟﻌ‬

‫واﺤ ﻘ وﺠﻬﻪ اﻟ‬

‫ﺸﺎرﻪ اﻟ ﻒ اﻷﺴ د اﻟ‬ ‫ﺘ ﺎﻟ ﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﺨﺎن‬

‫ﻠ ﺎت ﻟ اﺴ ﻋ ﻬﺎ ﺒ ﺎ ﻛﺎﻨ‬

‫وﺘ‬

.‫ﻋ ﺎ أﻤﻲ ﻻ ﺘﻔﺎرﻗﺎن وﺠﻬﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﻘ ﺎر ﻓﺄﺴ ﻋ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻌ ﺔ‬ ‫رﺠﻞ‬

‫ﺘ‬

‫وأﺨ ت ﻤ ﺎﻨﻲ إﻟﻰ ﺠﺎﻨ‬ ... ‫اﻟ ﻌﺎل‬

‫أودع اﻟ ﺠﻬ‬ ّ ‫أ ﻠﻠ ﺒ اﺴﻲ ﻤ اﻟ ﺎﻓ ة‬ ،‫اﻟﻠ ﯿ ﺴﺄﺘ ﻬ ﺎ‬

‫ﻋ ﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻨﺎﻓ ة‬ .‫ارة‬

‫أﻤﻲ ﻗ ﻋﻠﻘ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ﻓﺄﻟﻔ‬

‫ﻋ ﻲ ﺒ ﺎ ﻛﺎن ﻋ دة ﯿ‬

CHAPTER FOUR CAUSATIVITY AND TRANSITIVITY

1 Transitivity Transitivity is defined by Halliday (1976: 199) from a functional point of view as “the set of options relating to cognitive content, the linguistic representation of extralinguistic experience, whether of the phenomena of the external world or of feelings, thoughts and perceptions”. In this book, these processes are classified into eight processes. They are (1) processes of doing, (2) processes of happening, (3) processes of behaving, (4) processes of sensing, (5) processes of saying, (6) processes of being, (7) processes of having, and (8) processes of existing.

Process of doing Processes of doing are material processes as they are concerned with experiences of material world. They cover acts such as playing, eating, drinking, giving, cutting, digging, and writing, to mention but some. Unlike other types of processes, they are not limited in number. By way of explanation, the following two examples taken from a short story titled ‫‘ ودّتْ ﻟﻮ ﺗﺠﻠﺲ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮﺻﯿﻒ‬She wanted to sit on the pavement’ by Karīm ‘Abid (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 108-9) can be considered:

‫[ ﻀ ًﺎدا ﻻﺼًﻘﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ إﺼ ﻌﻬﺎ‬process of doing] ْ ‫[ ﻗ وﻀﻌ‬Actor] ‫ﻛﺎﻨ ﺴﻠ ﻰ‬ ‫[ إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﺦ ﻤّة‬process of doing] ‫ وﺠ ْت ﻓﻲ ذﻟ ﻓ ﺼﺔ ﻲ ﻻ ﺘﻌ د‬،‫اﻟ وح‬ ... ‫أﺨ‬ Salma [Actor] had put [process of doing] a plaster on her injured finger. In this way she found an excuse not to go back [process of doing] to the kitchen …

Causativity and Transitivity

109

Following is the second example (pp. 108-9):

‫اﻟ آة اﻟ ﻐ ة اﻟ ﻠﻘﺎة ﻋﻠﻰ‬

[process of doing]

.‫دون أن ﺘ ّﻠﻊ ﻓ ﻬﺎ‬

‫ﯿ ﻫﺎ وﺘ ﺎوﻟ‬

[process of doing]

‫ﻤّ ْت‬ ‫اﻟ ﺎوﻟﺔ اﻟﻘ ﺔ ﻤ ﻬﺎ ﻟ ﻬﺎ أﻋﺎدﺘﻬﺎ‬ [process of doing]

She stretched out [process of doing] her hand and picked up [process of doing] the small mirror lying on the table near but she put it down [process of doing] without looking into it.

Process of happening According to Halliday (1994), processes of happening are also material processes as they are concerned with experiences of material world. Processes of happening are typically expressed by intransitive verbs, such as ‘to spring’, ‘to slip away’, ‘to disappear’, ‘to die’, ‘to rain’, and the like. To illustrate, let us consider the following text extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺸﺒﺎك واﻟﺴﺎﺣﺔ‬The Window and the Courtyard’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 123):

‫اﻟ ﺎرﻤﺔ‬

‫ﻨ‬

[process of happening]

‫ ﺘ ﺤ ج‬،‫[ اﻟ ة ﻤ زﻤ ﻠﻪ‬process of happening]

‫ ﯿ ﻌﻬﺎ ﺼ ﻲ ﺒ ﯿ‬،‫إﻟﻰ ﻏ ﻓﺔ اﻹدارة‬

.‫ﻫ اﻵﺨ وراءﻫﺎ‬

‫اﻟ د‬

‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬

[process of happening]

[process of happening]

‫ﺘﻔﻠ‬

‫وﺘﻐ‬

‫ﺎول اﻟﻠ ﺎق ﺒﻬﺎ ﻓ ﻐ‬

The ball slips away [process of happening] from his playmate, rolling down [process of happening] towards the veranda and disappearing [process of happening] in the corridor leading to the administration room. It is followed by a fat lad who tries to catch it. He too disappears [process of happening].

Process of saying Processes of saying (also known as ‘verbal processes’) include all modes of expressing and indicating. They can be either explicit when verbs such as ‘to say’, ‘to tell’, ‘to utter’, ‘to inform’, ‘to express’, ‘to complain’, and so on are used, or implicit when verbs such as ‘to show’, ‘to indicate’, etc. are employed. Following are examples of the common verbs that can serve as verbal processes in both languages:

،‫ ِاﺴ ﻌ ﻒ‬،‫ ﺘ ّﺴﻞ‬،‫ ﻫّ د‬، ‫ أﻤ‬، ‫ ِاﺴ ﻌﻠ‬، ‫ ِاﺴ ﻔ‬،‫ ﺴﺄل‬،‫ ﺘﻔّ ﻩ‬، ‫ أﺨ‬،‫ﻗﺎل‬ ِ ،‫ ﺒّﻠﻎ‬،‫ أﺒﻠﻎ‬،‫أﻟﺢ‬ ‫اﺴ‬ ّ ،‫ أﺠﺎب‬،‫ أﻀﺎف‬،‫ ﻫ ﻒ‬، ‫ اﻟ‬، ‫ ﻨﺎﺸ‬،‫ ﺘ ّع‬،

110

Chapter Four

ِ ِ ِ ،‫ ﺠﺎدل‬، ‫أﻛ‬ ّ ،‫ اّدﻋﻰ‬، َ ‫ زﻋ‬،‫ اﻗ ح‬،‫وﻀﺢ‬ ّ ،‫ ﺸ ح‬، ‫ أﻋﻠ‬،‫ اﺸ ﻰ‬، ‫أﻋﻠ‬ ،‫ وّﺦ‬،‫ذم‬ ،‫ ﻤ َح‬، َ ‫ وﻋ‬،‫ أﻗ ﻊ‬، ‫ﻨﺎﻗ‬ َ ،‫ ﻫ ﺄ‬،‫ﺠﺎﻤﻞ‬ ّ ، ّ ‫ ﺴ‬،‫أﻫﺎن‬ َ ّ ،‫ﻻم‬ َ ، َ ‫ﺸﻬ‬ ، ‫ ِاﺴ ﻬ‬، ‫ ِاﺴ‬،‫ ﻨّ َد‬،‫ أدان‬، َ ‫ اﺘّﻬ‬، َ ‫ زﺠ‬،‫ ﻋّﻒ‬، ‫ ّأﻨ‬، َ ‫ ِاﻨ ﻘ‬،‫ﻗّع‬ ... َ ‫ﺸ‬ to say, to tell, to utter, to ask, to enquire, to command, to order, to require, to threaten, to beg, to implore, to add, to reply, to urge, to inform, to complain, to report, to announce, to notify, to explain, to suggest, to claim, to assert, to confirm, to argue, to persuade, to convince, to promise, to praise, to flatter, to congratulate, to insult, to slander, to abuse, to blame, to rebuke, to criticize, to chide, to accuse, to censure, etc. To illustrate, the following two examples extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ ﻋﻠﻲ اﻷﺣﻤﺮ‬Ali the Red’ by Lu’aī Hamza ‘Abbas (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 90-1) can be discussed:

‫ ﻷﻨ ﺎ‬،‫ﻞ ﻫ ﻩ اﻷﺸ ﺎء‬

‫أﻨﻪ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ ﻤ ﺤ‬:[Sayer] ‫اﻟ ﺠﻞ‬

.[Content] ‫ب‬

[process of saying]

‫ﻓﺎرﻏﺔ اﻟ‬

‫ﻗﺎل‬

‫ﻏﺎﻟًﺎ ﻤﺎ ﻨ ّر‬

“Luckily, he carries these things, because we often get involved with bodies with empty pockets” [Content], said [process of saying] the man [Sayer]. Following is the second example (pp. 86-7):

‫ ﻫﻞ ﺘ ّ ق ﺄن‬:[process of saying] ‫[ ﺘ ﺎءل‬Sayer = ‫أﻤﺎﻤﻲ ﺜ ]ﻫ‬ [Content] ‫أﻗ ام اﻟﻌ ﺎل؟‬ ّ

‫ب اﻟ ﺎ‬

‫وﻀﻊ‬

‫اﻷرض ﺘ ﻌﻞ ﺘ‬

He put the cup of tea before me and [he = Sayer] inquired [process of saying]: “Do you believe that land burns under the workers’ feet?” [Content]

Process of behaving Processes of behaving (also known as ‘behavioural processes’) reflect physiological and psychological behaviours (Halliday 1994: 139; Halliday and Matthiessen 1985/2014: 302). They can be divided into: a.

processes manifesting physiological acts, such as

Causativity and Transitivity

111

‫ ﻓﺎق أو ﺤّ ق )أﺼ‬،‫ ﺘ ﺎءب‬،‫ﺴﻌﻞ‬ َ ، ّ‫ﺘﻔ‬ ... ‫ ﻨﺎم‬، ‫ ﻋ‬،‫ ﺘﻘ ﺄ أو ِاﺴ ﻔ غ‬،‫ﺘ ﺄ‬

،(‫ﺎﻟﻔ اق أو اﻟ ﺎزوﻗﺔ‬

to breathe, to cough, to yawn, to hiccup, to burp, to belch, to vomit, to sneeze, to sleep, etc. b.

processes representing bodily postures and pastimes, such as

... َ ‫ رﻗ‬،‫ ﻏّﻰ‬،‫ﻗﺎم‬ َ ، َ ‫ﺠﻠ‬ َ

to sit down, to stand up, to sing, to dance, etc. c.

physiological processes manifesting states of consciousness, such as

، َ ‫ ﻋ‬، َ ‫ ِاﺒ‬، ‫ ﻀ‬، َ ‫ ﻫ ﻬ‬، َ ‫ ﺼﻔ‬،‫ﺤﻒ‬ ّ ،‫ ﻨ َﺞ‬، َ ‫ ﻨ‬،‫ﻰ‬ ... ‫ﻨﺎد‬ َ ،‫ﺘﺄﻓﻒ‬ َ ، َ ‫ زﻤ‬،‫ دﻨ َن‬،‫ دﻤ َم‬،‫ﺘﺄوﻩ‬ ّ ، َ ‫ زﻓ‬، َ ‫ﺘ ّﻬ‬ to cry, to sob, to hiss, to laugh, to smile, to frown, to nod, to snarl, to whine, to sigh, etc. d.

material processes functioning as behavioural processes, such as

ِ ‫أﺠﺎل اﻟ‬ َ َ ‫ اﻏ‬، َ ‫ ﻫ‬، َ ‫ ﺘ‬، َ ‫ ﺘ ّﻠ‬،‫دردش‬ َ ، َ ‫ ﻨ‬، َ ‫ ﺸﺎﻫ‬،‫ﺎب‬ ... َ ِ‫ ﺤﻠ‬،‫ أﺼﻐﻰ‬، َ ‫ ﺤ ﻠ‬،‫ ﺤّ َق‬،‫ ﺘﻔّ َس‬، َ ‫ أ ﺎل اﻟ‬، َ ‫أﺤّ اﻟ‬ َ

،‫ﻓﻲ‬

to chat, to talk, to murmur, to gossip, to watch, to look, to stare, to listen, to dream, etc. To explain, the following two examples quoted from a short story titled

‫‘ اﻟﻘﻄﺎر اﻟﺼﺎﻋﺪ إﻟﻰ ﺑﻐﺪاد‬The Train Heading Up to Baghdad’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 123), can be considered:

‫ﻤﺎت ﻓﻲ‬

‫ اﺒ ﻬﺎ اﻟ ﺤ اﻟ ﺎب اﻟ‬،‫ﻗﺔ‬

[process of behaving]

... ‫اﻟ ﺎﺌﻲ‬

‫ﺘ ﻲ‬

[behaver =‫]ﻫﻲ‬

‫ة اﻟ‬

‫ﻔﻰ اﻟ‬

‫ﻛﺎﻨ‬ ‫ﻤ‬

She [behaver] was bitterly crying [process of behaving] over her young only son who had died at the far-off dreary hospital in Basra …

112

Chapter Four

Here, as can be observed, a process of behaving ‫‘ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺗﺒﻜﻲ‬was crying’ where the emphasis is placed on the continuity of the act of crying in a specific period in the past is expressed by the writer and reflected by the translators. Following is the second example (pp. 18-9): [process of behaving]

‫ﻓﻲ آن‬

‫ّث‬

[process of behaving]

‫ﻬ ة وﺤ ﺔ وﻫ‬ ‫اﻫﺔ و‬

‫إﻟ ﻬﺎ‬

‫ﻛﺎن ﯿ‬

[process of behaving]

[process of doing]

‫ﻋﺔ و ﺄﻛﻞ‬

‫ﺼﺎﺤ ﻪ‬

... ‫واﺤ‬

He was looking at [process of behaving] her with a wild lasciviousness, talking [process of behaving] quickly to his companion, greedily eating [process of doing] and laughing [process of behaving] at the same time … In the above example, three processes of behaving are employed by the writer and reflected by the translators. In these processes, by the effect of ‫ﻛﺎن‬, the emphasis is put on the continuity of the act of looking, talking, and laughing in a specific period in the past.

Process of sensing Processes of sensing (also known as ‘mental processes’) are not concerned with experiences of material world, but rather they express a state of mind or psychological events (Halliday 1994: 116-118). They can be classified into four types according to the verb used in the process: a.

verbs of feeling, such as

، َ ‫ ﻤﻘ‬،‫ َ َﻩ‬،‫ود‬ ‫ أﻋ‬، ‫ ﻋ‬، ‫ ِاﺴ ﻬ‬، ّ ‫أﺤ‬ ّ ، ‫ ﻫ‬،‫ ﻤﺎل إﻟﻰ‬،‫ﺒـ‬ ِ ‫ ﺨﺎف‬،‫ ﺘ ﻊ‬،‫ ِاﺴ ﻊ‬،‫ ﻨ م‬،‫ ِأﺴﻒ‬، ‫ اﺸ ﺄز ﻤ‬، ‫ ﻨﻔ ﻤ‬، (‫)اﻨ ﺎ ﻪ اﻟ ف‬ ّ َ َ َ َ ... to love, to fancy, to hate, to like, to dislike, to adore, to detest, to regret, to enjoy, to fear, etc. b.

verbs of thinking, such as

، َ ‫ ِاﻋ ﻘ‬، ّ ‫ ﺘ‬، ‫ اﺴ ﻋ‬، ‫ َﻓﻬ‬،‫ ِا ّ ﻠﻊ ﻋﻠﻰ‬، َ ِ‫ ﻋﻠ‬،‫ َ ﺒـ‬،‫ أّﻟ ﺒـ‬،‫ف‬ َ ِ ‫َﻋ‬ ... ‫ اﺴ ّ ﻒ‬، ّ ‫ ﺘ‬،‫ ﻟ اﻟﻔ ق‬،‫ ﺘﻌّ ف ﻋﻠﻰ‬، َ ّ‫ ﻤ‬،‫أدرك‬ َ

‫ﻐ‬

Causativity and Transitivity

113

to know, to understand, to comprehend, to remember, to believe, to realize, to recognize, etc. c.

verbs of perceiving, such as

... ّ ‫ ﺸ‬،‫ ﺘ ّوق‬، َ

‫ أ‬، ّ ‫ ﺤ‬، ّ ‫ أﺤ‬، َ ‫ ﻻﺤ‬، َ ‫ ﺸﻌ‬،‫ ﺴ ِ َﻊ‬، ‫أر‬

to see, to hear, to overhear, to feel, to notice, to perceive, to sense, to taste, to smell, etc. d.

verbs of wanting, such as

‫ ﺘﺎق‬،

،‫ ِاﻋ َم‬، َ ‫ ﻗ‬، ‫ ﻨ‬، َ ‫ رﻏ‬،‫أرَاد‬ ِ ّ ‫ ﺼ‬،‫ ﺠ إﻟﻰ‬،‫ ﺘ ّﻠﻊ إﻟﻰ‬،‫إﻟﻰ‬

‫ ﺨ‬،‫أﻤﻞ‬ َ ،‫ رﻤﻰ إﻟﻰ‬،‫ﺴﻌﻰ‬ ... ‫ ﻗﱠ ر‬،‫ ﻋﻘ اﻟﻌ م ﻋﻠﻰ‬،

to want, to desire, to intend, to hope for, to yearn for, to plan, to determine, to decide, etc. To illustrate, the following text taken from a short story titled ‫ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻤﺰاﺑﻞ‬ ‘Among the Dustbins’ by ‘Abdulmalik Nūrī (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 152-3) can be considered:

‫و ﺎن ﺠﺎﻟ ً ﺎ‬ ‫ﻌ اﻟ‬

‫ﻋﻠ ﻬﺎ دﺒ‬

[process of sensing]

.‫ﻩ إﻟﻰ اﻷرض‬ [process of sensing]

‫و ﺄﻤﻞ‬

‫ﺜ ﯿ ﻲ ﺒ‬

‫ﻒ‬

ّ ‫[ ﻔ‬Senser] ‫ ﯿ ﻠﻊ آﻨﺎ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻘ‬.‫ﺨﻪ‬

‫ﻛﺎن ﻤ‬

[process of sensing]

‫أن‬

[process of sensing]

...

‫ﺎﻟﻘ ب ﻤ‬

‫ و ﺄﻨﻪ ﯿ‬،ً‫ﻼ‬ ‫اﻟ ﺎﻓ‬

‫ﻓ ﻬﺎ‬

‫ﺘﻠ ﺎ اﻟﻘ ﻤ‬

Muhsin [Senser] was thinking [process of sensing] and contemplating [process of as he sat near his hut. At times he looks at the moon, and then he looks back at the ground. He fixes his eyes on it for a long time, as if he wants [process of sensing] to discover [process of sensing] the creeping of those two bare feet … sensing]

114

Chapter Four

Process of being Processes of being can be classified into two main processes. They are: ~

processes of being expressed by verb ‘to be’ followed by an adjective phrase (AdjP) or verb ‘to be’ followed by a noun phrase (NP), as in:

:‫ﻣﺒﺘﺪأ وﺧﺒﺮ‬ He is/was

handsome well organized poor strong

.____ ‫ ﻛﺎن‬/‫إﻧﮫ وﺳﯿ ٌﻢ‬/‫ھﻮ‬ ّ ‫إﻧﮫ‬/‫ھﻮ‬ .____ ‫ ﻛﺎن‬/‫ﻣﻨﻈ ٌﻢ‬ .____ ‫ ﻛﺎن‬/‫ﻓﻘﯿﺮ‬ ٌ ‫إﻧﮫ‬/‫ھﻮ‬ . ____ ‫ ﻛﺎن‬/‫ي‬ ٌ ‫إﻧﮫ ﻗﻮ‬/‫ھﻮ‬

:‫ﻣﺒﺘﺪأ وﺧﺒﺮ‬ He is/was

~

a business man a minister a lawyer

.____‫ ﻛﺎن‬/‫إﻧﮫ رﺟ ُﻞ أﻋﻤﺎل‬/‫ھﻮ‬ .____ ‫ ﻛﺎن‬/‫وزﯾﺮ‬ ‫إﻧﮫ‬/‫ھﻮ‬ ٌ .____ ‫ ﻛﺎن‬/‫إﻧﮫ ﻣﺤﺎم‬/‫ھﻮ‬

process of being at/in/with/over … expressed by verb ‘to be’ followed by a prepositional phrase (PP), as in:

:‫ﻣﺒﺘﺪأ وﺧﺒﺮ‬ She is/was

at home. in class. with her friend.

.____ ‫ﻛﺎﻧﺖ‬/‫إﻧﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺒﯿﺖ‬/‫ھﻲ‬ .____ ‫ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ‬/‫ﺼﻒ‬ ّ ‫إﻧﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬/‫ھﻲ‬ .____ ‫ﻛﺎﻧﺖ‬/‫إﻧﮭﺎ ﻣﻊ ﺻﺪﯾﻘﺘﮭﺎ‬/‫ھﻲ‬

To explain, the following two examples extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ وﺟﮫ‬Face’ by ‘Abdulhamīd al-Gharbāwī (translated by and cited in Almanna and Hall 2015: 24-5) can be considered:

Causativity and Transitivity

.‫ﻤ ﻓًﻘﺎ ﻓﻲ اﺨ ﺎر ﻤ ﺎن اﻟ ﻗ ف‬

As so often, I wasn’t place to stand.

[process of being]

115

[process of being]

‫و ﺎ اﻟﻌﺎدة ﻟ أﻛ‬

lucky enough to choose the right

Following is the second example (pp. 26-7):

‫ﻓﻲ اﻻﺘ ﺎﻩ‬

‫ﺘ ّ رؤ ﺔ اﻷﺸ ﺎء وﻫﻲ ﺘ‬

‫ﻫﻲ اﻷﺨ‬

[process of being]

.‫اﻟﻘ ﺎر‬

‫ﻟ‬

‫ﻗ ﺘ ن‬ ‫اﻟ ﻌﺎﻛ‬

Maybe, she was [process of being] different and liked seeing things running in the opposite direction to that of the train.

Process of having Processes of having are expressed by verbs such as ‘to have’, ‘to own’, ‘to belong’, ‘to possess’, ‘to include’, ‘to contain’, ‘to consist of’, etc. followed by a noun phrase (NP) or prepositional phrase (PP), as in: Note that this is a process of being

This car [Possessed] belongs to me [Possessor].

.‫ھﺬه ﺳﯿّﺎرﺗﻲ‬ My sister [Possessor] has three children [Possessed]. .‫ﻟﺪى أﺧﺘﻲ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ أطﻔﺎ ٍل‬ The novel [Possessor] consists of ten chapters [Possessed]. ‫ﺗﺘﺄﻟﻒ اﻟﺮواﯾﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻋﺸﺮة‬ .‫ﻓﺼﻮ ٍل‬ To illustrate, following three examples taken from Husni and Newman (2008) can be considered:

.

‫[ ِﺸﻌ أوﻟﻲ وﻋ‬process of having] ‫ وﻓ ﻪ‬.‫ واﻟﻘ ﺢ اﻟ ﻤﻲ ﻫ ﻗ ﺎع‬: ‫ﺜ ﻗﺎﻟ‬ ّ

Then she said: “Daily ugliness is a mask; it’s deep and contains [process poetry [Possessed]”. (pp. 190-1)

of having] primal

Following is the second example (pp. 86-7): [Possessed]

‫ﺄﻨﻬﺎ ﺸﻲء ﺸ ﺎﻨﻲ‬

‫ﻤﺎ زال ﻌ ﻘ‬

.[Possessor] ‫ﻋﺎﻟ ﺎ‬

‫اﻟ ﻔ‬

‫ﻓﺈن اﻷﺴ ﺎذ ﻋ‬

‫إﻟﻰ ﻋﺎﻟ ﻏ‬

‫وﻤﻊ ذﻟ‬

[process of having]

Yet Mr Abd al-Hafiz kept thinking she was a devilish being [Possessed] that belonged to [process of having] world other than our own [Possessor] ...

‫ﯿ‬

116

Chapter Four

Below is the third example (pp. 130-1):

![Possessed] ‫اﻟ ّﻞ‬

:‫ة وﻫﻲ ﺘﻘ ل‬

[Possessor]

‫اﻟ ﺎج‬

‫واﻀ ت اﻷم أن ﺘﻐﺎدر اﻟ‬ ‫نﻋ‬

[process of having]

Their mother was unable to stay in the room: “The Hajj have [process of having] the solution [Possessed]!”

‫ﻗ‬

~

[Possessor]

may

Processes of existing Processes of existing (also known as ‘existential processes’) are realized by ‘there’ + verb ‘to be’, as in:

... ‫ھﻨﺎﻟﻚ‬/‫ﺛﻤﺔ‬/‫ﯾﻮﺟﺪ‬

There + verb ‘to be’ or some other related verbs

There

is a book on the table. was a man in the garden. are many students in class. were a lot of girls in the party. will be many buses.

._____ ‫ﺛﻤﺔ‬ ._____ ‫ﻛﺎن ھﻨﺎﻟﻚ‬ ._____ ‫ﯾﻮﺟﺪ‬ ._____ ‫ﻛﺎن ھﻨﺎك‬ ._____ ‫ﺳﯿﻜﻮن ھﻨﺎك‬

To explain, the following two examples adapted from a short story titled ‫‘ وﺟﮫ‬Face’ by ‘Abdulhamīd al-Gharbāwī (translated by and cited in Almanna and Hall 2015: 22-3) can be considered:

‫ ﺤ‬،[existent] ‫ﻤﻘﻌ ان ﻓﺎرﻏﺎن‬

[process of existing]

‫ﻲ وﺸ ﺎﻟﻲ ﺎن ﻫ ﺎﻟ‬

... ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻤﻬﻞ‬

‫ﻫ ﻔﺎء ﺘ‬

To my right and left there were [process of existing] two empty seats as Haifa approached, walking slowly.

‫وﻋ‬

‫أﻗ ﻠ‬

[existent]

Following is the second example (34-5):

‫ وﻟ‬،‫اﻵن‬ ~ ~

‫ح ﻓﻲ ﺨﺎ‬

[existent]

‫ﻋ ان‬

‫ ﻋ اﻨﻬﺎ؟‬،‫اﻟﻘ ﺔ‬ [process of existing]

. ‫ح إﻟﻰ ﺤ‬

‫ﻫ ﺎك‬

‫ﺴﺄﺘ ﻪ‬

~ ~

“The story. What’s its title?” “There is [process of existing] a title [existent] running through my mind, but I’ll let it run for the time being”. (pp. 34-5)

Causativity and Transitivity

117

EX: The following text taken from a short story titled ‫‘ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻤﺰاﺑﻞ‬Among the Dustbins’ by ‘Abdulmalik Nūrī (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 156-7). Identify as many processes as you can in the source text and then compare them with their translations. He gently caught her hand calling in joy: “Do you know, Aliya, what will I do today?”

‫ﺎ ﻋﻠ ﻪ‬

‫ ))أﺘ ر‬:‫ﻫﺎﺘﻔﺎ‬ ً ،ً‫ﺒ ﻫﺎ ﻤﻬﻠﻼ‬

((‫ﻤﺎذا ﺴﺄﻓﻌﻞ اﻟ م؟‬

... ‫ة‬

Then he firmly pressed her hand … and she said with an exaggerated pleasantness: “My dear, how could I know?!” He said: “I shall pay your father the bridal price this evening!”

‫وﻀ ﯿ ﻫﺎ‬

‫ ))وأﻨﻲ ﻟﻲ ﺎ ﻋ ﻨﻲ‬:‫ﻌ و ﺔ ﻤ ﺎﻫ ﺔ‬

‫وﻗﺎﻟ‬

((! ‫أن أﻋﻠ‬

((!‫ﻫ ا اﻟ ﺎء‬

‫ ))ﺴﺄدﻓﻊ اﻟ ﻬ ﻷﺒ‬:‫ﻗﺎل‬ ‫ﻓ ﻌ ْت ﺒ ﻫ ﺔ وﻓ ح ﺸ ﯿ‬

She felt both trepidation and a deep joy, …and answered, her shame increasing and her heart violently beating: “But ... but ... how? It’s a huge sum of money, Muhsin”.

‫أﻤ‬

‫ﺨﻔًﻘﺎ‬

‫ﻔ‬

‫وﺤ ﺎؤﻫﺎ ﯿ داد وﻗﻠ ﻬﺎ‬

‫ ﻒ؟ إﻨﻪ ﻤ ﻠﻎ‬...

‫ وﻟ‬...

.((!

‫وأﺠﺎﺒ‬

‫ ))وﻟ‬:‫ﺸ ﯿ ً ا‬ ‫ﺎﻤ‬

‫ﺎﻫ‬

EX: In the following text taken from a short story titled ‫‘ واﺧﺰﯾﺎه‬What a Shame!’ by Samīra al-Māni‘ (translated by and cited in Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009), the translators have translated the verb ‫ﯾﻜﺜﺮ‬/‫ أﻛﺜﺮ‬and the noun ‫ إﻧﺠﺎب‬into two processes of having. Comment on their translation. They have a lot of decorations, lights, and music in their homes, streets and public places. (pp.11920)

‫أﺸ ﺔ اﻟ ﺔ واﻷﻀ اء‬

‫ون ﻤ‬

‫ اﻟ ارع واﻟ ﺎﺤﺎت‬، ‫واﻟ ﺴ ﻘﻰ ﻓﻲ ﺒ ﺘﻬ‬

.‫اﻟﻌﺎﻤﺔ‬

118

Chapter Four

Only they and their like deserve to have lots of children, so that people who like to chat and talk can come into this miserable world … (pp.124-125)

‫ﻛﺎن ﻋﻠﻰ ﺸﺎﻛﻠ ﻬ ﻤ‬

‫ ﻟ ﺄﺘﻲ أﻨﺎس إﻟﻰ‬،

‫ّ ن اﻟ ردﺸﺔ‬

‫ﻫ وﺤ ﻫ وﻤ‬

‫اﻹﻨ ﺎب اﻟ‬

‫ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ة اﻷرﻀ ﺔ اﻟ ﻌ ﺔ‬ ...

‫واﻟ ار واﻟ ﯿ‬

In studying these different types of processes, three main components should be given serious consideration. They are: ~

the process itself normally expressed by a verbal group,

~

the participants determined in advance by the writer/speaker which are typically realized by a nominal group, and

~

the circumstances associated with the process typically expressed by an adverb or a prepositional phrase.

To explain the main circumstances associated with the processes, let us begin with this process of doing in this dialogue: He travelled …

Where?

to Kuwait

With whom?

with his dad

When?

two days ago

How?

by car

Why?

to visit his sister …

He travelled

to Kuwait with his dad two days ago by car to visit his sister

In the above sentence, as can be seen, five circumstances are employed. To learn more about these circumstances, let us make wh questions for the following sentences as highlighted for you. Then, translate them into Arabic:

Causativity and Transitivity

!

Location circumstances answer the questions ‘when’ or ‘where’, as in

Temporal

My father sold his house two days ago. When _________________ _______________________ _______________________?

Spatial

My brother lived in London in 2005. Where _________________ _______________________ _______________________?

!

119

_______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ _______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________

Extent circumstances answer the questions ‘for how long’, ‘how far’, or ‘how many times’, as in

Duration

I have worked in this company for ten years. For how long ____________ _______________________ _______________________?

Distance

My sister drove 15 miles last week. How far ________________ _______________________ _______________________?

Frequency

I drink tea four times a year. How often ______________ _______________________ _______________________?

___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________

120

Chapter Four

!

Manner circumstances answer the questions ‘how’, ‘by what means’, ‘what like’, or ‘how much’, as in

Quality

She has strongly denied the allegations. How__________________ _____________________ _____________________?

Means

With a knife, the thief threatened the man. By what means ________ _____________________ _____________________?

Comparison

He acted as professionally as he could. How did ______________ _____________________ _____________________?

Degree

All her teachers love her deeply. How much ____________ _____________________ _____________________?

! Reason

____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________

Cause circumstances answer the questions ‘why’, ‘for what purpose’, and ‘on whose behalf/who for’, as in She left early because she felt tired. Why ______________________ ___________________________ __________________________?

___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________

Causativity and Transitivity

Purpose

I travelled to the UK to complete my studies. For what purpose_____________ __________________________ __________________________?

Behalf

The man apologized on behalf of his wife. On whose behalf_____________ ___________________________ __________________________?

!

She travelled to the USA with her husband. With whom ______________ ________________________ _______________________?

Lack of company

You can complete your studies without her. Without whom ___________ ________________________ _______________________?

Guise

___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________

Accompaniment circumstances are forms of joint participation in the process, and answer questions like ‘with whom’ and ‘without whom’, as in

Company

!

121

___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________

Role circumstances construe the meanings ‘to be’, and ‘to become’ circumstantially, thus answering the question ‘what as’, and ‘what into’, as in Last year, she worked as an acting dean. As what __________________ _________________________?

___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________

122

Chapter Four

Product

The cake was cut into many small pieces by my mom. Into what _________________ _________________________ _________________________?

!

Matter circumstances are typically expressed by prepositions, such as ‘about’, ‘concerning’, ‘regarding’, ‘with reference to’, ‘with respect to’, ‘as for’, and the like, thus answering questions like ‘what about’, as in:

Focusing

He asked her a question about her recent problems. About what __________ ____________________ ___________________?

!

___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________

____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________

Angle circumstances are expressed by complex prepositions, such as ‘according to’, ‘in the words of’, ‘as … thinks’, ‘to …’, ‘from the standpoint of’, ‘in the opinion of’, ‘in the view of’, etc. They answer these questions: ‘According to whom? ’ or ‘What’s your opinion?’, as in:

Source

According to her doctor’s instructions, she is not allowed to smoke.

Viewpoint

It seems to me he didn’t study well for the exam.

!

Contingency circumstances specify certain elements on which the actualization of the process depends, with the sense of ‘if’ (representing positive cases of condition), with the sense of ‘if not’ (representing negative cases of condition), and with the sense of ‘although’ (representing cases of concession).

Condition

In case of emergency, you can dial this number.

Default

In the absence of the dean, the head of the department meets the representatives of the students.

Causativity and Transitivity

Concession

123

Despite her financial problems, she has managed to pay her fees.

EX: The following text is taken from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺘﺒﺎس‬Confusion’ by Fu’ād al-Takarlī (translated by and cited in Almanna and alRubai‘i 2009: 185-6). Identify the types of processes used in both texts, and then comment on the translation. He did not tell me anything else of note except that he had forgotten to take the Tenormin tablet … I brought him the brightly coloured tablet and he swallowed it. Then we sat and talked a little.

Never did he complain of fatigue or anything else unusual. He wanted only to sleep and I encouraged him to do so. Do you find in that anything suspicious? I thought that was the best thing I could do. It was past ten in the

‫ ﻟ ﻘﻞ ﻟﻲ ﺸ ًﺎ آﺨ ﻤﻠﻔ ًﺎ‬Process of ________ ‫ﺴ أﻨﻪ ﻨ ﻲ ﺤ ﺔ‬ ‫ ﻟﻠ‬Process of ________ ... “ ‫رﻤ‬

‫ ”اﻟ‬Process of ________

‫ﻟﻪ اﻟ ﺔ اﻟ اﻫ ﺔ‬

‫ وﺠﻠ‬Process of ________ ‫ اﻟﻠ ن ﻓِﺎﺒ ﻠﻌﻬﺎ‬Process of ________

‫ث‬

‫ ﺜ ﻛﺎن أن ﺠﻠ ﺎ ﻨ‬Process of ________ .‫ﻗﻠ ﻼ‬

‫أو ﻤ‬

‫ ﻟ‬Process of ________ ‫أ ﺸﻲء آﺨ ﻏ ﻤﻌ ﺎد‬ ‫ﻌﻪ‬

‫ﻤﺎ‬

‫ﻤ ﺘﻌ‬

‫ أراد أن ﯿ ﺎم ﻓﻘ ﻓ‬Process of ________ . ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ذﻟ‬Process of ________ ‫ﻓﻲ اﻷﻤ‬ ‫أن ﻫ ا ﻫ أﺤ‬

‫ ﻫﻞ ﺘ‬Process of ________ ‫ﯿ ؟‬ Process of ________

،‫ ﻤﺎ ﺒ ﺴﻌﻲ أن أﻓﻌﻠﻪ‬Process of ________

‫ ﻓﺎﻟ ﺎﻋﺔ ﺠﺎوزت اﻟﻌﺎﺸ ة‬Process of ________

124

Chapter Four

evening and sitting in front of the television was not right for an elderly man with hypertension. He got up on his own and left. I did not go with him to the bedroom. I did not do that. I do not know why.

‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻠ س أﻤﺎم‬

‫ﻤ ﺎء‬

‫ وﻟ‬Process of ________ ‫ اﻟ ﻠﻔ ن ﻤﺎ ﯿ ﺢ ﺸ ً ﺎ ذا‬Process of ________ .‫ ﻀﻐ دم ﻤ ﺘﻔﻊ‬Process of ________ ‫ف‬

‫ ﻗﺎم ﻔ دﻩ واِﻨ‬Process of ________ Process of ________

‫أﺼ ﻪ اﻟﻰ ﻏ ﻓﺔ‬

‫ ﻟ‬Process of ________ .‫اﻟ م‬

‫ وﻻ أدر‬، ‫ ﻟ أﻓﻌﻞ ذﻟ‬Process of ________ .‫ ﻟ ﺎذا‬Process of ________

EX: Identify the type of each process used in the following sentences along with their translations. 1.

The girl laughed [process of ______________] from ear to ear.

.‫ﺔ‬ 2.

‫أرﻏ‬

‫[ أﺨﻲ ﻓ ﺎ إذا‬process of ______________] ‫ﺴﺄﻟ ﻲ‬ .‫اﻟ ّ ق‬

‫ﻤ‬

My mother took [process of _______________] me to the barber’s to have my hair cut [process of _______________].

‫ﺸﻌ‬

4.

‫ﻀ‬

My brother asked [process of ______________] me if I would like to go with him to the shopping centre.

‫ﺎﻟ ﻫﺎب ﻤﻌﻪ إﻟﻰ‬

3.

‫[ اﻟﻔ ﺎةُ ﻀ ﺔ ﻋ‬process of ______________]

ِ ّ ‫أُﻤﻲ إﻟﻰ ﻤ ﻞ اﻟ ﻼﻗﺔ ﻟ ﻘ‬

[process of _____________]

‫أﺨ ﺘ ﻲ‬

.[process of _____________]

This book contains [process of ______________] nine chapters .

.‫ٍل‬

ِ ‫ﻫ ا اﻟ ﺎب ﻋﻠﻰ ﺴ‬ ‫ﻌﺔ ﻓ‬

[process of ______________]

‫ُﻞ‬

Causativity and Transitivity

5.

The teacher saw [process of ______________] the boys playing ______________] football in the street. [process

6.

125

of

‫ﻻد ﯿﻠﻌ ن‬ َ ‫اﻟ ُ ِّر ُس اﻷو‬

[process

of

[process of

‫أر‬

______________]

ِ ‫ة اﻟﻘ ِم ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬ .‫ﺎﺤﺔ‬ َ ّ

______________]

The boy is [process of ______________] clever.

.‫[ ذ ﱞﻲ‬implicit process of ______________] ُ ‫اﻟ ﻟ‬ 7.

8.

My brother has [process of ______________] three children.

ٍ ‫أﺨﻲ ﺜﻼﺜ ُﺔ أ‬ .‫ﻔﺎل‬

‫ﻟ‬

[process of ______________]

There are [process of ______________] two books on the table.

.‫ﺎ ﺎن ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﺎوﻟﺔ‬

[process of ______________]

‫ﯿﺠ‬

2 Passivization & activization Both Arabic and English have active and passive voices. While passive

ِ ِ voices in Arabic are morphological ( َ ‫ﻋَﻘ‬ َ > َ ‫ ُﻛ َ > َﻛ َ َ ; ُﻋﻘ‬, etc.), passive voices in English are periphrastic, that is, using auxiliaries derived from basic corresponding active sentences, as in ‘I ate an apple’ which becomes ‘An apple was eaten’ in a passive form. In touching on the main reasons for using passivization in Arabic, Wright (1975: 50; also discussed in Almanna 2016a: 87) holds that the passive voice is used for four reasons. They are: 1.

when God or a higher being is the doer of the action,

2.

when the doer of the action is unknown or at least not known for sure,

3.

when the doer of the action is backgrounded in attention for any reason, and

4.

when greater attention is placed on the affected participant rather than on the doer of the action.

Building on this, to translate a sentence like this ‘A novel was written by me last year’ into Arabic, one may opt for an active voice as long as the

126

Chapter Four

actor of the action is explicitly mentioned, thus avoiding the forced passive, i.e. ‫ﻣﻦ طﺮف‬, ‫ﻣﻦ طﺮف‬, etc. Compare these two translations:

.‫َﻛ ُ روا ًﺔ اﻟ ّ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎﻀ ﺔ‬

Active voice

.‫ﻗ ﻠﻲ‬

Passive voice

‫ﻤ‬

‫ُﻛِ ْ روا ٌﺔ اﻟ ّ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎﻀ ﺔ‬

It is worth noting when the passive construction is rendered as an active one, there will be a ‘structure shift’ to use Catford’s (1965) term (see Chapter 2). In English, there are a number of verbs, such as ‘to open’, ‘to wash’, ‘to read’, ‘to translate’, ‘to interpret’, ‘to sell’, ‘to cultivate’, and so on that can express a passive meaning although they are in an active construction (for more details, see Almanna 2016a: 87). By way of explanation, let us consider the translation of the following short text quoted from a short story titled ‫‘ ﻣﻄﺮ أﺳﻮد‬Black Rain’ by Salām ‘Abūd (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 94-5):

... ‫ ﺨﺎﺌﻔﺔ‬،‫ ﻤ ددة‬،‫أﻤﺎﻤﻪ ﻤ ﻫ ﺔ‬

‫ ﺘ ﻗﻔ‬.‫ﺎء‬

‫ُﻓ ﺢ اﻟ ﺎب ﻓ ﻬ ت أﻤﻪ ﻼ ﻬﺎ اﻟ‬

The door opened and his mother appeared, dressed in white. She stood before him amazed, hesitant and frightened … Here, the verb ‫ ﻓُﺘِ َﺢ‬is in the passive voice, but it can be translated as ‘the door opened …’ as the verb ‘to open’ can express a passive meaning as mentioned above. To reinforce this point, let us discuss the following example adapted from a short story titled ‫‘ ﺣﻜﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﻘﻨﺪﯾﻞ‬The Tale of the Lamp’ by ‘Izz al-Dīn alMadanī (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 30-1):

،‫أﺠ ﻞ اﻟ ﻠﻐﺎت وأﺤ ﻬﺎ‬

‫ﺴ دﻩ وأدﺨﻞ ﯿ ﻩ ﻓﻲ اﻟ اب ﻓ ﺎول ﺒﻠﻐﺔ ﻤ‬

‫ﻗﺎم ﻤ‬

‫وأﺒ ﻋﻬﺎ وﻟﻌﻠﻬﺎ ﻤ أروع اﻟ ﻠﻐﺎت اﻟ ﻲ ﺼ ﻌ ﻬﺎ ﻤ ﯿ ﺔ ﻓﺎس ﻤ ﺘﺎرﺦ ﺘﺄﺴ ﻬﺎ إﻟﻰ‬

.‫اﻟ م‬

He rose from the ground, slipped his hand into the bag, and took out one of the most beautiful and best sandals that had ever been made in the city of Fes since its foundation. In the above example, the relative clause ‫اﻟﺘﻲ ﺻﻨﻌﺘﮭﺎ ﻣﺪﯾﻨﺔ ﻓﺎس‬, which is in the active voice, has been translated into a relative clause in the passive

Causativity and Transitivity

127

voice ‘that had ever been made in the city’, thus resulting in a ‘structure shift’. Added to this, ‫‘ ﻣﺪﯾﻨﺔ ﻓﺎس‬the city of Fes’, which is the Actor of the process in the original text, has been changed to a location circumstance (spatial) in the target text. This is an example of ‘modulation’ to borrow Vinay and Darbelnet’s (1958/1995) term. Now, let us discuss the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ ﯾﻮم ﻓﻲ ﻣﺪﯾﻨﺔ أﺧﺮى‬A Day in another City’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 301):

‫و ﺒ ﻘﻪ‬

‫ أ ﻌ ت ﻫﻲ ﺠﺎﻨًﺎ ﺼ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎ‬.‫اﻟ ﺎدل‬

‫ﯿ ﻪ وﻨﺎد‬ ...

‫ة اﻟ ﻲ ﺒ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫أﺒ‬

‫اﻟﻔ ﻲ و‬

As we may see, the writer opts for an active construction in the first three finite clauses:

‫ﯿ ﻪ‬

‫أﺒ‬

‫ة اﻟ ﻲ ﺒ‬

‫اﻟ‬

[ ‫]ﻫ‬

‫اﻟ ﺎدل‬

[ ‫]ﻫ‬

‫ﺠﺎﻨً ﺎ ﺼ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎ و ﺒ ﻘﻪ اﻟﻔ ﻲ و‬

[‫]ﻫﻲ‬

‫و ﻨﺎد‬

‫أﻌ ت‬

In the first and third finite clauses, the interaction between the implicit pronoun ‫‘ ھﻮ‬he’ in the first finite clause and the implicit pronoun ‫‘ ھﻲ‬she’ in the third finite clause on the one hand, and ‫‘ اﻟﺠﺮﯾﺪة‬the newspaper’ and ‫‘ ﺻﯿﻨﯿﺔ اﻟﺸﺎي وإﺑﺮﯾﻘﮫ اﻟﻔﻀﻲ وﻛﻮﺑﯿﻦ أﺑﯿﻀﯿﻦ‬the tea tray along with its silver teapot and two white cups’ respectively on the other is construed as unidirectional based on an asymmetrical action schema. Here, the transfer of energy flows from the Actor (he and she) to the Affected Participant (the newspaper and the tea tray along with its silver teapot and two white cups). Being fully aware of this the translators have managed to reflect this in their translation as modelled here: He [Actor] folded [process of doing] the newspaper [Affected Participant], which was in his hands, and called the waiter. She [Actor] pushed [process of doing] the tea tray to one side, with its silver teapot and two white cups [Affected Participant] … In the rest of this section, we will learn how to change active to passive. In the simple past tense, the passive voice is formed by the use of ‘was/were’ + a past participle (Verb 3), as in the following example:

128

Chapter Four

I wrote a novel last year. A novel was written (by me) last year. Now, let us translate the following sentences into English: (be broken) .‫ُﻛ ِ ت اﻟ ﺎﻓ ةُ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ‬

~

ِ ‫ُﻓ ِﻘ َ اﻟ ﻔﻞ أﻤ ﻤ ﺎء ﻓﻲ إﺤ ﻤ اﻛ اﻟ‬ (be lost) .‫ق‬ ُ ّ ً ِ ‫ُﻗِ ﻞ اﻟﻠ ﱡ ﺼ ﺎح ﯿ ِم اﻟ‬ (be killed) .‫ﻌﺔ‬ َ َ ِ ٍ ِ (be martyred; be killed as a .‫اُﺴ ُ ﻬ ﻋ ةُ ﺠ د ﻓﻲ ﻤﻌﺎرك اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ‬

~

ٍ ‫أُ ﻠِ ﺴ اح ﻤ ﺔ أﺴ ِ ﺤ‬ (be set free; be released) . ‫ب ﻗ ﻞ ﯿ ﻤ‬ ُ َ

~

~ ~

martyr)

ٍ ‫ﻷﺴ‬ ‫ﺎب‬

ٍ ‫ﻔﻰ رﺠﻞ أﻋ‬ (be discharged) .‫ﺎل ﺸﻬ ٍ ﻗ ﻞ أﺴ ٍع‬ ُ َ ‫ة ﻤ اﻟ‬

‫ال‬ ٌ ‫ أﻤ‬،‫ ﻟ ن‬،‫ﺎﻨ ﺔ‬

be ) .‫اﻟ ﻓﺎع اﻟﻔ ﻨ ﻲ‬

‫واﻀ ﺔ ﻤ ﻗ ﻞ‬

!

‫ﻗ ﻞ وز‬

‫ﺎﺤﺎ أﺴ ﻠﺔ ﻏ‬ ً ‫ﺼ‬

‫أُﺨ ِ َج ﻤ اﻟ‬ ‫ُﺴ ِ ْ ﻗ ﻞ أ ﺎم ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺎﺼ ﺔ اﻟ‬ (be withdrawn) .‫ﻤﻌ وﻓﺔ‬

‫ﱞ ﻟ ﻠﺔ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ ﻤ‬

‫اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻹﻨ ﻠ ﺔ أﻤ‬

~ ~

‫ﻏ‬

ِ ‫ﺎن ﻋ‬ ٌ ‫أُﺼ َر ﺒ‬

~

(announced

‫ﻗ‬

‫ُﺴ َﻞ رﺌ‬ (be asked) .‫اﻟ ﻠ ﺔ اﻟ ُ د‬

~

In Arabic, try to avoid the forced passive in which expressions like ‫ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ‬or ‫ ﻣﻦ طﺮف‬are used. So, the above sentences can be rewritten as follows:

.‫واﻀ ﺔ‬

.‫أﺼ َر وز ُ اﻟ ﻓﺎ ِع اﻟﻔ ﻨ ﻲ ﺒ ًﺎﻨﺎ ﻋ ًﺎ ﻟ ﻠﺔ اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ‬ ِ ‫ﺎﺤﺎ أﺴ ﻠﺔ ﻏ‬ ً ‫ﺴﺄل اﻟ ﻠ ُﺔ اﻟ د رﺌ َ ﻗ ِ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻹﻨ ﻠ ﺔ أﻤ ﺼ‬ َ . ‫اﻟ زراء اﻟ ﺎﺒ‬

‫ﺤ ﻠ ُﺔ ﺘ ﻬ ٍ ﻗ ﻞ ﺸﻬ ﻀ رﺌ‬

ّ‫ُﺸ‬

~

!

The word ‫ ﺗﺸﮭﯿﺮ‬in this context can be translated into ‘defamation’ which derives from the verb ‘defame’ ‫ﯾﺸﻮه ﺳﻤﻌﺔ‬ ّ . ُ . Related words include ‘famous’ ‫ ﻣﺸﮭﻮر‬and ‘fame’ ‫ﺷﮭﺮة‬

!

The word ‫ ﺣﻤﻠﺔ‬lends itself to ‘campaign’ which collocates well

Causativity and Transitivity

129

ّ . with verbs, such as ‘to launch’ or ‘to wage’ ‫ﯾﺸ ّﻦ‬/‫ﺷﻦ‬ In the simple present tense, the passive voice is formed by the use of ‘am/is/are’ + a past participle (Verb 3), as in the following example: She pays a lot of money. A lot of money is paid (by her). EX: Write passive sentences in (1) Simple Past and (2) Simple Present. Then translate them into Arabic: 1.

the test / write wrote, written / the teacher

Simple Past: _________________________________________________. Simple Present: ______________________________________________. 2.

the lights / switch off / my mother

Simple Past: _________________________________________________. Simple Present: ______________________________________________. 3.

the house / build built, built

Simple Past: _________________________________________________. Simple Present: ______________________________________________. 4.

the dinner / serve

Simple Past: _________________________________________________. Simple Present: ______________________________________________. 5.

this computer / sell sold, sold / not

Simple Past: _________________________________________________. Simple Present: ______________________________________________. 6.

the kids / pick up / not / their father.

Simple Past: _________________________________________________. Simple Present: ______________________________________________.

130

Chapter Four

It is worth noting that verb ‘to get’ can be used in place of verb ‘to be’ to form passive to talk about: 1. 2. 3. 4.

events or actions in an informal spoken English, events that are negative or not desired, events or actions that happen by accident or unexpectedly, or actions where the emphasis is shifted away from the agent to be placed on the action itself or the person involved in it.

My car got stolen some weeks ago. Last week, one of our trees got damaged in the wind.

My youngest daughter got frightened yesterday. Although he has worked in this company for many years, he got sacked.

.‫ﺴ ﻗﺔ( ﺴّﺎرﺘﻲ ﻗ ﻞ أﺴﺎﺒ ﻊ‬ ( ِ ّ ‫)أو ُﺤ‬

‫)ﺘ‬

‫ُﺴ ِ ﻗ‬

ّ ‫ ﺘ‬،‫ﻓﻲ اﻷﺴ ع اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ‬ .‫أﺸ ﺎرﻨﺎ ﻔﻌﻞ اﻟ ﺢ‬

‫أو ﺨﺎﻓ ( ِاﺒ ﻲ اﻟ ّ ﻐ ة‬

‫)أو أُﺨ ﻔ‬

‫إﺤ‬

‫أُرِﻋ‬

. ‫أﻤ‬

‫ إﻻ‬،‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻏ ﻤ ﻋ ﻠِ ِﻪ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺔ ﻟﻌ ة ﺴ ات‬ ِ ‫أﻨﻪ ُﻓ ِ ﻞ ﻤ ﺨ ا ﻤ اﻟ ﺔ )أو ﺘ‬ ‫اﻻﺴ ﻐ ﺎء ﻋ ﻪ‬ ً

(‫ﻤ ﺨ ًا‬

Now, let us compare these pairs of sentences to identify the differences between passive with verb ‘to be’ and passive with verb ‘to get’: The window of our living room

got broken

The window of our living room state).

(it is an action).

was broken

(it could be an action or a

got injured

My son while playing football with his friends (meaning it happened by accident). got himself injured

while playing football with his friends My son (meaning my son is involved in or responsible for what happened in some way). Furthermore, verb ‘to get’ (or verb ‘to have’, for more information, see next section) can be used to form analytic causatives. To explain, the following sentences can be studied:

Causativity and Transitivity

Causative

131

The manager had his secretary write the report. The manager got his secretary to write the report.

Passive

The report was/got written (by the manager’s secretary).

Passive causative

The manager had/got the report written (by his secretary)

To make this point clear, these pairs of sentences can be compared: I might have/get my hair cut (meaning by the barber). I might cut my hair (meaning by myself). I had/get my car washed (meaning by somebody). I washed my car (meaning by myself). Finally the verb ‘to get’ is used in certain idiomatic expressions, as in: Expression

Example

to get dressed

I’ll get dressed and follow you.

to get married

My close friend got married to a young man some days ago.

to get divorced

They got divorced some months ago.

to get started

You’d better get started if you want to finish it on time.

Translation

‫ﺔ ﻤ‬

. ‫ﻤﻼ ﻲ وأﺘ ﻌ‬

‫ﺴﺄرﺘ‬

‫ﺼ ﻘ ﻲ اﻟ‬

‫ﺘ ّوﺠ‬

.ٍ‫ﺸﺎب ﻗ ﻞ أ ﺎم‬

. ٍ ‫ﺘ ّﻠﻘ ا ﻗ ﻞ أﺸﻬ‬ ‫( أن ﺘ أ )ﻤ‬

ُ ‫ُﻔ ّ ﻞ )أو‬ ‫أردت أن ﺘ ﻬ ﻪ ﻓﻲ‬ ‫اﻵن( إن‬ َ

. ‫اﻟ ﻋ‬

to get lost

I’ve got lost many times.

.‫ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﺎﺴ ﺎت ﻋ ﯿ ة‬

‫)ﻟﻘ ( ﻀﻌ‬

to get mixed up

You’re the last person I’d expect to get mixed up in that kind of thing.

‫أﻨ أﺨ ُ ﺸ ٍ أﺘ ّﻗﻌﻪ أن ﯿ ّر‬ .‫ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ا أﻤ ر‬

132

Chapter Four

to get engaged

She got engaged to a guy from another country.

‫ﻬﺎ‬

‫ﺨ‬

‫ﺒـ ﺎب( ﻤ‬

‫ﻟ ﺎب )أو ﺘ‬ ‫أو ارﺘ‬

‫ِاﻨ‬

‫أو ُﺨ‬ . ‫ﺒﻠ ٍ أﺨ‬

To reinforce this point, the verb ‫ﺗﺰوج‬ ّ along with its two translations, i.e. ‘to get married’ and ‘to marry’ in the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ ﺧﺰﯾﻦ اﻟﻼﻣﺮﺋﯿﺎت‬A Hidden Treasure’ by Fu’ād al-Takarlī (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 226) can be considered:

‫اﻵﺨ ﺎن ﺨﻼل اﻟﻌﺎم‬ ‫أن ﺘ ّوج‬

‫ﻊ اﻟ‬

‫ﺸﻘ ﻘ ﺎ‬

‫ﺴ ﺔ اﻟ‬

.‫ﺤ ﺎﺘﻬ اﻟ ﺎﺼﺔ‬

‫ﻛ ﺎ ﻟ ﺤ ﻨﺎ ﻓﻲ دارﺘ ﺎ اﻟ ﻐ ة ﻌ أن ﺘ ّوﺠ‬ ‫ﺎﻨ‬

‫ ﻓﻘ‬،‫ﺎﻟ ﺤ ة‬

‫ﻨ ﻌ‬

‫إﻟﻰ ﺒ ت أزواﺠﻬ ﻟ ﻌ‬

‫ ﻟ ﺎ ﻟ ﻨ‬،‫اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ‬

‫ وأن‬،‫اﻟ ﻘ ﻘﺎت‬

My mother and I lived by ourselves in our small house after my sisters got married, but we did not feel despondent as it was normal in our society for women to marry, live in their husbands’ houses and lead their own lives. To change sentences in continuous tenses from active to passive, we need to use ‘being’ before the past participle (Verb 3), as in the following example: I was writing an important report yesterday at this time. An important report was being written yesterday at this time (by me). However, to change sentences in perfect tenses from active to passive, we need to use ‘been’ before the past participle (Verb 3), as in the following example: I have written a number of books recently. A number of books have been written (by me) recently.

Causativity and Transitivity

133

To change a sentence that has a modal verb, such as ‘can’, ‘could’, ‘might’, ‘would’, etc. from active to passive, one has to use the verb ‘be’ before the past participle (Verb 3), as in: You can answer all these questions. All these questions can be answered (by you). EX: Change the following sentences to the passive form. Then translate them into Arabic: 1.

We have not received our certificates yet.

2.

You were not driving him home.

3.

She invited all her friends to her birthday party, but no one attended.

4.

When my sister called me yesterday, I was painting my room.

5.

She is taking a picture of him.

6.

They had not bought the paper.

7.

While I was talking with my friend, somebody threw a car key at me.

8.

She could not ask me any questions yesterday.

9.

The enemy launched an attack on our troops some days ago.

10. You might have left the book in the library. Why don’t you go there and check? 11. The king delivered an important speech this morning. 12. Does the police officer catch the thief? 13. Does your mum pick you up? 14. They wear blue shoes. 15. They have not caught the thieves. 16. We have cycled five miles. 17. My sister has paid the bill. 18. Just wait, she will congratulate you.

134

Chapter Four

19. Is she preparing the party? 20. Are they talking about the meeting? EX: Translate the following text titled ‘Nelson Mandela’, paying special attention to the passive forms (highlighted for you): Rolihlahla Mandela was born on 18 July 1918. In 1930, when he was 12 years old, his father died. He attended a primary school in Qunu, where he was given the name Nelson by his teacher. In 1944, he got married to Evelyn Mase. She was a nurse at that time. They had two sons and two daughters. However, in 1958, he divorced his wife. On 12 August 1988, he was taken to hospital where he was diagnosed with tuberculosis. After more than three months in two hospitals, he was transferred on 7 December 1988 to a house at Victor Verster Prison near Paarl, where he spent his last 14 months of imprisonment. He was released on Sunday 11 February 1990. EX: Complete the translation of the following text adapted from a short story titled ‫‘ ﺗﻮﻟﯿﻒ‬A Synthesis’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 40-1): All of a sudden, __________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ The woman got up from the couch, turned off the light, switched off the television, and moved away a tray on which three plates, two glasses, and a knife ______________ (to put).

ٍ ‫ ُ ِق اﻟ ﺎب وﺴ ِ ﻊ ﺼ ُت ر‬،‫ﻓ ﺄة‬ ‫ﺠﻞ‬ ُ .‫ﺄﺘﻲ ﻤ ﺨﻠﻒ اﻟ ﺎب‬ ِ ‫ أ‬،‫اﻷر ﺔ‬ ‫ﻔﺄت‬

‫اﻟ أة ﻤ‬

ِ

‫ﻨﻬ‬

ْ ‫اﻟ ء وأﻗﻔﻠ ْ ﺠﻬﺎز اﻟ ﻠﻔ ن وازاﺤ‬ ِ ‫ﻘﻬﺎ ﺼ ﺔ‬ ‫وﻀﻌ ْ ﻋﻠ ﻬﺎ ﺜﻼﺜﺔ‬ ‫ﻋ‬ . ‫ﺼ ن وﻗ ﺤﺎن وﺴ‬

Causativity and Transitivity

135

EX: Translate the following text into English, paying special attention to the passive forms:

ٍ ‫ﻔﺎل وأرﻊ ﻨ‬ ٍ ‫ ﺒ ﻬ ﺜﻼﺜ ُﺔ أ‬،‫ﺎص‬ ٍ ‫ُﻗِ ﻞ ﯿ م أﻤ ﻋ ةُ أﺸ‬ ‫ﺎء وأُﺼ َ أﻛ ﻤ ﺜﻼﺜ‬ ُ ِ‫ ُﻨ ِﻘﻞ اﻟ ﺎﺒ ن إﻟﻰ أﻗ ِب ﻤ ﻔﻰ ﻟ‬،‫ﺸ ﺎ أﺜ ِاﻨﻔ ﺎر ﻫ ّ ﻗﻠ اﻟﻌﺎﺼ ﺔ ﻐ اد‬ ً .‫ﻔﻰ‬ ‫إن ِاﺜ ﻤ ﻬ ﻗ ﻓﺎرﻗﺎ اﻟ ﺎة ﻗ ﻞ وﺼ ﻟﻬ ﺎ إﻟﻰ اﻟ‬ ‫إﻻ‬ ،‫ﺎك‬ ‫ﻫ‬ ‫ﻬ‬ ‫ﻤﻌﺎﻟ‬ ّ

Causativity

3

Causativity (from the verb ‘to cause’) is an operation where the number of arguments (also known as ‘noun phrases’) increases, thus indicating that the doer of the action/activity (traditionally called the ‘subject’) causes somebody or something else, to do, or to become, something else. To explain, the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫اﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻋﻦ‬ ‫ﻲ‬ ّ ‫‘ ﻗﻠﺐ ﺣ‬Search for a Live Heart’ by Mūhsin al-Ramlī (cited in Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009: 45) can be examined:

‫أﻏ ق ﻗﻠ ﻲ ﺤ ﻰ أﻏ ﺎﻨﻲ ﻋ‬

‫ ﻟﻘ أﻨ ﺎﻨﻲ ذﻟ ﺤّﻲ ﻟﻪ اﻟ‬...‫أن ﻟﻲ ﻗﻠًﺎ‬ ّ

‫ﻟﻘ ﻨ‬

.‫رؤ ﻪ‬

In the above example, the intransitive verb ‫‘ ﻧﺴﻰ‬to forget’ and the transitive verb ‫‘ أﻧﺴﻰ‬to make somebody forget’, which have the same stem, have been used. In the first occurrence ‫‘ ﻟﻘﺪ ﻧﺴﯿﺖ أن ﻟﻲ ﻗﻠﺒًﺎ‬I forgot that I have a heart’, there are two arguments, namely: ~

~

the implicit pronoun ‫‘ أﻧﺎ‬I’ expressed by the letter ‫ ت‬attached to the verb ‫‘ ﻧﺴﻰ‬to forget’ filling a verb-specific semantic role of Forgetter, and the ‫أن‬-clause that fills a verb-specific semantic role of sth Forgotten.

This can be modelled below: sth Forgotten

‫أن ﻟﻲ ﻗﻠًﺎ‬

Forgetter

‫ﻟﻘ ﻨ‬

In the second occurrence, however, an argument-increasing operation occurs where an argument is added, which is ‫‘ ﺣﺒﻲ‬my love’ filling a verbspecific semantic role of sth Making Forget, as modelled below:

... sth Making Forget ‫ﺤ ﻲ ﻟﻪ‬

sth Forgotten

‫ذﻟ‬

Forgetter

‫ــﻲ‬

[ ‫]ﻫ‬

‫ﻟﻘ أﻨ ﺎﻨـ‬

136

Chapter Four

Giving this operation full consideration, the translators may opt for a rendering of the following kind: I forgot that I have a heart – what has made me forget is my love for him that overwhelmed my heart and blinded me from realizing that I have a heart. All languages have their own ways to express causativity. Following Goddard (1998/2011: 304; also discussed in Almanna 2016b: 40-1), causatives can be classified into three types, viz. analytic causatives, lexical causatives, and morphological causatives.

Analytic causatives Analytic causatives in English for instance can be expressed by verbs, such as ‘to make’, ‘to have’, ‘to get’, or ‘force’, as in: My father made me wash his car. Her mother had her daughter clean the flat. The boss got the secretary to write the report. His wife forced him to take his medication. In all these examples, there is a causer technically called ‘antagonist’ (my father, her mother, the boss, and his wife) and a causee technically called ‘agonist’ (me, her daughter, the secretary, and him). Unlike the causer who is characterized by power and authority, the causee is characterized by powerlessness and submission. Approached from a cognitive linguistic perspective, one may observe that all these examples are characterized by having a power differential, forcing the causee, who would tend in normal circumstances not to wash his father’s car, not to clean the flat, not to write the report, and not to take the medication to take these actions. As such, the affected participant in examples (1), (2), and (4) (the car, the flat, the medication) undergoes some changes, and the resultant in example (3) (the report) comes into existence as a result of the causer’s action or words. Further, in all these examples, the causee (me, her daughter, the secretary, and him) failed to overcome the force of the causer (my father, her mother, the boss, and his wife), thus entailing causality. This can be modelled as follows: Her mother causer/antagonist/powerful had her daughter causee/agonist/powerless clean the flat. The boss causer/antagonist/powerful got the secretary causee/agonist/powerless to write the report.

Causativity and Transitivity

His wife causer/antagonist/powerful forced him medication.

causee/agonist/powerless

137

to take his

When we opt for different grammatical forms and content specifications, the extent of causation might be affected. To explain, let us insert the verb ‘to try’ in the above examples: My father tried to make me wash his car. Her mother tried to have her daughter clean the flat. The boss tried to get the secretary to write the report. His wife tried to force him to take his medication. As can be observed, by the effect of the verb ‘to try’, the scope of intention becomes greater than the extent of causation, thus affecting the causer’s power and authority, the causee’s powerlessness and submission, and the other participants. This is because it is not asserted that I washed the car, her daughter cleaned the flat, the secretary wrote the report, and he took his medication. To reinforce this point, the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺸﺒﺎك واﻟﺴﺎﺣﺔ‬The Window and the Courtyard’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 189) can be discussed:

‫زر ﻤﻘ ًﻋﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺜ ب ﺎزة‬ ‫ًا‬

‫وق وأﺨ ﺠ ﻤﻘ ً ﺎ وﺒ ة و أت ﺘ‬ . ‫ﻠﺔ ﻀّﻘﺔ ﻤ زة ﺎﻟ اﻨ ﻞ اﻷﺒ‬

‫اﻟ أة اﻟ‬ ‫ﺄﻛ ﺎم‬

‫ﻓ‬

ّ ‫ﻤ‬

The woman opened the box, took out a pair of scissors and a needle and started to sew a button that had come off on to a branched baza garment with long narrow sleeves embroidered with white lace. Here, it is asserted that the woman opened the box, took out a pair of scissors and a needle, and started to sew the button, that is, the extent of causation is greater than the scope of intention. The emphasis is put on the completion of these actions in a specific period in the past. Had the writer, for instance, opted for another grammatical form, as in:

‫زر ﻤﻘ ًﻋﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺜ ب ﺎزة ﻤ‬ ‫ًا‬

‫اﻟ أة اﻟ وق ﻟ ﻲ ﺘ ج ﻤﻘ ً ﺎ وﺒ ة وﺘ‬ ‫ﻓ‬ . ‫ﻠﺔ ﻀ ﻘﺔ ﻤ زة ﺎﻟ اﻨ ﻞ اﻷﺒ‬ ‫ﺄﻛ ﺎم‬

the scope of intention in the acts of taking out and sewing will be greater than the extent of causation as she might change her mind later for any reason.

138

Chapter Four

Analytic causatives in Arabic can be expressed by the verb ‫‘ ﺟﻌﻞ‬to make’. To illustrate, let us discuss this example: Sad movies usually make my daughter cry. Here, the extent of causation is greater than the scope of intention. It is worth noting here that we do not talk about a single event but a series of events as the emphasis is placed on the frequency and regularity of the action as a matter of routine. To reflect causativity on the one hand, and frequency and regularity on the other, the translator may suggest a rendering of the following kind:

.‫ِﺔ ِاﺒ ﻲ ﺘَ ﻲ‬

‫ﻌﻞ اﻷﻓﻼم اﻟ‬ ُ ‫ﺘ‬

However, to emphasize the frequency and regularity of the action, one may add the phrase ‫‘ ﻋﺎدة ﻣﺎ‬usually’, as in:

.‫ِﺔ ِاﺒ ﻲ ﺘَ ﻲ‬

‫ﻌﻞ اﻷﻓﻼم اﻟ‬ ً ُ ‫ﻋﺎدة ﻤﺎ ﺘ‬

It is worth noting that causation can be reflected in Arabic without the verb ‫‘ ﺟﻌﻞ‬to make’, as in:

.‫ِﺔ ِاﺒ ﻲ‬ Or:

.‫ِﺔ‬

‫ﻋﺎدة ﻤﺎ ُﺘ ﻲ اﻷﻓﻼم اﻟ‬ ً

ِ ‫ﻋﺎدة ﻫ اﻷﻓﻼم اﻟ‬ ً ‫ﻤﺎ ُﯿ ﻲ اﺒ ﻲ‬

Here, by the effect of the verb ‫‘ أﺑﻜﻰ‬to make somebody cry’ which is an example of ‘morphological causative’ (see below), it is asserted that sad movies made my daughter cry, thus entailing causality. To see how not paying extra attention to these issues may twist the message to varying degrees, let us discuss the following text extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ ﺧﺰﯾﻦ اﻟﻼﻣﺮﺋﯿﺎت‬A Hidden Treasure’ by Fu’ād alTakarlī (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 224-5):

.‫اﺴ ﻠ ﻪ وأﻨﺎ ﻤﺎ أزال ﻓﻲ ﺴ ﻲ اﻟ اﻫﻘﺔ واﻟ ﺎب‬ ‫ﻋﻠ ﻬﺎ ﻌ ﺔ ﺠ ﻠﺔ ﺘﻌﻠ ﻫﺎ ﺸ ﻌﺔ‬

‫ﻋ ﻠ ْ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺠﻌﻠ ﺎ ﻨ ﻔﻞ ّﺄول راﺘ‬ ‫ وﻀﻌ‬،‫ ﺤ ل ﻤﺎﺌ ة ﺼﻐ ة‬،‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎء‬،‫ﺠ ﻌ ﺎ‬

.‫واﺤ ة‬

She celebrated my first wages when I was still in my mid-to late teens. She gathered us in the evening around a small table, on which she had placed a nice cake with one candle.

Causativity and Transitivity

139

As one may observe, in the above example, by virtue of the verb ‫‘ ﺟﻌﻞ‬to make’ in ‫ﻋﻤﻠﺖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﻌﻠﻨﺎ ﻧﺤﺘﻔﻞ‬, the causer is characterized by power and authority while the causee is characterized by powerlessness and submission. As such, the whole clause is characterized by having force dynamic value of forcing the causee (i.e. us) who tends in normal circumstances not to celebrate, to celebrate. In the target text, however, the whole clause ‘She celebrated …’ is characterized by being force dynamically neutral. Added to this, the celebrator is characterized by uniplexity while in the original text is characterized by multiplexity. Had the translators given full consideration to these issues, they would have used the verb ‘to make’ in the past followed by the pronoun ‘us’ characterized by multiplexity, thereby entailing causality on the one hand, and reflecting the number of the people who celebrated on the other: She made us celebrate my first wages when I was still in my mid-to late teens. She gathered us in the evening around a small table, on which she had placed a nice cake with one candle. To reinforce this point, following is another example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ طﺒﻠﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﻤﺎء‬A Tray from Heaven’ by Yūsuf Idrīs (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 282-3):

‫ﺎﻟ ﻏ ﻤ ﻬﺎ و ﻏ اﻟ ﻗﻒ‬

‫اﻟ ﺎس ﺘ‬

‫و ﺎن ﻏ ﻪ ﺸ ﯿ ً ا إﻟﻰ اﻟ رﺠﺔ اﻟ ﻲ ﺠﻌﻠ‬ .‫ﺎﻨ ا ﻓ ﻪ‬ ‫اﻟ ﻫ اﻟ‬

In spite of the sheikh’s anger and the terrifying nature of the situation, people started laughing. Here, in this scene, there are two forces, namely ‫‘ ﻏﻀﺒﮫ‬his anger’ and ‫‘ اﻟﻤﻮﻗﻒ اﻟﺬي ﻛﺎﻧﻮا ﻓﯿﮫ‬the nature of the situation’. While his anger tries to force people, who tend not to laugh, to laugh, the nature of the situation tries to force the people, who are about to laugh because of his anger, not to laugh. At the end, they laughed because of his anger despite the nature of the situation. In the target text, however, by the effect of different grammatical forms and content specifications, the scene has been changed where people laughed because of the two forces, not just one force. To reflect a similar scene, one may suggest a rendering of the following kind: His (the sheikh’s) anger was so great that people laughed despite the terrifying nature of the situation.

140

Chapter Four

Lexical causatives Lexical causatives refer to certain lexical items that have implicit causativity (Almanna 2016b: 40). Examples of lexical causatives in English include verbs such as ‘to send’, ‘to kill’, ‘to feed’, and the like (Goddard 1998/2011: 304). These lexical causatives lend themselves respectively to ‫أرﺳﻞ‬, ‫ﻗﺘﻞ‬, and ‫ أطﻌﻢ‬which are examples of lexical causatives in Arabic. To explain, let us discuss the lexical item ‘to send’ along with its equivalent in Arabic, i.e. ‫ أرﺳﻞ‬in a sentence of the following kind: The teacher causer/antagonist/powerful sent one of his students to the secretary to bring him the attendance sheet.

causee/agonist/powerless

one of the students went …

In the above example, there is a closed path with gapping over the medial and final portions. The scene is not force dynamically neutral, but rather it is characterized by having a power differential, forcing one of the students, who tend to stay in class with his classmates, to go to the secretary. It is asserted that one of the students went to the secretary, thus entailing causality. In contrast, it is not asserted that the student brought the attendance sheet; therefore, the scope of intention in this non-finite clause ‘to bring him the attendance sheet’ is greater than the extent of causation. To reflect all these characteristics, one may suggest a rendering of the following kind:

.‫ﺐ ورﻗﺔ اﻟﺤﻀﻮر‬ ّ ِ ‫أرﺳ َﻞ اﻟ ُﻤ‬ ِ ‫س أﺣﺪَ طﻼﺑِ ِﮫ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺴّﻜﺮﺗﯿﺮة ﻟﺠﻠ‬ ُ ‫ﺪر‬ ... ‫ذھﺐ أﺣﺪ اﻟﻄﻼب‬ Morphological causatives Now, let us shift our focus of attention towards the third type of causatives, i.e. morphological causatives which are created by the process of affixation. In English, for example, the addition of the suffixes –ify or –en to certain adjectives will not only change them morphologically, syntactically, semantically, and sometimes phonologically, but they will inject them with causativity as well. Below are a few examples:

Causativity and Transitivity

Adjective

Verb

clear simple worse awake

clarify simplify worsen awaken

141

Similarly, in Arabic some verbs can be changed from intransitive to transitive easily, thereby changing their causative forms by the process of affixation. To illustrate, the following examples quoted from Almanna (2016b: 41-42) can be studied: to make sb laugh to make sb cry to put sb to bed; to send sb to bed to make sb sneeze to break

َ‫ﺿﺤّﻚ‬/‫ أﺿﺤﻚ‬to laugh to cry /‫أﺑﻜﻰ‬ َ ‫ﺑ ّﻜﻰ‬

‫ﻧﻮم‬ ّ to sleep; to fall asleep

‫ﺲ‬ َ ‫ ﻋﻄ‬to sneeze ‫ ﻛﺴﺮ‬to break, to be broken

to make sb understand/ comprehend to return; to bring back; to give back to get out; to bring out; to take out; to send out; to sack out (slang); to give the sack (slang) to graduate to expel sb from the country; to force sb to leave the country to make sb angry to make sb sad; to sadden

‫ﻓ ّﮭ َﻢ‬/‫ أﻓﮭﻢ‬to understand; to comprehend

/‫ أر َﺟﻊ‬to return; to come ‫ ر ّﺟ َﻊ‬back /‫ أﺧﺮ َج‬to go out ‫ﺧﺮ َج‬ ّ to graduate ‫ﺧﺮ َج‬ ّ ‫ ﺳﻔ َﺮ‬to travel

be angry ‫أﻏﻀﺐ‬ َ / َ‫ أﺣﺰن‬be sad ّ َ‫ﺣﺰن‬

َ‫ﺿﺤﻚ‬ ‫ﺑﻜﻰ‬ َ ‫ﻧﺎم‬ َ ‫ﻋﻄﺲ‬ َ /‫اِﻧﻜﺴﺮ‬ ‫ﺗﻜﺴّﺮ‬ /‫ﻓﮭﻢ‬ َ ‫ﺗﻔ ّﮭ َﻢ‬ ‫ر َﺟ َﻊ‬ ‫ﺧﺮ َج‬

‫ﺗﺨﺮج‬ ّ ‫ﺳﺎﻓﺮ‬ َ ‫ﺐ‬ َ ‫ﻏﻀ‬ ِ َ‫ﺣﺰن‬ ِ

142

Chapter Four

to make sb feel sick/ill

to feel sick; to be /‫أﻣﺮض‬ َ ill ‫ض‬ ّ َ ‫ﻣﺮ‬

‫ﻣﺮض‬ َ

to awake; to wake up; to awaken

‫ ﺻﺤّﺎ‬to awake; to wake

‫ﺻﺤﺎ‬

to awake; to wake up; to awaken

‫ أﯾﻘﻆ‬to awake; to wake

‫اِﺳﺘﯿﻘﻆ‬

to feed to give sb a drink; to make sb drink (e.g. syrup) to teach to teach

up; to awaken up; to awaken

‫أطﻌﻢ‬ /َ‫ أﻛﻞ‬to eat َ to drink ‫ب‬ ّ َ ‫ﺷﺮ‬

‫أﻛﻞ‬ ‫ب‬ َ ‫ﺷﺮ‬

‫ ﻋﻠ َﻢ‬to learn to study ‫س‬ ّ َ ‫در‬

‫ﺗﻌﻠ َﻢ‬ ‫درس‬ َ

‫ ذﻛﺮ‬to remember

to remind to make sb forget

‫ذﻛﺮ‬ َ ‫ﻧﺴﻰ‬

‫أﻧﺴﻰ‬/‫ ﻧﺴّﻰ‬to forget

to surprise

to be surprised ‫أدھﺶ‬/ ‫دھﺶ‬ َ َ

‫ِﻧﺪھﺶ‬ ‫ا‬ َ

to surprise

َ‫ﺑﺎﻏﺖ‬/‫ ﻓﺎﺟﺄ‬to be surprised

‫ﺗﻔﺎﺟﺄ‬

to encourage; to brave; to embolden

‫ ﺷ ّﺠ َﻊ‬to be brave; to be encouraged; to pluck up courage

‫ﺗﺸﺠّﻊ‬

‫ أذى‬to be hurt

to hurt

‫ﺗﺄذى‬

EX: Translate the following examples written for the purposes of this course, paying extra attention to the causatives:

.‫ِاﺒ ﻬﺎ اﻟ ﻐ ة‬ !

ٍ ‫ ﻨّ ﻤ‬،‫ﺴﺎﻋﺔ‬ ‫ﻒ‬

‫ ﻗ ﻞ أن ﺘ ﺎم ﺒ‬،‫اﻟ ﺎرﺤﺔ‬

~

Here, the verb ‫ﻧﺎم‬ َ is an intransitive verb, i.e. it does not have an object, thus lending itself to the verb ‘to sleep’, ‘to fall asleep’ (or less formal ‘to hit the hay’ (US) or ‘to hit the sack’ (UK), but best avoided as colloquial). However, the transitive verb ‫ﻧﻮم‬ ّ in ْ‫ﻧﻮﻣﺖ‬ ّ (or sometimes in ‫ )ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺑﺘﻨﻮﯾﻢ‬can be translated into ‘to put somebody to bed’, ‘to send somebody to bed’, ‘to lull somebody to sleep’, or less formal ‘to tuck somebody into bed’. Building on this, try to translate the following English sentences:

Before going to bed, the mother put her youngest son to bed.

Causativity and Transitivity

143

He was a naughty boy; therefore, he was sent to bed. We put the first edition of the book to bed a day before the deadline. Unlike his brother who usually gets up at the crack of dawn, Peter is a heavy/deep sleeper – he gets up, but crawls back into bed.

.‫ﺘ ّ َج ﺼ ﻘﻲ اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ ﻤ ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻟ ن اﻟ ﻲ ﺨّ ﺠ ْ أﺠ ﺎﻻً ﻋ ﯿ ة‬ !

‫ﱡ‬

~

In Arabic, the verb ‫ﺗﺨﺮ َج‬ is intransitive, and the verb ‫ج‬ ّ ّ is َ ‫ﺧﺮ‬ transitive. In English, however, the verb ‘to graduate’ is transitive and intransitive. Therefore, ‫ج ﺻﺪﯾﻘﻲ‬ ّ can be translated into ‘my َ ‫ﺗﺨﺮ‬ friend graduated’ or ‘my friend was graduated’. As for ‫ج‬ ّ , it َ ‫ﺧﺮ‬ lends itself to ‘to graduate’ in the past followed by an object.

ِ ِ ِ ‫ف أﻨﻪ ﻻ‬ ْ ِ ‫ ﻤﺎ أدﻫ ﻬﺎ أﻨﻬﺎ ﺘﻌ‬.‫اﻨ ﻫ ْ ﻟ و ﺔ أﺴ ﺎذﻫﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻔﻠﺔ‬ .‫اﻟ ﻔﻼت‬

~

!

The verb ‫ِﻧﺪھﺶ‬ ‫ ا‬lends itself to ‘to be surprised’ or more َ idiomatically ‘to be taken by surprise’.

!

It is worth noting that the verb ‫ِﻧﺪھﺶ‬ ‫ا‬, i.e. being surprised, is َ different from ‫أدھﺶ‬ , i.e. to cause somebody to feel surprised, and َ َ‫ﺑﺎﻏﺖ‬/‫ﻓﺎﺟﺄ‬, i.e. to find somebody suddenly and unexpectedly. How would you translate these three sentences?

It wouldn’t surprise me if you called him. I was surprised to see you in the mall. The policemen surprised the thief while leaving the house.

‫ وﺠ ُﻊ أﺼ ﻗﺎﺌ ﺎ ﻌ ﻓ ن‬،‫ﺎﻟﻲ‬

‫ ﺼ ﻗ ﻲ ﻏﺎﺒ ْ ﻋ‬،‫ وﻟ ﻲ ﻨ ُﻬﺎ‬،‫ﺎس‬ َ ‫ﻟ ْ أﺘ‬ .‫اﻟ َ اﻟ أﻨ ﺎﻨﻲ‬

~

!

The verb ‫‘ ﺗﻨﺎﺳﻰ‬to pretend to have forgotten’ or ‘to disregard’ is different from ‫‘ ﻧﺴﻰ‬to forget’ and ‫‘ أﻧﺴﻰ‬to make somebody forget’ or ‘to cause somebody to forget’.

!

In this context, ‫ﻏﺎﺑﺖْ ﻋﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﻲ‬, which is a synonym to ‫ ﻧﺴﯿﺖ‬but less formal, can lend itself to ‘it totally slipped my mind’, as in:

144

Chapter Four

I meant to tell my wife that her mother had phoned, but it completely slipped my mind.

.‫ِر اﻟ ﻠ ِﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟ ُ ﺎﻀ ِة‬

‫ًا ﻟﻌ ِم ﺤ‬

ِ ‫ﻋﺞ اﻷﺴ ﺎ ُذ‬ َ ‫اﻨ‬

~

!

The verb ‫ اِﻧﺰﻋ َﺞ‬lends itself to ‘to be annoyed’ in the past. This is an example of ‘class shift’ where the verb ‫ اِﻧﺰﻋ َﺞ‬can be translated into the adjective ‘annoyed’ ‫ ُﻣﻨﺰَ ﻋِﺞ‬preceded by the verb ‘to be’.

!

It is worth noting that the verb ‫اِﻧﺰﻋ َﺞ‬/‫ ﻛﺎن ُﻣﻨﺰﻋ ًﺠﺎ‬i.e. to be annoyed is different from ‫ﻋ َﺞ‬ َ ‫أز‬, i.e. to make somebody angry. How would you translate these two sentences?

He was very annoyed as he couldn’t find his office keys. What annoyed him is that he could not find his office keys.

‫ف أ ً ﺎ ّأﻨﻪ‬ َ ِ ‫ وﻋﻠ َ أن ﺘﻌ‬.‫ف ّأﻨﻪ ﻟ ُ ﺎﻓ ْ ﺴﻔ ًة ﻗ ًة وﺴ ﻌ د‬ َ ِ ‫ﻋﻠ َ أن ﺘﻌ‬ ِ ِ ‫ِ إر‬ ِ َ ‫ﻐﺎدر اﻟ ﻠ‬ .‫ ّإﻨﻪ ُﺴِّﻔ )ﺘ ﱠ ﺘ ﻔ ُﻩُ( ﺎ ﺼ ﻘﻲ‬- ‫ادﺘ ِﻪ‬ ُ ْ‫ﻟ‬

~

!

It is worth noting that the verb ‫ﺳﺎﻓﺮ‬ ‘to travel’ is different from َ the verb ‫ﺳﻔّ َﺮ‬, i.e. ‘to expel somebody from a country’ although they both share the same root. While the former is intransitive, the latter is transitive.

!

The modalized preposition ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ‬here can be translated into ‘should’, ‘have to’, and so forth.

!

The expression ‫ ﺑﻤﺤﺾ إرادﺗِ ِﮫ‬lends itself to ‘of his own free will’ or ‘of his own accord’. Building on this, try to translate the following sentences into Arabic:

I did not tell her to leave, but she left of her own accord. My sister thought that something was wrong when I cleaned up my room of my own free will. The teacher has to ask his students to do their homework; they won’t do it of their own accord.

‫ﻟﻘ ﻨ ُ ﱠ‬ ‫أن ﻟ ﱠ ﻤ ﻋ ً ا ﻤﻬ ﺎ ﻤﻊ اﻟ‬ . ‫ اﻟ ﺠﻌﻠ ﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻔ ة اﻷﺨ ة أﻨ ﻰ أﻫ اﻟ اﻋ‬،‫زوﺠﻲ‬

‫ ﻟﻘ أﻨ ﺎﻨﻲ ذﻟ‬. ‫ﯿ م أﻤ‬

~

Causativity and Transitivity

ٍ ‫ﺘ ّﻠﻐ ﻤ ﺨ اً أﻨﻪ ﻔ ِّ ﺒ ﻤ‬ ،‫ ﺤ ﻬﺎ‬،‫ ﻏ ُ ﻤ ﻪ‬.‫ﻠﺔ ﻟﻪ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌ ﻞ‬ ّ ُ ُ ٍ ... ‫ واﻟ أﻏ ﻲ أﻨ ﻲ ﻟ أُﻗ ّ ﻤﻌﻪ ﻲء‬،‫ﻏ ًﺎ ﺸ ﯿ ً ا‬

145

~

!

In the above text, there are a number of complex sentences, such ‫ ﻧﺴﯿﺖُ ﱠ‬and ‫أن‬ ‫ ﺗﺒﻠﻐﺖُ ﱠ‬that lend themselves to ‘I forgot that …’, as ‫أن‬ and ‘I was informed/told that …’ respectively. Therefore, extra attention should be paid to tenses used in the clauses.

!

As discussed earlier, the verbs ‫ أﻧﺴﻰ‬and ‫أﻏﻀﺐ‬ , which are َ transitive, are different from ‫ ﻧﺴﻰ‬and ‫ﻏﻀﺐ‬ , which are َ intransitive.

!

The verb ‫ ﺗﺒﻠّﻎ‬can be translated into a passive voice, such as ‘I was informed’.

!

The sentence ٍ‫ﺼﺮ ﻣﻌﮫ ﺑﺸﻲء‬ ّ ‫ ﻟﻢ أﻗ‬can be lexically and syntactically adjusted prior to translating it into English. As such, it can be modulated into ‫ ﻓﻌﻠﺖُ ﻛ ﱠﻞ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻮﺳﻌﻲ‬or ‫ﺑﺬﻟﺖُ ﻣﻌﮫ أﻗﺼﻰ ﺟﮭﻮدي‬, and so forth.

4 Revision EX 1: Translate the following text titled ‘Mother’s Day’ into Arabic, giving adequate consideration to the types of processes along with their participants and circumstances. A man stopped at a flower shop to order some flowers to be wired to his mother who lived two hundred miles away. Scarcely had he gotten out of his car when he noticed a young girl sitting on the curb sobbing. He asked her what was wrong. She replied: ~

“I wanted to buy a red rose for my mother. But I only have seventy-five cents, and a rose costs two dollars”.

Wearing a smile, the man said: ~

“Come on in with me. I’ll buy you a rose”.

He bought the little girl her rose and ordered his own mother’s flowers. As they were leaving, he offered the girl a ride home. She said: ~

“Yes, please! That’s kind of you”.

146

Chapter Four

She directed him to a cemetery, where she placed the rose on a freshly dug grave. The man returned to the flower shop, cancelled the wire order, picked up a bouquet and drove the two hundred miles to his mother’s house. EX 2: Answer the following questions to identify the circumstances associated with the processes used in the above text: 1.

Why did the man stop at a flower shop line 1? circumstance of_________________.

2.

Where did his mother live line 2? circumstance of _________________.

3.

When did he notice a young girl sitting on the curb sobbing line 3? circumstance of _________________.

EX 3: Translate the following short texts taken from different literary sources into English, paying extra attention to the causatives (highlighted for you): _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ __. With her being engrossed in this state, I couldn’t tell whether she wanted to punish me or ignore me, for my long separation, for the journey I took for five years of higher education in Paris.

His particular attention towards________________ _______________________

‫أو‬

‫ﺤ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎدل وﻗ وم اﻟ ﺎﺌ‬

‫ ﻛﺎﻨ‬.1

‫ﺎﻫﺎ إﻟﻰ‬ ‫ﺨ وﺠﻬ‬ ً ‫ﻌﻠ ﻲ أﻛ اﻨ‬ ،‫ و ﻌ اﺴ ﻐ اﻗﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﺎﻟﺔ‬.‫ﻨﻔ ﻲ‬ ‫ﺘﺄﻨ ﻲ أو ﺘ ﺎﻫﻠﻲ‬ ‫ﺴﻔ‬

‫ﺴ ات ﻹﻛ ﺎل‬

‫ﻞ‬

‫ﺄﻨﻬﺎ ﺘﻘ‬

‫ﻟ أﺸﻌ‬

‫اﻨﻘ ﺎﻋﻲ اﻟ‬

‫ﻌ‬

‫اﺴ ّ ﺨ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ... ‫دراﺴ ﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺎر‬ (“ ّ‫ ﻗﺼﺔ ”ﻗﺼﺔ ﺣﺐ‬،‫)ﻛﺮﯾﻢ ﻋﺒﺪ‬

ٍ ‫ﻲء ﻤ‬

ّ ‫ اﻫ ﺎﻤﻪ ﺒﻲ ﺠﻌﻠ ﻲ أﺤ‬.2 - ‫ أﺜ ﺎءﻩ‬- ‫ ﻋ رت زوﺠ ﻲ‬.. ‫اﻟ ﻫ‬

Causativity and Transitivity

147

... ‫اﻗ ﻬﺎ ﻟ وﺠ ﻪ‬

______________________.

‫ﺘ ﺎﻫ ﻬﺎ‬

(“‫ ﻗﺼﺔ ”اﻟﺒﺪﯾﻠﺔ‬،‫)ﻣﺤﻤﻮد ﺳﻌﯿﺪ‬ She lowers her head as if immersed deep in thought and so concerned that _______________________ _______________________ ______________________.

‫ﺔ اﻟ أس وﻗ ﺒ ت ﺄﻨﻬﺎ‬

‫ ﺘ ن ﻤ‬.3

‫ﻏﺎرﻗﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻔ‬ ّ ‫ وﻓﻲ ﻫ‬، ‫ﻋ‬ ٍ ‫اﻟﻘ‬ ‫ أ ّ اﻟ‬،‫ﺸﻲء‬ ‫ﯿ ﻬﺎ ّﻞ‬ .‫ﻤ اﻟ ﻘﻬﻰ وروادﻩ وﺼ ﻪ‬

(“‫ﻤ ﺎرك ﺤ ﻲ )ﻗ ﺔ ”اﻟ أة اﻟ ﺎﻟ ﺔ‬ While he was leaning back on a pillow stuffed with esparto grass, his gaze travelled around the room. The pillow______________ ______________________ ______________________. His mother wrapped her arm around his waist just like a lover and walked with him to the sitting room. _________ _______________________ _______________________ ______________________.

‫اﺘﻪ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻐ ﻓﺔ وﻫ ﻤ ﻲء‬

‫ ﺠﺎل ﺒ‬.4

.‫ﻬ ﻩ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺴﺎدة ﻤ ّ ة ﺎﻟ ﻠﻔﺎء‬ ‫آﻟ ﻪ اﻟ ﺴﺎدة ﻗﻠ ﻼً ﻓﻐّ وﻀﻊ‬ ...‫ﺠﻠ ﻪ‬

(“

‫ﺠ‬

‫ ﻗ ﺔ ”ﺠ‬،‫زﻓ اف‬

‫)ﻤ‬

‫ﻩ ﻤﻞ‬

‫أﻤ ُﻪ ﺴﺎﻋ ﻫﺎ ﺤ ل ﺨ‬ ‫ ﻟﻔ‬.5 ُ ‫ﻏ ﻓﺔ‬ ‫ﻋﺎﺸﻘﺔ وﺴﺎرت ﻤﻌﻪ ﻨ‬ ِ ،‫ أﺠﻠ ﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷر ﺔ‬.‫اﻻﺴ ﻘ ﺎل‬ ، ‫ ﻨﻌ‬. ‫ﺎ ﻟ أﻨﻪ ﻐ ق ﻓﻲ ﺤﻠ‬

ّ ‫ﻓﺄﺤ‬ ! ‫ﺤﻠ وأ ّ ﺤﻠ‬

(“‫أﺴ د‬

‫ ﻗ ﺔ ”ﻤ‬،‫)ﺴﻼم ﻋ د‬

EX 4: Identify the extent of causation and scope of intention in the following text extracted from a story titled ‫‘ ﺗﻮﻟﯿﻒ‬A Synthesis’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 41):

‫اﻟﻌ ﺔ‬

‫اﻟ أة ﺴ ﺎرة اﻟ ﺎﻓ ة اﻟ ﻲ ارﻫﺎ ﻤ دون أن ﺘﻐّ ﻤ ﺠﻠ ﻬﺎ ﻓ‬ ‫ﺘ‬ .‫رة ﺒ ﻨﻬﺎ ﺔ اﻷر ﺔ و ﺎب ﻏ ﻓﺔ اﻟ ﻌﺎم‬ ‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ او ﺔ اﻟ‬

148

Chapter Four

The woman pulls the curtain of the window next to her without getting up from her seat. The tight corner between the end of the couch and the dining room door got even darker. EX 5: Translate the following two texts adapted from a story titled ‫اﻟﺤﺪﯾﻘﺔ‬ ‘The Garden’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (cited in ibid. pp. 42-3) into English, paying extra attention to the extent of causation and scope of intention:

،‫ووﻗﻒ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎرﻤﺔ‬

‫اﻟ ﺎز وﻓ ﺢ ﺎب اﻟ‬

‫ ﻋ‬،‫ﺨ ج ﻤ ﻏ ﻓ ﻪ‬

~

،‫ووﻗﻒ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎرﻤﺔ‬

‫اﻟ ﺎز وﻓ ﺢ ﺎب اﻟ‬

‫ ﻋ‬،‫ﺨ ج ﻤ ﻏ ﻓ ﻪ‬

~

... ‫اﻟﻌﺎﻟ ﺒ ﻬﺎﯿ ﻪ‬

... ‫اﻟﻌﺎﻟ ﺒ ﻬﺎﯿ ﻪ‬

‫ﺘ ﺎول اﻨ ب اﻟ ﺎء اﻟ ﺎ وأزال اﻟ‬

‫ﺘ ﺎول اﻨ ب اﻟ ﺎء اﻟ ﺎ ﻟ ﻲ ﯿ ﻞ اﻟ‬

CHAPTER FIVE TRANSLATING MODES OF NARRATION

1 Types of sentences The mode of narration of a sentence can be either in direct speech or in indirect speech. Direct speech (also called ‘quoted speech’) refers to the use of the speaker’s exact words; it is written within inverted commas, as in: He said to me: “I will travel to London tomorrow”. She replied: “I forgot to bring the assignment with me”. Indirect speech (also called ‘reported speech’), however, refers to the use of different words while conveying the speaker’s message; it is written without inverted commas, as in: He told me that he would travel to London the following day. She replied that she had forgotten to bring the assignment with her. Unlike English, Arabic does not require inverted commas to indicate that the speech is direct or indirect, but rather, one may rely on the structure itself, as in the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫اﻟﺸﺒﺎك‬ ‫‘ واﻟﺴﺎﺣﺔ‬The Window and the Courtyard’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 10-11).

.‫ﻒ‬

‫ن اﻟ ﺎ و ﻘ أون اﻟ‬

‫ إﻨﻬ ﻓ ﻗ ﺎ‬:‫ﻗﺎل أﺤ اﻟ ﺎرة وﻫ ﯿ ﻓﻊ رأﺴﻪ‬

This can be translated in different ways: ~

One of the passers-by said while raising his head: “They are above us, drinking tea and reading newspapers”.

~

“They are above us, drinking tea and reading newspapers”, said one of the passers-by while raising his head.

Direct

150

Chapter Five

Indirect

~

“They are above us, drinking tea and reading newspapers”, one of the passers-by said while raising his head.

~

One of the passers-by said while raising his head that they were above them, drinking tea and reading newspapers.

At times, Arabic does not require a tense change when the introductory verb ‫أﺧﺒﺮ‬/‫ ﻗﺎل‬is in the past, as in the following example taken from a short story titled ‫‘ ﻗﺴﻤﺘﻲ وﻧﺼﯿﺒﻲ‬Qismati and Nasibi’ by Mahfouz (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 186-7):

.‫ﻬﺎ‬

:‫ﻷﻤﻲ‬

‫ﻗﻠ‬

‫وﻨ‬ ُ ‫~ ﺴ ﻌ ﻬﺎ‬ :‫ﺼ ﺨ أﻤﻲ‬

.‫ ﺴ ت ﺠ ًﻋﺎ‬.‫أﺒ ً ا‬

~

As can be observed, a future construction is used in the past where the moment of speaking is in the past. In the above example, a direct mode of narration is utilized by the writer where two verbal processes are employed. They are

. ‫ﻬﺎ‬

‫وﻨ‬ ُ ‫ ﺴ ﻌ ﻬﺎ‬:‫ﻗﻠ ﻷﻤﻲ‬ .‫ ﺴ ت ﺠ ًﻋﺎ‬.‫ أﺒ ً ا‬:‫ﺼ ﺨ أﻤﻲ‬

~

~

As they are syntactically similar, let us discuss the first verbal process only, that is, ‫ ﺳﻨﻄﻌﻤﮭﺎ وﻧﺸﺮﺑﮭﺎ‬:‫ﻗﻠﺖ ﻷﻣﻲ‬. The Sayer of the verbal process is ‫‘ أﻧﺎ‬I’ indicated by the letter ‫ ت‬attached to the verb ‫ﻗﺎل‬. The verb ‫‘ ﻗﺎل‬to say’ in the past is the process of saying, and ‫ ﺳﻨﻄﻌﻤﮭﺎ وﻧﺸﺮﺑﮭﺎ‬is the content, that is, what has been said. In the content, two material processes are employed by the writer. They are ~

‫ ﺳﻨﻄﻌﻤﮭﺎ‬where the Actor is ‫‘ ﻧﺤﻦ‬we’ indicated by the letter ‫ن‬ attached to the verb, ‫ﯾُﻄﻌﻢ‬/‫‘ طﻌﻢ‬to feed’ is the process of doing in the future indicated by ‫ﺳـ‬, and the explicit pronoun ‫‘ ھﺎ‬her’ is the Client.

~

‫ ﻧﺸﺮﺑﮭﺎ‬where the Actor is ‫‘ ﻧﺤﻦ‬we’ indicated by the letter ‫ن‬ ‫ﺷﺮ‬ attached to the verb, ‫ﯾﺸﺮب‬/‫ب‬ ّ ّ ‘to make somebody drink’ is the

Translating Modes of Narration

151

process of doing in the future as there is an implicit ‫ﺳـ‬, and the explicit pronoun ‫‘ ھﺎ‬her’ is the Client. This process can be modelled here:

I said …

the act of feeding and giving water present

present in the past To put this differently, there are two timelines, and the process of saying, that is, ... ‫‘ ﻗﻠﺖ ﻷﻣﻲ‬I said to my mother …’ occurred in the past. However, the acts of feeding and giving her some water may or may not occur in the past, depending on how close the present in the past (indicated by a dotted vertical line) to the present (indicted by a straight vertical line). Being fully aware of the modes of narration along with the processes used, the translators have suggested: I told my mother: “We’re going to feed her and give her some water”. She shouted: “No, you won’t! It will die of hunger…”. To reinforce this point, the following example written for the purpose of this study may be discussed:

.‫ ﺴﺄﺴﺎﻓ إﻟﻰ ﻟ ن ﻓﻲ اﻷﺴ ع اﻟﻘﺎدم‬: ‫ﻗﺎل ﻟﻲ ﻗ ﻞ ﯿ ﻤ‬ In the above example, a verbal process is employed where the implicit pronoun ‫‘ ھﻮ‬he’ is the Sayer, ‫‘ ﻗﺎل‬to say’ in the past is the process of saying, ‫‘ ﻗﺒﻞ ﯾﻮﻣﯿﻦ‬two days ago’ is a location circumstance construing the extent of the unfolding of the process in time, and ‫ﺳﺄﺳﺎﻓﺮ إﻟﻰ ﻟﻨﺪن ﻓﻲ اﻷﺳﺒﻮع‬ ‫‘ اﻟﻘﺎدم‬I’ll travel to London next week’ is the content of what has been said where a material process is utilized: ~ ~

the Actor/Traveller is the implicit pronoun ‫‘ أﻧﺎ‬I’ indicated by the letter ‫ أ‬attached to the verb ‫‘ ﺳﺎﻓﺮ‬to travel’, the process of doing is ‫‘ ﺳﺎﻓﺮ‬to travel’ in the future indicated by the letter ‫ﺳـ‬,

152

Chapter Five

~

‫‘ إﻟﻰ ﻟﻨﺪن‬to London’ is an adverb of place construing the extent of

~

‫‘ ﻓﻲ اﻷﺳﺒﻮع اﻟﻘﺎدم‬next week’ is an adverb of time construing the

the unfolding of the process in space, and extent of the unfolding of the process in time. Again, there are two timelines, and the process of saying, that is, ... ‫ﻲ‬ ّ ‫ﻗﺎل ﻟ‬ ‘he said to me …’ occurred in the past. However, the act of travelling will occur in the future. As the two timelines are very close to each other (only 2 days), the act of travelling will occur in the future (within 5 days). It does not stretch over the timeline, thus being seen as a point on both timelines, as modelled below:

He said …

the act of travelling present

present in the past To change the mode of narration from direct speech to indirect speech, the language user should give full consideration to the type of the sentence reported, that is, is the speaker/writer making a statement, asking a question, giving an order or making a request? To illustrate this point, the following examples can be considered. !

A statement, that is, a sentence that begins with a subject, as in:

I have to go to work now. He decided to complete his studies. He did not write his homework yesterday. !

An imperative sentence, that is, a sentence that begins with the base form of the verb if it is an affirmative sentence or ‘do not’ if it is a negative sentence, as in:

Put your books on the desk. Do not use your mobile in class. !

An interrogative sentence, that is, a sentence that begins either with a question word or a helping verb, as in:

Translating Modes of Narration

153

Where did you go yesterday evening? Will you travel with your family next year? EX: Identify the types of the following sentences. Then, translate them into Arabic. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

The teacher assured us that everything would be all right. The teacher said: “I’m sure that everything will be all right”. She explained that she had been extremely busy at that time. The manager persuaded us not to take a break at that time. The boy admitted that he had taken the money. “Why don’t we have the party at your flat?” I asked him. Her mother wanted her not to say anything. The taxi driver assured us that there would be no delay. Her father asked her whether she had done her homework. “Have you seen this movie before?”, my friend asked. My mother said to me: “Do not tell anybody about it, please”. She wanted to know if I was her son’s friend. My friend exclaimed sadly that he could not understand the lesson. My friend said: “Oh! I cannot understand the lesson!” “Help me pick up these books, please”, she said to me. The teacher asked the students not to disturb him while marking their exam papers. I said to him: “Thank you for explaining the lesson to me”. My father said: “I want to visit Egypt one day”. “What are you doing here?” she asked crossly. All the time she was saying angrily to herself: “I hate my stepdaughter! I’ll hit her when she gets back”.

2 Speech acts In the previous section, it was shown that people can use language for a certain purpose, such as for informing (in statements), requesting, ordering, and the like (in imperative sentences), and asking (in interrogative sentences). However, at times, what is explicitly said or written is different from what is meant by the speaker/writer. To illustrate, let us discuss this sentence: “Could you call me later, please?”, said my husband.

154

Chapter Five

Here there are two structures: one at the surface level, which is of use to ask a yes-no question, and the other at the symbolic level, which is to politely request somebody to call. As can be observed, the underlying function, that is, requesting somebody to call, overrides its superficial function, that is asking a yes-no question. To change it to indirect speech, these underlying functions need to be given serious consideration, as in: My husband asked me (politely) to call him later. To reinforce this point, following are two examples adapted from a novella titled ‫‘ اﻟﻔﺮاﺷﺔ واﻟﺰھﺮة‬The Butterfly and the Blossom’ by Zahrā’ Nāsir (translated by and cited in Fred Pragnell 2017: 8-9):

.((‫ )) ُﺸ ًا ﻟ ِ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻫ ا اﻹ اء‬:‫ُ ﻟُ ّﺔ‬

‫اﻟﻔ اﺸ ُﺔ وﻫﻲ ﺘ‬

‫ﻗﺎﻟ‬

Wearing a smile, the butterfly said to Brown: “Thank you for this compliment”. To use an indirect mode of narration, the translator can replace the verb ‘to say’ in the past with the verb ‘to thank’ in the past, as in: Wearing a smile, the butterfly thanked Brown for her compliment. Back-translation:

.‫ُ ﺒ ّﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻫ ا اﻹ اء‬

‫ﺸ ت اﻟﻔ اﺸ ُﺔ وﻫﻲ ﺘ‬

Following is the second example:

ِ ‫اﻟﻔ‬ ‫اﺸﺔ ﻻﻨ ِ ﻐﺎﻟﻬﺎ‬ َ ‫اء اﻟ ﻲ ﻟ ﺘ ﱠ ث ﻤﻊ‬

‫ُﺴﻠ ك ﺼ َﻘِ ﻬﺎ ﺨ‬ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ .((...‫ﺼ َﻘ ﻲ‬ َ ‫))أﻋ ُر ﻤ ﺎﻟ ﺎَﺔ َﻋ‬

‫ﺸﻌ ت ُﺒ ّ ُﺔ ِﺎﻟ ِج ِﻤ‬ ِ ‫ﺎﻷﻛﻞ َﻓﻘﺎَﻟ ﻟﻠﻔ‬ ِ :‫اﺸﺔ‬

Brown felt embarrassed at her friend’s, Green, behaviour, who didn’t speak to the butterfly because she was busy eating leaves. She said to the butterfly: “I apologize to you on behalf of my friend…”. To use an indirect mode of narration, the translator can replace the verb ‘to say’ in the past with the verb ‘to apologize’ in the past, as in: Brown felt embarrassed at her friend’s, Green, behaviour, who didn’t speak to the butterfly because she was busy eating leaves. She apologized to the butterfly on behalf of her friend… . Back-translation:

ِ ‫اﻟﻔ‬ ‫اﺸﺔ‬ َ ‫اء اﻟ ﻲ ﻟ ﺘ ﱠ ث ﻤﻊ‬

‫ﺸﻌ ت ُﺒ ّ ُﺔ ِﺎﻟ ِج ِﻤ ُﺴﻠ ك ﺼ َﻘِ ﻬﺎ ﺨ‬ ِ ِ ِ ِ ... ‫ﺼ َﻘ ﻬﺎ‬ ْ ‫ﻻﻨ ِ ﻐﺎﻟﻬﺎ ﺎﻷﻛﻞ ﻓﺎﻋ‬ َ ‫رت ﻟﻠﻔ اﺸﺔ ﺎﻟ ﺎَﺔ َﻋ‬

Translating Modes of Narration

155

In the rest of this section, an attempt is made to highlight the main speech acts that may cause a problem to the language users and translators when dealing with the modes of narration. a.

The act of requesting

Direct: “Could you open the window?”, my mother said. Indirect 1: My mother asked me to open the window.

‫ ﻫﻞ ﻟ َ أن ﺘﻔ ﺢ‬:‫أﻤﻲ‬ ‫ﻗﺎﻟ‬ .‫رﺠﺎء‬ ،‫اﻟ ّ ﺎك‬ ً .‫ﻠ ْ ﻤ ﻲ أﻤﻲ أن أﻓ ﺢ اﻟ ّﺎك‬

Indirect 2: My mother requested that I open the window. b.

The act of suggesting

Direct: “Why don’t you call her and say sorry?” I asked him. Indirect: I suggested that he should call her and say sorry.

Direct: “Let’s go outside”, my friend said. Indirect 1: My friend suggested that we should go outside. Indirect 2: My friend suggested going outside. c.

‫ﻞ ﺒﻬﺎ وﺘﻘ ل‬

‫ ﻟِ َ ﻻ ﺘ‬:‫ﺴﺄﻟ ﻪ‬ .‫أﺴﻒ‬

‫ِاﻗ ﺤ ُ ) ﺄن ﻋﻠ ﻪ( أن ﯿ ّ ﻞ ﺒﻬﺎ‬ .‫و ﻌ ر ﻤ ﻬﺎ‬ .‫ دﻋ ﺎ ﻨ ج‬:‫ﻗﺎل ﺼ ﻘﻲ‬ .‫ِاﻗ َح ﺼ ﻘﻲ أن ﻨ َج‬ .‫ِاﻗ َح ﺼ ﻘﻲ أن ﻨ َج‬

The act of advising

‫ ُﻔ ّ ﻞ أن ﯿ ﻫ‬:‫أﻤﻲ‬ ‫ﻗﺎﻟ‬ .‫ُﻤ ّ ًا‬ ‫اﻷ ﻔﺎل إﻟﻰ اﻟ‬ Indirect 1: My mother said that the ‫ﻗﺎﻟ ْ أﻤﻲ أﻨﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷ ﻔﺎل أن‬ children had better go to .‫ُﻤ ّ ًا‬ ‫ﯿ ﻫ ا إﻟﻰ اﻟ‬ Direct: “The children had better go to bed early”, my mother said.

bed early.

156

Chapter Five

Indirect 2: My mother advised the children to go to bed early. (the meaning is slightly different)

‫ْ أﻤﻲ اﻷ ﻔﺎل أن ﯿ ﻫ ا‬ ‫ﻨ‬ .‫ُﻤ ّ ًا‬ ‫إﻟﻰ اﻟ‬

Direct: “Honey, you’d better not drink a lot of water while eating”, said my father.

‫ ُﻔ ّ ﻞ أﻻ ﺘ ب اﻟ‬:‫ﻗﺎل أﺒﻲ‬ . ‫ ﺎ ﻋ‬،‫ﻤ اﻟ ﺎء أﺜ ﺎء اﻷﻛﻞ‬

Indirect 1: My father advised me not to drink a lot of water while eating. Indirect 2: My father advised me that I should not drink a lot of water while eating.

d.

‫ﻲ أﺒﻲ أﻻ أﺸ ب اﻟ‬

‫ﻨ‬

.‫اﻟ ﺎء أﺜ ﺎء اﻷﻛﻞ‬

‫ﻲ أﺒﻲ ) ﺄﻨﻪ ﯿ ﻐﻲ ﻋﻠﻲ( أﻻ‬ ‫ﻨ‬ ّ ‫ﻤ اﻟ ﺎء أﺜ ﺎء‬ ‫أﺸ ب اﻟ‬ .‫اﻷﻛﻞ‬

The act of thanking

Direct: “Thank you very much for calling me at this time”, he said. Indirect: He thanked me very much for calling him at that time.

e.

‫ﻤ‬

‫ ﺸ ًا ﺠ ﻼً ﻻﺘّ ﺎﻟ ﺒﻲ ﻓﻲ‬:‫ﻗﺎل‬ ّ . ‫ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﻗ‬ ‫ﻞ ﻻﺘّ ﺎﻟﻲ ﻪ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ﺸ ﻨﻲ اﻟ‬

. ‫ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﻗ‬

The act of exclaiming

Direct: “What a wonderful idea it is”, said she. Indirect 1: She exclaimed that it was a wonderful idea.

.‫ ﺎﻟﻬﺎ ﻤ ﻓ ة راﺌﻌﺔ‬: ْ ‫ﻗﺎﻟ‬

Indirect 2: She gave an exclamation of satisfaction.

.‫أﺒ ْت إﻋ ﺎﺒﻬﺎ ﺎﻟﻔ ة‬

.‫ْ ﻤ روﻋﺔ اﻟﻔ ة‬

‫ﺘﻌ‬

Translating Modes of Narration

157

3 The main changes & translation To change the mode of narration from direct speech to indirect speech, the language user needs to: 1. 2.

identify the type of the sentence used. Is it a statement, an imperative sentence, or an interrogative one? choose the right linking word to connect the two clauses, that is, the reporting clause and reported speech: that = ‫ﺑﺄن‬/‫إن‬/‫أن‬

Statement

Note that in English ‘that’ can be omitted after the reporting verbs ‘to say’, ‘to tell’, and so on, when they are followed by an object, but it should not be omitted after certain verbs, such as ‘to explain’, ‘to point out’, ‘to complain’, and the like. to = ‫أن‬ Imperative not to = ‫)أن ﻻ( أﻻ‬

Interrogative

whif/whether = ‫ﻓﯿﻤﺎ إذا‬

3.

change the pronouns and some lexical items, as in: Direct speech now here this these today/this day tonight/this night next last yesterday tomorrow ago

Indirect speech then/at that time there that those that day that night the following the previous the previous day/ the day before the following day/ the next day before

158

Chapter Five

Further, when the reporting verb is in the past, the tenses should be changed as follows: 1. 2. 3.

change the present tenses to past tenses, change the past tense to the past perfect (but in spoken English it can be left unchanged when there is a state of confusion), and change the modal verbs as follows: Direct speech shall will can may have to must am/is/are going to am/is/are able to

Indirect speech should would could might had to had to was/were going to was/were able to

Finally, the reporting verb itself needs to be changed. 1.

When it is a statement, it is changed as follows:

say to me

2.

tell me inform me notify me remind me

When it is an imperative sentence, it is changed as follows:

say to me

ask me request me order me advise me command me warn me

Translating Modes of Narration

3.

159

When it is an interrogative sentence, it is changed as follows:

say to me

ask me want to know wonder whether inquire about inquire as to whether

To reinforce this, the following examples can be given adequate consideration: He said to me: “She did not attend his class today”. He told me that she had not attended his class that day. .________________________________________________‫ﺑﺄﻧﮫ‬/‫ﻟﻲ إﻧﮫ‬ ّ ‫ﻗﺎل‬ .__________________________________________________ ‫أﺧﺒﺮﻧﻲ أﻧﮫ‬ He said to me: “Send me an email to remind me of your assignment”. He asked me to send him an email to remind him of his assignment. ._______________________________________________ _‫ﺑﺄن‬/‫ﻟﻲ إن‬ ّ ‫ﻗﺎل‬ ._________________________________________________ ‫طﻠﺐ ﻣﻨﻲ أن‬ He said to me: “Do not play outside in the evening”. He asked me not to play outside in the evening. He ordered me … He advised me … He warned me … .___________________________________________________ ‫ﻟﻲ أﻻ‬ ّ ‫ﻗﺎل‬ . _________________________________________ _______‫طﻠﺐ ﻣﻨﻲ أﻻ‬

‫ﻲ‬

‫أﻤ ﻨﻲ‬ ‫ﻨ‬

‫ﺤ ّ رﻨﻲ‬

160

Chapter Five

He asked me: “What have you done in your recent years?” He asked me what I had done in my recent years. He wanted to know … He wondered … .__________________________________________________ ‫ﺴﺄﻟ ﻲ ﻤﺎذا‬

‫ف‬ َ ‫أراد أن ﻌ‬ َ ‫اﺴ ﻔ‬/‫ﺘ ﺎءل‬

He asked me: “Did you call your brother yesterday?” He asked me if I (had) called my brother the previous day. He wanted to know if/whether… He wondered if/whether…

._______________________________________________ ‫ﺴﺄﻟ ﻲ ﻓ ﺎ إذا‬

‫ف‬ َ ‫أراد أن ﻌ‬ َ ‫اﺴ ﻔ‬/‫ﺘ ﺎءل‬

EX: Change the following sentences to indirect speech, and then translate them into Arabic. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

My father said to me: “We will have a party tomorrow”. My teacher said to me: “Wood floats on water, but iron does not”. “My brother usually gets up at 8 o’clock”, said my friend. “Do not bring your kids with you to the party next week, please”, my sister said to me. My close friend said to me: “I know this restaurant very well as I used to eat here”. My mother said to me: “Do not put your elbow on the table, honey”. “Could you please sign here?”, she said to me. My teacher said to me: “Where did you spend your holiday last summer?”

Translating Modes of Narration

161

EX: Translate the following sentences, giving serious attention to the differences between Arabic and English:

‫ﻋ ًدا ﻤ‬

.‫آﻤ ﺔ‬

‫ﺔ ﺴ‬

‫أﻻ أﺘﺄﺨ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻠ ﻞ ﻷن اﻟ ﯿ ﺔ ﻏ‬ ‫ﻤﺔ اﻟ‬

‫أن اﻟ‬

‫أﻤ‬

‫ﻤ ﻲ أﺨﻲ اﻟ‬

‫اﻟ ﻓﺎع اﻟ‬

.‫ن اﻷﺸﻬ اﻟﻘﺎدﻤﺔ‬

‫ُ ﻗ ﺘ ّ ﺠ ُ ﻤ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﺎﻤﻌﺔ أم ﻻ؟‬ .‫أن ﺄﺨ ﻗ ً ﺎ ﻤ اﻟ اﺤﺔ وأﻻ ﻘ م ﺄ ّ ﻤ ﻬ ٍد‬

‫ﻠ‬

.1

‫ ﺼّح وز‬.2 ‫اﻷﺴﻠ ﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻏ‬

‫ أرادت أن ﺘﻌ ف ﻓ ﺎ إذا‬.3

‫ُ ﻤ اﻟ‬ ‫ ﻻ ﺘ ﻠ‬:‫ﺢ اﻟﻌ ﺎرة‬

‫ﻠ َ اﻟ‬ .4 .‫ ﺘ ّ ر‬،‫ﻤﻌ أ ﻔﺎﻟ َ ﺜﺎﻨ ﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺸﻘ ﻲ‬ ‫ ﻗﺎﻟ ْ ﻟﻲ‬.5 ّ ‫ ﺼ ﻗ ﻲ ﻟﻘ ﺘﻌ ُ ﺠ ً ا‬.‫ ﻟ أﺴﺎﻓ ﺜﺎﻨ ﺔ إﻟﻰ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﯿ ﺔ اﻟ ُ دﺤ ﺔ‬:ً‫أﺠﺎب ﻗﺎﺌﻼ‬ .6 َ .‫ﻓﻲ ﺴﻔ ﺘﻲ ﻫ ﻩ‬ EX: Change the mode of narration of the following short text from direct to indirect, and then translate one of them into Arabic. A quiet man asked a girl worn out by hunger and tiredness sitting on the pavement sobbing: “What is wrong my darling?” She replied in a low voice: “I wanted to buy a sandwich, but I only have one dollar, and a sandwich costs two dollars”. Wearing a smile, the man said: “Come on in with me. I’ll buy you what you need”. 

‘to be worn out by hunger and tiredness’ lends itself to ‫ھﺪّھﺎ اﻟﺠﻮع‬ ‫واﻟﺘﻌﺐ‬.



The verb ‘to sob’ can be translated as ‫ﯾﻨﺸﺞ‬.



The verb ‘to assuage’, which collocates well with the noun ‘hunger’ lends itself to ‫ﯾﺴﺪّ رﻣﻖ اﻟﺠﻮع‬.

EX: Read the original text extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺼﻔﻘﺔ‬The Deal’ by Zakariyyā Tāmir (translated by and cited in Almanna, forthcoming), and then complete the translation, paying extra attention to the modes of narration: The fetus had reached the ninth month of his life. The time had come

‫ وﺤﺎن‬، ‫ﺘ ﻌﺔ أﺸﻬ‬

‫ﻤ اﻟﻌ‬

‫ﺒﻠﻎ اﻟ‬

162

Chapter Five

for him to leave his mother’s womb and enter the world so that he may be endowed with a name, a neighbourhood, a city, a homeland, a family, and friends. But he did not give any sign of his intention to leave his mother’s womb where he survived. The mother said, wondering: “How long will you stay in my belly?!? _____________________________

‫ﻲ‬

‫وأﻫﻞ‬

‫أﻤﻪ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻌﺎﻟ‬

‫ﺨ وﺠﻪ ﻤ‬

‫ﺎﺴ وﺤﺎرة وﻤ ﯿ ﺔ وو‬

‫وأﺼ ﻗﺎء‬

‫ﻋ ﻋ ﻤﻪ‬

.‫ﻘ ﻓ ﻪ‬

‫ر ﻋ ﻪ ﻤﺎ ﯿ‬ ‫أﻤﻪ اﻟ‬

The fetus said: “____________________________ _______________until I know, first, what kind of life is waiting for me”. The mother thought for a while, and then asked her baby, “____________________________ ___________________________?” Glossary: ™ to deceive ‫ﯾﺨﺪَع‬ ™ to please ‫ﯾُﺴﻌِﺪ‬

™ ™

‫وﻟ ﻪ ﻟ‬

‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻤﻐﺎدرة‬

‫ ))إﻟﻰ ﻤ ﻰ ﺴ ﻘﻰ‬:‫ﻟﻪ أﻤﻪ ﻤ ﺎﺌﻠﺔ‬

ً‫ﺢ رﺠﻼ‬

‫ﺤﻰ ﺘ‬

‫ﻲ؟ ﻫﻞ ﺘ‬

‫ﻓﻘﺎﻟ‬

‫ﻓﻲ‬

‫ذا ﺸﺎر ؟‬

___________________________?” You ought to have pity on me, for you have become so heavy that I cannot even walk”.

‫ﻔ‬

‫وﻗ‬

‫ﯿ ﻐﻲ ﻟ أن ﺘ ﻔ ﻋﻠﻲ ﻓﻘ ﺼ ت ﺜﻘ ﻞ‬ ّ ‫اﻟ زن اﻟﻰ ﺤ أﻨﻲ ﺒ ﻻ أﺴ ﻊ‬

.((‫اﻟ ﻲ‬

‫ﻓﻲ‬

‫ أﻨﺎ ﻻ أﺤ ّ اﻟ‬: ‫ﻗﺎل اﻟ‬ ‫ وﻟ أﻏﺎدر‬،‫اﻟ ﻼم‬ ‫إﻻ إذا ﻋ ﻓ‬ .‫ﻨﻲ‬

:‫ﻬﺎ‬

‫ﻟ‬

‫ﻗﺎﻟ‬

‫و ﻌ ك أم ﺘ‬

‫أوﻻً أ ﻨ ع ﻤ اﻟ ﺎة ﯿ‬ ‫ ﺜ‬،ً‫ﻓ ت اﻷم ﻗﻠ ﻼ‬ ‫ﻋ‬

‫ًﺎ‬

‫))أﺘ‬

((‫ﺼ ًﻗﺎ ﻘ ل ﻟ اﻟ ﻘ ﻘ ﺔ و ﻘ ؟‬

belly ‫ﺑﻄﻦ‬ to make somebody miserable ‫ﯾُﺸﻘﻲ‬

Translating Modes of Narration

163

EX: Re-translate the following text taken from a short story titled ‫ﻣﻄﺮ أﺳﻮد‬ ‘Black Rain’ by Salām ‘Abūd translated into English by Pragnell and Sadkhan (2011: 95-105), by changing the modes of narration: “It’s me, Muntasir”, he answered with an invisible smile the traces of which were hidden by layers of grime, dust and soot that covered his face.

‫ أﺨﻔ‬،‫ﻤ ﺌ ﺔ‬

‫ﺎم اﻟ ﻲ‬

“I know they announced a ceasefire, and the war has come to an end. I heard that from our neighbours this morning. But I didn’t expect you to return so quickly. Am I dreaming?”

“The most important thing for me is that the war is over and you are here”, she repeated in a low voice. He didn’t hear what she said to him. ” “Don’t worry. I only want to see what’s going on in the street”, added Muntasir without turning to face her.

‫واﻟ اب واﻟ‬

‫أﺠﺎب وﻫ ﯿ‬

‫ﻘﺎت اﻟ‬

‫ﻤ‬

:‫ﻠ ﻓ ﻪ اﻟﻔ ح ﺎﻟ ﺎء‬ ‫أﻨﻬ أﻋﻠ ا وﻗﻒ إ ﻼق‬ ‫ﻫا‬ ‫ﻤﺎ‬

~

‫ت‬

‫أﻨﺎ أدر‬

‫ ﺴ ﻌ‬، ‫ واﻟ ب ﺘ ﻗﻔ‬،‫اﻟ ﺎر‬

‫ وﻟ‬.‫ان ﺼ ﺎح اﻟ م‬

‫ﻤﻌﺎﻟ ﻬﺎ‬

.‫ﺘﻐ ﻲ وﺠﻬﻪ‬

!‫! ﺤ ﻲ‬

She replied in a voice tinged with happiness and tears: ~

‫اﺒ ﺎﻤﺔ ﻏ‬

‫اﻟ‬

،‫أﺘ ّﻗﻊ أن ﺘ ﺠﻊ ﺒﻬ ﻩ اﻟ ﻋﺔ‬

‫رد ْت‬ ّ ~

‫ﻤ‬

‫ﻛ‬

‫أأﻨﺎ أﺤﻠ ؟‬

‫ وأﻨ‬، ‫ﻫ أن اﻟ ب ِاﻨ ﻬ‬

‫ وﻟ‬، ‫ت ﺨﺎﻓ‬

‫دون أن ﯿﻠ ﻔ‬

‫ﻓﻲ‬

‫))أﻫ ﺸﻲء ﻋ‬

‫رت اﻷم ذﻟ‬

.((‫ُﻫ ﺎ‬

.‫ﻊ ﻫ ﻤﺎ ﻗﺎﻟ ﻪ‬

‫ﻤ‬

‫أﻀﺎف ﻤ‬

‫ أر ﻓﻘ أن أر ﻤﺎ‬:‫إﻟ ﻬﺎ‬ !‫ ﻻ ﺘ ﺎﻓﻲ‬،‫اﻟ ﺎرع‬

~

164

Chapter Five

4 Reporting verbs in the news media In this section, an attempt is made to provide the reader with the main reporting verbs commonly used in media text in both languages. To begin with, in English there are a number of reporting verbs commonly used in the media, as listed in the box below: Subject

Subject

finite verb say go on to say report state claim make it clear add explain mention argue comment declare announce warn suggest insist allege

that

finite clause

that

…

Now, let us analyse the following sentence as an example to see how these structures can be translated into Arabic: An informed source subject declared reporting verb + in the past that complementizer the American president subject would visit modal verb/in the past + verb Cairo soon to complementizer discuss the current situation. In English, this is an example of indirect speech in which the modal verb ‘will’ should be changed to ‘would’ as the main verb ‘declare’ is in the past tense. However, Arabic does not require such a tense change, thus lending itself to ‫ ﺳـ‬or ‫ﺳﻮف‬, as in:

.‫اﻷﻤ ﻲ ﺴ ور اﻟﻘﺎﻫ ة ﻗ ًﺎ ﻟ ﺎﻗ ﺔ اﻷوﻀﺎع اﻟ اﻫ ﺔ‬

‫ٌر ُﻤ ّﻠ ٌﻊ ﺄن اﻟ ﺌ‬

‫أﻋﻠ ﻤ‬

Translating Modes of Narration

165

Translating the lexical item ‘situation’, which is in the singular form, into ‫أوﺿﺎع‬, which is in the plural form, is an example of ‘intra-system shift’ to use Catford’s (1965) terminology. EX: Read the notes below before translating the following examples, paying extra attention to the modes of narration: ~

A source close to the Pentagon made it clear that the US navy was determined to carry out military manoeuvres in the near future.

!

The reporting verb ‘to make something clear’ is used in the past, thus lending itself to ‫ أوﺿﺢ‬or ‫ﺑﯿّﻦ‬.

!

The phrasal verb‘to carry out’ can be replaced here with other verbs, such as ‘to perform’ ‫ﯾﻘﻮم‬, ‘to execute’ ‫ﯾﻨﻔّﺬ‬, or ‘to conduct’ ‫ﯾﻨﺠﺰ‬ as they all collocate with the noun ‘manoeuvre’ ‫ﻣﻨﺎورة‬.

!

Words like ‘navy’ and ‘military’ can be translated as ‫اﻟﻘﻮات اﻟﺒﺤﺮﯾﺔ‬ and ‫ ﻋﺴﻜﺮي‬respectively. ~

!

It was reported by the central bank that the current year would be the third in succession to witness a fall in demand for oil from the industrial countries. The framing verb ‘to report’ used in the past and in the passive voice lends itself to

‫ أن‬... ‫ﺼﺎدر ﻋ‬

‫ أن‬... ‫ﺼﺎدر ﻋ‬

‫ أن‬... ‫ﺼﺎدر ﻋ‬

‫أﻓﺎد ﺘﻘ‬

‫ﺠﺎء ﻓﻲ ﺘﻘ‬

‫ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻘ‬...

‫ذ‬

The expression ‘in succession’ can be translated into ‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﻮاﻟﻲ‬.

! ~

Recently, the Iraqi government has accused the neighbouring countries, particularly Turkey of destabilizing the country. It has also declared that Iraq is aware of the intensive military operations that some countries are undertaking on the Iraqi borders. Further, a spokesman for the Iraqi government has added that no military operations threaten the security of Iraq.

166

Chapter Five

!

In the above text, there are one simple sentence and two complex sentences:

The Iraqi government has accused X of … It has also declared that … A spokesman for the Iraqi government has added that …

(simple) (complex) (complex)

!

The main verbs used in the text, i.e. ‘to accuse’, ‘to declare’, and ‘to add’, are in the present perfect tense, thus lending themselves to ‫اﺗﮭﻢ‬, ‫ﺑﯿّﻦ‬/‫أوﺿﺢ‬, and ‫ أﺿﺎف‬respectively.

!

The verb ‘to destabilize’, which is the opposite of ‘to stabilize’, lends itself to ... ‫ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ زﻋﺰﻋﺔ اِﺳﺘﻘﺮار‬/‫ﺗﻘﻮم ﺑـ‬.

!

The expression ‘the intensive military operations’ can be translated into ‫ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت ﻋﺴﻜﺮﯾﺔ ﻣﻜﺜﻔﺔ‬.

!

The expression ‘a spokesman for’ can be translated into ‫اﻟﻨﺎطﻖ‬ ‫ اﻟﺮﺳﻤﻲ ﻋﻦ‬or... ‫ اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪّث ﺑﺎِﺳﻢ‬. ~

In an article, the newspaper, quoting a reliable source, said that investigations had been carried out on 300 officers accused of being involved in a coup attempt. Further, it went on to say that about 100 officers had been dismissed, while 200 others had been given stiff penalties.

!

‘In an article, the newspaper, quoting a reliable source, said that…’ lends itself to ‫ ﻗﺎﻟﺖ اﻟﺼﺤﯿﻔﺔ ﻧﻘﻼ ﻋﻦ ﻣﺼﺪر ﻣﻮﺛﻮق ﺑﮫ‬،‫وﻓﻲ ﻣﻘﺎﻟﺔ‬ ... ‫إن‬.

!

The verb ‘to be involved’ can be translated into ‫ﯾﺸﺘﺮك‬/‫اِﺷﺘﺮك‬, ‫ﯾﻨﺨﺮط‬/‫ اِﻧﺨﺮط‬and the like. However, in this context, it has a negative overtone, thus lending itself to ‫ﯾﺘﻮرط‬/‫ط‬ ‫ﺗﻮر‬ ّ ّ .

!

The expression ‘coup attempt’ can be translated into ‫ﻣﺤﺎوﻟﺔ اِﻧﻘﻼب‬.

!

The expression ‘to go on to say’ used in the past lends itself to ‫وأردف ﻗﺎﺋﻼ‬, ‫واِﺳﺘﺮﺳﻞ ﻗﺎﺋﻼ‬, ‫وﻣﻀﻰ ﻗﺎﺋﻼ‬, ‫وﻣﻀﻰ ﯾﻘﻮل‬, and the like. Consider the following expressions commonly used with the verb ‘to say’:

A short statement said that … In commenting on …, he said that …

... ‫ ﺑﺄن‬/‫وﻗﺎل ﺑﯾﺎن ﻣﻘﺗﺿب إن‬ ... ‫ ﺑﺄن‬/‫وﻗﺎل ُﻣﻌﻠﻘًﺎ إن‬

Translating Modes of Narration

167

Or: Commenting on …, he said that …

... ‫ ﺑﺄن‬/‫وﻗﺎل ُﻣﻧﺗﻘ ًدا إن‬

In criticizing …, he said that … Or: Criticizing …, he said that … He added, saying that …

... ‫ ﺑﺄن‬/‫وأﺿﺎف ﻗﺎﺋﻼً إن‬

He went on to say that …

... ‫ ﺑﺄن‬/‫ﯾﻘول إن‬/ً‫وﻣﺿﻰ ﻗﺎﺋﻼ‬ ... ‫ ﺑﺄن‬/‫وأردف ﻗﺎﺋﻼً إن‬

He went on/carried on to say that He went on to say that …

... ‫ ﺑﺄن‬/‫واﺳﺗرﺳل ﻗﺎﺋﻼً إن‬

Confirming …, he said that …

... ‫ ﺑﺄن‬/‫وﻗﺎل ﻣؤﻛ ًدا إن‬

Emphasizing …, he said that …

... ‫ ﺑﺄن‬/‫وﻗﺎل ُﻣﺷد ًدا إن‬

Denouncing…, he a d that…

... ‫ ﺑﺄن‬/‫وﻗﺎل ُﻣﻧد ًدا إن‬

~

State television said a number of people were arrested in Nasr City for having weapons and gas cylinders. The Interior Ministry warned in a statement that the forces would deal firmly with protesters acting ‘irresponsibly’.



The expression ‘state television’ can be translated into ‫ﺗﻠﻔﺰﯾﻮن‬ ‫اﻟﺪوﻟﺔ‬, ‫ﻲ ﻟﻠﺪوﻟﺔ‬ ّ ‫اﻟﺘﻠﻔﺰﯾﻮن اﻟﺮﺳﻤ‬, ‫ﻲ‬ ّ ‫ﺗﻠﻔﺰﯾﻮن اﻟﺪوﻟﺔ اﻟﺮﺳﻤ‬, etc.



‘Gas cylinders’ lends itself to ‫إﺳﻄﻮاﻧﺎت اﻟﻐﺎز‬.



‘The Interior Ministry’ lends itself to ‫وزارة اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﯿﺔ‬. It is worth noting that in the UK the equivalent is the ‘Home Office’, while the minister in overall charge is called ‘the Home Secretary’. In the USA’s federal system there seems to be no single body that is equivalent, but there is something called ‘the Department (and Secretary) of Homeland Security’.



The verb ‘to warn’ in ‘to warn in a statement’ can be translated into ‫ﺣﺬرت ﻓﻲ ﺑﯿﺎن ﻟﮭﺎ‬ ّ .



The verb ‘to deal with’ along with the adverb ‘firmly’ can be translated into ‫ﺗﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺑﺤﺰم‬, ‫ﺗﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺑﺸﺪة‬, ‫ﻻ ﺗﺘﮭﺎون‬, ‫ﺗﻀﺮب ﺑﯿﺪ ﻣﻦ‬ ‫ﺣﺪﯾﺪ‬, and so on.



The word ‘acting’ in this context lends itself to ‫ﯾﺘﺼﺮﻓﻮن‬.

168

Chapter Five

~

The Times Newspaper, published in London, declared that an unofficial dialogue between the US and the PLO had begun with the aim of achieving a resolution of the main outstanding Middle East problems.



The verb ‘to publish’ which means ‫ﯾﻨﺸﺮ‬/‫ ﻧﺸﺮ‬lends itself to ‫ﯾﺼﺪر‬/‫ﺻﺪر‬, as in: ... ‫ﻋﻦ‬/‫ﻣﻦ‬/‫اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺼﺪر ﻓﻲ‬.



PLO stands for ‘Palestine Liberation Organization’, that is, ‫ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﺘﺤﺮﯾﺮ اﻟﻔﻠﺴﻄﯿﻨﯿﺔ‬.



The complex prepositional phrase ‘with the aim of’ can be translated into ‫ﺑﻐﯿﺔ‬, ‫ﺑﮭﺪف‬, ‫ﻣﻦ أﺟﻞ‬, etc.



In media, the word ‘outstanding’ has two meanings, i.e. ‘unexpectedly good’ and ‘remaining’. Here, it means ‘remaining’, thus lending itself to ‫اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻘﺔ‬.

~

In their final communiqué, the participating countries expressed the disappointment of their hope over the delay in seizing the political opportunity offered by the US President.



The word ‘communiqué’, which is commonly used in media, simply means ‘statement’, thus lending itself to ‫ﺑﯿﺎن‬.



The word ‘final’ which collocates well with ‘communiqué’ or ‘statement’ can be translated into ‫ﺧﺘﺎﻣﻲ‬.



The preposition ‘over’ here lends itself to ‫إزاء‬.



The verb ‘to seize’ which collocates with the noun ‘opportunity’ can be translated into either ‫ ﯾﻐﺘﻨﻢ‬or ‫ ﯾﻨﺘﮭﺰ‬as they collocate well with ‫ ﻓﺮﺻﺔ‬in Arabic.

Similarly, in Arabic media, there are many verbs such as ‫أﺷﺎر‬, ‫ذﻛﺮ‬, ‫ﺑﯿّﻦ‬, ‫أوﺿﺢ‬, ‫أﻓﺎد‬, ‫أﻋﺮب‬, ‫أﻓﺼﺢ‬, ‫ﺻﺮح‬ ّ , ‫أﺿﺎف‬, ‫ﺣﺬّر‬, ‫ﺷﺪّد‬, and so on that can be used in place of the verb ‫ﻗﺎل‬. Instances of how these verbs are typically used may be seen and studied in the following examples:

Translating Modes of Narration

‫ﺔ اﻟ ّ ﻌ د ﺔ ﻟ‬

‫ﺼﺎدر ﻋ و ازرة اﻟ ﻓﺎ ِع اﻟ ّ ﻌ د ﺔ ﱠ‬ ‫أن اﻟﻘ ات اﻟﻌ‬ َ ٌ ٌ ‫أﻓﺎد ﺘﻘ‬ .‫ﺔ ﻤ ﺨ ًا‬ ‫أ ٍّ ﻤ وﺤ اﺘﻬﺎ اﻟﻌ‬ ‫ﺘﻘ ﺒ‬

169

~



The verb َ‫أﻓﺎد‬, which is in the active form, can be translated into the passive form as in ‘it was reported by …’.



The expression ‫ وزارة اﻟﺪﻓﺎع‬lends itself to ‘the defence ministry’.



The expression ‫ اﻟﻘﻮات اﻟﻌﺴﻜﺮﯾﺔ‬can be translated into ‘troops’ or ‘military forces’.

‫ﻤ ا اﻷﺴﻠ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎرﺔ‬

‫اﻟ ُ ﺎﻫ‬ ‫ﻌ ُ اﻟ ﻘﺎر إﻟﻰ أن ﻌ‬ ‫ﺘ‬ ‫إن اﺴ ام اﻟﻌ د اﻟﻘﻠ ﻞ ﻤ ﻬ ﻟﻬ ﻩ اﻷﺴﻠ ﺔ‬ ّ ‫ إﻻ‬.‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌ ﯿ ﻤ ﺘﻠ اﻟ ﺎﻫ ات‬ ‫ﺼ ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ّ ‫إﺼ ار وﺘ‬

‫ﻗ اﺴ‬ ‫ﺴ‬

‫ﻋ‬

~

‫ﻻ ُﯿ ر اﻻﻋ اءات اﻟ ُ ﺔ اﻟ ﻲ ﺘ‬ .‫ﻓﻲ أﻏﻠ ﻬ اﻟ ﺎﺤﻘﺔ‬ ‫ﻤ ﺎھر ﺴﻠ‬



‫ ﻣﺘﻈﺎھﺮ‬lends itself to ‘demonstrator’, which is derived from the verb ‘to demonstrate’ ‫ ﯾﺘﻈﺎھﺮ‬and its noun ‘demonstration’ ‫ﻣﻈﺎھﺮة‬. Further, the word ‫ ﻣﺘﻈﺎھﺮ‬collocates well with words like ‫‘ﺳﻠﻤﻲ‬peaceful’ or ‫‘أﻋﺰل‬unarmed’.



The phrase ‫ أﺳﻠﺤﺔ ﻧﺎرﯾﺔ‬can be translated into ‘firearms’.



‫ ﻻ ﯾُﺒﺮر‬can be rendered into ‘this does not justify …’, ‘this does not give an excuse to ...’, ‘this provides no excuse ...’, ‘this provides no justification for …’, or ‘this does not excuse …’.



The expression ‫ﺻﺪ‬ ّ ‫ﺳﺒﻖ إﺻﺮار وﺗﺮ‬, which is commonly used in Arabic legal and media language/parlance, lends itself to ‘preplanned’, ‘premeditated’, ‘planned in advance’, and the like. As such, the relevant part of this Arabic text could be translated as: ‘…does not justify lethal, pre-planned/premeditated attacks on demonstrators the overwhelming majority of whom were peaceful’. To ‘lie in wait’ suggested by some dictionaries suggests waiting to ambush someone, which is a rather different idea from a premeditated action. Consider this example:

A large number of press photographers were lying in wait for the embattled politician outside his London home.

170

Chapter Five

In other words, it is an expression often used figuratively, especially in the news media.

‫ﺔ‬

‫ﺎد ﺔ واﻟﻌ‬

ِ ‫اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎت‬ ‫اﻻﻗ‬

‫أﻋ ِ اﻟ‬

‫ وأﻀﺎف ﻤ ٌر ﻤ ّﻠ ٌﻊ ﱠ‬.‫ﻤﻊ دول اﻟ ار‬ ‫أن اﻟ‬ ِ ‫ﻋﻘ ﻋ ٍد ﻤ‬ .‫اﻻﺘﻔﺎﻗ ﺎت اﻟ ﻲ ﻤ ﺸﺄﻨﻬﺎ ﺘﻘ ﺔ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎت‬

‫ﻤﺔ اﻷردﻨ ﺔ ﻋﺎﻗ ة اﻟﻌ م ﻋﻠﻰ‬



‫ﻤﺔ اﻷردﻨ ﺔ ﻋ رﻏ ﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻌ‬

~

The verb ‫ أﻋﺮب‬in Arabic collocates with a number of nouns, as in:

X expressed his desire X expressed/voiced his (deep) concern X expressed/voiced his disappointment over X expressed/voiced his determination X expressed/voiced his regret over

‫أﻋرب ﻋن رﻏﺑﺗِ ِﮫ‬ َ (‫أﻋرب ﻋن ﻗﻠ ِﻘ ِﮫ )اﻟﻌﻣﯾﻖ‬ َ ‫أﻋرب ﻋن ﺧﯾﺑ ِﺔ أﻣ ِﻠ ِﮫ‬ َ ‫أﻋرب ﻋن ﻋزﻣِ ِﮫ‬ َ ‫أﻋرب ﻋن أﺳ ِﻔ ِﮫ‬ َ



The noun ‫ ﺗﻌﺰﯾﺰ‬lends itself here to the verb ‘to strengthen’.



The expression ‫ ﻋﺎﻗﺪة اﻟﻌﺰم‬can be rendered as ‘to be determined’.



‫ اﻟﺘﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺷﺄﻧﮭﺎ‬can be translated here as ‘that would …’.

‫اﻷورو ﻲ ﻋ ﻋ ﻤﻪ ﻟ اﺼﻠﺔ اﻟ ار اﻟ ّﺎء ﺒ اﻟ ّ ق‬ ‫ﺔ واﻹﻤﺎرات اﻟﻌ ﺔ اﻟ ُ ّ ة ﻤ أﺠﻞ إﻗﺎﻤﺔ ﻋﻼﻗﺎت أﻤ‬

‫أﻋ ب اﻟ ﻠ‬

ُ ‫اﻷورو ﺔ اﻟ‬ . ‫وأوﺜ‬

~



‫ اﻟﻤﺠﻠﺲ اﻷوروﺑﻲ‬can be translated as ‘the European Council’.



‫ اﻟﺤﻮار اﻟﺒﻨّﺎء‬lends itself to ‘the constructive dialogue’.



The translation of the phrase ‫اﻟﺴﻮق اﻷوروﺑﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮﻛﺔ‬, which means literally ‘the European Common Market’, is problematic since the appropriate translation of the Arabic would depend on the date or at least year of the original text. What is now the ‘European Union’ has after all been through several different names/designations.

Translating Modes of Narration

‫ﺔ‬

‫اﻟﻌ ﻞ ﻓﻲ أﻟ ﺎﻨ ﺎ أن ﺤ َ اﻟ ﺎﻟﺔ ﻓﻲ أﻟ ﺎﻨ ﺎ ﺴ ﻞ زﺎدة ﻤﻠ‬ ‫ وأﻀﺎف أن‬.‫أﺒ ﻞ اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ‬/‫أﻟﻒ ﻋﺎ ﻞ ﻋ اﻟﻌ ﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻨ ﺎن‬ .‫ﺔ اﻟ ﺔ أﺴﻬ ﺠ ﺌًﺎ ﻓﻲ ِارﺘﻔﺎع اﻟ ﺎﻟﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻼد‬

171

ُ ‫ﺼّح وز‬ 20 ‫ﺒﻠﻐ‬

~

‫ال اﻟ‬ َ ‫اﻷﺤ‬



The reporting verb ‫ﺻﺮح‬ ّ , which is in the past, can be translated into ‘to declare’, ‘to state’, etc.



‫ وزﯾﺮ اﻟﻌﻤﻞ‬lends itself to ‘the minister of labour’.



The phrase ‫ﺣﺠﻢ اﻟﺒﻄﺎﻟﺔ‬, which means literally ‘the volume of unemployment’, lends itself to ‘level(s) of unemployment’.



‫ ﺳﺠّﻞ زﯾﺎدة ﻣﻠﺤﻮظﺔ‬can be translated into ‘remarkably increased’.



Even though the literal translation of the lexical item ‫ ﺑﻠﻎ‬is ‘amount to’ or ‘reach’, this Arabic word can often be omitted in English translation for the sake of idiomaticity. For example, in translating part of this text we could write:

The German minister of labour declared that the level of unemployment in Germany had increased remarkably/noticeably to 20,000 unemployed last April. But the question that may jump into mind here – not having any further context – is whether it actually means ‘increased … to 20,000’ or ‘increased … by 20,000’? 

The verb ‫ أﺳﮭﻢ ﻓﻲ‬can be translated into ‘to contribute to’. We could also say here ‘partly helped to raise unemployment’, ‘was partly responsible for raising unemployment’, and the like.

‫ﻋﺔ اﻷورو ﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ‬ .‫ﻋﺔ‬



‫ أﺠ ﻊ زﻋ ﺎء اﻟ‬، ‫ﺼ ﻔﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺨ ﺎم اﻟ ﺘ‬

‫وﻓﻲ ﻤ ﺘ‬

‫ﻀ ورة إ ﺎد ﻓ ص ﻋ ٍﻞ ﺠ ﯿ ة ﻟﻠ ﻔ ﻒ ﻤ ﻤﻌ ﻻت اﻟ ﺎﻟﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬

~

‫ وﻓﻲ ﻣﺆﺗﻤﺮ ﺻﺤﻔﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺧﺘﺎم اﻟﻤﺆﺗﻤﺮ‬can be translated into ‘in a press conference at the end of the conference’. However, for stylistic reasons, it would be better to avoid repeating the word ‘conference’ as in English it would not be stylistically good and acceptable to have the word ‘conference’ repeated in this particular sentence. With this in mind, we suggest the expression

172

Chapter Five

‘press briefing’ here instead. The expression ‘press briefing’ is simply another established way of saying ‘press conference’: ‘briefing’ is a noun meaning a ‘news updating’ or ‘process of giving information or instructions to a group of people’. 

The verb ‫ أﺟﻤﻊ‬in such a context can be rendered into ‘to agree unanimously on’. Alternatively, we could say that these leaders ‘were of one mind on/regarding/as to the need to …’. ‘To be of one mind’ is certainly an established idiom, and would be right for this reporting context.



‫ زﻋﻤﺎء اﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ اﻷوروﺑﯿﺔ‬can be translated into ‘the leaders of the European Community’.



‫ ﻓﺮص ﻋﻤﻞ‬here can be translated into ‘job opportunities’ even though it may seem literal. This is an example of ‘optimal equivalent’, that is, full equivalent. Alternatively, it can be translated functionally into ‘vacancies’ or ‘job openings’.

‫ﺔ ﻗ رت ِاﻨ ﻬﺎج ﺴ ﺎﺴﺔ‬ ‫ﻊ‬

‫ﻤﺔ اﻟ‬

‫أن اﻟ‬

‫ﺎد اﻟ‬

‫ذ َ وز ُ اﻻﻗ‬ ‫ﺼﺎرﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﺎل اﻟ ﺨ ﻻت واﻟ اﻗ ﺔ اﻟ ﻗ ﻘﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷﺴﻌﺎر ﺒﻬ ف ﺘ‬ .‫ﺔ وﻤ ﺎﻓ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎﻟﺔ‬

‫ﺎﻋﺎت اﻟ‬

~

‫اﻟ‬



The reporting verb ‫ذﻛﺮ‬, which is in the past, can be translated into ‘to declare’, ‘to mention’, etc.



‫ وزﯾﺮ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎد‬lends itself to ‘the minister of the economy’.



The lexical item ‫اِﻧﺘﮭﺎج‬, which is derived from ‫اِﻧﺘﮭﺞ‬, means ‫ﺗﺒﻨﻲ‬, thus lending itself to ‘to adopt’, ‘to carry out’, ‘to follow’, ‘to pursue’, and the like as they collocate well with the noun ‘policy’ ‫ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺔ‬.



The adjective ‫ ﺻﺎرم‬lends itself to ‘strict’ as it collocates with the noun ‘policy’.



The phrases ‫ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎل‬and ‫ ﺑﮭﺪف‬can be translated into ‘in the field of’ and ‘with the aim of’ respectively.

Translating Modes of Narration

173

EX: Evaluate the translation of the following text titled ‫ﺷﺮﻛﺔ اﻟﺒﺘﺮول‬ ‫”ﺑﺘﺮوﻣﯿﻦ“ اﻟﺴﻌﻮدﯾﺔ‬, paying extra attention to the differences between the two languages, in particular the tenses/aspects and reported speech: Sources close to the British delegation declared that the British Foreign Trade Minister had conducted lengthy closeddoor talks with the directorgeneral of the Saudi oil company ‘Petromin’, which had signed the contract with Britain. These were then followed by a short working session at the level of experts. Oil-industry circles announced that Kuwaiti oil production increased by 80 thousand barrels per day last month, amounting to an average of six million barrels in April. The Venezuelan Ministry of Mines and Energy announced that the average production in the first three months of 1985 had reached two million barrels a day.

‫ﺎﻨﻲ‬

‫ذ ت ﻤ ﺎدر وﺜ ﻘﺔ اﻟ ﻠﺔ ﺎﻟ ﻓ اﻟ‬

‫ﺸ ﺔ‬

‫ﻤ ﺎدﺜﺎت ﻤﻐﻠﻘﺔ ﻤ ّ ﻟﺔ ﻤﻊ ﻤ ﺎﻓ‬ ‫اﻟ ول اﻟ ﻌ د ﺔ "ﺒ وﻤ " اﻟ ﻲ أﺒ ﻤ‬

‫ﺎﻨﻲ ﻗ أﺠ‬

‫ة‬

‫اﻟﻌﻘ‬

‫أن وز اﻟ ﺎرة اﻟ ﺎرﺠ ﺔ اﻟ‬

‫ ﺜ أﻋﻘ ﻬﺎ ﺠﻠ ﺔ ﻋ ﻞ ﻗ‬.‫ﺎﻨ ﺎ‬ .‫اء‬

‫اﻟ وﻟ ﺔ أن اﻨ ﺎج اﻟ ول‬

‫أﻟﻒ ﺒ ﻤ ﻞ‬

‫ﻘ ار ﺜ ﺎﻨ‬

‫ﻤﻊ ﺒ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫زاد‬

‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻤ‬

‫اﻷوﺴﺎ‬

‫أﻋﻠ‬

‫ﻟ وﻟﺔ اﻟ‬

‫ﯿ ﻤًﺎ ﺨﻼل اﻟ ﻬ اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ؛ إذ ﺒﻠﻎ ﻓﻲ ﺸﻬ‬ ‫ﻨ ﺎن ﻤ ﺴ ً ﺎ ﻗ رﻩ ﺴ ﺔ ﻤﻼﯿ ﺒ ﻤ ﻞ‬/‫أﺒ ﻞ‬

‫و ازرة اﻟ ﺎﺠ واﻟ ﺎﻗﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻓ و ﻼ أن‬

.‫ﯿ ﻤًﺎ‬ ‫أﻋﻠ‬

‫ﻤ ﺴ اﻻﻨ ﺎج ﺒﻠﻎ اﻷﺸﻬ اﻟ ﻼﺜﺔ اﻷوﻟﻰ ﻤ‬ .‫ﺒ ﻤ ﻞ ﯿ ﻤًﺎ‬

‫ ﻤﻠ ﻨ‬1985 ‫ﻋﺎم‬

EX: Translate the following journalistic text written for the purposes of this course, paying special attention to the framing verbs and (in)direct speech:

‫ﺠﺎء ﻓﻲ ﺼ ﻔﺔ اﻟ ﺎ اﻟ ﻲ ﺘ ر ﻓﻲ ﻟ ن أن اﻟﻌ اق ﻗ أﻛّ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﺎﺴ ﺎت ﻋ ﯿ ة وﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫اﻨ ﺎر اﻷﺴﻠ ﺔ اﻟ و ﺔ ﻻ‬ ‫ﻟ ﺎن وز دﻓﺎﻋﻪ ﺄن اﻟﻌ اق اﻟ وّﻗﻊ ﻋﻠﻰ اﺘﻔﺎﻗ ﺔ ﺤ‬ .‫ﺴﻠ ﺔ‬

‫ام اﻟ ﺎﻗﺔ ﻷﻏ اض ﻏ‬

‫ﻻﺴ‬

174

Chapter Five

‫ وﻤﻊ‬،‫وأﻀﺎف وز اﻟ ﻓﺎع اﻟﻌ اﻗﻲ أن ﻫ ﺎك دوﻻً ﻋ ﯿ ة ﺘ ﻠ ﻤﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﻨ و ﺔ ﻤ ﺴ ات‬

ً‫ﻔﺔ أن اﻟ ز ﺸ د ﻗﺎﺌﻼ‬

‫ وأﺸﺎرت اﻟ‬.‫ﻋ ﻬﺎ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟﻌﺎﻟ ﻲ ﻐ‬

‫ذﻟ ﻓﺈن اﻟ أ‬

‫إن اﻟ ﻌﺎون اﻟﻘﺎﺌ ﺒ ﻌ اﻟ ول ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﺎل اﻟ ﺎﻗﺔ اﻟ و ﺔ ورﻓ ﻬﺎ ﺘ ﻗ ﻊ اﺘﻔﺎﻗ ﺔ ﺤ‬ ِ ٍ .‫ﻋﺎدل‬ ‫إﻻ أن ن أﻤ ًا ﻏ‬ ُ ‫اﻨ ﺎر اﻷﺴﻠ ﺔ اﻟ و ﺔ ﻻ‬ !

The expression ... ‫ ﺟﺎء ﻓﻲ ﺻﺣﯾﻔﺔ‬lends itself to ‘it was reported in …’.

!

The expression ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻟﺳﺎن‬can be translated into ‘in the person of’, as in ‘Iraq had affirmed on several occasions in the person of its minister of defence that…’, or just ‘minister of defence affirmed on several occasions that…’. Alternatively, it can be slightly adjusted to ‫ﻋن طرﯾﻖ‬.

!

The phrase ‫ ﺣظر اﻧﺗﺷﺎر اﻷﺳﻠﺣﺔ اﻟﻧووﯾﺔ‬can be translated into ‘the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons’.

!

The expression ‫ اﻟرأي اﻟﻌﺎم‬lends itself to ‘the public opinion’.

!

The idiomatic expression ‫ ﯾﻐﺾ اﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﻋﻦ‬can be translated in different ways, such as ‘to turn a blind eye to’, ‘to turn a deaf ear to’ or just ‘to ignore’. However, it is worth noting that ‘to turn a blind eye to’ is frequently used in this sort of media report and has more stylistic impact than a single word like ‘to ignore’.

!

The expression ‫ ﻣﻔﺎﻋل‬can be translated into ‘reactors’.

!

‫أﻣرا ﻏﯾر ﻋﺎد ٍل‬ ً ‫ ﻻ ﯾﻣﻛن إﻻ أن ﯾﻛون‬is the predicate of the sentence,

thus lending itself to unjust/unfair/inequitable’.

‘could/would

be

considered

EX: Translate the following journalistic text, paying special attention to the reporting verbs used: The Syrian news agency declared last night that the Syrian government had called upon other countries to hold an urgent meeting to discuss the latest developments in the Arab world, in particular the bilateral relations between Arabs and Israel. The agency went on to say that the invitation came as a result of the increasing attacks on the Gaza Strip.

Translating Modes of Narration

175

In a similar context, the military leaders of Gaza sent out a call yesterday to public opinion and the international community urging them to take rapid action to force the Israeli troops to stop the air strikes on Gaza’s towns and rural areas.

5 Modes of narration in literary texts In their attempts to create the illusion of realism, literary writers sometimes tend to mix written modes of narration and spoken modes of narration in their writing. In this regard, Leech and Short (1981 discussed in al-Rubai‘i 2005: 10-12; Almanna 2014: 133) stress that there are five notions of realism that may help in bringing out the realistic illusion. These are verisimilitude, credibility, authenticity, objectivity, and vividness. Al-Rubai‘i (1996: 68) states that writers can relate written modes of narration to spoken ones by: 1. 2. 3. 4.

utilizing “dialectal features”, utilizing the “features of spoken language, e.g. elisions, fillers and corrections”, “indicating the character’s way of speaking”, e.g. she said in a low voice, and using “graphological devices”, such as italics, capitalization, dashes, dots, quotation marks and the like.

To make this point clear, the following text is quoted from Mahfouz’ novel ‫‘ أوﻻد ﺣﺎرﺗﻨﺎ‬Children of Gebelawi’ (1986: 126-127) translated by Philip Stewart (1997: 110):

.‫ﺎﻟﻌﺔ‬ .‫أﻏﻠ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻨﻔ ﻪ اﻷﺒ اب‬

:

‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺠ ﻨﺎ اﻟ‬

. ‫ﻫﺎﻨ‬

‫ﺎﺴ‬

‫ﺨ‬

‫ٍت ﻤ ﻬ ج ﻤ اﻟﻐ‬

‫ن ﺎﻟ ﻬﺎر واﻟ‬ ‫ اﻟ‬، ‫ﻫﺎﻨ‬

‫ﻛ ﻨﻲ ﻤ‬

~

‫ﻫﺎﻨ‬

‫ﻫ‬

‫ﻓﻘﺎﻟ‬

:‫ﺤ ﺔ ﺎﻤ ﻌﺎض‬

‫ﺘ‬

‫ﻓﻘﺎﻟ‬

‫ﻗ ﻊ اﻟ ق ﻻ‬

‫ﺎﺴ‬

‫ﺎﻤ‬

‫ﷲ‬

~

~

~ Use your good influence, madam. Hudaa spoke in a voice that trembled with rage: ~ You aren’t going to get away with daylight robbery. Henna said angrily: ~ God forgive you, madam! The truth is with our Ancestor who has locked the gates on himself.

176

Chapter Five

As can be noticed, Mahfouz tries to indicate the character’s way of speaking as in ‫‘ ﻓﻘﺎﻟﺖ ﺑﺼﻮت ﻣﺘﮭﺪج ﻣﻦ اﻟﻐﻀﺐ‬she said in a voice that trembled with rage’ and ‫‘ ﻓﻘﺎﻟﺖ ﺑﺎﻣﺘﻌﺎض‬she said angrily’, thus mixing the written modes of narration and spoken modes of narration. EX: Read the notes below before translating the following examples quoted from a collection of short stories titled ‫‘ راﺋﺤﺔ اﻟﺸﺘﺎء‬The Scent of Winter’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012) into English, paying extra attention to the modes of narration:

‫ﻤ ﻗ ﻞ؟‬

:‫اﻟ أس‬

‫ﻗﺎل ﻟﻲ اﻟ ﺎﻟ ُ ﺤﻠ‬ ‫~ ﻛ أﻨ ﻟ ﻒ! أﯿ‬

!

The Sayer of the verbal process ‫ اﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺣﻠﯿﻖ اﻟﺮأس‬can be translated into ‘the student with a shaven head’ or ‘the shaven-headed student’.

!

The exclamation sentence !‫ ﻛﻢ أﻧﺖ ﻟﻄﯿﻒ‬lends itself to ‘How sweet you are!’.

‫ ﻫﻞ ﺘ ر ﻤﻬ ﻲ؟‬:‫ﺴﺄﻟ ﻪ‬

. ‫ إﻨ ﻤﻌّﻠ‬:‫و ﻼ ﺘ دد ﻗﺎل‬ .‫راﺌ ﺔ ﺒ ا ﺔ اﻟﻘﻠ اﻟ ﺼﺎص‬

: ‫ﺴﺄﻟ ﻪ ﻒ ﻋ ﻓ‬

‫ إن ﻟ‬،‫ إﻨﻲ أﺸ ّ أﯿﻬﺎ اﻟ ﻌﻠ ن‬:‫أﺠﺎﺒ ﻲ‬

!

The word ‫ ﯾﺤﺰر‬lends itself to ‘to guess’.

!

The word ‫ ﻣﮭﻨﺔ‬can be translated into ‘occupation’, ‘job’, etc.

!

The verb of saying ‫ ﻗﺎل‬along with the phrase ‫ ﺑﻼ ﺗﺮدد‬can be rendered into ‘without hesitation, he said/replied’, ‘with zero hesitation, he said/replied’, or ‘without giving it a moment’s thought, he said/replied’. Less literally and more idiomatically, we could also translate it into ‘quick as a flash, he said/replied…’.

!

The verb ‫ ﯾﺸ ّﻢ‬lends itself to ‘to smell’.

!

The phrase ‫ ﺑﺮاﯾﺔ اﻟﻘﻠﻢ اﻟﺮﺻﺎص‬can be translated into ‘the pencil sharpener’.

Translating Modes of Narration

177

:‫ﻌ ﻟﻠ وج‬

‫ﺴﺄﻟﻪ ﺼﺎﺤُ ُﻪ وﻫ‬ ‫~ أﯿ أراك اﻟﻠ ﻠﺔ؟‬ :‫ً ﺎ‬

‫ﻓﺄﺠﺎب ُﻤ‬ . ‫~ ﻻ أدر‬

!

‫ وھﻮ ﯾﺴﺘﻌﺪ ﻟﻠﺨﺮوج‬can be translated into ‘while he got ready to leave’ or ‘as he made ready to go out’.

!

‫ ﻓﺄﺟﺎب ُﻣﺒﺘﺴ ًﻤﺎ‬can be translated into ‘while wearing a smile, he replied’, ‘he replied smiling’, and the like.

.‫ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻠﻘﺎء‬:‫ وأﺠﺎﺒﻬﺎ ﺎﻟﻌ ﺔ ﻓﻲ ذﻫ ل‬،‫ْ ﺒ ة رﻗ ﻘﺔ ﻤ ﻘ ﻌﺔ‬

‫وﻗ ﻞ أن ﺘ ﻪ ﺘ‬

!

The word ‫ ﺗﻤﺘﻢ‬lends itself to ‘to mumble’, ‘to mutter’, ‘to speak in a low voice’, etc.

!

The phrase ‫ ﺑﻨﺒﺮة رﻗﯿﻘﺔ ﻣﺘﻘﻄﻌﺔ‬can be translated as ‘in a delicate, interrupted tone’.

!

‫ أﺟﺎﺑﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ ذھﻮل‬can be translated as ‘he replied in astonishment’ or ‘astonished, and somehow confused, he replied’.

‫أ ً ﺎ؟‬ :‫ﻎ ﻌﺎﻤﻪ‬

‫ ﻫﻞ ﻨ ﺦ ﻨ‬:‫ﺴﺄﻟ ﻪ‬ .‫اﻵن‬

‫ﻫﻞ ﻨ ﺦ ﺤًﻘﺎ؟‬

.‫ﻎ ﻌﺎﻤﻪ ﺒﻼ ﻤ ﺎﻻة‬

‫رﻓﻊ رأﺴﻪ وﻗﺎل وﻫ‬ ‫ﻟ‬

~

‫ وﻟ‬:‫رت ﺴ اﻟﻬﺎ‬ ْ ‫ﻛ‬ ‫وﺠﻬﻬﺎ ﻗﻠ ﻼً ﺜ ﻋﺎد‬ ‫ﺘﻔ‬

!

The verb ‫ ﺷﺎخ‬can be translated into ‘to get older’ or ‘to age’. However, in this literary context, it can be translated into expressions like ‘to get on in years’ or ‘not to be getting any younger’.

!

The verb ‫ رﻓﻊ‬here can be translated into ‘to lift’, or ‘to raise’.

178

Chapter Five

!

The verb ‫ﯾﻤﻀﻎ‬/‫ ﻣﻀﻎ‬can be translated into ‘to chew’ or ‘to masticate’. While ‘to masticate’ is normally used in a technical or medical language register, or if the speaker/writer is being ironic or pretentious, ‘to chew’ is the everyday word.

!

The verb ‫ ﺗﻔﺤﺺ‬here can be translated into ‘to stare at’.

!

The word ً‫ ﻗﻠﯿﻼ‬here can be translated into ‘for a while’.

!

‫ ﺑﻼ ﻣﺒﺎﻻة‬lends itself to ‘unconcerned’, ‘without concern’, ‘indifferently’, and the like.

ٍ ‫ٍت‬ :‫ﻋﺎل وﻓ ﻪ ﻤﻠﻲء ﺒ ﻏ ة ﻤﻌ ن اﻷﺴ ﺎن‬

‫ﻫﻞ ﺎن ﺘﻌ ً ﺎ إﻟﻰ ﻫ ا اﻟ ّ ؟‬

‫ض اﻟ ﻐ ﻠﺔ ُﻤ ﺜًﺎ أﺼ اﺘًﺎ‬

.‫ﺔ‬

‫ﻤﺎؤﻫﺎ‬

‫ﺦ ﻓﻲ ﻞ ﻟ‬

‫إﻨﻪ وﺤ ﻤﻬ م‬

‫ ﺎن ﻗ ﺘ ك اﻟ ﻔ ﺔ ﺴﺎﺌ ﺔ ﯿ ﺘ‬.‫ﻲء‬

‫ﻗﺎل ﻟﻬﺎ‬

~

:‫أﺠﺎﺒ ﻪ‬

~

‫ﻬﺎ‬

.‫ﻘﺔ‬

‫ﻟ‬

‫ُﻤ‬

!

‫ ﻗﺎل ﺑﺼﻮت ﻋﺎل‬lends itself to ‘in a loud voice, he said’.

!

‫ وﻓﻤﮫ ﻣﻠﻲء ﺑﺮﻏﻮة اﻟﻤﻌﺠﻮن‬can be translated as ‘with a mouth full of toothpaste’ or ‘his mouth was full of toothpaste’.

!

The adjective ‫ ﻣﮭﻤﻮم‬can be translated into ‘sad’, ‘grieved’, ‘griefstricken’, ‘sorrowful’, ‘careworn’, ‘worried’, ‘dejected’, and the like.

!

‫ ﺗﺮك اﻟﺤﻨﻔﯿﺔ ﺳﺎﺋﺒﺔ‬lends itself to ‘he (had) left the tap running’.

!

The verb ‫ﯾﺮﺗﻄﻢ‬/‫ اِرﺗﻄﻢ‬here can be translated into ‘to splash’ as it collocates well with the noun ‘water’.

!

The phrase ‫ أﺻﻮات ﻣﺨﺘﻨﻘﺔ‬can be translated into ‘muffled sounds’.

:‫ ﻗﺎل‬،‫ة ﻋ م ارﺘ ﺎح‬

‫ﺎت ﺒﻬ ا اﻟ ﻌ ﻒ؟‬

‫ر اﻟ ﺎرج ﺒ‬

‫واﻟﻘ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ وﻫ‬،‫ب اﻟ ﺎ وﺸ ﻪ دﻓﻌﺔ واﺤ ة‬

‫ ﻒ ﺴﺄﺤ ﻲ ﻤ ﻤ ﺎﻋ‬،‫ﺠﺎء اﻟ ﺎء‬

~

‫ﺘ ﺎول‬

Translating Modes of Narration

179

!

The verb ‫ ﺗﻨﺎول‬can be translated into ‘to take’.

!

‫ ﺷﺮﺑﮫ دﻓﻌﺔ واﺣﺪة‬lends itself into ‘to gulp it down’ or ‘to drink it down in one gulp’.

!

The verb ‫ ﯾﺸﺰر‬in ‫ ﻗﺎل‬،‫ وھﻮ ﯾﺸﺰر اﻟﺨﺎرج ﺑﻨﻈﺮة ﻋﺪم ارﺗﯿﺎح‬can be rendered into ‘while looking outside uncomfortably, he said …’, ‘casting a distressed eye on the outdoors, he said ...’, or just ‘while gazing outside, he said ...’.

!

The nouns ‫ رﺑﻮ‬and ‫ ﻗﺼﺒﺎت‬can be translated into ‘asthma’ and ‘bronchitis’ respectively.

.‫ﻓﻘ ﺘﺄﺨ ُت‬

: ٍ ‫ِاﻟ ﻘ ﺴ ﺎرة ﻤ ﻋﻠ ﻲ وﻗﺎل ﺒ ﻫ‬ ِ ‫~ ﻗ ﺎ أﺨﻲ‬ ‫ﻫﺎت اﻟ ﺎب ودﻋ ﻲ أذﻫ‬

!

The verb ‫ اﻟﺘﻘﻂ‬here simply means ‫ج‬ َ ‫أﺧﺮ‬, thus lending itself to ‘to take out’.

!

‫ﺑﻮھﻦ‬ ‫ وﻗﺎل‬can be translated into ‘he said feebly’. ٍ

!

The verb ‫‘ ﻗﻢ‬to stand’ simply means ‫‘ اِذھﺐ‬to go’. Therefore, it might be ignored in this context.

!

The word ‫أﺧﻲ‬, which means literally ‘my brother’, can be translated into ‘mate’.

!

‫ دﻋﻨﻲ أذھﺐ‬can be translated literally into ‘let me go’ or idiomatically into ‘let me be on my way’.

!

‫ ﺗﺄﺧﺮت‬lends itself to ‘I’m running late’. :‫ ﻗﺎل ﻟﻬﺎ‬،‫وﻫﻲ ﺘ ﻨ ﻤ ﻪ‬

.‫ﺎر‬ ‫ًا‬

‫ﻋ ﻲ؟‬

‫ﺴﺄﻋ ﻞ‬

~

‫ﺴﻌ‬

~

:‫ن‬

‫ﻓ ّد ْت ﻋﻠ ﻪ‬ ‫~ وﺘ ﻀﻰ أن ﺘﻐ‬ : ‫ٍت ﻤ ﻔ‬ ‫ﻓﻘﺎل‬

.‫أﻤ ة‬

180

Chapter Five

!

The verb ‫ دﻧﺎ‬simply means ‫اِﻗﺘﺮب‬, thus lending itself to ‘to get close to’, ‘to get near to’, ‘to come near to’, ‘to draw closer to’, and the like.

!

The word ‫ ﺑﺤﺎر‬in this structure lends itself to ‘as a sailor’.

!

In ‫ وﺗﺮﺿﻰ‬there is an implicit reference to the future, thereby lending itself to ‘Will you be happy …?’.

!

‫ ﺳﺘﻌﯿﺸﯿﻦ أﻣﯿﺮة‬means ‫ ﺳﺘﻌﯿﺸﯿﻦ ﺳﻌﯿﺪة‬or ‫ﺳﺘﻌﯿﺸﯿﻦ ﻋﯿﺸﺔ راﺿﯿﺔ‬. With this in mind, it can be translated literally into ‘you’ll live the life of a princess’ or functionally into ‘you’ll live happily’, ‘you’ll live like a princess’, ‘you’ll live like a real lady’, and the like. Or, it can be translated idiomatically into ‘you’ll be living the good life’ or ‘you’ll be living the high life’.

‫؟‬

:‫ﺔ ﺜ ﺴﺄﻟ ﻲ‬

‫ددت ﻟ‬ ْ ‫ﺘ‬ ‫~ أﺘﻌ ف ﻤﺎ‬

‫ﺴﺎﺌﺢ ﻤ ﻠ َ ﻓﻲ ﺒﻠ ٍ ﻏ‬ ‫ﺎﺠﻪ‬ ٌ

!

The verb ‫ ﺗﺮدد‬can be translated into ‘to hesitate’.

!

The word ‫ ﻟﺤﻈﺔ‬here can be rendered into ‘for a moment’ or ‘for a while’.

!

The word ‫ ﺳﺎﺋﺢ‬lends itself to ‘tourist’, which is derived from ‘tour’ ‫ﯾﺘﺠﻮل‬/‫ﺟﻮﻟﺔ‬ (see also ‘tourism’ ‫)ﺳﯿﺎﺣﺔ‬. ّ

EX: Translate the following text adapted from a short story titled ‫ﺛﻼث‬ ‫‘ ﻗﺼﺺ ﻟﯿﺴﺖ ﻟﻠﻨﺸﺮ‬Three Stories not for Publishing’ by ‘Abdulsattar Nāsir (cited in Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009: 17-19):

‫دون ﺸ ّ ﻗ ﺸﻌ َت ﺎﻟﻔ ح وأﻨ‬

:‫م ﺎﻹﻋ ام‬

‫ﻘﻪ اﻟ‬

‫ﻗﺎل اﻟ ﺎﻤﻲ ﻟ‬

‫ ﻟ‬،‫ ﺼ ﺢ أﻨ ﺴ ف ﺘ ت‬،‫أﻨﺎ آﺴﻒ‬

.‫ﺘ ﻐﻲ إﻟﻰ ﻤ اﻓﻌ ﻲ‬ :‫اﻟ ﺠﻞ وﻗﺎل‬

~

‫ﻀ‬

Translating Modes of Narration

... ‫ﺔ ﺠ ﻠﺔ‬

‫ﺴ‬

‫ واﻟ اﻓﻌﺔ ﻟ ﺘ‬،

‫ﺎر ﺎﺘ‬

181

‫ﻫ ﻩ ﻨ ﺔ ﻗ أﺘﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ رﺴ‬

.‫ﻛ ُ واﺜﻘﺎً ﺠ ا ﻤ ﻨﻬﺎﯿ ﻬﺎ‬

~

:‫أﺠﺎب اﻟ ﺎﻤﻲ‬

‫ﺔ“ ﻤ‬

‫ وﻗ ﺘﺎ ﻌ ُ ”اﻟﻘ‬.‫ ﺄﻨ ﻲ ﻟ أﺘ ْك ﺸ ﺎً ﻟﻠ ﺎدﻓﺔ‬،‫ﻛ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺜﻘﺔ ﺘﺎﻤﺔ‬ ‫ وﻟ ﻤﺎذا أﻓﻌﻞ؟ اﻨﻬ‬... ‫ّأول ﯿ م إﻟﻰ آﺨ ﺜﺎﻨ ﺔ رأﯿ ﻲ ﻓ ﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺜ ﺎب اﻟﻌ ل‬

~

... َ ‫ﺤﺎﻗ ون ﻋﻠ‬

‫اﻟﻘﺎﺘﻞ؟ ﺴﺄﻤ ت وأﻨﺎ وﺤ‬

: ‫ٍ ﻏﺎﻀ‬

‫ﻞ ﺎﻨ ﻲ ﻟ‬

ِ ‫ﻪﻤ‬ ‫ﺠﺔ‬

‫ٍت‬

‫ّ ق ﻌ ﻫ ا اﻟﻌ اب اﻟ‬ .‫ﻤﻌﻲ ﻓﻘ ﻤ ﻌ ف اﻟ ﻘ ﻘﺔ‬

.‫ﺎ ﻨﻌ ﻓﻬﺎ‬

‫ﺠﻞ‬ ُ ‫ﻗﺎل اﻟ‬ ‫~ ﻤ‬

‫وأﻨ‬

:‫ﻗﺎل اﻟ ﺎﻤﻲ‬

‫ﻫ ﺎك ”ﺜﺎﻟ “ ﻌ ف اﻟ ﻘ ﻘﺔ‬ ‫ن؟‬ :‫ﻬ ﺼ ﻘﻪ‬

.‫ﺎن ﻟﻪ أن ﯿ ّﻠ ﻟﻘﺎل اﻟ ﻘ ﻘﺔ‬

~

:‫ﺼ خ اﻟ ﺠﻞ‬

‫ﻤ ؟ﻤ‬

‫اﻟ ﺎﻤﻲ وﻫ ﯿ‬ ‫اﻟ ﻘ ل! ﻟ‬

~ ~

‫ﻀ‬

6 Revision EX 1: Translate the following two sentences into Arabic, giving extra attention to the reporting verbs used: 1.

The European Council meeting in Paris voiced its deep concern over the Arab-Israeli conflict and the situation in Lebanon.

2.

It was reported by the Central Bank that the current year would be the fourth in succession to witness a fall in demand for oil from the industrialized world.

‫‪182‬‬

‫‪Chapter Five‬‬

‫‪EX 2: Translate the following text, paying special attention to the‬‬ ‫‪reporting verbs used:‬‬

‫ﺠﺎء ﻓﻲ ﺘﻘ ﺒ ”ﻟ ز“‪ ،‬واﺤ ﻤ أﻛ اﻟ ك ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻠ ﺔ اﻟ ُ ّ ة‪ ،‬أن اﻟ ﻠ‬ ‫اﻟﻘﺎدﻤ ‪ ،‬وذﻟ‬ ‫اﻟﻌﺎﻟ ﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ول ﺴ داد ﻗﻠ ﻼً ﻓﻲ ﻏ ن اﻟ‬ ‫ﻘﺔ‪ .‬وأﻀﺎف ﻤ‬

‫اﻷوﻀﺎع اﻟ ﺎﺴ ﺔ اﻟ ﻲ ﺘ ّ ﺒﻬﺎ اﻟ‬ ‫أن ﻋ ًدا ﻤ اﻟ ول ﺴ ﻠ ﺄ إﻟﻰ ﺴ ﺎﺴﺔ اﻟ ﻘ ّ ﻒ‪.‬‬

‫ٌر ﻤ ّ ﻠﻊ أﻨﻪ ﻤ اﻟ ّﻗﻊ‬

‫‪ lends itself to ‘the world‬اﻟطﻠب اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻣﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺑﺗرول ‪The expression‬‬ ‫‪demand for oil’.‬‬

‫!‬

‫‪The whole sentence can be broken down to two sentences.‬‬

‫!‬

‫‪/‬ﺗﻣر ‪The verb‬‬ ‫ﯾﻣر ّ‬ ‫‪.‬ﯾﺷﮭد‪/‬ﺗﺷﮭد ‪ّ can be translated intralingually into‬‬

‫!‬

‫‪EX 3: Translate the following text into English, paying special attention to‬‬ ‫‪the reporting verbs used:‬‬

‫ﺼّح ﻤ ٌر ﻤﻘّ ٌب ﻤ اﻟ ﻤﺔ اﻟ ﺎﻟ ﺔ أن اﻟ ﻤﺔ اﻟ ﺎﻟ ﺔ ﻗ واﻓﻘ ﻤ ﺨ ًا ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫إﻗﺎﻤﺔ ّأول ﻤ ف إﺴﻼﻤﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻤﺎﻟ ﺎ ﻻ ﯿ ﻘﺎﻀﻰ ﻓﺎﺌ ة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻘ وض وﻻﺴّ ﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫اﻟ داﺌﻊ‪.‬‬ ‫ف اﻟ‬

‫وﻓﻲ ﻫ ا اﻟ د‪ ،‬ﺼّح وز اﻟ ﺎﻟ ﺔ أن اﻟ‬ ‫اﻟ ُ ﻘ ﻞ ﺴ ﻘ ﻋﻼﻗﺎت ﻤﻊ ﻤ ﺎرف إﺴﻼﻤ ﺔ ﺨﺎرﺠ ﺔ‪ .‬وأﻀﺎف اﻟ ز‬ ‫اﻟ ﺌ‬

‫ﻤ إﻗﺎﻤﺔ ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ا اﻟ‬

‫اﻟ ﺎد اﻹﺴﻼﻤ ﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫وﺴ أ اﻟ‬ ‫وذ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫فﻫ‬

‫ﯿ ّﻗﻊ أن ﻔ ﺢ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻬ‬

‫أن اﻟﻬ ف‬

‫ﻐ ض ﺨﻠ ﻤ ﺴ ﺔ ﻤﺎﻟ ﺔ ﺘﻌ ﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ وﻓ‬

‫ف اﻟ ﺎﻟ اﻹﺴﻼﻤﻲ ﺒ أﺴ ﺎل ﻤ ّح ﻪ ﻗ اﻤﻪ ‪ 200‬ﻤﻠ ن دوﻻر‪ ،‬ﻫ ا‬ ‫أن اﻟ ﻤﺔ ﺴ ن ﻤ أﻛ ﺤ ﻠﺔ اﻷﺴﻬ ﻓﻲ‬ ‫ر اﻟ ﻨﻘﻞ اﻟ‬

‫ف اﻹﺴﻼﻤﻲ اﻟ ﯿ ﺎﻹﻀﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ ﻌ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ﺎت اﻹﺴﻼﻤ ﺔ‪.‬‬

‫‪Attention needs to be paid to tenses in reported speech:‬‬

‫ﺼّح ‪ ...‬أن ‪ ...‬ﻗ واﻓﻘ‬

‫‪...‬‬

‫!‬

Translating Modes of Narration

183

... ‫ ﺴ ﻔ ﺢ و ﻘ ﻞ‬... ‫ أن‬... ‫أﻀﺎف‬

... ‫ ﻟ ﯿ ﻘﺎﻀﻰ‬... ‫ أن‬... ّ‫ﺒ‬

!

The expression ... ‫ﻣﻘرب ﻣن‬ ّ ‫ ﻣﺻدر‬lends itself to ‘a source close to …’.

!

The noun ‫ إﻗﺎﻣﺔ‬can be translated into a verb, such as ‘to establish’ or ‘to set up’. This is an example of ‘class shift’, to use Catford’s (1965) term.

!

The verb ‫ﺗﻘﺎﺿﻰ‬, which is in the negative, lends itself in such a context to ‘not charge’.

!

Technical terms, such as ‫ﻓﺎﺋدة‬, ‫ﻗرض‬, ‫ودﯾﻌﺔ‬, ‫رأس ﻣﺎل‬, and ‫ﺣﻣﻠﺔ‬ ‫اﻷﺳﮭم‬, lend themselves to ‘interest’, ‘loan’, ‘deposit’, ‘capital’, and ‘shareholders’ respectively.

!

The expression ‫( ﻓﻲ ھذا اﻟﺻدد‬also ‫ )ﻓﻲ ھذا اﻟﺳﯾﺎق‬can be translated into ‘in this regard’, ‘in this respect’, ‘in this context’, and so forth.

!

The expression ‫ وزﯾر اﻟﻣﺎﻟﯾﺔ‬lends itself to ‘the minister of finance’.

!

The connector ‫ھﺬا و‬, which is frequently used in media reports, can be translated into ‘further’, ‘furthermore’, etc. or simply left without translation.

EX 4: Translate the following text adapted from a novel titled ‘The Secret Garden’ by Frances Hodgson Burnett (1994: 2) into Arabic, paying extra attention to the linguistic and stylistic differences between the two languages: ~ ~

~

“It’s very bad, isn’t it?” her mother asked the doctor with a worried voice. “Very bad”, the doctor answered gravely. “People are dying like flies. It is dangerous to stay in this village. You should leave the place immediately; you should go to a place where there is no disease”. “Oh, I know!” she said while shivering from fear. “We must leave as soon as possible”.

184

Chapter Five

EX 5: Translate the following text into English, paying extra attention to the linguistic and stylistic differences between the two languages:

ٍ ِ ‫ﻒﻋ‬ ُ ‫ ﻟ ﺎذا ﺎ أُﻤﻲ أﺨ ﻠ‬:‫ُﻤ ُﻪ‬ َ ‫ﻓﻲ ﻟ ﻠﺔ ﻤ اﻟﻠ ﺎﻟﻲ‬ َ ‫ﺴﺄل اﻟ ﻟ أ‬ . َ ‫ ﻟ َ ُﻤ ًﻠﻔﺎ ﺒﻞ ﻓ ً ا ﻤ ﻨ ﻋ‬:‫ُﻤﻪ‬ ُ ‫أَﺠﺎﺒ ْ أ‬ ‫ وﻟ‬:‫ٍن‬ ،‫ﱡ أن ﯿﻠﻌ َ ﻤﻌﻲ‬ ‫ﺎ أُﻤﻲ ﻻ أﺤ ﻤ اﻷوﻻد‬ ُ ‫ﻓﻘﺎل اﻟ ﻟ‬ َ .‫ُ ﻤ ﻲ‬ ‫وﻌ ﻬ‬ ‫ّﻞ اﻷوﻻد؟‬

.‫ﻓ ّدت اﻷم واﺒ ﺎﻤ ٌﺔ ﺘﻌﻠ ُﻤ ﺎﻫﺎ‬ ‫ ﻓﻌ ﻤﺎ ﻻ ﯿ ﻏ‬. َ َ ‫~ أَﻨ َ وﻟٌ ذ ﻲ و ِ أَن ﺘ ﻌّﻠ َ ﻒ ﺘُ ِ ّ َﻨﻔ‬ . ‫ﻫﻨ‬ ‫ ﻓﻬ ا ﻻ ﻌ ﻲ أﻨﻬ‬،‫ﻻد ﺎﻟﻠﻌ ﻤﻌ ﻓﻲ إﺤ اﻟ ات‬ ُ ‫اﻷو‬

!

The expression ‫ ﻓﺮﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻮﻋﮫ‬can be translated into ‘unique’.

!

The verb (‫ ﯾﺴﺨﺮ )ﻣﻨﻲ‬lends itself to ‘to make fun of me’.

!

‫ ﻓﺮدت اﻷم واِﺑﺘﺴﺎﻣﺔ ﺗﻌﻠﻮ ُﻣﺤﯿﺎھﺎ‬needs to be adjusted to something like ‫ ﻓﺮدّت اﻷم ُﻣﺒﺘﺴﻤﺔ‬before the actual act of translation. With this in

mind, it can be rendered into ‘his mother replied with a smile’ or ‘his mother smiled, and replied’.

CHAPTER SIX TRANSLATING ARTICLES, EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY AND PARTITIVES

1 Articles & cognitive operations a/an, Ø & nunation In English, the indefinite article ‘a/an’ is used before a singular countable noun, such as ‘a car’, ‘a book’, ‘a girl’, ‘an umbrella’, ‘an apple’, ‘an ox’, ‘an eye’, ‘an egg’, and so forth. Consider the following sentence: My friend bought a new car a week ago.

.‫ﺼ ﻘﻲ ﺴّﺎرًة ﺠ ﯿ ًة ﻗ َﻞ أﺴ ٍع‬

‫ِاﺸ‬

Back-translation: My friend bought [‫ = ﺗﻨﻮﯾﻦ‬a] new car [‫ = ﺗﻨﻮﯾﻦ‬a] week ago. The Arabic equivalent of the indefinite article used before a singular countable noun is ‫‘ ﺗﻨﻮﯾﻦ‬nunation’. Now, let us translate the following text adapted from a short story entitled ‫ﻲ‬ ٍ ‫‘ اﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻋﻦ ﻗﻠ‬Search for a Live ّ ‫ﺐﺣ‬ Heart’ by Mūhsin al-Ramlī: Ø

a/an

a/an

‫ُج ﻤ إﺤ اﻫﺎ‬ ،‫اب ﻤ ﻗ ٌﺔ‬ ‫ وﻋﻠﻰ ﺠﺎﻨ ﻲ اﻟ‬،‫ﻓﻲ ﻤ ٍ ﻀ ٍ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﻔﻰ ﻤﺎ‬ ٌ ‫أﺒ‬ ً . ‫أﺤ ًﺎﻨﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺠﺎﻨ ﻲ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻤﺎﺴ ً ﺎ ﻋ ﻪ ﯿ ﻘﻞ ﺤ ﻪ اﻷﻟ واﻟ ن اﻟ ﺎد ﻓ‬ In the above text, there are seven cases of ‫‘ ﺗﻨﻮﯾﻦ‬nunation’, viz. ‫ﻣﻤﺮ‬, ‫ ﺿﯿّﻖ‬, ‫ﻣﺴﺘﺸﻔﻰ‬, ‫أﺑﻮاب‬, ‫ﻣﺮﻗﻤﺔ‬, ‫ﻣﺎﺳﺤﺎ‬, and ‫أﺣﯿﺎﻧﺎ‬. However, there are only three nouns, namely‫ﻣﻤﺮ‬, ‫ﻣﺴﺘﺸﻔﻰ‬, and ‫أﺑﻮاب‬. Unlike the last noun, viz. ‫أﺑﻮاب‬

186

Chapter Six

‘doors’, which is a plural countable noun, the first two nouns are singular countable nouns, and thus translatable into English using ‘a/an + noun’, as in ‘a corridor’ and ‘a hospital’, respectively. The sentence ‫ﯾﺜﻘﻞ ﺣﺮﻛﺘﮫ اﻷﻟﻢ‬ ‫ واﻟﺤﺰن اﻟﺤﺎد‬which is in the active form can be translated into passive, as in ‘his movement is weighed down by deep pain and grief/sorrow, thus leaning now and then against both sides of the corridor for support’ or ‘he is weighed down by deep pain and grief/sorrow, thus leaning now and then against either side of the corridor for support’. Following is another example:

‫ًﺔ ﻤﻊ ﻋ ٍﻞ و َب‬

‫ﻫ ﻗ‬

‫ ﻠ‬.ٍ ‫رت أﻤ أن أﻓ َ ﻤﻊ ﺼ ﯿ ٍ ﻗ ٍ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﻌ‬ ُ ‫ﻗﱠ‬ . ٍ ‫ﺄس ﻋ‬ َ ‫ﺸﺎ ٍ و ﻠ ُ أﻨﺎ ﻓ ًة وﻤﻌﻬﺎ‬

Here, there are eight cases of ‫‘ ﺗﻨﻮﯾﻦ‬nunation’, viz. ‫ﺻﺪﯾﻖ‬, ‫ﻗﺪﯾﻢ‬, ‫ﻣﻄﻌﻢ‬, ‫ﻗﺸﻄﺔ‬, ‫ﻋﺴﻞ‬, ‫ﺷﺎي‬, ‫ﻓﻄﯿﺮة‬, and ‫ﻋﺼﯿﺮ‬. However, there are only seven nouns as the word ‫ ﻗﺪﯾﻢ‬is an adjective. As for the nouns ‫ﻗﺸﻄﺔ‬, ‫ﻋﺴﻞ‬, ‫ﺷﺎي‬, and ‫ﻋﺼﯿﺮ‬, they are usually used as non-countable nouns in English, thus being preceded by Ø, i.e. nothing. As for ‫ ﺷﺎي‬and ‫ﻋﺼﯿﺮ‬, they are preceded by ‫ ﻛﻮب‬and ‫ ﻛﺄس‬which are singular countable nouns; therefore, an indefinite article ‘a/an’ should be used (see Section 3 on ‘Partitives’ later in this chapter). The verb ‫ﯾﻔﻄﺮ‬/‫ ﻓﻄﺮ‬can be translated as ‘to have breakfast’, thus resulting in a ‘unit shift’ where a verb is translated into a phrase. Closely associated with the use of articles and quantifiers (see below) are cognitive operations of bounding, unbounding and portion excerpting. To illustrate, let us discuss the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﺴﺪك ﯾﻄﻮي اﻟﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻈﻠﺘﮫ‬On your Body, Night folds its Umbrella’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 130-1):

‫ رﻓﻊ اﻟ ﺠﻼن‬.‫اﻟ ﺎب ﺜ اﺴ ار ووﻗﻒ ازاء اﻷﺤ ب‬ ، ‫ ﻤ ﯿﻞ ﻤﻘّﻠ‬:‫ﻊ ﺤﺎﺠﺎﺘﻪ‬

‫اﻟ أة‬

‫اﻟ ﯿ اﻟﻐ ﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ ﺠ‬

‫أﺤ‬

‫ﺠ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎب ووﻀﻌﺎﻫﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌ ﺔ ﺒ ﺎ اﻨ ﻐﻠ‬

.‫ ﻤ ﻠﺔ ﻗ ﺔ‬،‫ ﺼ ر ﻓ ﺘﻐ اﻓ ﺔ‬،‫ ﻤ ﻔ ﺔ ﻨﻘ د‬،‫ﻓ ﺸﺎة أﺴ ﺎن‬

In the above example, the lexical items

‫ ﻤ ﻠﺔ‬،‫ ﻤ ﻔ ﺔ‬،‫ ﻓ ﺸﺔ أﺴ ﺎن‬،‫ ﻤ ﯿﻞ‬،‫ اﻟ أة‬،‫ ﻋ ﺔ‬،(‫ﺠ ّﺔ )اﻟ ﺎب‬/ ‫ ﺠ‬، ‫)اﻟ ﺠﻞ( اﻟ ﯿ‬ are characterized by uniplexity, that is, the quantity of each lexical item consists of one element (one man/one body/one trolley/one woman/one handkerchief/one toothbrush/one wallet/one magazine). Building on this,

Translating Articles, Expressions of Quantity and Partitives

187

all of them are bounded as they trigger a cognitive operation of portion excerpting, to use Talmy’s (2000) terminology. By contrast, the lexical item ‫‘ ﺻﻮر‬photographs’ are characterized by multiplexity, that is, the quantity consists of more than one element/photograph, thus signalling a cognitive operation of unbounding (ibid.). However, by the effect of ‫ﺑﻌﺾ‬ ‘some’, it becomes bounded again, whereby it triggers a cognitive operation of portion excerpting, as shown below: lexical item

cognitive operation

characteristic

a photograph ‫ﺻﻮرة‬

bounding/portion excerpting

uniplexity

photographs ‫ﺻﻮر‬

unbounding

multiplexity

some photographs‫ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﺼﻮر‬

bounding/portion excerpting

multiplexity

Having given full consideration to the characteristics of these lexical items along with the cognitive operations triggered, the translators have suggested the following translation: The fat man completely covered the body of the young man, turned around and stopped in front of the hunchback. The two men lifted the young man’s body and put it on to the trolley while the woman busied herself collecting his things: a striped handkerchief, a toothbrush, a wallet, some photographs, and an old magazine. EX: Identify any cognitive operation triggered by the effect of the lexical items utilized in the following examples. Then, translate them into English, paying extra attention to the translation of the definite article ‫ أل‬and ‫‘ ﺗﻨﻮﯾﻦ‬nunation’:

ِ .‫ف و ُ ﻤ ﻻً ﺼﻐ ًا‬ ِ ‫ِ ﺴ ِء اﻷﺤ‬ .‫ال اﻟ ِﺔ‬

‫ﻀﺎ ﻤ اﻟ‬ ً ‫ أﺨ ُت ﻗ‬،‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ‬ ‫أﻤ إﻻ ﻋ ٌد ﻗﻠ ٌﻞ ﻤ اﻟ ﻠ ِﺔ‬ ‫ﻟ‬ .‫ﺴﺎﻓ َ إﻟﻰ ﺒﻠ ٍ أورو ﻲ وﻓ َﺢ ﻫ ﺎك ﻋ ًدا ًا ﻤ اﻟ ﺎرﻊ‬ ٍ ‫ﻨ ت ًﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻤ‬ ِ .‫ﻘﺎﻻت‬ ‫ ﻟ ﻨ ُت ﻋ ًدا ﻤ اﻟ‬.‫ﻠﺔ ﻤ ّ ٍﺔ اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟ ﺎﻀﻲ‬ ُ ِ ٍ ‫ﻲ ﺘ َﺢ‬ ‫ ﻋﻠ أن ﺘﻘ أ اﻟﻌ ﯿ ﻤ اﻟ‬، َ ‫ﻗ ﻞ أن ﺘ‬ ّ ‫ع ﻓﻲ ﺎ ﺔ أ‬ .‫اﻟ ّ رة‬

‫ﻟ‬

.1 .2 .3 .4 .5

188

Chapter Six

‫ ﻫﻞ ﻟﻲ‬.‫ﻲ ﻗﻠ ﻼً ﻤ ﻪ‬ ّ

‫ﻓﻲ‬

‫أو وﻀﻌ‬

‫ ﯿ و أﻨ َ ﻨ‬.6 ّ ‫أن ﺘ ﻊ اﻟ‬ ٍ .‫رﺠﺎء‬ ‫ﻠﻌﻘﺔ أﺨ‬ ً

the, Ø & ‫أل‬ In English, we can use the definite article ‘the’ before a noun when it is believed, or seems clear that the listener/reader knows what we are referring to. To explain, let us consider this example: The teacher did not come yesterday because he was a bit tired. Here, the teacher is known to both the speaker and the listener, as they regularly talk about their teacher. This sentence can be translated into Arabic as:

( ِ ‫اﻟ ﻌ‬

‫ﻌُ ﺒ ﻌ‬

‫ﻷﻨﻪ ﺎن ُﻤ ﻌًﺎ ﻗﻠ ﻼً )أو ﺎن‬

‫اﻟ ِّر ُس أﻤ‬

‫ﻟ‬

The definite article is also used before a noun which has been mentioned earlier in the text. Consider the following example: In the street, a man and a woman are talking to each other. Unlike the woman, the man seems very quiet. As can be observed, a verbal process is employed in the above example. The act of talking introduces a relation between the two participants based on a talk-frame, which involves in this example two participant roles: SPEAKER and LISTENER. However, the interaction between the man and woman is construed as bidirectional based on a reciprocal action schema where one of the participants cannot be ascribed the role of SPEAKER and the other LISTENER, but rather both of them are involved actively at the same time. Further, in the above example, there are two stages. In the first stage, the participants (man and woman) are preceded by the indefinite article ‘a’, thus introducing them as new elements to the discourse. In the second stage, however, the participants (man and woman) are identified as being mentioned in the discourse. Giving full consideration to these issues, the above example can be translated as:

‫ ﱠ‬،‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺨﻼف اﻟ أة‬،‫رﺠﻞ واِﻤ أةٌ ﯿ ّﻠ ﺎن ﻤﻊ ﻌ ﻬ ﺎ‬ ‫ﺠﻞ ﯿ و‬ ٌ ،‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ّ ﺎرِع‬ َ ‫ﻓﺈن اﻟ‬ (... ٌ‫ﺠﻞ واِﻤ أة‬ ً ٌ ‫ ﺜ ﺔ ر‬،‫ )أو ﻓﻲ اﻟ ّ ﺎرِع‬.‫ﻫﺎدﺌﺎ ﺠ ً ا‬

Furthermore, it is used in the following cases:

Translating Articles, Expressions of Quantity and Partitives

!

189

commonly used before nouns of which there is only one, such as ‘the earth’ ‫اﻷرض‬, ‘the sun’ ‫اﻟﺸﻤﺲ‬, ‘the sky’ ‫اﻟﺴﻤﺎء‬, ‘the north pole’ ‫اﻟﻘﻄﺐ اﻟﺸﻤﺎﻟﻲ‬, ‘the Internet’ ‫اﻷﻧﺘﺮﻧﯿﺖ‬, and so forth, as in:

The moon is very bright tonight (there is only one ‘moon’).

ٌ .‫ﻣﺸﺮق ﺟﺪًا ھﺬه اﻟﻠﯿﻠﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﻘﻤﺮ‬ ُ !

it is used before a superlative degree, such as ‘the tallest’ ‫اﻷطﻮل‬, ‘the cleverest’ ‫اﻷذﻛﻰ‬, ‘the most beautiful’ ‫اﻷﺟﻤﻞ‬, ‘the ugliest’ ‫اﻷﻗﺒﺢ‬, and so on, as in:

This is the tallest building in the city. Here, the lexical item ‘building’ is characterized by uniplexity, that is, the quantity consists of one element/building. Despite that, in this construction, it evokes in our mind the images of all the buildings in the city. However, unlike the described building, all other buildings are backgrounded in attention. To reflect a similar mental image, one may opt for a rendering of the following kind:

(‫ )أو ھﺬه أطﻮ ُل ﺑﻨﺎﯾﺎت اﻟﻤﺪﯾﻨﺔ‬.‫ھﺬه أطﻮ ُل ﺑﻨﺎﯾ ٍﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺪﯾﻨﺔ‬ !

it is used before nationality adjectives, such as ‘the British’ ‫اﻟﺒﺮﯾﻄﺎﻧﯿﻮن‬, ‘the Japanese’ ‫اﻟﯿﺎﺑﺎﻧﯿﻮن‬, etc. to refer to the people of that country, as in:

The British like to travel a lot. In ‘the’ + nationality adjectives, the matter ‘the British’ is characterized by multiplexity, that is, the quantity consists of more than one element/British person. To reflect this characteristic, the translator may opt for: Here, an emphatic particle, ‫ ﱠ‬has been used. i.e. ‫إن‬

.‫ًا‬ .‫ًا‬

‫ﺎﻨ ن‬

‫ّ ن اﻟ ﻔ‬

‫ّ ن اﻟ ﻔ‬

‫ﺎﻨ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ ﱠ‬:‫أو‬ ‫إن اﻟ‬

Note here that when the nationality adjective ends with ‘–sh’, ‘–ch’, ‘–ss’, ‘–se’, it refers to the people of that country and there is no need to add ‘–s’. Otherwise, if it is used to refer to all people of that country, the ‘–s’ should be added, as in:

190

Chapter Six

The Irish ‫اﻹﯾﺮﻟﯿﻨﺪﯾﻮن‬ The British ‫اﻟﺒﺮﯾﻄﺎﻧﯿﻮن‬ The French ‫اﻟﻔﺮﻧﺴﯿﻮن‬ The Dutch ‫اﻟﮭﻮﻟﻨﺪﯾﻮن‬ The Swiss ‫اﻟﺴﻮﯾﺴﺮﯾﻮن‬ The Japanese ‫اﻟﯿﺎﺑﺎﻧﯿﻮن‬ The Chinese ‫اﻟﺼﯿﻨﯿﻮن‬ !

The Iraqis ‫اﻟﻌﺮاﻗﯿﻮن‬ The Egyptians ‫اﻟﻤﺼﺮﯾﻮن‬ The Omanis ‫اﻟﻌﻤﺎﻧﯿﻮن‬ The Kuwaitis ‫اﻟﻜﻮﯾﺘﯿﻮن‬ The Jordanians ‫اﻷردﻧﯿﻮن‬ The Americans ‫اﻷﻣﺮﯾﻜﺎن‬ The Italians ‫اﻹﯾﻄﺎﻟﯿﻮن‬

it is used before some countries whose names include words like ‘kingdom’, ‘republic’, ‘states’, ‘lands’, or ‘union’, as in: The United Kingdom The Kingdom of Nepal The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia The United States The People’s Republic of China The Soviet Union The Netherlands The Philippines

!

‫اﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة‬ ‫ﻣﻤﻠﻜﺔ اﻟﻨﯿﺒﺎل‬ ‫اﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ اﻟﺴﻌﻮدﯾﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﻮﻻﯾﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة‬ ‫ﺟﻤﮭﻮرﯾﺔ اﻟﺼﯿﻦ اﻟﺸﻌﺒﯿﺔ‬ ‫اﻻﺗّﺤﺎد اﻟﺴﻮﻓﯿﺘﻲ‬ ‫ھﻮﻟﻨﺪا‬ ‫اﻟﻔﻠﺒﯿﻦ‬

it is used before words, such as ‘cinema’ ‫اﻟﺴﯿﻨﻤﺎ‬, ‘theatre’ ‫اﻟﻤﺴﺮح‬, or ‘radio’ ‫اﻟﺮادﯾﻮ‬, as in: My brother loves going to the theatre.

.‫ﯾﺤﺐﱡ أﺧﻲ اﻟﺬھﺎب إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﺴﺮح‬ !

it is used before musical instruments, such as ‘piano’ ‫اﻟﺒﯿﺎﻧﻮ‬, ‘guitar’ ‫اﻟﻘﯿﺜﺎرة‬/‫اﻟﻐﯿﺘﺎر‬,‘violin’ ‫اﻟﻜﻤﺎن‬, as in:

One of my students plays the guitar really well. My little son is learning the piano.

. ّ‫ﻞ ﺠ‬

/‫ف اﻟﻐ ﺎر)اﻟﻘ ﺎرة( ﻬﺎرة ﻋﺎﻟ ﺔ‬ ُ ‫ﻼﺒﻲ ﻌ‬ . ‫ِاﺒ ﻲ اﻟ ﻐ اﻟﻌ ف ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﺎﻨ‬

ُ ‫أﺤ‬ ُ ‫ﯿ ﻌّﻠ‬

Sometimes, the article is omitted in English with musical instruments, especially when referring to jazz or pop music, as in: ‘…with Miles Davis on trumpet’. !

it is used before rivers, seas, oceans, canals, deserts, mountain ranges, or groups of islands, such as:

Translating Articles, Expressions of Quantity and Partitives

The Euphrates The Tigris The Nile The Thames The Red Sea The Dead Sea The Mediterranean Sea The Atlantic Ocean The Alps The Himalayas The Panama Canal The Suez Canal The Empty Quarter The Sahara !

191

‫ﻧﮭﺮ اﻟﻔﺮات‬ ‫ﻧﮭﺮ دﺟﻠﺔ‬ ‫ﻧﮭﺮ اﻟﻨﯿﻞ‬ ‫ﻧﮭﺮ اﻟﺘﺎﯾﻤﺰ‬ ‫اﻟﺒﺤﺮ اﻷﺣﻤﺮ‬ ‫اﻟﺒﺤﺮ اﻟﻤﯿّﺖ‬ ‫اﻟﺒﺤﺮ اﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻂ‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺤﯿﻂ اﻷطﻠﺴﻲ‬ ‫ﺟﺒﺎل اﻷﻟﺐ‬ ‫ﺟﺒﺎل اﻟﮭﻤﺎﻻﯾﺎ‬ ‫ﻗﻨﺎة ﺑﻨﻤﺎ‬ ‫ﻗﻨﺎة اﻟﺴﻮﯾﺲ‬ ‫اﻟﺮﺑﻊ اﻟﺨﺎﻟﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﺼﺤﺮاء اﻟﻜﺒﺮى‬

it is used before adjectives to refer to groups of people, as in:

The poor The rich The needy The sick The dead The injured The blind

‫اﻟﻔﻘﺮاء‬ ‫اﻷﻏﻨﯿﺎء‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺤﺘﺎﺟﻮن‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺮﺿﻰ‬ ‫اﻟﻤﻮﺗﻰ‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺼﺎﺑﻮن‬ ‫اﻟﻌﻤﯿﺎن‬

The unemployed The disabled The stupid The young The elderly The wise The mentally ill

‫اﻟﻌﺎطﻠﻮن ﻋﻦ اﻟﻌﻤﻞ‬ ‫اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻗﻮن‬ ‫اﻷﻏﺒﯿﺎء‬/‫اﻟﺤﻤﻘﻰ‬ ‫اﻟﺸﺒﺎب‬ ‫اﻟﻜﺒﺎر ﻓﻲ اﻟﺴﻦ‬ ‫اﻟﻌﻘﻼء‬/‫اﻟﺤﻜﻤﺎء‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺮﺿﻰ ﻋﻘﻠﯿًﺎ‬

In these examples, the adjectives functioning as a head in a noun phrase are characterized by multiplexity as they have generic and plural reference (Quirk and Greenbaum 1973: 118). To illustrate, let us discuss the following example adapted from a short story titled ‫ﺻﻔﺤﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺘﺎب اﻟﻤﻮﺗﻰ‬ ‘Excerpt from The Book of The Dead’ by Ibrāhīm al-Faqīh (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 88-9):

‫ﻫﺎ ﺘ ﻌ ﻞ ﻓﻲ‬

‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ اس ﺸ ًﺎ ﻏ ًﺎ أو ﻋ ًﺎ وﻟ‬ ... ‫ﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺎب اﻟ ﺘﻰ‬

‫ﻟ‬

‫ﻤﺎ ﺎن‬

‫وﻌ‬

‫اﻟ ﺎ ﺔ ﻼﺴ أو أﺤﺎﺠﻲ‬

However, contrary to what he thought, there was nothing strange or bizarre about the copybook; it did not contain any magical words or riddles such as those found in the Book of the Dead.

192

Chapter Six

In the above example, to reflect the meaning of the lexical item ‫اﻟﻤﻮﺗﻰ‬ characterized by multiplexity as its quantity consists of more than one dead person, the translators have opted for the use of the noun phrase ‘the dead’ that triggers a cognitive operation of unbounding (for more details on unboundedness, see the previous section). Following are some examples: In some countries, life is very hard for the poor.

.‫ اﻟ ﺎة ﻗﺎﺴ ﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻔﻘ اء‬،‫ﻓﻲ ﻌ ِ اﻟ ﻠ ان‬ .‫ اﻟ ﺎة ﻻ ﺘ ﺤ ُ اﻟﻔﻘ اء‬،‫اﻟ ﻠ ان‬

‫ ﻓﻲ ﻌ‬:‫أو‬

The rich should pay more taxes.

. ‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷﻏ ﺎء أن ﯿ ﻓﻌ ا ﻀ اﺌ َ أﻛ‬ ... ‫ﯿ ﻌّ ﻋﻠﻰ‬/‫ ﯿ ﻐﻲ‬:‫أو‬ I like to help the disabled.

. ‫أﺤ ﱡ أن أﺴﺎﻋ َ )اﻷﺸ ﺎص( اﻟ ُ ﻌﺎﻗ‬ Yesterday, the doctors worked around the clock to help the injured in the crash.

ِ ‫ﻒ ﻟ ﺎﻋ ِة اﻟ ﺎﺒ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬ ٍ ‫دون ﺘ ّﻗ‬ ِ .‫ﺎدث‬ ‫ﺎء أﻤ ﻤ‬ ُ ُ ‫ﻋ َﻞ اﻷ‬ ِ ‫ ﻟ ﯿ ﻗﻒ اﻷ ﺎء ﯿ م أﻤ ﻋ ﻤ ﺎﻋ ِة اﻟ ﺎﺒ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬:‫أو‬ .‫ﺎدث‬ ّ ُ ُ

Differences … In Arabic, the definite article ‫ أل‬is used before places, such as ‘school’ ‫ﻣﺪرﺳﺔ‬, ‘hospital’ ‫ﻣﺴﺘﺸﻔﻰ‬, ‘college’ ‫ﻛﻠﯿّﺔ‬, ‘university’ ‫ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ‬, ‘prison’ ‫ﺳﺠﻦ‬, ‘jail’ ‫ﺳﺠﻦ‬, ‘office’ ‫ﻣﻜﺘﺐ‬, ‘work’ ‫ﻋﻤﻞ‬, ‘class’ ‫ﺻﻒ‬ ّ , ‘church’ ‫ﻛﻨﯿﺴﺔ‬, and the like in the following structures:

.‫ﻋﺎدة ﻤﺎ أذﻫ ُ إﻟﻰ اﻟ رﺴﺔ ﻤﻊ ﺼ ﻘﻲ ﻤ ًﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷﻗ ام‬ .ٍ‫ﻗ ﻞ أ ﺎم‬ ّ ‫ﺨ َج ﻤ اﻟ‬ .‫ إﻨﻪ ﻓﻲ ﻘﻪ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻌ ﻞ‬. ‫ﻞ اﻟ ّ ﻒ ﻌ‬ ‫ﻟ‬ In English, however, such words are used without the definite article when they are used for their primary purpose, and thus regarded as uncountable nouns as the emphasis is not put on the building. As such, the above sentences should be rendered as:

Translating Articles, Expressions of Quantity and Partitives

193

I usually go to school with my friend on foot. He got out of jail a few weeks ago. The official has not arrived yet. He is on his way to work. Now, let us try to translate the following sentences into English:

.‫ﺎﺤﺎ‬ ً ‫ﺼ‬

They may be translated into English as:

‫ذﻫ ُ إﻟﻰ اﻟ رﺴﺔ أﻤ‬ ‫ﱠ‬ .‫)إن( اﻟ رﺴﺔ ﺼﻐ ة‬

ِّ ‫ﺠ ﻊ اﻟ ّ ﻠ ِﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﱠ‬ .‫ﻒ‬ ُ ‫ﱠ‬ .‫ﻌ ً ا ﻤ ﻫ ﺎ‬ ‫)إن( اﻟ ﱠ ﻒ ﻟ‬

She went to school yesterday morning. The school is small. All the students are in class. The class is not far from here. Note that the definite article has to be used in the second sentence in each pair in order to be specific about the place in question. Further, in English the definite article ‘the’ is used before a superlative degree, as in: ‘the tallest’, ‘the cleverest’, ‘the most beautiful’, ‘the ugliest’, and so on. Following are some examples to show the differences that result from the number of syllables in the adjective being used: She bought the most expensive necklace in the shop. This building is the oldest building in the city. Ali is the tallest student in class. In translating superlative degrees into Arabic, they are normally formed using the ‘elative’ pattern, and so become ‫أﻏﻠﻰ‬, ‫أﻗﺪم‬, and ‫ أطﻮل‬followed by a singular noun without a definite article ‫ﻗﻼدة‬, ‫ﺑﻨﺎﯾﺔ‬, and ‫ طﺎﻟﺐ‬or plural nouns with or without a definite article, such as ‫ﻗﻼﺋﺪ‬/‫اﻟﻘﻼﺋﺪ‬, ‫ﺑﻨﺎﯾﺎت‬/‫اﻟﺒﻨﺎﯾﺎت‬, and ‫طﻠﺒﺔ‬/‫ اﻟﻄﻠﺒﺔ‬respectively as in:

ِ َ ‫ أو أﻏﻠﻰ ﻗﻼﺌ‬،‫ )أو أﻏﻠﻰ اﻟﻘﻼﺌ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻞ‬. ‫اﺸ ْت أﻏﻠﻰ ﻗﻼدة ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻞ أﻤ‬ (‫اﻟ ِﻞ‬ (‫ أو أﻗ ُم ﺒ ﺎ ﺎت اﻟ ﯿ ﺔ‬،‫ )أوأﻗ ُم اﻟ ﺎ ﺎت‬.‫ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﺎ ﺔ أﻗ ُم ﺒ ﺎ ﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﯿ ﺔ‬ ِ ‫أ ل ﺎﻟ ٍ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬ ِ ‫ أو أ ل ّﻼ ِب اﻟ‬،‫ )أو أ ل اﻟ ﻠ ﺔ‬.‫ﻒ )ﻫ ( ﻋﻠﻲ‬ (‫ﻒ‬ ّ ّ ُ ُ ُ ّ ٌ

194

Chapter Six

In English, to talk about the whole class of things rather than individuals, people may opt for either a plural countable noun or uncountable noun without any article, as in this example: Unlike wolves [in general], dogs [in general] are not dangerous animals. However, in Arabic, the definite article is used when referring to something in general, as in:

.‫ﻤ ٍذ‬

‫ ﱠ‬، ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺨﻼف اﻟ ﺌ‬ ‫ان ﻏ‬ ٌ ‫ﻓﺈن اﻟ ﻠ َ ﺤ‬

Translating a plural noun, for example, into a singular noun is an example of ‘intra-system shift’ to use Catford’s (1965) terminology. Here, although the lexical items ‫‘ ذﺋﺐ‬wolf’ and ‫‘ ﻛﻠﺐ‬dog’ are singular, they are characterized by multiplexity, that is, the quantity consists of more than one wolf and dog as they refer to the whole class of wolves and dogs respectively. To put this differently, in the above example the lexical items ‫‘ ذﺋﺐ‬wolf’ and ‫‘ ﻛﻠﺐ‬dog’ used in the singular form evoke in the mind of the hearer or reader a cognitive operation of unbounding, hence their multiplexity. Building on this, the above English sentence can be also rendered into:

.‫ﻤ ذ ﺔ‬

ِ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺨﻼف اﻟ‬ ‫ ﱠ‬،‫ﺌﺎب‬ ‫اﻨﺎت ﻏ‬ ٌ ‫ﻼب ﺤ‬ َ ‫ﻓﺈن اﻟ‬

To reinforce this point, let us consider the lexical item ‫‘ طﻼب‬students’ in the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫اﻟﺸﺒﺎك واﻟﺴﺎﺣﺔ‬ ‘The Window and the Courtyard’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 14-5):

: ‫ ﺴﺄﻟ‬.‫ة ﺼﺎرﻤﺔ‬ ..

‫ﺴ‬

‫ﺴ‬

‫ﻛ ْ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ رة ﺸ ًﺎ واﻟ ﻔ ْ إﻟ ﺎ ﺒ‬ ‫أﻤﻬﺎﺘ ﺎ ﺎ أوﻻد؟‬ ‫~ ﻟ ﺎذا ﻨ‬ ‫ﺴ‬

‫ﺴ‬

‫ ﺴ‬:‫زﻗ ق اﻟ ﻼب ﻤ ة واﺤ ة‬

‫ أﺼﻐ ْ إﻟﻲ ﺠ ً ا وﻋ ن اﻟ ﻼب ﺘ‬. ُ ‫ﻗ‬ ّ .‫ و ﺜ ن ﻟ ﺎ ﺴ ﻘﺎﻨ ﺎ اﻟ ﻠ ﻟﺔ‬،‫ن ﻟ ﺎ اﻟ ﻌﺎم‬ ،‫ ﻷﻨﻬ ﻟ ﻔﺎت‬، ‫~ ﺴ‬ :‫ﺒﻲ‬

She wrote something on the blackboard and, turning with a glare, asked: ~ “Children, why do we love our mothers? ” The children chirped in chorus: miss, miss, miss, miss, miss ... I stood up. She listened to me attentively, the children’s eyes fixed on me expectantly:

Translating Articles, Expressions of Quantity and Partitives

~

195

“Miss, because they are kind, they bring us food, and they wrap up our paralysed legs”.

As can be seen, the lexical item ‫‘ طﻼب‬students’ is used in the plural form. So, it is characterized by multiplexity, that is, the quantity consists of more than one student. However, in this text, it is bounded as it refers to the students of a particular class. Cognitively speaking, the lexical item ‫طﻼب‬ ‘students’ triggers a cognitive operation of portion excerpting. This has been taken into account when the translators have opted for the definite article ‘the’ in ‘the children’. However, the denotative meaning of ‘children’ is wider and less specific than its counterpart ‫‘ طﻼب‬students’ (as not all students are children). By contrast, as not all children are students, one may argue that the denotative meaning of the lexical item ‫‘ طﻼب‬students’ is wider and less specific than its counterpart ‘children’. Following are more examples along with their respective translations: Like men, women have the right to cast their votes in some countries. She often reads newspapers and magazines in the morning. Eating a lot of meat might be bad for your health. Life without work is boring. You have to drink water to avoid health problems.

ِ ‫ ﱡ ﻟﻠ‬،‫ان‬ ِ ‫ﻓﻲ ﻌ ِ اﻟ ﻠ‬ ‫أة أن ﺘُ ﻟﻲ‬ .‫ﻏﺎﻟ ﺎ ﻤﺎ ﺘﻘ أ اﻟ ّ ﻒ واﻟ ﻼت ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎح‬ ِ ‫ﱡ ﺎﻟ ّ ِﺔ أو‬ ‫أﻛﻞ اﻟﻠ مِ ﻗ‬ ‫اﻷﻛ ُﺎر ﻤ‬ .‫اﻟ ﺎ ُة ﺒﻼ ﻋ ٍﻞ ﻤ ّﻠ ٌﺔ‬ ِ ‫اﻟ ﺎﻛﻞ اﻟ ﱠ‬ ِ ِ .‫ﱠﺔ‬ َ ‫ﻋﻠ‬ َ ّ ‫ب اﻟ ﺎء ﻲ ﺘ‬ َ

.‫ِﺘﻬﺎ ﺸﺄﻨﻬﺎ ﺸﺄن اﻟ ﺠﻞ‬ .

Unlike English which uses no article, Arabic uses the definite article ‫أل‬ before: !

the names of days Saturday Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

‫اﻟﺴﺒﺖ‬ ‫اﻷﺣﺪ‬ ‫اﻷﺛﻨﯿﻦ‬ ‫اﻟﺜﻼﺛﺎء‬ ‫اﻷرﺑﻌﺎء‬ ‫اﻟﺨﻤﯿﺲ‬ ‫اﻟﺠﻤﻌﺔ‬

196

Chapter Six

!

the names of seasons: summer spring autumn/fall winter

!

‫اﻟﺼﯿﻒ‬ ‫اﻟﺮﺑﯿﻊ‬ ‫اﻟﺨﺮﯾﻒ‬ ‫اﻟﺸﺘﺎء‬

the names of some cities and countries: Basra Riyadh Doha Kuwait Algeria Morocco

‫اﻟﺒﺼﺮة‬ ‫اﻟﺮﯾﺎض‬ ‫اﻟﺪوﺣﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﻜﻮﯾﺖ‬ ‫اﻟﺠﺰاﺋﺮ‬ ‫اﻟﻤﻐﺮب‬

But note … Baghdad Muscat Damascus London Paris France Spain England

‫ﺑﻐﺪاد‬ ‫ﻣﺴﻘﻂ‬ ‫دﻣﺸﻖ‬ ‫ﻟﻨﺪن‬ ‫ﺑﺎرﯾﺲ‬ ‫ﻓﺮﻧﺴﺎ‬ ‫إﺳﺒﺎﻧﯿﺎ‬ ‫إﻧﻜﻠﺘﺮا‬

EX: Translate the following text titled ‘Women’s Liberation through Islam’ extracted from Mary Ali. (24.06.2013:www.islamreligion.com – Islam Religion Website), paying extra attention to the (in)definite articles and expressions of quantity used in the original text: In Islam, a woman has the basic freedoms of choice and expression based on recognition of her individual personality. First, a non-Muslim woman cannot be forced to convert for marriage, or upon the conversion of parents. The Quran states: “There is no compulsion in religion. Right has been made distinct from error” (Quran 2:256).

Translating Articles, Expressions of Quantity and Partitives

197

Women are encouraged in Islam to contribute their opinions and ideas. There are many traditions of the Prophet which indicate that women would pose questions directly to him and offer their opinions concerning religion, economics and social matters. A Muslim woman has full right to approve or deny a proposal of marriage, and her name is to be kept after marriage. A Muslim woman’s testimony is valid in legal disputes. In fact, where women are more familiar, their evidence is conclusive. !

The verb ‘to have’ in such a context is best rendered by verbs such as ‫ﺗﺗﻣﺗّﻊ‬, ‫ﺗﺣظﻰ‬, or just ‫ ﻟﮭﺎ‬instead of opting for the direct, straightforward translation, i.e. ‫ ﺗﻣﻠك‬or ‫ﻟدى‬.

!

“There is no compulsion in religion. Right has been made distinct from error” (Quran 2:256) is in Arabic

‫”ﻻ ِإ ْﻛ َ َاﻩ ِﻓﻲ اﻟ ِ ﯿ ِ ﻗ ﺘ ﱠ اﻟﱡﺸ ِﻤ‬ (2:256) “‫اﻟﻐ ِﻲ‬ ّ َ ْ ُ ْ َ ََ ْ َ ّ

!

The clause ‘there are many traditions of the Prophet’ can be domesticated, as in (‫وھﻧﺎك اﻟﻌدﯾد ﻣن اﻷﺣﺎدﯾث اﻟﻧﺑوﯾﺔ )اﻟﺷرﯾﻔﺔ‬.

!

The expression ‘woman’s testimony’ may be rendered as ‫ﺷﮭﺎدة‬ ‫اﻟﻣرأة‬.

!

The adjective ‘valid’ in such a context can be translated as ‫ﯾﺄﺧذ‬ ‫ﺑﮭﺎ‬, ‫ﯾﻌﻣل ﺑﮭﺎ‬, or ‫ﯾﻌﺗّد ﺑﮭﺎ‬.

2 Expressions of quantity & cognitive operations In any language, there are a number of words or expressions that can be used to signify number or amount. In English, for example, while words, such as ‘many’, ‘few’, ‘a few’, ‘most’, ‘several’, and ‘a number of’ are used before countable nouns, words like ‘much’, ‘little’, ‘a little’, and ‘a huge amount of’ are used before non-countable nouns. However, there are a number of words or expressions, such as ‘lots of’, ‘a lot of’, ‘a quantity of’, ‘some’, ‘any’, etc. which are used before both countable and noncountable nouns, as shown here:

‫‪Chapter Six‬‬

‫‪Non-countable nouns‬‬ ‫ﻛﺜﯿﺮ‪/‬اﻟﻜﺜﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ ‪much‬‬ ‫اﻟﻜﺜﯿﺮ )اﻟﻜﺜﯿﺮ( ﻣﻦ ‪too much‬‬ ‫ﻛﻤﯿّﺔ ﻛﺒﯿﺮة ﻣﻦ ‪a huge amount of‬‬ ‫ﻛﻤﯿّﺔ ﻛﺒﯿﺮة ﻣﻦ ‪a great deal of‬‬ ‫ﻛﻤﯿّﺔ ﻻ ﺑﺄس ﺑﮭﺎ ‪a good deal of‬‬ ‫ﻗﻠﯿﻞ‪/‬اﻟﻘﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻦ ‪a little‬‬ ‫ﻗﻠﯿﻞ ﺟﺪًا‪/‬اﻟﻘﻠﯿﻞ ﺟﺪًا‪/‬ﺑﺎﻟﻜﺎد ‪little‬‬ ‫ﻗﻠﯿﻞ‪/‬اﻟﻘﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻦ ‪a bit of‬‬ ‫ﺣﻔﻨﺔ ﻣﻦ‪/‬اﻟﻘﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻦ ‪a handful of‬‬ ‫ﺣﻔﻨﺔ ﻣﻦ‪/‬اﻟﻘﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻦ ‪a fistful of‬‬ ‫ﻟﻌﻘﺔ ﻣﻦ‪/‬ﻣﻠﻌﻘﺔ ﻣﻦ ‪a spoonful of‬‬ ‫ﻛﻮب ﻣﻦ ‪a cupful of‬‬ ‫أﻟـ … ‪Ø‬‬

‫‪198‬‬

‫‪Countable nouns‬‬ ‫ﻋﺪد‪/‬اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ ‪many‬‬ ‫اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ )اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ( ﻣﻦ ‪too many‬‬ ‫ﻋﺪد ﻣﻦ ‪a number of‬‬ ‫ﻋﺪد ﻗﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻦ ‪a small number of‬‬ ‫ﻋﺪد ﻛﺒﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ ‪a great number of‬‬ ‫ﻋﺪد ھﺎﺋﻞ ﻣﻦ ‪a huge number of‬‬ ‫أﻏﻠﺒﯿﺔ اﻟـ‪/‬اﻷﻏﻠﺒﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ ‪the/a majority of‬‬ ‫أﻗﻠﯿﺔ اﻟـ‪/‬اﻷﻗﻠﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ ‪the/a minority of‬‬ ‫ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ‪most‬‬ ‫ﺑﻀﻌﺔ‪/‬ﻋﺪد ﻣﻦ ‪several‬‬ ‫ﻗﻠﯿﻞ‪/‬اﻟﻘﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻦ ‪a few‬‬ ‫ﻗﻠﯿﻞ ﺟﺪًا‪/‬اﻟﻘﻠﯿﻞ ﺟﺪًا‪/‬ﺑﺎﻟﻜﺎد ‪few‬‬ ‫اﻟﺘﻨﻮﯾﻦ ‪a/an … nunation‬‬

‫اﻟﻜﺜﯿﺮ‪/‬اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ ‪a lot of‬‬ ‫اﻟﻜﺜﯿﺮ‪/‬اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ ‪lots of‬‬ ‫ﻣﺎ ﯾﻜﻔﻲ ‪enough‬‬ ‫ﻣﺎ ﻻ ﯾﻜﻔﻲ ‪not enough‬‬ ‫ﻣﺎ ﯾﻜﻔﻲ ﻧﻮﻋﺎ ﻣﺎ ‪quite enough‬‬ ‫اﻟﻜﺜﯿﺮ‪/‬اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ ‪plenty of‬‬ ‫ﻛﻤﯿّﺔ‪/‬ﻋﺪد‪/‬اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ ‪a quantity of‬‬ ‫ﻛﻤﯿّﺔ ﻛﺒﯿﺮة‪/‬ﻋﺪد ﻛﺒﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ ‪a big quantity of‬‬ ‫ﻛﻤﯿّﺔ ﺿﺨﻤﺔ‪/‬ﻋﺪد ھﺎﺋﻞ ﻣﻦ ‪a large quantity of‬‬ ‫ﻛﻤﯿّﺔ ﺿﺨﻤﺔ‪/‬ﻋﺪد ھﺎﺋﻞ ﻣﻦ ‪a huge quantity of‬‬ ‫ﻛﻤﯿّﺔ ﻗﻠﯿﻠﺔ‪/‬ﻋﺪد ﻗﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻦ ‪a small quantity of‬‬ ‫ﻛﻤﯿّﺔ ‪/‬ﻋﺪد‪/‬اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ ‪quantities of‬‬ ‫ﻛﻤﯿّﺔ ﻛﺒﯿﺮة‪/‬ﻋﺪد ﻛﺒﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ ‪big quantities of‬‬ ‫ﻛﻤﯿّﺔ ﻛﺒﯿﺮة‪/‬ﻋﺪد ﻛﺒﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ ‪large quantities of‬‬ ‫ﻛﻤﯿّﺔ ﻛﺒﯿﺮة‪/‬ﻋﺪد ﻛﺒﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ ‪huge quantities of‬‬ ‫ﻛﻤﯿّﺔ ﻗﻠﯿﻠﺔ‪/‬ﻋﺪد ﻗﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻦ ‪small quantities of‬‬ ‫ﺑﻌﺾ ‪some‬‬ ‫ي‪/‬أﯾّﺔ ‪any‬‬ ‫أ ّ‬ ‫أﻟـ ‪the‬‬

Translating Articles, Expressions of Quantity and Partitives

199

Note that ‘a quantity of’ or ‘quantities of’, which is most commonly used before countable and non-countable nouns that can be measured, is more formal than ‘a number of’ or ‘an amount of’. It is worth mentioning that in English some expressions of quantity are created by adding the suffix ‘–ful’ to a countable noun, as in ‘a handful of’ or ‘handfuls of’ referring to the amount held by a hand. Following are more examples: ™ ™ ™ ™ ™ ™ ™

mouth cup spoon jar pocketful tank sack

™ ™ ™ ™ ™ ™ ™

a mouthful of a cupful of a spoonful of a jarful of a pocketful of a tankful of a sackful of

arm glass fork plate spade room bag

an armful of a glassful of a forkful of a plateful of a spadeful of a roomful of a bagful of

As stated above, the nouns used in these expressions are countable nouns that can be pluralized in this way: ‘cupfuls of’ or ‘cupsful of’, ‘spoonfuls of’ or ‘spoonsful of’, etc. They are normally followed by a non-countable noun, but not always. To make this point clear, these three examples can be considered: My sister always takes a pocketful of tissues with her when she takes her kids out. While she took with her a bagful of shirts, he took a bagful of rice. Can you please add two cupfuls of milk to the mixture? Having introduced the main expressions of quantity (also known as ‘quantifiers’), let me now discuss the cognitive operations associated with them. To begin with, the countable noun ‫‘ ﻗﺼﺎﺻﺔ‬slip’ in the following example adapted from a short story titled ‫‘ ﻋﻠﻲ اﻷﺣﻤﺮ‬Ali the Red’ by Lu’aī Hamza Abbas (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 889) can be considered:

‫ﺔ‬ ‫ﺎ‬

‫ﺎﻗﺔ اﻷﺤ ال اﻟ‬

‫ ﺎﻨ‬،‫اﻟﻌ ﻟﻲ ﺴﻠ ﻨﻲ أﺸ ﺎءﻩ ﻗ ﻞ أن أر ﺠ ﻪ‬

... ‫ﻨﺎﯿﻠ ن ﺸﻔﺎف‬

‫ ﻓﻲ‬... ‫ﻗ ﺎﺼﺎت اﻟ رق‬

‫ وﻗ أت اﺴ ﻲ ورﻗ ﻫﺎﺘﻔﻲ‬،‫وﻀﻌﻪ اﻟ ﺠﻞ‬

‫ ﺤ‬،‫ة‬

‫وﺠﺎزة اﻟ ﺎﻗﺔ و ﻌ‬

‫ﻤ ﻓ ق اﻟ‬

.‫اﻟﻘ ﺎﺼﺎت ﻓﻲ زﺎرﺘﻪ اﻷﺨ ة‬

‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ﺤﻠ‬

‫دوﻨ ﻬ ﺎ ﻟﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ إﺤ‬

200

Chapter Six

As can be seen, the noun ‫ ﻗﺼﺎﺻﺔ‬is used twice in this example. To begin with the first one, the noun ‫‘ ﻗﺼﺎﺻﺔ‬slip’ is characterized by multiplexity, that is, the quantity consists of more than one slip as it is used in the plural form ‫ﻗﺼﺎﺻﺎت‬. Added to this, by the effect of ‫‘ ﺑﻌﺾ‬some’, the unbounded noun ‫‘ ﻗﺼﺎﺻﺎت‬slips’ becomes bounded ‫‘ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﻘﺼﺎﺻﺎت‬some slips’, thus triggering a cognitive operation of portion excerpting. In the second occurrence, ‫‘ إﺣﺪى اﻟﻘﺼﺎﺻﺎت‬one of the slips’ is characterized by uniplexity, that is, the quantity consists of one slip, and boundedness as it triggers a cognitive operation of portion excerpting. These characteristics have been reflected by the translators as follows: In forensic medicine, they gave me his belongings before I saw his body. They included identity card, driving license and some slips of paper … in a plastic transparent bag … I carried the bag from above the table, where the man had put it, and read my name and phone number as I had written them down to him on a slip during his last visit. To reinforce this, let us discuss the expression of quantity ‘the majority of’ in the following example extracted from Hans Küng’s Book ‘Islam: Past, Present and Future’ (cited in al-Shuraīqī 2016: 29): Here, however, it should not be overlooked that the majority of private and public financial operations in the Islamic sphere have followed Western patterns … In the above example, the lexical item ‘operation’ is used in the plural form, thus being characterized by multiplexity, that is, the quantity consists of more than one operation. In other words, a cognitive operation of unbounding is evoked here. However, by virtue of the expression of quantity ‘the majority of’, a cognitive operation of portion excerpting is evoked. Taking into account these characteristics and cognitive operations, the translator may suggest different versions. Below are two versions only. While version A is very close to the source text, version B is not: A

B

‫ ﯿ ﻐﻲ أﻻ ﻨ ﺎﻫﻞ أن ﻏﺎﻟ ﺔ اﻟﻌ ﻠ ﺎت اﻟ ﺎﻟ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎﺼﺔ واﻟﻌﺎﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺎﻟ‬،‫وﻫ ﺎ‬ ... ‫اﻷﻨ ﺎ اﻟﻐ ﺔ‬

‫ ﺴ اء‬،‫ﻤ اﻟﻌ ﻠ ﺎت اﻟ ﺎﻟ ﺔ‬ ... ‫اﻟﻐ ﻲ‬

‫اﻷﻛ‬

‫اﻻﻋ ﺎر أن اﻟﻘ‬

‫اﻹﺴﻼﻤﻲ ﻗ اﺘ ّﻌ‬

‫ ﯿ ﻐﻲ أن ﯿ ﺨ ﺒ‬،‫وﻫ ﺎ‬

‫ ﺘ ّﻊ اﻟ‬،‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺎﻟ اﻹﺴﻼﻤﻲ‬،‫اﻟ ﺎﺼﺔ ﻤ ﻬﺎ أم اﻟﻌﺎﻤﺔ‬

Translating Articles, Expressions of Quantity and Partitives

201

EX: Translate the following sentences into Arabic, paying extra attention to the expressions of quantity (highlighted for you): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

There is much interest in learning English around the world. How much money do you have? There isn’t much butter left in the refrigerator. Much time is spent on understanding math. How many students are there? There aren’t many books on that shelf. There are many people who use the computer every day. How many spoonfuls of sugar do you like in your tea? One-third of the students have graduate degrees. Half of what he writes is undocumented. Fifty percent of the job is routine. A majority of Canadians have voted for change. The majority of investors are interested in low-risk opportunities. A minority of the students are willing to pay more. We use a huge amount of paper in the office every day. A great number of students volunteer each year for environmental projects. I have a number of things I want to talk to you about. There are a large number of individuals who prefer to do banking online. A large number of our pupils continue their studies at university. There is a great deal of pressure to finish this project on time. There isn’t a great deal of time to finish this report. The soldiers discovered a large quantity of weapons hidden under the floor of a disused building. You only need a very small quantity of cement to mix with the sand. Large quantities of illegal drugs have been discovered. Aid workers have delivered huge quantities of food to the refugee camps. Most people enjoy listening to some type of music. There’s a large amount of work to be done on this project. There’s a lot of juice in this jug. There are lots of people who like chess. There are plenty of opportunities to learn online.

‫‪202‬‬

‫‪Chapter Six‬‬

‫‪Note that ‘many’, which is followed by a plural noun, can be replaced with‬‬ ‫‪‘many a/an’, which is used with a singular noun to refer to a number of‬‬ ‫‪things or people in formal style, as modelled here:‬‬

‫ﻌ‬

‫اﻟﻌ ﯿ ﻤ اﻟ ﺎﺤ‬

‫ﻋﻠﻰ ‪...‬‬ ‫‪Many researchers depend on grants from industry.‬‬

‫‪depends on grants from industry.‬‬

‫‪Many a researcher‬‬

‫‪multiplexity‬‬

‫‪EX: Translate the following sentences into English, paying extra attention‬‬ ‫‪ ‘nunation’:‬ﺗﻨﻮﯾﻦ ‪ and‬أل ‪to the translation of the definite article‬‬

‫‪ .1‬ﺸﺎﻫ ُت رﺠﻼً ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎرِع‬ ‫و ُﻞ ﻋ ًدا ﻤ اﻷﻛ ﺎس‪.‬‬ ‫‪.2‬‬ ‫‪.3‬‬ ‫‪.4‬‬ ‫‪.5‬‬ ‫‪.6‬‬

‫ﻗ ً ﺎ أﺒ‬

‫ﻬ َ ‪ .‬ﺎن ﯿ ﺘ‬

‫و ﺎﻻً أﺴ د‬

‫ِ‬ ‫ﺎﺤﻪ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻬ اﻟ ﻘ ﻞ‪ ،‬ﻟ‬ ‫ﺼّح وز ُ اﻟ ﺎﻟ ﺔ أن اﻟ‬ ‫ف‪ ،‬اﻟ ﺴ ّ اﻓ ُ‬ ‫َ‬ ‫ٍ‬ ‫ﺎرف إﺴﻼﻤ ٍﺔ ﺨﺎرﺠ ٍﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻋﻼﻗﺎت ﻤﻊ ﻤ‬ ‫ﯿ دد ﻓﻲ إﻗﺎﻤﺔ‬ ‫َ‬ ‫دﺨﻞ ﺒ ٍ‬ ‫إﻟﻰ إ ِﺎد ﻤ ﺎدر ٍ‬ ‫ﺎرﻊ ﺘ ﺔ‬ ‫ﯿﻠﺔ ﻹﻨﻔﺎﻗﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻤ‬ ‫ﺘ ﻌﻰ دوﻟﺔ اﻟ‬ ‫َ‬ ‫َ‬ ‫ِ‬ ‫ﻔﺎض ﻋﺎﺌ ات اﻟ ﻔ ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻊ ﻓﻲ ﻀ ء ِاﻨ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫ٍ‬ ‫ات اﻷﻤ ِ ﺒ ِّ‬ ‫ﺎﻟ ِﺎء‪.‬‬ ‫ش اﻟ ﺎﻫ‬ ‫ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﺎوﻟﺔ ﻟ ﻔ ِ اﻟ ﺎﻫ ‪ ،‬ﻗﺎﻤ ﻗ ُ‬ ‫ﻌ ُ ﻌ ٍد ﻤ اﻟ ِ‬ ‫ﺴﺎﺌﻞ إﻟﻰ ﻌ ِ اﻟ ﺎﻤﻌﺎت ﺎﻟًﺎ أ ﺎﻫ أن ﯿ ودوﻨﻲ ﺄﺴ ﺎء‬ ‫ٍ‬ ‫ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻠ ﻲ‪.‬‬ ‫اﻟ ﻓ ‪ ،‬وﻟ ﻟ ﺘ د أّ ُﺔ‬ ‫ِ‬ ‫ﻟ ﯿ َ ﻋ ﻨﺎ إﻻ اﻟﻘﻠ ﻞ ﻤ اﻟ ّ ‪ .‬ﻫﻞ ﺘ ّ م وﺘ ﻫ َ إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﻘﺎﻟﺔ ﻟ ﻠ َ ﻟ ﺎ‬

‫رﺠﺎء‪.‬‬ ‫ﻛ ً ﺎ ﻤ اﻟ ّ ِ ‪،‬‬ ‫ً‬ ‫ُﺔ اﻟﻘ َ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋ ٍد ﻤ‬ ‫‪ .7‬أﻟﻘ ْ اﻟ‬ ‫اﻟ ﻔ ّ ات‪.‬‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ﻤ‬

‫و‬

‫زﺘﻬ‬

‫ﺔ‬

‫‪ .8‬ﻟ ﺘ ّ ﻗﻒ اﻟ ﺎة ﻫ ﺎ‪ ،‬ﻓﻬ ﺎﻟ اﻟﻌ ﯿ ﻤ ﻓ ص اﻟﻌ ﻞ‪ ،‬ﺼّ ﻗ ﻲ‪ .‬ﻤﺎ ﻋﻠ‬ ‫أن ﺘُ ﺎ ﻊ إﻋﻼﻨﺎت اﻟ ﻒ‪.‬‬

‫ة ﻤ‬ ‫إﻻ‬

Translating Articles, Expressions of Quantity and Partitives

203

3 Partitives & state of dividedness In addition to words and expressions of quantity (discussed in the previous lesson), language users may find the need to put what are called in grammar ‘Partitives’ before nouns to indicate a part or quantity of something. While dealing with partitives, extra attention needs to be paid to the collocation of these words. For instance, in Arabic we say

... ‫ ﻋ ُق ﻤ ٍز‬، ٍ ‫ ﻋ ﻘ ُد ﻋ‬،‫ ﺎﻗ ُﺔ ورٍد‬،‫رزﻤ ُﺔ ﻤﻔﺎﺘ َﺢ‬

However, in English we use the word ‘bunch’ that happens to collocate well with all of ‘keys’, ‘flowers’, ‘grapes’, and ‘bananas’, as in:

‫رزﻣﺔ‬ a bunch of keys a bunch of flowers

‫ﺑﺎﻗﺔ‬

bunch

‫ﻋﻨﻘﻮد‬

a bunch of grapes

‫ﻋﺬق‬

a bunch of bananas

This is an example of ‘translation by a hyperonym’ (also called ‘generalizing translation’ by Dickins and his associates 2002 or ‘convergence’ by Malone 1988). It is a translation where the denotative meaning of the lexical item employed in the source text is narrower and more specific than that of the lexical item utilized in the target text (Almanna 2016a: 66, 2016b: 114). Further, the word ‘bunch’ can also be used of groups of people, often in a pejorative sense, as in a bunch of idiots a bunch of criminals When we talk about liquids, partitives such as ‘a litre of’ or ‘a gallon of’ can be used before a noun which is a liquid. a litre of + liquid a gallon of + liquid

... ‫ﻤ‬

‫ﻟ‬

... ‫ﻏﺎﻟ ن ﻤ‬

Note that in the UK, USA, Canada, and some other places the liquid measure ‘pint’ is also used, as in ‘a pint of beer’.

204

Chapter Six

Similarly, when we talk about something that can be measured by weight, partitives such as ‘a ton of’, ‘a gram of’, or ‘a pound of’ can be used, as in: a ton of + a noun …

... ‫ﻤ‬

a gram of + a noun …

... ‫ﻏ ام ﻤ‬

a pound of + a noun …

... ‫ر ﻞ ﻤ‬

Further, partitives such as ‘a bottle of’, ‘a can of’, ‘a glass of’, ‘a cup of’, ‘a mug of’, and the like can be applied to different types of liquids that come in these containers, as in: a bottle of water a bottle of milk a bottle of Pepsi

ٍ ‫زﺠﺎﺠﺔ‬/‫ﻗ ﺔ‬ ‫ﻤﺎء‬

ٍ ‫زﺠﺎﺠﺔ ﺤﻠ‬/‫ﻗ ﺔ‬ ‫ﻲ‬

‫زﺠﺎﺠﺔ ﺒ‬/‫ﻗ ﺔ‬ ‫ﻲ‬

a can of Pepsi

‫ﻋﻠ ﺔ ﺒ‬

‫ﻋﻠ ﺔ ردﺒ ل‬

a can of Red Bull

It is worth noting that ‘a can of worms’ is not literal, but a figurative expression that means a complex unexpected problem, an intertwined set of problems or unsolvable dilemma. Building on this, let us pore over the meaning of these two sentences: Actually, when I brought it up, I opened a can of worms. His political scandal is a can of worms. a glass of water

ٍ

a glass of juice

ٍ ‫ﻗح‬ ‫ﻤﺎء‬

‫ﻛﺄس ﻋ‬

ٍ ‫ﻛ ب ﺸﺎ‬

a cup of tea a cup of coffee

‫ﻓ ﺎن ﻗﻬ ٍة‬

a cup of latte

‫ﻛ ب ﻻﺘ ﻪ‬

a mug of cappuccino a cup of espresso

‫و‬

‫ﻛب‬

‫ﻛ ب إﺴ‬

Translating Articles, Expressions of Quantity and Partitives

205

Note that drinks mixed in specific proportions, e.g. ‘a latte’ or ‘a cappuccino’ which are made to a recipe, are usually countable, as in: a (mug of) cappuccino

‫و‬

a (cup of) espresso

‫ﻛب‬

‫ﻛ ب إﺴ‬

Closely related to the use of partitives is the state of dividedness, that is, “a quantity’s internal segmentation” (Talmy 2000: 55). According to Talmy (ibid.), a quantity can be either ‘discrete’ (i.e. having distinct or unconnected elements through its composition) or ‘continuous’ (i.e. having connected elements through its composition). To illustrate, let us consider the lexical item ‫‘ ﺷﺎي‬tea’ in the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ راﺋﺤﺔ اﻟﺸﺘﺎء‬The Scent of Winter’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 967):

‫ﻤ ﻪ راﺌ ﺔ‬

‫ة‬

‫دﺨﻠ أﺨ ﻲ اﻟﻐ ﻓﺔ ﺘ ﻞ ﺼ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎ وﻫﻲ ﺘ ﺘ ﺜ ًﺎ ﻤ اﻟ ﺎزة ﺘ ﻌ‬ ‫ر اﻟ ﺎرج ﺒ‬ ‫ ﺘ ﺎول ﺴﻠ ﺎن اﺴ ﺎن اﻟ ﺎ وﺸ ﻪ دﻓﻌﻪ واﺤ ة وﻫ‬. ‫اﻟ ﻔ ﺎﻟ‬

.‫ﻋ م ارﺘ ﺎح‬

My sister came in the room carrying the tea tray, dressed in a baza gown that smelled of moth-balls. Salman took the cup of tea and drank it down in one gulp, looking outside uncomfortably. As one may observe, the lexical item ‫‘ ﺷﺎي‬tea’, which is internally discrete as it is conceptualized as consisting of distinct and unconnected elements through its composition, becomes internally continuous by virtue of the lexical item ‫‘ اﺳﺘﻜﺎن‬cup’. Further, by the effect of the phrase ‫‘ دﻓﻌﺔ واﺣﺪة‬one gulp’, the act of drinking is characterized by uniplexity, that is, the quantity consists of one gulp. Had the writer opted for a different grammatical form, such as

... ‫ب‬

‫ﺘ ﺎول ﺴﻠ ﺎن اﺴ ﺎن اﻟ ﺎ وراح‬

he would have imposed different specifications on the scene where the act of drinking is drawn out over a period of time, thus characterizing the act of drinking by multiplexity as its quantity consists of more than one element/sip.

206

Chapter Six

In English, for example, while we use ‘a slice of’ before nouns such as ‘cake’, ‘pizza’, ‘pie’, and ‘meat’, the partitive ‘head’ before ‘lettuce’, ‘cabbage’, and ‘cauliflower’, the partitive ‘a loaf of’ is used before ‘bread’, and ‘a fillet of’ before ‘meat’ or ‘fish’ as in:

‫ﻗ ﻌﺔ‬

a slice of cake a slice of pizza

‫ﻗ ﻌﺔ ﺒ ا‬ ‫ة‬

a slice of pie

‫ﻗ ﻌﺔ ﻟ‬

a slice of meat

‫ﺔﻟ‬

a fillet of meat (e.g. beef) a loaf of bread

a head of onion a clove of garlic an ear of corn

‫ﺸ‬

ٍ ‫رﻏ ﻒ ﺨ‬ ‫رأس ﺨ‬

a head of lettuce a head of cabbage

‫ﻓ‬

‫رأس ﻟﻬﺎﻨﺔ‬

‫ﻞ‬

‫رأس‬

‫ﺜم‬

‫ﻓ‬

‫ﻋ ﻨ س ذرة‬

‫ز ذرة‬

:‫أو‬

Further, there are a number of partitives that can be used to refer to the shape, size, movement, or the amount of something: a bit of fun a cloud of smoke a drop of blood a lock of hair a piece of land a piece of fruit a piece of paper a piece of furniture

‫ﻗﻠ ٌﻞ ﻤ اﻟ ح‬ ٍ ‫دﺨﺎن‬ ُ ‫ﺨ‬ ‫ﻗ ةُ د ٍم‬ ٍ ‫ﺨ ﻠ ُﺔ ﺸﻌ‬

ٍ ‫أرض‬ ‫ﻗ ﻌ ُﺔ‬ ‫ﻓ اﻛﻪ‬/‫ﻓﺎﻛﻬﺔ‬ ‫أوراق‬/‫ورﻗﺔ‬

‫ﻗ ﻌ ُﺔ أﺜﺎث‬

Translating Articles, Expressions of Quantity and Partitives

‫ﻨ ﺎﺌﺢ‬/‫ﺔ‬

a piece/word of advice

a jar of honey

ٍ ‫زﺨ ُﺔ ﻤ‬ ‫ﻋ ٌﻞ أدﺒﻲ‬

a shower of rain a work of literature

‫ﻟ ﺤ ٌﺔ ﻓ ﺔ‬ ٍ ‫ﻀ ُﺔ ﺤ‬

a work of art a stroke of luck

ٍ ‫ ّ ُﺔ ﻋ‬/‫رﺸ ُﺔ‬ ٍ ‫ذرةُ ﺘ‬ ‫اب‬ ّ

a dab of perfume a speck of dust a sense of humour a glimmer of hope a sign of respect an article of faith

a fit of anger a pang of guilt a pang of pain a pang of hunger a scrap of evidence a scrap of difference a scrap of food a scrap of truth

‫ﻨ‬

‫أﺨ ﺎر‬/ ٌ ‫ﺨ‬ ‫ﻗ ﺸ ُﺔ ﻋ ٍﻞ‬

an item of news

a spot of bother

207

ٍ

‫رو ُح اﻟ ﻋﺎ ﺔ‬ ٍ ‫أﻤﻞ‬ ُ ‫ﻋﻼﻤ ُﺔ اﺤ ا ٍم‬ ِ ‫ﻘﺎد راﺴﺦ‬ ٌ ‫اﻋ‬ ‫ﺤﺎﻟ ُﺔ ِاﻨ ﻋﺎج‬ ‫ﺤﺎﻟ ُﺔ ﻏ‬/‫ﻨ ُﺔ‬ ‫ﺸﻌ ٌر ﺎﻟ ﻨ‬

‫ﺸﻌ ٌر ﺎﻷﻟ‬/ٌ‫وﺨ ة‬ ‫ﺸﻌ ٌر ﺎﻟ ع‬

‫أ ﱡ دﻟ ﻞ‬ ‫أ ﱡ ِاﺨ ﻼف‬

‫ ﻓ ﻼت‬،‫ﻘﺎ ﺎ ﻌﺎم‬

/‫ذرةُ ﻤ اﻟ ّ ق‬ ّ ٍ‫ﻋﺎر ﻤ اﻟ ﺔ‬ ٍ ّ

Note that the word ‘scrap’ as a verb means ‘to get rid of something’, thus lending itself to ‫ﯾﺘﺨﻠﺺ ﻣﻦ‬. However, as a noun the word ‘scrap’ means: a. a small piece or amount of something, such as ‘paper’, ‘food’, etc. thus lending itself to ‫ﻗﺼﺎﺻﺔ‬, ‫ﻧﺘﻔﺔ‬, ‫ﻗﻄﻌﺔ‬, ‫ﺑﻘﺎﯾﺎ‬, ‫ﻓﻀﻼت‬, and so

208

Chapter Six

b.

forth. Metaphorically, native speakers also say ‘a scrap of truth’. Note, however, that this word is generally used with negative structures and in a negative sense, as for example in: ‘There isn’t a single scrap of truth (or evidence) in these latest allegations’. something that you do not want any more, but that is made of material that can be used again, for example the body of a vehicle, thus translatable as ‫ ﺧﺮدة‬or in some countries ‫ ِﺳﻜﺮاب‬. Building on this, let us pore over the meaning of these two sentences:

It is better to scrap this idea (meaning it is better to get rid of this idea). There is not a scrap of truth in what he has just asserted. To conclude this section, let us consider the lexical items ‫‘ أﻟﻢ‬pain’ and ‫‘ ﺷﻔﻘﺔ‬compassion’ in the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﻘﻄﺎر اﻟﺼﺎﻋﺪ إﻟﻰ ﺑﻐﺪاد‬The Train Heading up to Baghdad’ by Mahmūd ’Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Pragnell and Sadkhan 2011: 14-5):

‫ﻲ وأﺨ ﻲ‬

‫ﻨ‬

‫ﻨﻲ ﺸﻲء ﻤ اﻷﻟ واﻟ ﻔﻘﺔ ﻋ ﻤﺎ ﺘ ّ ت أﻨﻲ ﺘ ﻬﺎ ﻋ‬ ... ‫ﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ زوﺠﻬﺎ‬

‫اﻋ‬ ‫اﻟ‬

As can be seen, the lexical items ‫‘ أﻟﻢ‬pain’ and ‫‘ ﺷﻔﻘﺔ‬compassion’ are characterized by both uniplexity and boundedness. However, by the effect of the lexical item ‫ ﺷﻲء‬in ‫ ﺷﻲء ﻣﻦ اﻷﻟﻢ واﻟﺸﻔﻘﺔ‬a cognitive operation of portion excerpting is evoked in the mind of the hearer or reader. Being fully aware of this, the translators have opted for ‘a sense of’: A sense of pain and compassion came over me when I recalled that I had left her with my brother-in-law and sister, devoted to her husband. EX: Translate the following sentences into Arabic, paying special attention to the partitives highlighted for you: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Don’t you think that their house is a work of art? In a fit of anger, I used some words that I shouldn’t have. There are some drops of blood on the carpet. Are you okay, honey? I’m in a spot of bother because I can’t find my office key. I’ll give you a bar of chocolate if you behave yourself. Whether you write a letter to them or not, it won’t make a scrap of difference. So, don’t waste your time.

Translating Articles, Expressions of Quantity and Partitives

209

7.

Don’t worry. There isn’t a scrap of evidence to prove that he’s done it. 8. As they have no children, it is difficult to find a speck of dust in their home. 9. Have you realized that he lacks a sense of humour? 10. Yesterday, the teacher’s words gave us a glimmer of hope.

4 Revision EX 1: Correct the following sentences and then translate them into Arabic. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

This ring is made of the gold. He does not have many money. We do not have a big quantities of rooms in our house. The company exports great number of its products. My grandfather has a great deal of houses. Only little teachers in our department speak more than two languages. I have a little time to finish report, but I’ll send it to you tomorrow. Government has spent great amount of money on the schools.

EX 2: Identify any cognitive operation triggered by the effect of lexical items utilized in the following text. Then, translate it into English, paying extra attention to the translation of the definite article ‫ أل‬and ‫‘ ﺗﻨﻮﯾﻦ‬nunation’:

‫ﺄﻛﻞ ﺎﻟ ّ ِﺔ‬ ُ ‫ﺴﻲ و‬ ٍّ

‫ﻠ ُ ﻋﻠﻰ‬

.‫اﻗﻌﺎ‬ ً ‫َﺢ و‬

.‫ وﺤﻠ ٌ ﯿ ﻸﻷ ﻓﻲ ﻋ ﻬﺎ‬،‫و ﻔﻼن‬ ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻏ ﻤ إﻨﻪ ﺘﻌّﻠ ﻒ‬،‫ﻨﺎﻀ ٍﺞ‬ .‫اﻟ ﻔﺎ ﺎت‬

،ٌ‫ واِﻤ أة‬،‫رﺠﻞ‬ ٌ ُ ‫ﻤ ٌﻊ ﻏ‬

‫ إﻻ إﻨﻪ ﻻﯿ ال ﯿ ﺘ‬، ِ ّ ‫واﻟ‬ ِ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ‬ .‫ﺠﻞ أن ﻘّ َر‬ ّ

‫ اُﻗ ﻞ اﻟ ﻠ َ ﻓﻲ ﻋ ﻬﺎ ﻗ َﻞ أن‬..‫ اُﻗ ﻠﻪ‬:‫ُﻊ أﺼ اﺘﻬ ﺘ ﺎد ﻪ‬ .‫ﱡ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ّﻠِ ِﻪ اﻟ ﺎت‬ ‫ﺤُﻠ ﻬﺎ‬

... ‫ﺎﺼ ُﻩُ ﺴ ٌﻞ ﻤ اﻟ ّ ﻛ ﺎت‬ ‫ع أﻫَﻠ ُﻪ‬ َ ‫ك ﺒﻠ َ ﻩُ ﺨﻠ ًﺔ ﻤ دون أن ﯿ ّد‬ َ ‫ ﯿ ّ ُ ﻒ ﺘ‬،‫ﻐ ُ ﻋ ﻪ‬ ‫ﯿ ّ ُ ﻒ ﺴﺎﻟ ْ دﻤﻌ ُ ُﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺨِّ ِﻩ‬

210

Chapter Six

... ُ ّ ‫ﯿ‬ . ‫ ﻘ ُر أن ﯿ أ ﻤ ﻬ و ﻋﻰ اﻟ ﻠ‬. ُ ‫ﻔ‬ !

The verb ‫ ﯾﺘﻸﻷ‬can be translated as ‘to glitter’, ‘to glimmer’, and the like.

!

The expression ‫ ﻏﯿﺮ ﻧﺎﺿﺞ‬is here equivalent to the adjective ‘immature’.

!

The word ‫ ﻛﯿﻒ‬here which is followed by a verb, such as ‫ﯾﺠﻠﺲ‬, ‫ﯾﺄﻛﻞ‬, ‫ﺗﺮك‬, ‫ﺳﺎل‬, and so forth, has the meaning in English of ‘how to + Verb 1’.

!

Attention should be paid to the translation of ‫ إﻻ‬،... ‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ‬ ... ‫إﻧﮫ‬. In English, the connector ‘although’ or ‘though’ is not used with ‘but’ or ‘however’ in the same sentence. The translator must use only one connector.

!

‫ ﺑﺎﻟﺸﻮﻛﺔ واﻟﺴّﻜﯿﻦ‬may be rendered as ‘with knife and fork’ in English.

!

The word ‫ﺣﻔﺎظ‬, which can be translated as ‘nappy’ (also ‘diaper’ in American English), collocates well with verbs, such as ‘wear’, ‘put on’, ‘change’, ‘remove’, ‘take off’, etc.

!

‫ ﯾﺼﺒﺢ واﻗﻌًﺎ‬here means ‘to come true’. ّ The verb ‫ﯾﺴﺘﺤﺚ‬ could be rendered in English by such words as

!

‘to invoke’, ‘to stir’, ‘to prompt’, and ‘to summon up’ as they all collocate well with ‘memories’ ‫ذﻛﺮﯾﺎت‬.

!

As for the metaphor ‫ﯾﺤﺎﺻﺮه ﺳﯿ ٌﻞ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺬﻛﺮﯾﺎت‬ , it can be translated ُ idiomatically as ‘memories came flooding back’ or ‘memories welled up within him’ – ‘to well up’ can be used figuratively for emotions, tears, memories, etc., rising to the surface/spilling over inside a person’s being.

!

The verb ‫ﯾﺴﯿﻞ‬/َ‫ ﺳﺎل‬in this context can be translated as ‘to roll down (his cheeks)’ or ‘to stream down (his cheeks)’.

!

The verb ‫ﯾﺴﺘﻔﯿﻖ‬/‫ اﺳﺘﻔﺎق‬here can be translated as ‘to come to’ or ‘to come to his senses’.

!

The verb ‫ﯾﺘﺒﺮأ‬, which is normally translated in a political context

Translating Articles, Expressions of Quantity and Partitives

211

as ‘to disavow’, means ‫ﺼﻞ‬ ّ ‫ﯾﺘﻨ‬, ‫ ﯾُﻌﻠﻦ ﺑﺮاءﺗﮫ‬or simply ‫ﯾﺘﺠﺎھﻞ‬ ‫أﺻﻮاﺗﮭﻢ‬, so here it can be translated as ‘to turn a deaf ear to…’. The expression ‘to wash his hands of …’, which traditionally in English suggests a declaration of personal innocence or disavowal, can be used here. EX 3: Instructors: evaluate with your students the translation of the following text titled ‘Social Rights’ by Mary Ali (www.islamreligion.com) translated into Arabic by al-‘Abrī (final year project 2015), paying extra attention to the linguistic differences between the two languages in terms of using articles:

‫اﻟ ﻘ ق اﻻﺠ ﺎﻋ ﺔ‬

Social Rights The Prophet said: “Seeking knowledge is a mandate for every Muslim (male and female)”. (AtTirmidhi) This includes knowledge of the Qur’an and the Hadeeth as well as other types of knowledge. Men and women both have the capacity for learning and understanding. Since it is also their obligation to promote good behavior and condemn bad behavior in all spheres of life. Muslim women must acquire the appropriate education to perform this duty in accordance with their own natural talents and interests. While bearing, raising teaching of children, providing support to husband and maintenance

and and her of a

‫ٌﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ِﻞ ﻤ ﻠ ٍ(( رواﻩ‬

:‫ﻗﺎل رﺴ ل ﷲ‬

‫)) ﻠ ُ اﻟﻌﻠ ِ ﻓ‬ . ‫اﻟ ﻤ‬

ِ ‫آن واﻟ ﯿ‬ ِ ‫ﺎﻟﻘ‬

‫وﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﻌ ﻓﺔ ﺘ ﻞ اﻟﻌﻠ‬ ِ ‫ ﻓﺎﻟ ﺠﺎل‬. ‫ﺎﻹﻀﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﻰ اﻟﻌﻠ ِم اﻻﺨ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ٍ ‫واﻟ ﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ ﺤ ﺴ اء ﻟ ﯿﻬ اﻟﻘ رة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻌّﻠ‬

‫ وﻤ واﺠ ﺎﺘﻬ ﺘ ﺔ اﻟ ﻠ ﺎت اﻟ ّ ة‬. ‫واﻟﻔﻬ‬ .‫اﻟ ﻠ ﺎت ﻏ اﻟ ﻏ ب ﻓ ﻬﺎ‬ ‫وﺘ‬ ‫اﻟ ﺎﺴ‬

‫أداء‬

‫و‬

ّ ‫ﻓﻲ ﺠ ﻊ ﻤ ﺎﻻت اﻟ ﺎة ﻟ‬ ‫واﺠ ﺎﺘﻬﺎ وﻓﻘﺎً ﻟ اﻫ ﻬﺎ اﻟﻔ ﺔ وﻤ ﺎﻟ ﻬﺎ‬ .‫اﻟ ﺎﺼﺔ‬ ،‫اﻻﺒ ﺎء‬

‫ﻤ‬

‫أن ﺘ ﺎل اﻟ أة اﻟ ﻠ ﺔ اﻟ ﻌﻠ‬

‫ وﺘ ر‬،‫ﺔ‬

‫ واﻟ‬،‫و ﺎ أن اﻟ ﻀﻊ‬

‫ واﻟ ﺎﻓ ﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ل ﻫﻲ ﻤ‬،‫ودﻋ اﻟ وج‬

212

Chapter Six

home are among the first, and very highly regarded, roles for a woman, if she has the skills to work outside the home for the good of the community, she may do, so as long as her family obligations are met. Islam recognizes and fosters the natural differences between men and women despite their equality. Some types of work are more suitable for men and other types for women. This in no way diminishes either’s efforts or benefits. God will reward both sexes equally for the value of their work, though it may not necessarily be the same activity.

‫ ﱠ‬،‫اﻷوﻟ ﺎت اﻟ ﻬ ﺔ اﻟ ﻲ ﺘﻘ م ﺒﻬﺎ اﻟ أة‬ ‫ﻓﺈن‬ ‫اﻹﺴﻼم ﻻ ﺎﻨﻊ ﻤ ﻋ ﻠِﻬﺎ ﺨﺎرج اﻟ‬ ‫ﺎن ﻟ ﯿﻬﺎ اﻟﻘ رة ﻓﻲ‬

‫ﻊ اذا‬

‫ﻠ ﺔ اﻟ‬

‫ﻟ‬

.‫اﻟ اﻓﻘﺔ ﻤﻊ واﺠ ﺎﺘﻬﺎ اﻟ ﻟ ﺔ‬

‫ﻌﺔ ﺒ‬

‫اﻹﺴﻼم ﯿ رك و اﻋﻲ اﻟﻔ وق اﻟ‬

، ‫اﻟ ﺎواة ﺒ ﻬ‬ ‫ﻤﻼءﻤﺔ ﻟﻠ ﺠﺎل‬

‫ﻤ‬

‫اﻟ ﺠﺎل واﻟ ﺎء ﺎﻟ ﻏ‬

‫اﻷﻋ ﺎل ﺘ ن أﻛ‬

‫ وﻫ ا ﻻ ﻘﻠﻞ ﻤ ﺠﻬ‬.‫اﻷﺨ ﻟﻠ ﺎء‬

‫ﻓﻌ‬

‫واﻟ ﻌ‬

‫ وﺴ ﺢ ﷲ ﻠ ﻬ ﺎ اﻷﺠ‬،‫وﻨﻔﻊ ﻼ ﻤ ﻬ ﺎ‬

‫ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻏ ﻤ أﻨﻪ ﻗ ﻻ‬، ‫اﻟ ﺎو ﻷﻋ ﺎﻟﻬ‬ .‫اﻟﻌ ﻞ‬

‫ورة ﻨﻔ‬

‫ن ﺎﻟ‬

CHAPTER SEVEN TRANSLATING MODALITY In order for the language users (be they writers or speakers) to express their own attitudes, opinions, or moods towards what happens in the world or towards the truth of an utterance, they need to heavily rely on modality. Modality is a concept used widely in a direct link with such notions as obligation (be it moral or social), necessity, lack of necessity, prohibition, advisability, expectation, lost opportunities, possibility, ability, lack of ability, permission, futurity, polite requests, and preference. Following are some commonly used modalities in Arabic and English (adapted from Almanna 2016b: 87-94).

1 Modal verbs & more Obligation & necessity English

Arabic

must, have to, should

،‫ ﻤ اﻟ ﻔ وض‬،‫ ُﻔ ض‬، ّ‫ ﯿ ﻌ‬،‫ ﯿ ﻐﻲ‬، ‫ ﯿ ّﺠ‬، ‫ ﻤ اﻟ اﺠ‬،‫ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫ ﺎن‬،‫ ﺎن ﯿ ﻐﻲ‬، ّ‫ ﺎن ﯿ ﻌ‬، ‫ ﺎن ﯿ ّﺠ‬، ‫ﻛﺎن‬ ‫ ﺎن ﻤ‬،‫ـﻬﺎ‬/‫ـﻪ‬/‫ ﺎن ﻋﻠﻲ‬،‫ ﺎن ﻤ اﻟ ﻔ وض‬،‫ﻔ ض‬ ّ ‫اﻟ اﺠ‬

had to

‫ﯾﺠﺐ‬/‫ﯾﺘﻮﺟّﺐ‬/‫ﯾﺘﻌﯿّﻦ‬/‫ﯾﻔﺘﺮض‬/‫ﻋﻠﯿﻚ‬

e.g. You have to hours before the flight. e.g.

I

haven’t

visited

my

be at the airport at least three

family

for

six

months.

I

must

‫ﯾﺠﺐ‬/‫ﯾﺘﻮﺟّﺐ‬/‫ﯾﺘﻌﯿّﻦ‬/‫ﯾﻔﺘﺮض‬/‫ﻲ‬ ّ ‫ ﻋﻠ‬visit them soon. ‫ﯾﺠﺐ‬/‫ﯾﺘﻮﺟّﺐ‬/‫ﯾﺘﻌﯿّﻦ‬/‫ﯾﻔﺘﺮض‬/‫ﻋﻠﯿﮭﺎ‬

e.g. Her doctor told her that she had to smoking or she would risk serious problems.

stop

214

Chapter Seven

e.g. All invigilators have to before the exam starts.

‫ﯾﺠﺐ‬/‫ﯾﺘﻮﺟّﺐ‬/‫ﯾﺘﻌﯿّﻦ‬/‫ﯾﻔﺘﺮض‬/‫ﻋﻠﻰ‬

be there 30 minutes

Lack of necessity & prohibition English

Arabic

must not, do not have to, can’t

‫ ﻟ‬،‫ ﻻ داﻋﻲ ﻟـ‬،‫ ﻻ ﺤﺎﺠﺔ إﻟﻰ‬،‫ ﯿ ﻌّ أﻻ‬،‫أﻻ‬ ‫ ﻻ‬،‫ُﻤﻠ ًﻤﺎ‬ ‫ ﻟ‬،‫اﻤﺎ‬ ُ‫ﻻ‬، ‫ﻻُ ﺢﻟ‬، ‫ﻟ‬ ً ‫ﻟ‬

e.g. My brother has a lot of work tomorrow. He mustn’t late.

‫ﯾﺠﺐ أﻻ‬/‫ﯾﺘﻌﯿّﻦ أﻻ‬

be

‫ﻟﯿﺲ ﻟﺰاﻣﺎ ﻋﻠﯿﻚ‬/‫ﻻ داﻋﻲ ﻟـ‬/‫ﻻ ﺣﺎﺟﺔ إﻟﻰ‬

clean the floor

‫ﻟﯿﺲ ﻟﺰاﻣﺎ ﻋﻠﯿﮭﺎ‬/‫ﻻ داﻋﻲ ﻟـ‬/‫ﻻ ﺣﺎﺟﺔ إﻟﻰ‬

cook dinner

ً e.g. Darling, you don’t have to today as you cleaned it last night.

ً e.g. My mother doesn’t have to tonight as she’s going to visit her sister.

e.g. Hurry up. We mustn’t ‫ﯾﺠﺐ أﻻ‬/‫ ﯾﺘﻌﯿّﻦ أﻻ‬miss the bus, because it’s the last one tonight. e.g. You can’t

‫ﻻﯾﻤﻜﻨﻚ أن‬/‫ﻻ ﯾﺤﻖ ﻟﻚ‬/‫ﻻ ﯾﺴﻤﺢ ﻟﻚ‬

go into that club without a tie.

Advisability, desirability, opinion, & expectation English should, shouldn’t, ought to, oughtn’t to, had better not, would

Arabic

‫ ﻤ‬،‫ ﻤ اﻟ ﻔ وض‬،

ُ ، ّ‫ ﯿ ﻌ‬،‫ ﯿ ﻐﻲ‬، ‫ﻋﻠ‬ ‫ ﻤﺎ ﺎن ﯿ ﻐﻲ‬،‫ ﻤ اﻟ ﻔ وض أﻻ‬،‫ ﻤ اﻟ ﻘ ر‬،‫اﻟ ّﻗﻊ‬ ‫ ﺎن ﺤ ّﺎ أﻻ‬،‫أن‬

e.g. In my opinion, the cleaners should salaries. e.g. The teacher ought to hour’s time. e.g. She should

‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻔﺮوض‬/‫ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ‬/‫ﯾﺘﻌﯿّﻦ‬

‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻔﺮوض‬/‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺘﻮﻗﻊ‬/‫ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ‬/‫ﯾﺘﻌﯿّﻦ‬

‫ﯾﺠﺐ‬/‫ﯾﺘﻌﯿّﻦ‬/‫ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ‬/‫ﻋﻠﯿﮭﺎ‬

have higher

be in class in an

try to focus more on her speaking skills.

e.g. You shouldn’t ‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻔﺮوض أﻻ‬/‫ﻣﺎ ﻛﺎن ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ أن‬/‫ ﻛﺎن ﺣﺮﯾّﺎ ﺑﻚ أﻻ‬speak to your teacher like this.

Translating Modality

215

‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻔﺮوض أﻻ‬/‫ﻣﺎ ﻛﺎن ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ أن‬/ ‫ﻛﺎن ﺣﺮﯾّﺎ ﺑﻚ أﻻ‬

e.g. You had better not forget to pay your university fees; otherwise, the university will kick you out! e.g. If I were you, I would ‫( ﻟـ‬... ‫ )ﻟﻮ ﻛﻨﺖ‬buy it.

Lost opportunities English should or ought to + past participle

Arabic

‫ ﺎن‬،‫ ﺎن ُﻔ ض‬،‫ ﺎن ﻤ اﻟ ﻔ وض‬، ّ‫ ﺎن ﯿ ﻌ‬،‫ﯿ ﻐﻲ‬

‫ﻛﺎن‬

‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﻔﺘﺮض أﻻ‬/‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﺠﺐ أﻻ‬/‫ﻛﺎن ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻔﺮوض أﻻ‬

e.g. We shouldn’t have invited so many people to our party! I’m worried that the food won’t be enough. e.g. My youngest daughter shouldn’t have eaten

‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﻔﺘﺮض أﻻ‬/‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﺠﺐ أﻻ‬/ ‫ﻛﺎن ﻣﻦ‬

‫ اﻟﻤﻔﺮوض أﻻ‬so much chocolate! She feels sick now.

Possibility/likelihood English may, might, can, must, can’t

Arabic

‫ ﻤ‬،‫ ﻤ اﻟ ُ ّﺠﺢ‬،‫ﻞ‬

ُ ‫ ﻤ اﻟ‬، ّ‫ ﻻﺒ‬،‫ﻞ‬ ‫اﻟ ُ ﻌ‬

e.g. Our teacher drives a very expensive car. He must

ّ‫ﻻﺑﺪ‬

ُ ،‫ رّ ﺎ‬، ‫ﻗ‬

be very rich.

e.g. Your brother might ‫ﻗﺪ‬/ ‫ﻣﻦ اﻟ ُﻤﺤﺘﻤﻞ‬/‫ﯾُﺤﺘﻤﻞ‬/‫ رﺑّﻤﺎ‬be at home. Have you called him there? e.g. Where is my book? It was here as I saw it earlier, so it must here. e.g. The man over there can’t young.

‫ﻣﻦ اﻟ ُﻤﺴﺘﺒﻌﺪ‬

can, could, be able to

be in

be a professor; he looks far too

Ability, lack of ability, offer, & (not) giving permission English

ّ‫ﻻﺑﺪ‬

Arabic

ِِ ‫ ﻘ‬، ّ ‫ ﯿ‬،‫ ﻟﻪ اﻟﻘ رة‬،‫ ﻘ ر‬،‫ﻊ‬ ‫ورﻩ‬

216

Chapter Seven ‫ﻟﻢ أﺗﻤ ّﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ‬/‫ﻟﻢ ﯾﻜﻦ ﺑﻤﻘﺪوري أن‬/‫ﻟﻢ أﺳﺘﻄﻊ‬

e.g. I couldn’t yesterday, because my car was broken.

get to the meeting on time

e.g. Imagine, her daughter’s eight years old, but she can’t

‫ﻻ ﺗﺴﻄﯿﻊ‬/ ‫ﻟﯿﺲ‬

‫ﺑﺈﻣﻜﺎﻧﮭﺎ‬/‫ ﻟﯿﺲ ﺑﻤﻘﺪورھﺎ‬read and write yet. ‫ﻛﻨﺖُ ﻗﺎدرا‬/‫ﻛﻨﺖُ أﺳﺘﻄﯿﻊ‬/‫ﻛﺎن ﺑﻤﻘﺪوري‬/‫ﻛﺎن ﺑﺎﺳﺘﻄﺎﻋﺘﻲ‬ speak French e.g. I was able to ً

when I lived in France, but I’ve forgotten most of it now.

Asking for permission English

Arabic

... ‫ﻟ ﺎ‬/‫ أﺘ ﺢ ﻟﻲ‬،‫ﻟ ﺎ‬/‫ﻫﻞ ﻟﻲ‬ ّ ّ

May I/we, Can I/we, Could I/we …? ‫أﺗﺴﻤﺢ ﻟﻲ‬/‫ﻲ‬ ّ ‫ھﻞ ﻟ‬

e.g. Can I ّ

use your pen, please?

‫أﺗﺴﻤﺢ ﻟﻲ‬/‫ﻲ‬ ّ ‫ ھﻞ ﻟ‬ask you a question? e.g. Could I ّ ‫أﺗﺴﻤﺢ ﻟﻨﺎ‬/‫ھﻞ ﻟﻨﺎ‬

go home now?

e.g. May we

Making a suggestion English

Arabic

... ‫ أﺘ ﻨﺎ‬/‫ أﺘ ﻨﻲ‬/‫)ﻤﺎ أر ( ﻫﻞ‬

Shall I/we …? e.g. Shall I

‫ھﻞ‬

e.g. Shall we

close the window?

‫ھﻞ‬

go out tonight?

Futurity English

Arabic

...

will, shall, be going to e.g. Our teacher will

‫ﺳـ‬/‫ﺳﻮف‬

e.g. My brother is going to

‫ ﯿ‬،‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ّﺔ‬،‫ ﺴ ف‬،‫ﺴـ‬

resign this semester.

‫ ﯾﻨﻮي أن‬/‫ﻓﻲ ﻧﯿّﺘﮫ أن‬

marry next month.

Translating Modality

217

Polite request English

Arabic

‫ ﻤ‬،...

Will you, Would you, Could you …? e.g. Can you

‫ ﻟ ﺴ‬،... ‫ ﻫﻞ ﺘ ّ م و‬، ‫ﻫﻞ ﻟ‬ ... ‫ﻓ ﻠ‬

‫ھﻞ ﻟﻚ أن‬/‫ﺗﺘﻜﺮم و‬ ّ ‫ھﻞ‬/‫ﻟﻮ ﺳﻤﺤﺖ ھﻞ ﺑﺎﻹﻣﻜﺎن أن‬

close the window, please?

e.g. Would you ‫ھﻞ ﻟﻚ أن‬/‫ﺗﺘﻜﺮم و‬ ‫ھﻞ‬/‫ ﻟﻮ ﺳﻤﺤﺖ ھﻞ ﺑﺎﻹﻣﻜﺎن أن‬carry this bag for me, ّ please?

Preference English

Arabic

ُ ‫ ﻤ اﻟ‬،‫ ﻤ اﻟ ُ ﻔ ّ ﻞ‬،

would prefer, had better, would rather e.g. She said that she would rather

‫ﺗﻔﺿّل أن‬

ُ ، ّ ُ ،‫ُﻔ ّ ﻞ‬

resign than apologize to him.

e.g. I would rather not ‫أﻓﻀّﻞ أﻻ‬/‫أﺣﺒّﺬ أﻻ‬/‫ﯾُﺴﺘﺤﺴﻦ أﻻ‬/‫ ﻣﻦ اﻟ ُﻤﺴﺘﺤﺴﻦ أﻻ‬talk about it, is that okay with you? ‫أﻓﻀّﻞ أﻻ‬/‫أﺣﺒّﺬ أﻻ‬/‫ﯾُﺴﺘﺤﺴﻦ أﻻ‬/‫ﻣﻦ اﻟ ُﻤﺴﺘﺤﺴﻦ أﻻ‬ e.g. I would prefer not to work, but to be honest with you I don’t have a lot of choices. ‫أﻓﻀّﻞ أﻻ‬/‫أﺣﺒّﺬ أﻻ‬/‫ﯾُﺴﺘﺤﺴﻦ أﻻ‬/‫ﻣﻦ اﻟ ُﻤﺴﺘﺤﺴﻦ أﻻ‬

e.g. I’d better not it might be stolen. e.g. He’d better not go bananas!

‫ﯾﻔﻀّﻞ أﻻ‬

leave my bag there as

tell his mother about the broken glass as she’ll

EX: Identify the function of the modal verb highlighted for you in the following sentences. Then, translate them into Arabic. 1.

You do not have to bring a dictionary, but you can bring one if you like. It is up to you.

218

Chapter Seven

2.

Imagine, the majority of our students would rather travel than study.

3.

My brother does not have to wear glasses when driving his car, but he usually does.

4.

I would have called and invited her if I had known that. But, believe me, I had no idea.

5.

Students, listen to me. You mustn’t use your mobile in class.

6.

I sent my book to the university some weeks ago, so it should have arrived by now.

7.

I am going to sell my flat that I bought last year and travel to the UK to live there.

Translating Modality

219

8.

I would rather watch the match here with my wife than go out with them. What about you?

9.

My youngest daughter has been studying hard for her final exams, so she should pass them easily.

10. It is his mistake as he mustn’t forget to lock all the doors before he leaves.

2 Modality & (ir)reality In an attempt to study modality from a cognitive perspective, Langacker introduces an epistemic model, as shown below (adapted from Langacker 1991/2002: 242; also discussed in Evans and Green 2006: 628): past = reality

present =ground

future = irreality

Here, the circle represents immediate reality technically called ‘ground’ that covers the portion of time in which the speech event occurs. The past tense, however, refers to all events that have already occurred outside the ground, thus being considered as parts of known reality. By contrast, the future tense refers to certain events that have not occurred yet, thereby being considered as parts of irreality. By way of explanation, the following example extracted from ‫اﻟﻔﺮاﺷﺔ‬ ‫‘ واﻟﺰھﺮة‬The Butterfly and the Blossom’ by Zahrā’ Nāsir (translated by and cited in Fred Pragnell 2017: 30-1) may be discussed:

220

Chapter Seven

‫ ))ﺘﻌﺎﻟﻲ ﻤﻌﻲ ﻨ ُ ﺒ اﻷزﻫﺎر وﺴُ ِ ﺠ ﺎُﻟﻬﺎ وﻟ ّ ةُ رﺤ ﻘﻬﺎ‬:‫ﻓﻘﺎﻟ ْ ﺨ اء‬ ‫ وﻻ ﺘ ﻲ ّأﻨ ِ ﻟ ِ وﺤ َ ِك ﻤ ﺴ ُت ﻌ أُﺴ ﻋ ِ ﻓﺄﻨﺎ و ّﻞ‬.‫ﺎﻟ ت‬ ‫اﻟ َﻔ‬ ‫اﻟﻔ اﺸﺎت ﺴ ﻠﻘﻰ اﻟ‬ ‫ﺎن‬ ‫ﻨﻔ ﻪ وﻗ ﺄﺘﻲ اﻟ ُت ِﻤ ﺤ ُ ﻻ ﻨ ر ﻓﺎﻟ ﺎﺌ ُ اﻟ‬ .((‫ﻠﻪ‬ ُ ‫ِﻪ ﻟ‬ ُ ‫ﺄﻛ‬

ّ ‫ﺎن ﯿ‬

‫ﺎك ﻤ‬ َ ‫ُﯿ ُ أﻛﻠ ﺎ ﻟ ﻌﻠ أن ُﻫ‬

As can be observed, two modalized particles are employed by the writer, namely ‫ ﺳـ‬in ‫ﺳﯿﻨﺴﯿﻚ‬, ‫ﺳﺘﻤﻮت‬, and ‫ ﺳﻨﻠﻘﻲ‬and ‫ ﻗﺪ‬in ‫ﻗﺪ ﯾﺄﺗﻲ‬. While the modalized particle ‫ ﺳـ‬is used to express futurity, the modalized particle ‫ﻗﺪ‬ is used to express possibility. The use of ‫ ﺳـ‬and ‫ ﻗﺪ‬excludes the event from known reality, thus being considered as part of irreality. Being fully aware of the functions of these two modalized particles, the translator has opted for ‘will’ and ‘may’, thus reflecting both futurity and possibility, as in: Green said: “Let’s fly among the flowers. Their beauty and delicious nectar will make you forget death. Do not forget that you are not the only butterfly who will die in two weeks’ time. Every butterfly and I shall meet the same fate. Death may come from the unknown. The bird that wanted to eat us had not known that there was a creature lurking to eat it”.

3 Modality & force dynamics At times, the modalized particle, verb, or prepositional phrase employed by the language user exhibits a certain force-dynamic pattern where one participant exercises a certain type of force over another or others, thus shifting the process from a force-neutral selection process to a forcedynamic pressure. In this regard, Talmly (2000: 409) talks of these types of force dynamics: a. b. c. d. e.

the exertion of force, the resistance to such a force, the overcoming of such a resistance, the blockage of the expression of force, and the removal of such blockage.

By way of explanation, let us discuss the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ ﺳﯿﺮة‬A Biography’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 84-5):

Translating Modality

‫ﻔﺔ ﻤ أﺸ ﺎر اﻟ ر‬

‫ق ﻏﺎ ﺔ‬

‫ أن ﻨ‬،‫ﺔ‬

221

‫ ﻲ ﻨ ﻞ إﻟﻰ ﺸﻘ ﺎ اﻟ‬،‫ﻛﺎن ﻋﻠ ﺎ‬

.‫واﻟ ﻻ واﻟ ﻓ ن‬

Here, as one may observe, by the effect of the modalized preposition ‫ﻋﻠﻰ‬ preceded by ‫ﻛﺎن‬, the whole clause is characterized by having a forcedynamic value of forcing the speakers, who tend not to make their way through such a dense wood of poplar, birch, and linden trees, to make their way through such a dense wood. Having identified the function of the modalized preposition ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ‬along with ‫ﻛﺎن‬, the translators have opted for ‘had to’, thus reflecting such a necessity in the past. To get to the apartment we shared, we had to force our way through a dense wood of poplar, birch and linden trees. To reinforce this point, the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺒﺪﯾﻠﺔ‬The Stand-in’ by Mahmūd Sa‘īd (translated by and cited in Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009: 72-3) can be given full consideration here:

‫ﻤﺎ‬

‫نﺜ‬

‫ وﻋﺎدة ﻤﺎ‬،‫ﻘﺎﺒﻞ‬

‫ إﻻ‬...

‫ﺸﻲء إﻻ ﺒ‬

‫أﻨﻬ ﺎ ﻻ ﻘّ ﻤﺎن ﻷﻤ ﺎﻟ ﺎ أ‬

‫ وأﻨ ﺎ ﻻ ﻨ ﻠ ﻤﺎ ﯿ ان أو ﻤﺎ‬،‫ﺄﺨ ون أﻏﻠﻰ ﻤ ﺜ ﻤﺎ ﻘّ ﻤ ن‬ ‫ وأن ﺴ ﺘﻌّ ﻓﻬ ﺎ ﻨﻬﺎ ﺼ ﻘﺔ اﺒ ﺔ ﻋ ّ ﻬﺎ‬،ً‫أﻻ ﺘ ّل ﻨﻔ ﻬﺎ ﻠ ﻤ ﻓ ض أﺼﻼ‬ ... ‫رﻫ ﻔﺔ ﻓﻲ أﻤ ﺎ ﻻ ﯿ ّﺨ وﻻ ﻘّ م‬ ‫ وأن ﻋﻠ ﻬﺎ‬،‫ﺎﺠﺎن‬

Here, having realized that she has started humiliating herself, her husband in the story asks her to stop humiliating herself for a favour which has been already refused. Here, ‫ ﻋﻠﯿﻚ أﻻ‬has advisability reading as well as prohibition reading. Building on this, it can be translated as ‘you shouldn’t humiliate yourself for a favour’ (advisability) or ‘you mustn’t humiliate yourself for a favour’ (prohibition). Being fully aware of its functions, the translators have opted for ‘mustn’t humiliate yourself for a favour’, thereby indicating the Sayer’s being-able-to-order (authority) and the Addressee’s willing-to-listen (submission). They do not offer to the likes of us anything except at a price or for something in return, and usually the value of what they take is higher than that of what they offer. We have neither what they want nor what they need. You mustn’t humiliate yourself for a favour which has already been refused …

222

Chapter Seven

To conclude this section, following is an example extracted from a short story titled ‫ اﻟﺘﺎج‬:‫‘ ﻣﺎ ﯾﺸﺒﮫ اﻟﻘﺼﺔ‬Story-like: the Crown’ by Wārid Badir asSālim (cited in Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009: 144-5):

‫ﻟ أرد اﻟ ﺔ ﻟﻬ ﻟ وا ﻋ ﻲ اﻟ اء ﻤ أول اﻟﻠ ﺎت؛ ﺤ ﻰ ﯿ ّ ا ﻋﻠﻰ ﻤ وﻟ ﺎﺘﻬ‬ ‫أﻻّ ﺘُ ﻰ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻬ اﻟ ﯿ‬ ‫ﻞ ﻌ ﺸﻌ اﻟ ﻠ ﺔ وﺘُﻘ ّ م ﻟﻪ اﻟ ﻤﺎت اﻟ ﻲ‬ ... In the above example, ‫ ﯾﺠﺐ أﻻ‬in such a context is not force-dynamically neutral, but rather has a force-dynamic value of forcing people who may forget something important to remember it, thus indicating the Sayer’s being-able-to-do (authority) and the Addressees’ submission and powerlessness. To reflect the Sayer’s authority and the Addressees’ submission and powerlessness, one may suggest the following rendering: I didn’t reply to their greetings so that they could see my angry eyes from the first moments and shoulder their responsibilities in a way that would make the peoples of the kingdom happy and offer them the services that mustn’t be forgotten in my new epoch …

4 Types of modality Modality is usually divided into two broad categories: epistemic and deontic (Halliday 1970; Lyons 1977; Perkins 1983; Hoye 1997; Jarjour 2006; Abdel-Fattah 2005; Almanna 2016a, 2016b, among others). In this section, an attempt is made to cast some light on both of them in a direct link with translation.

Deontic modality Deontic modality is a grammatical form marking the speaker/writer’s judgement concerning issues such as obligation (be it moral or social), prohibition, or permission. So, it is not force-dynamically neutral, but rather has a force-dynamic value of forcing people to do (obligation), not to do (prohibition), or letting him/her do (permission). To illustrate, the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ ﺻﻮرة ﯾﺎﺳﻤﯿﻦ‬Yasmine’s Picture’ by Hanān al-Shaīkh (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 156-7) can be considered:

Translating Modality

‫ ﻟ ن‬،‫ ﻟ ﺤﺎت ﻤﺎﺌ ﺔ‬،‫ﻬ ﻩ اﻟﻠ ﺤﺎت ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ران‬

223

‫ﻌّﻠ‬

‫أن ﻌ ف ﻤ‬

‫ﻛﺎن‬

. ‫وﺸﻔﺎﻓ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎء واﻟ ﺎء ﺘ ّع ﻤ ﻀ ﺎت اﻟﻘﻠ‬

As can be observed, by the effect of ‫ﻛﺎن ﯾﺠﺐ‬, the emphasis is placed on the necessity of trying to know somebody who hangs such paintings on the walls. The emphasis here is placed on the whole period that began in the past and is seen as relevant to the moment of speaking, hence the use of ‘should have known’ in the target text to reflect both the necessity and the whole period. He should have known and met someone who hangs paintings like these on the walls – water colour in which the hues and translucence of the water and sky quicken one’s heart … In the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺮﺣﯿﻞ‬The Departure’ by ‘Alī Muhammad al-Ja‘kī (translated by and cited in Zagood and Pragnell 2017: 24-5), the writer uses ّ‫ ﻻﺑﺪ‬to emphasize the necessity of breaking the wall of silence.

‫ ﻻﺒّ أن‬..‫ ﻻ ﺘﻌّ ﻋ ﺎ ج ﺒ اﺨﻠﻲ‬،‫ﺔ‬ ‫ﻛﻞ ﻋ ﺎرة أﺨ ﺎرﻫﺎ ﺘ و ﻟﻲ ﺴ ﻔﺔ ُﻤ‬ ّ ‫ ﻫﻲ أ ً ﺎ ﻟ ﺘ ﻤﺎ ﺘﻘ ﻟﻪ‬... ‫اﻟ ﯿﻠﻔ ﺎ ﻘ ﺎﻋﻪ اﻟ ﻐ‬ ‫أﻛ ﺠ ار اﻟ‬ .‫ن‬

‫ﻓﻠ ﺄت إﻟﻰ اﻟ‬

As can be seen, ّ‫ ﻻﺑﺪ‬can be replaced by modalized verbs such as ‫ﯾﺠﺐ‬, ‫ﯾﺘﻮ ّﺟﺐ‬, etc. or the modalized preposition ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ‬as the emphasis is placed on the necessity of breaking the wall of silence. Further, there is an implicit

‫ ﻛﺎن‬in ّ‫‘ ﻛﺎن ﻻﺑﺪ‬had to’. This has been reflected by the translators when resorting to ‘had to’, thereby reflecting the necessity in the past: Every phrase I chose seemed absurd and ridiculous to me and not to convey what was raging within me, but I had to break the wall of silence which surrounded us with its loathsome mask. She also found nothing to say, so she just remained silent.

Epistemic modality Epistemic modality is a grammatical form marking the speaker/writer’s knowledge, understanding, or opinion regarding issues such as likelihood, possibility, or certainty of the proposition expressed by a clause.

224

Chapter Seven

In the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫ﻋﺎﺑﺮ اﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎﺋﻲ‬ ‘An Exceptional Passer-by’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 70-1), ّ‫ ﻻﺑﺪ‬and ‫ ﺑﺈﻣﻜﺎن‬are employed by the writer:

‫ﺼﻐﺎر أو‬ ‫ًا‬ ‫ إﻤﺎ أن ﻨ ت‬، ‫ ﻻﺒّ ﻟ ﺎ ﻤ إﺤ اﻟ ﻬﺎﯿ‬،‫اﺴ ﻌﻲ ﺎﻋ ﺘﻲ‬ ‫ ﻫﻞ ﺈﻤ ﺎﻨ ﺎ أن ﻨﻔﻌﻞ ﻏ ذﻟ ؟‬.‫ﻨﻌ ﺤ ﻰ ﻨ ﺦ‬

:‫ﻗﺎل ﻟﻬﺎ‬ ~

To begin with ّ‫ﻻﺑﺪ‬, it is used to express strong possibility. So, it is epistemic as it reflects the writer’s opinion regarding the possibility, likelihood, or certainty of the proposition expressed by the sentence. As for the prepositional phrase ‫ﺑﺈﻣﻜﺎن‬, it has meanings related to capacity. Cognitively speaking, the use of ّ‫ ﻻﺑﺪ‬and ‫ ﺑﺈﻣﻜﺎن‬excludes the event from known reality, thus being considered as part of irreality. Having figured out their functions, the translators have opted for ‘must’ and ‘can’ to reflect the strong possibility and ability utilized by the writer, as in: “Listen, my dear, we must all end up in one of two ways, either we die young or live to grow old. Can we do otherwise?” he said to her. To make this point clear, following is an example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺣﻧﯾن إﻟﻰ اﻟﻧﺎر‬Nostalgia for the Fire’ by ‘Alī Muhammad alJa‘kī (translated by and cited in Zagood and Pragnell 2017: 56-6):

‫ﺔ‬

‫ﻌ‬

‫ﻫﺎ ﺠ‬

‫ ﻗ ﻞ أن‬،‫ﺎرة‬

‫أﺠ ﻤ ﻌﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻫ ش ﺠ اﺤﻲ وﺸﻘ ق ﻗ ﻤﻲ ﺎﻟ‬

،‫ وﻫ ﻩ اﻟﻔ اخ اﻟ ﻐ ة ﻻﺒّ أن ﺘ ج ﻤ ﻋ ﻬﺎ‬،‫ﺎرﻫﺎ ﻌ ﺎ ﺔ‬

‫اء‬

‫ﻤ اﻷوراق اﻟ‬

... ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻨﻔ ﻬﺎ‬

‫وﺘﻌ‬

I took delight in scratching my wounds and the cracks on my feet caused by stones before my grandfather treated them with a paste made from green leaves he had carefully selected. So these young chicks should leave their nest and fend for themselves … In the above example, ‫ ﻻﺑ ّد‬utilized by the writer is epistemic as it reflects the writer’s opinion or expectation regarding the possibility, likelihood, or certainty of the proposition expressed by the sentence. In the following text extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﻄﻮﻓﺎن‬The Flood’ by ‘Alī Muhammad al-Ja‘kī (translated by and cited in Zagood and

Translating Modality

225

Pragnell 2017: 66-7), the modalized verbs ‫ ﯾﺴﺘﻄﯿﻊ‬and ‫ ﯾﺘﻤﻜﻦ‬are preceded by the negative particle ‫ﻟﻢ‬, thus having capacity reading in the past.

.‫دة‬

... ‫ﻊ أن ﯿ ﻔ إﻟﻰ أﻋ ﺎﻗﻬﺎ رﻏ أ ﺎﻨﻪ وأﻤﻼﻛﻪ‬

‫روﺤﻬﺎ اﻟ‬

‫ﻟ‬

‫ وﻟ ﻪ ﻟ ﯿ ّ ﻤ ﺘ و‬،‫ﻤﻠ ﺠ ﻫﺎ أ ﺎﻤﺎ‬

The use of ‫ ﻟﻢ ﯾﺴﺘﻄﻊ‬and ‫ ﻟﻢ ﯾﺘﻤﻜﻦ‬conveys the writer’s judgement concerning the main character’s inability to make her love him and his inability to tame her rebellious spirit. This kind of modality is epistemic as it reflects the writer’s opinion or knowledge regarding the possibility, likelihood, or certainty of the proposition expressed by the sentence. To reflect the main character’s inability to (1) make her love him and (2) tame her rebellious spirit, the translators have opted for ‘could not’ and ‘was not able to’, as in: He could not make her love him in spite of his lands and property… He could possess her body every day but was not able to tame her rebellious spirit. To finish off this section, the following two examples extracted from

‫‘ اﻟﻔﺮاﺷﺔ واﻟﺰھﺮة‬The Butterfly and the Blossom’ by Zahrā’ Nāsir (translated by and cited in Fred Pragnell 2017: 38-9), may be considered:

((‫ ))ﻫﻞ ﻫ ﺎك ﻘ ٌﺔ أﺸﻔﻲ ﺒﻬﺎ ﺠ وﺤ ِ ؟‬:‫ﻓﻘﺎﻟ اﻟﻔ اﺸ ُﺔ‬ . ٌ ِ ‫ آﻩ! ﺎ ﻋ ﺘﻲ أﻨ ِ ﻓ اﺸ ٌﺔ ﺼﻐ ةٌ وﻟ ﻗﻠ‬.‫ ))ﻻ ﻻ ﺸ ًا‬:ُ‫أﺠﺎﺒ اﻟ ﻠ ﻔﺎة‬ ‫ رّ ﺎ اﻟ م ﻫ آﺨ ﯿ م ﻓﻲ ﺤ ﺎﺘﻲ‬. ‫ِ ﻋﻼﺠﻬﺎ ﺴﺄﻤ ت ﺎﻟ ﺄﻛ‬ ‫ﺠ وﺤﻲ ﺒﻠ ﻐﺔ ﻻ‬ .((‫ﻠﺔ‬

‫اﻟ‬

As can be observed, in the original text two main verbal processes are employed by the writer. In the Verbiage (also known as ‘content’) of the first verbal process

((‫ﻘ ٌﺔ أﺸﻔﻲ ﺒﻬﺎ ﺠ وﺤ ِ ؟‬

‫ ))ﻫﻞ ﻫ ﺎك‬:‫ﻓﻘﺎﻟ ِ اﻟﻔ اﺸ ُﺔ‬

there is an implicit modalized verb ‫‘ أﺳﺘﻄﯿﻊ‬can’ that has meanings related to capacity. Having identified it and figured out its function, the translator has opted for ‘can’ in ‘Is there a way that I can heal your wounds?’. In the Verbiage of the second verbal process, the writer uses ‫ﯾﻤﻜﻦ‬, ‫ﺳـ‬, and ‫ رﺑّﻤﺎ‬to express ability, futurity, and possibility respectively. Paying extra attention to these modalized verbs and particles, the translator has rendered them as follows:

226

Chapter Seven

The butterfly said: “Is there a way I can heal your wounds?” The tortoise replied: “No! No! Thank you. Oh, Dear! You are a small butterfly but your heart is big. My wounds are serious. You cannot heal them. I’ll surely die. Today may be the last day of my long life”. Following is the second example (2017: 22-3):

.‫اء‬

‫ ﺴُ ﻘ ُ ِك أﻨﺎ وﺨ‬.‫ ))ﻻ ﻻ ﻟ ﺘ ﺘﻲ‬:‫ﻓ ﺎﺤ ْ ُﺒ ّﺔ ودﻤ ﻋﻬﺎ ﺘ ﺎ ُب ﻋﻠﻰ ﺨ ﯿﻬﺎ‬ ِ .((‫ﻹﻨﻘﺎذ ِك‬ ‫ﻻﺒّ ﻤ وﺴ ﻠﺔ‬

In the above example, a verbal process is utilized by the writer where ‫ﺑُﻨﯿّﺔ‬ ‘Brown’ is the Sayer, ‫‘ ﺻﺎﺣﺖ‬to cry’ is the process of saying in the past, and ِ‫ ﻻ ﺑﺪّ ﻣﻦ وﺳﯿﻠﺔ ﻹﻧﻘﺎذِك‬.‫ ﺳﻨﻨُﻘﺬُكِ أﻧﺎ وﺧﻀﺮاء‬.‫‘ ﻻ ﻻ ﻟﻦ ﺗﻤﻮﺗﻲ‬No! No! You will not die. Green and I shall save you. There must be a way to save you’ is the Verbiage of the process. In the Verbiage, ‫ﻟﻦ‬, ‫ﺳـ‬, and ّ‫ ﻻ ﺑﺪ‬are utilized by the writer to express three different events in the future. While ‫ ﻟﻦ‬and ‫ﺳـ‬ are used to express futurity, ّ‫ ﻻﺑﺪ‬is employed to express a strong possibility. Being fully aware of their functions, the translator has opted for ‘will not’, ‘shall’, and ‘must’, as in: Brown cried with her tears flowing down her cheeks. “No! No! You will not die. Green and I shall save you. There must be a way to save you”.

5 Revision EX 1: Complete the sentences using the modal verbs listed in the box below. Then, translate the sentences into Arabic. would rather mustn’t

can had better

must might

don’t have to shouldn’t

1.

It’s freezing cold today. Do you think it ________ rain later?

2.

She ________ leave her doors unlocked when she goes out.

3.

I ________ stay home with my kids than go out with them to the party.

4.

The teacher told us we ________ use our mobiles after the exam.

Translating Modality

227

5.

You ________ write your CV right now, but you can do it if you like.

6.

You’re kidding, it ________ be a typo!

7.

You ________ do your homework; otherwise, your teacher will give you a low mark.

8.

You ________ speak to your father like this.

EX 2: Identify the function of ‫ ﯾﺠﺐ أﻻ‬highlighted for you in the following text extracted from a short story titled ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﺴﺪك ﯾﻄﻮي اﻟﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻈﻠﺘﮫ‬ ‘On Your Body, Night Folds its Umbrella’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb. Then, comment on its translation suggested by Sadkhan and Pragnell (2012: 130-1):

‫ﻒ‬

My dear, I am writing to you after a break. How are you? Do you still go every Sunday evening to our glass café or have you grown up?

‫ﻌ اﻨﻘ ﺎع‬

‫ﻟ‬

‫ﻋ ﺘﻲ أﻛ‬

‫أﻨ أﻤﺎزﻟ ﺘ ﻫ ﻤ ﺎء ّﻞ أﺤ إﻟﻰ‬ ‫ﻤﻘﻬﺎﻨﺎ اﻟ ﺠﺎﺠﻲ أم ت؟‬ ‫ﻻ‬

Don’t grow up, my dear, don’t grow up, don’t grow old, don’t grow old. We must not grow old, wait for me …

... ‫ﻲ‬

‫ﺎ ﻋ ﺘﻲ ﻻ ﺘ‬

‫ﻻ ﺘ‬

‫أﻻ ﻨ ﺦ اﻨ‬

‫ﺘ‬

EX 3: Complete the translation of the following text extracted from a short story titled ‫ﻲ‬ ّ ‫‘ اﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻋﻦ ﻗﻠﺐ ﺣ‬Search for a Live Heart’ by Mūhsin al-Ramlī (cited in Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009: 36-7), using the appropriate modal verb. Oh, my God, what about my mother’s heart then. My mother who remains pinned to the window day and night, puffing on cigarettes, her tearful eyes checking the road to see if he’s getting out of a passing car ... he ________ get out at any moment. He ________ get out because he ________come back. Neighbours, too, want to bring us news of his return as quickly as

‫ أﻤﻲ اﻟ ﻲ ﺘ ّ ت‬... ‫أﻤﻲ إ ًذا؟‬ ‫ﺎﺌ‬

‫ﻛ ﻒ ﻗﻠ‬

‫ ﺘ ﻀﻊ اﻟ‬... ‫اﻟ ﺎﻓ ة ﻟ ﻞ ﻨﻬﺎر‬

‫ ﺘ اﻩ‬...

‫ﻋ‬

‫وﻋ ﺎﻫﺎ اﻟ اﻤﻌ ﺎن ﺘ ﻗ ﺎن اﻟ‬

... ‫ﻞ اﻟ ﺎرات اﻟ ﺎرﻗﺔ‬

‫ ﺒﻞ‬... ‫ﺔ‬

‫ﯿ ّﺠﻞ ﻋ‬ ‫ ﻗ ﯿ ل ﻓﻲ أ ﺔ ﻟ‬... ‫ﯿ ل‬

‫ﺤ ً ﺎ ﺴ ل ﻷﻨﻪ ﻻﺒّ أن ﻌ د‬

‫ﯿ ﻘﻠ ا ﻟ ﺎ ﺨ‬

‫ان ﯿ دون ﻟ‬

‫ ﻓﻬ ﯿ ر ن‬،‫ﻋﺔ ﻟ ﻗﻔ ا ﺤ ﻨ ﺎ‬

‫وﺤ ﻰ اﻟ‬

‫ﻋ دﺘﻪ‬

228

Chapter Seven

they can to put an end to our sorrow as they realize that one moment more of sorrow ________ be too much for us. It ________ be this moment or the next one. When ________he recover? When ________ he return? When? When?

‫ﺘﻘ ﻲ‬

‫ﺔ ﺤ ن إﻀﺎﻓ ﺔ ﻗ‬

‫ أو‬... ‫ﺔ‬

‫ﺄن ﻟ‬

‫ رّ ﺎ ﻫ ﻩ اﻟﻠ‬... ‫ﻋﻠ ﺎ‬ ‫ ﻌ د؟‬Ø ‫ ﻓ ﻰ ﺴ ﻔﻰ؟ ﻤ ﻰ‬... ‫اﻟﻘﺎدﻤﺔ‬ ‫ﻤ ﻰ؟ ﻤ ﻰ؟‬

EX 4: Translate the following text titled ‘Thirty Facts about Islam’ adapted from al-‘Abrī (final year project 2015), paying special attention to the modalized verbs, expressions, etc. utilized in the original text:

‫ﯿ‬

‫ﻋﻠﻰ ّﻞ ﻓ د ﻤ ﻠ اﻟ‬

‫ وﻫﻲ اﻷر ﺎن اﻷﺴﺎﺴ ﺔ اﻟ ﻲ‬،‫ﺎن اﻹ ﺎن ﺴ ٌﺔ‬ ّ َ ‫إن أر‬ :‫ وﻫ ﻩ اﻷر ﺎن ﻫﻲ‬.‫ﺒﻬﺎ ﻟ ن ﻤ ﻤً ﺎ‬ .‫اﻹ ﺎن ﺎ ﺘﻌﺎﻟﻰ ورﺴﻠﻪ‬

،‫ وداوود‬،‫ وﻤ ﺴﻰ‬، ‫اﻟ ﺎو ﺔ اﻟ ﻟﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷﻨ ﺎء اﺒ اﻫ‬

.‫ﻋﻠ ﻬ اﻟ ﻼة واﻟ ﻼم‬

-‫أ‬

‫ اﻹ ﺎن ﺎﻟ‬-‫ب‬

‫ ﻤ‬،‫وﻋ ﻰ‬

.‫ اﻹ ﺎن ﺎﻟ ﻼﺌ ﺔ‬-‫ت‬

. ‫ﺎﻟ م اﻷﺨ‬

‫ و ﺎ‬. ‫وﺤ ﻰ اﻟ و ﻊ واﻟ ﻬ ﯿ‬ ‫اﻟ ﻼم داﺨﻞ اﻟ ﻼد‬

،‫اﺴ اﻹﺴﻼم‬

‫اﻟ ﻨ‬

‫ﯿ‬

‫ اﻟ‬-‫ث‬

.‫ اﻹ ﺎن ﺎﻟﻘ ﺎء واﻟﻘ ر ﺨ ﻩ وﺸّﻩ‬-‫ج‬

‫ّ م اﻹﺴﻼم اﻹرﻫﺎب واﻟﻌ ﻒ اﻟﻼ ﻤ ر وﻗ ﻞ ﻏ‬ ‫ ﻓﻬ ا ﻌ ﻲ أﻨﻪ ﯿ ﻐﻲ ﻟﻺﺴﻼم ﺠﻠ‬،‫إن اﻹﺴﻼم ﻤ ّ ﻤ اﻟ ﻼم‬

‫ و ّﻞ ﻤ ﯿ ﺘ ﻓﻌﻼً إرﻫﺎﺒًﺎ ﺘ‬.‫أم ﻻ‬ ‫ﺴ اء أﻛﺎن ﺴ ﺎﻨﻪ ﻤ اﻟ ﻠ‬ ‫ﻓﺈﻨﻪ ﺒ ﺎ ﺔ ﻻﯿ ﻊ اﻹﺴﻼم؛ إذ ﱠ‬ ‫ﻬﺎك ﻟ ﺎد‬ ٌ ‫ ﻤﺎ ﻫ إﻻ اﻨ‬،‫ ﻓﻲ ﺤﻘ ﻘ ﻪ‬،‫إن اﻹرﻫﺎب‬

.‫اﻹﺴﻼم‬

!

The expression ... ‫ اﻟﻛﺗب اﻟﺳﻣﺎوﯾﺔ اﻟﻣﻧزﻟﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ‬can be translated as ‘the scriptures revealed to ...’.

!

The proper nouns ‫ﻣوﺳﻰ‬, ‫داود‬, and ‫ ﻋﯾﺳﻰ‬can be translated as ‘Moses’, ‘David’, and ‘Jesus’ respectively.

!

The expressions ‫ اﻟﯾوم اﻵﺧر‬and ‫ اﻟﻘﺿﺎء واﻟﻘدر‬lend themselves in

Translating Modality

229

such a context to ‘the Day of Judgment’ or ‘the Hereafter’ and ‘Destiny’ respectively. !

The active structure ‫ﻣﺑرر‬ can be ّ ‫ﯾﺣرم اﻹﺳﻼم اﻹرھﺎب واﻟﻌﻧف اﻟﻼ‬ ّ translated into the passive ‘Terrorism and unjustified violence are forbidden by Islam’.

!

The expression ‫ اﻟﺗروﯾﻊ واﻟﺗﮭدﯾد‬can be translated as ‘intimidating and threatening’.

!

ّ ‫( ﺑﻣﺎ‬sometimes ‫أن‬ ّ ‫ )ﺑﻣﺎ‬can be translated as ‘as’, The connector ‫إن‬ ‘since’, and so forth.

!

... ‫ وﻛ ﱡل ﻣن ﯾرﺗﻛب ﻓﻌﻼً إرھﺎﺑﯾًﺎ ﺗﺣت اﺳم‬can be translated as ‘anyone commits an act of terrorism in the name of …’.

!

The noun ‫ اِﻧﺗﮭﺎك‬from the verb ‫ اِﻧﺗﮭك‬can be translated into ‘to breach’ or ‘to violate’, and the like.

EX 5: Translate the following legal text, paying extra attention to modality. However, before embarking on translating the text, try to be familiar with the technical terms used in this text and similar texts: ! ! ! ! !

to rent, to lease, to hire to rent, to lease, to hire tenant, lessee, leaseholder lessor rented property/estate/house/flat leased property/estate//house/flat

‫اِﺳﺗﺄﺟر‬ ‫أﺟّر‬ ‫ﻣﺳﺗﺄﺟر‬ ‫ﻣؤﺟّر‬ ‫اﻟﻌﯾن‬/‫اﻟﻣﺄﺟور‬ ‫اﻟﻣﺳﺗﺄﺟرة‬

! ! ! ! !

to view …, to check …, to examine …, to inspect to repair …, to fix …, to quit … to hand … over

‫ﯾﻌﺎﯾن اﻟﻌﯾن اﻟﻣﺳﺗﺄﺟرة‬

! rent to pay the rent to fall behind/ to lag behind/ to be delay …

‫اﻹﯾﺟﺎر‬/‫! اﻷﺟرة‬ ‫ﯾدﻓﻊ اﻹﯾﺟﺎر‬ ‫ﯾﺗﺄﺧر ﻓﻲ دﻓﻊ اﻹﯾﺟﺎر‬

‫ﯾرﻣم اﻟﻌﯾن اﻟﻣﺳﺗﺄﺟرة‬ ‫ﯾﺧﻠﻲ اﻟﻌﯾن اﻟﻣﺳﺗﺄﺟرة‬ ‫ﯾﺳﻠّم اﻟﻌﯾن اﻟﻣﺳﺗﺄﺟرة‬

‫‪Chapter Seven‬‬

‫!‬

‫ﻋﻘد إﯾﺟﺎر‬

‫!‬

‫‪Lease contract, rent contract,‬‬ ‫‪contract of lease, contract of rent‬‬ ‫… ‪to renew‬‬ ‫‪to terminate …, to rescind …, to‬‬ ‫… ‪revoke‬‬ ‫… ‪to sign‬‬ ‫… ‪to conduct …, to enter into‬‬

‫ﯾﺟدّد ﻋﻘ ًدا‬ ‫ﯾﻔﺳﺦ ﻋﻘ ًدا‬ ‫ﯾوﻗّﻊ ﻋﻘ ًدا‬ ‫ﯾُﺑرم ﻋﻘ ًدا‬ ‫!‬

‫‪230‬‬

‫‪term of lease, term of rent, rental‬‬ ‫‪period,‬‬

‫ﻣدة اﻹﯾﺟﺎر‬

‫!‬

‫ﻋﻘ إ ﺎر‬ ‫ﻞ ﻤ اﻟ ____________ )اﻟ ﺎر إﻟ ﻪ ﻓ ﺎ ﻌ ”اﻟ ّﺠ “(‬ ‫أُﺒ ِ م ﻫ ا اﻟﻌﻘ ﺒ‬ ‫____________ )اﻟ ﺎر إﻟ ﻪ ﻓ ﺎ ﻌ ”اﻟ ﺄﺠ “(‪ .‬و ﻌ ﻋﻘ اﻹ ﺎر‬ ‫واﻟ‬

‫ﻫ ا ﺴﺎر اﻟ ﻔﻌ ل ﻤ ﺘﺎرﺦ ﺘ ﻗ ﻌﻪ‪.‬‬

‫ﺄﺠ أﻨﻪ ﻗﺎم ﻌﺎﯿ ﺔ اﻟ ﻘﺔ ﻤ ﻀ ع اﻟﻌﻘ وﺘ ّﻠ ﻤﻔﺎﺘ ﻬﺎ‪.‬‬

‫‪ .1‬ﻘّ اﻟ‬ ‫‪ .2‬ﻘّ اﻟ ّﺠ أﻨﻪ ﺘ ّﻠ ﻋ ﺘ ﻗ ﻊ ﻫ ا اﻟﻌﻘ اﻷﺠ ة اﻟ ّﻔ ﻋﻠ ﻬﺎ ﻟ ة‬ ‫ﺜﻼﺜﺔ أﺸﻬ ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .3‬ﻟ ﻟﻠ ﺄﺠ اﻟ ﻓﻲ ِاﺴ ﺎر اﻟ ﻘﺔ أو ﺠ ء ﻤ ﻬﺎ ﻟﻠﻐ ﺒ ون‬ ‫ﻤ اﻓﻘﺔ ﺨ ّﺔ ﻤ اﻟ ّﺠ ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻟﻠ ﺄﺠ أن ث أ ﺘﻐ‬ ‫‪ .4‬ﻻ‬

‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺄﺠ ر‪/‬اﻟ ﻘﺔ‪ ،‬ﻤ ﻫ م‬ ‫ّﺔ‪.‬‬

‫أو ﺒ ﺎء أو ﺘﻐ ﻓﻲ اﻷﺒ اب إﻻ اﻓﻘﺔ اﻟ ّﺠ اﻟ‬ ‫ﺘﺄﺨ اﻟ ﺄﺠ ﻋ دﻓﻊ اﻹ ﺎر ﻷﻛ ﻤ ﺜﻼﺜﺔ أﺸﻬ ‪ ،‬ﻓ‬ ‫‪ .5‬إذا ّ‬ ‫ﻟﻠ ّﺠ أن ﻔ ﺦ اﻟﻌﻘ ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ .6‬ﻟﻠ ُ ﺄﺠ أن ُﯿ ِّﻤ اﻟ ﻘﺔ واِﺴ ﻘ ﺎع ﻨﻔﻘﺎت اﻟ ﻤ ﻤ أﺠ ة اﻟ‬ ‫ﺸ ﺔ أن ﯿ ّ إﺒﻼغ ﺼﺎﺤ اﻟﻌﻘﺎر ﻗ ﻞ اﻟ ء ﺎﻟ ﻤ ﺎت‪.‬‬ ‫ﺘ ّ ر ﻫ ا اﻟﻌﻘ ﺒ‬

‫‪.‬‬

Translating Modality

231

!

The verb ‫ أﺑﺮم‬is in the passive voice, thus lending itself to ‘this contract is made between …’ or ‘this contract is conducted between …’.

!

The expression ‫( اﻟﻤﺸﺎر إﻟﯿﮫ ﻓﯿﻤﺎ ﺑﻌﺪ‬also ‫ اﻟﻤﺸﺎر إﻟﯿﮫ ﻓﻲ ھﺬا اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬or ‫ )اﻟﻤﺸﺎر إﻟﯿﮫ أدﻧﺎه‬lends itself to ‘hereinafter referred to as …’. Compare it with ‫ اﻟﻤﺸﺎر إﻟﯿﮫ أﻋﻼه‬which lends itself to ‘hereinabove referred to as …’.

!

The expression ‫ ﺳﺎري اﻟﻤﻔﻌﻮل‬lends itself to ‘to enter into force’, ‘to be effective’, ‘to be valid’, and the like, as in ‘This contract shall enter into force/be effective/be valid ….’.

!

The verb ‫ﯾﻘﺮ‬ ّ lends itself to ‘to acknowledge’.

!

‫ ﻟﯿﺲ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺘﺄﺟﺮ اﻟﺤﻖ ﻓﻲ‬or ‫ ﻻ ﯾﺤﻖ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺘﺄﺟﺮ‬lends itself to ‘the tenant has no right to …’ or ‘the tenant may not …’.

!

The particle ‫( إذا‬also ‫ )ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ‬can be translated here into ‘in case …’, ‘in the event that …’, or just ‘if …’.

!

The conditional clause ... ‫ إذا ﺗﺄﺧﺮ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺄﺟﺮ ﻋﻦ دﻓﻊ‬lends itself to ‘in case of default of payment of the rent…’ or ‘if the tenant falls behind paying the rent …’, etc.

!

The verb ‫ ﯾﺴﺘﻘﻄﻊ‬can be translated into ‘to deduct’.

!

The expression ‫( ﺷﺮﯾﻄﺔ‬also ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷﺮط‬or ‫ )ﺑﺸﺮط‬lends itself to ‘provided’, ‘providing’, ‘provided that’, ‘providing that’, ‘on the condition that’, and so forth.

!

The expression ‫ﺗﺤﺮر ھﺬا اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬ ّ can be translated into ‘this contract has been made’, ‘this contract has been written’, ‘this contract has been drawn up’, and the like.

CHAPTER EIGHT CONJUNCTION

Conjuncts introduced

1

A conjunction is a cohesive device that makes segments of a given text hang together as a cohesive text (see Halliday and Hasan 1976; Almanna and Almanna 2008; Almanna 2016a). Generally speaking, conjunctions can be explicit or implicit. However, some languages, such as Arabic, prefer the heavy use of connectors, while some other languages, such as English, prefer the use of implicit conjunctions. When a conjunct is used, then it is explicit and the relationship is marked. However, when no conjunct is used, then it is implicit and the relationship is unmarked (Almanna 2016a: 133). Traditional grammarians classify conjunctions into two main types: !

Coordinating conjunctions, such as ‘for’, ‘and’, ‘nor’, ‘but’, ‘or’, ‘yet’, ‘so’, and so forth, are used to join independent clauses, as in the examples below:

Yesterday, the teacher asked a difficult question, and nobody was able to answer it. My brother had a bad fever two days ago, but he refused to go to any doctor. Get up early or you will miss the bus. The teacher did not come to the lecture yesterday nor did he give an excuse. The teacher neither came to the lecture yesterday nor gave an excuse. She has resigned from her job recently, so she will apply for a new job soon. All these compound sentences can be diagrammed as follows where S stands for the word ‘sentence’ and Conj for the word ‘conjunction’:

Conjunction

233

S1 S2

S3 Conj

As can be seen, each independent clause is as important as the other independent clause in a compound sentence. !

Subordinating conjunctions are used to join dependent clauses, as in the following examples:

As he was walking on the shore, he met his friend.

Approached from the ‘constituency theory’ in syntax, certain elements (i.e. words) are grouped together into larger structural units (i.e. phrases), which are, in turn, grouped together into larger units (clauses/sentences) and so on (cf. O’Grady 1997: 185). These dependent clauses indicated by S2 standing for ‘sentence 2’ are parts of the main sentence indicated by S1. In terms of importance, they can be compared with other elements, such as the noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), etc. but they are not as important as the main clause. A tree diagram can make this point clear: S1 S2

NP Pro

VP Infl

V

NP Det -------- N

past, simple As he was walking on the shore

dependent clause

he

met -

Subject

Verb

his---------- friend Object

Following is another example where ‘so that she could buy a new t-shirt’ is a dependent clause grouped with the verb phrase (VP) of the main clause. finite clause

She went to the mall so that she could buy a new t-shirt. NP _____________------_______

VP

234

Chapter Eight

It is worth noting that the dependent clause ‘so that she could buy a new tshirt’ can be changed to another dependent clause, such as ‘in order to buy a new t-shirt’, which is a non-finite clause, without changing the meaning: non-finite clause

She went to the mall in order to buy a new t-shirt. NP

VP

S1 NP Pro

VP Infl

V

PP P

past, simple

She

went-----to

Subject

Verb

S2 NP

Det ---- N the ----mall Adv of Place

--------

so that she could buy a new t-shirt in order to buy a new t-shirt

dependent clause

Subordinating conjunctions are known by the modern grammarians as ‘conjunctive adverbs’. Some common categories of conjunctive adverbs (adapted from Collins Cobuild English Grammar 1990: 342-62; see also Almanna 2016a: 133-134) are: !

Adverbial clause of reason begins with ‘as’, ‘since’, ‘because’, etc.

!

Adverbial clause of purpose begins with ‘so that’, ‘in order that’, ‘lest’, etc.

!

Adverbial clause of result begins with ‘so that’, ‘so’, etc.

!

Adverbial clause of time begins with ‘before’, ‘after’, ‘as’, ‘while’, ‘since’, ‘as soon as’, ‘whenever’, ‘till’, ‘until’, etc.

!

Adverbial clause of concession begins with ‘although’, ‘though’, ‘even though’, ‘however’, ‘whenever’, etc.

!

Adverbial clause of place begins with ‘where’, ‘wherever’, etc.

Conjunction

235

!

Adverbial clause of comparison begins with ‘as … as’, ‘not as (so) … as’, etc.

!

Adverbial clause of condition begins with ‘if’, ‘unless’, ‘whether … not’, etc.

!

Adverbial clause of manner begins with ‘as’, ‘as if’, ‘as though’, ‘like’, etc.

Arabic does have the potential resources for accommodating all English connectives shown above to indicate the different relationships between discourse units. Consulting an English-Arabic dictionary, for example AlMawrid, one can easily find their equivalents in Arabic. However, it is worth noting that de-contextualizing the original conjunctive element, and translating it literally by relying on its dictionary meaning may distort the relationship itself between the two chunks of information, shift viewpoint via changing the line of argumentation, and strike the target-language reader as unusual.

2 Addition The addition relationship is normally conveyed by the following additive connectors: Single words

and, then, also, moreover, further, furthermore, besides, similarly, too, either, nor, neither

With ‘that’

after that, in addition to that, on top of that

Correlative conjunction

… not only …, but also … … neither … nor …

With non-finite clauses

as well as, besides, in addition to, on top of

In Arabic, to add information, language users can use one of the following additive connectors, depending on the context:

‫ﺎ‬

‫ أ‬،‫ﺎ أن‬

،‫ﺎ‬

، ‫ﻟ‬

،‫ أم‬،‫ أو‬، ّ ‫ ﺜ‬،‫ ﻓـ‬،‫و‬

‫ ز ﺎدة ﻋﻠﻰ‬، ‫ ﻋﻼوة ﻋﻠﻰ ذﻟ‬، ‫ ﻓ ق ذﻟ‬، ‫ ﻌ ذﻟ‬، ‫أﻀﻒ إﻟﻰ ذﻟ‬ ، ‫ﺎﻹﻀﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ ذﻟ‬ ْ ‫ إﻟﻰ ﺠﺎﻨ ذﻟ‬، ‫ ﻓ ﻼً ﻋ ذﻟ‬، ‫زد ﻋﻠﻰ ذﻟ‬ ْ ، ‫ذﻟ‬

236

Chapter Eight

... ‫ وﻻ‬... ‫ ﻻ‬، ‫ﻛ ﻟ‬/‫ أ ً ﺎ‬... ‫ ﺒﻞ‬،

‫ ﻓ‬... (‫ﻻ‬/ ‫ﻟ )ﻟ‬

To illustrate, let us discuss the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ ﻗﺴﻤﺘﻲ وﻧﺼﯿﺒﻲ‬Qismati and Nasibi’ by Mahfouz (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 120-1):

‫ ﻓ ﻒ‬، ‫ وﻻ ﻏ ﻰ ﻷﺤ ﻫ ﺎ ﻋ اﻵﺨ‬، ‫أﺤ ﻫ ﺎ اﻵﺨ‬

:‫داﻤﻌﺔ‬

‫اﻷم ﻌ‬

‫ ﻻ‬،‫ﺎ و ﻠﻲ‬

‫ﻲ ﺒﻬ ﺎ اﻟ ﺎة؟‬

‫وﻗﺎﻟ‬

~ ‫ﺘ‬

Tearfully, their mother said: “My God, they cannot stand each other, yet neither can live without the other. How can they go through life like this?” In the above example, the writer uses a verbal process where ‫‘ اﻷم‬the mother’ is the Sayer, ‫‘ ﻗﺎل‬said’ is the process of saying and a Verbiage, that is, what the mother said. In the Verbiage, ‫ ﻻ ﻏﻨﻰ ﻷﺣﺪھﻤﺎ ﻋﻦ اﻵﺧﺮ‬is an addition to what has been previously mentioned, that is, ‫ﻻ ﯾﻄﯿﻖ أﺣﺪھﻤﺎ‬ ‫اﻵﺧﺮ‬. To maintain such an additive relationship, the translators have opted for the use of ‘neither…’ which requires the two clauses they link to be negative. ‘Neither’ used by the translators can be replaced by ‘nor’, as in ‘they cannot stand each other, nor can they live without the other’. To reinforce this point, following is another example taken from a short story titled ‫‘ ﺷﻌﻮر اﻷﺳﻼف‬Ancestral Hair’ by Salwa Bakr (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 206-7):

‫ ﺒﻞ إﻨﻬﺎ ﺘ‬، ‫ﻓﻘ‬

‫ﺼ رﻫﺎ وﺼ ر ﻋﺎﺌﻠ ﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﺎﺌ‬ .‫ﻤ أر ﺎن ﺒ ﻬﺎ‬

‫أﻨﻬﺎ ﻻ ﺘﻌّﻠ‬

‫ﻟﻘ اﻛ ﻔ‬

‫ﺘﺎر ﻬﺎ اﻟﻌﺎﺌﻠﻲ ﻓﻲ ّﻞ ر‬

I soon discovered that she had not only hung her and her family’s pictures on the wall, but also that her family’s history was to be found in every corner of her flat. Here, a mental process ‫‘ اﻛﺘﺸﻔﺖ‬I discovered’ is employed by the writer and reflected by the translators. In the original text ... ‫ إﻧﮭﺎ ﺗﻨﺸﺮ ﺗﺎرﯾﺨﮭﺎ اﻟﻌﺎﺋﻠﻲ‬is an addition to what has been previously mentioned, that is, ‫ﻻ ﺗﻌﻠﻖ ﺻﻮرھﺎ‬ ‫وﺻﻮر ﻋﺎﺋﻠﺘﮭﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺤﺎﺋﻂ‬. Such an additive relationship has been reflected by the translators when they have opted for ‘not only …, but also …’.

Conjunction

237

EX: Translate the following sentences/short texts followed by certain notes, paying extra attention to the conjunctions used.

‫درس اﻟ ﺎﻀ ﺎت ﻓﻲ ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻟ ن وﺤ ﻞ‬ َ ّ ‫ ﺜ‬.‫درس اﻟﻔ ﺎء ﻓﻲ ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ اﻟ ة‬ َ .‫ ﺘﻌّ أﺴ ﺎ ًذا ﻓﻲ ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ ﻐ اد‬، ‫ ﻌ ذﻟ‬. ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺸﻬﺎدة اﻟ ﺎﺠ‬

~

!

In this example, the connectors ‫ ﺛ ّﻢ‬and ‫ ﺑﻌﺪ ذﻟﻚ‬can be rendered into ‘then subsequently’ and ‘after that’ respectively.

!

The verb ‫ ﺗﻌﯿّﻦ‬lends itself to ‘he was appointed/hired …’.

~

I like reading detective stories as well as romantic ones.

!

The additive connector ‘as well as’ can be replaced with ‘in addition to’, ‘besides’, etc. They can be rendered as ‫وﻛﺬﻟﻚ‬, ‫ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ‬ ‫إﻟﻰ‬, etc. Further, one may go for

.... ‫ ﻓﺈن‬،... ‫ﺎﻹﻀﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ‬ !

The expression ‘detective stories’ can be translated into ‫ﻗﺼﺺ‬

‫ﺑﻮﻟﯿﺴﯿﺔ‬. ~

Linguists have disagreed in defining translation, as to whether it is an art or a science. Similarly, they have disagreed in determining which form of translation is better: literal or free translation.

!

The verb ‘to disagree’ can be translated as ‫ ﯾﺨﺘﻠﻒ‬in place of the formal equivalent ‫ﻻ ﯾﺘﻔﻖ‬. When we opt for ‫ﯾﺨﺘﻠﻒ‬, there will be an example of ‘modulation’.

!

The expression ‘as to whether’ can be translated as ‫ﻓﯿﻤﺎ إذا‬.

!

The word ‘similarly’, which can be replaced with ‘in a similar vein’, can be translated as ‫ ﻛﻤﺎ‬or something similar.

!

The additive connector ‘or’ can be rendered here as ‫أم‬.

238

Chapter Eight

~

The subject matter of this conference is not confined to assessment of efforts only, but includes the drawing up of a comprehensive strategy as well.

!

In translating ‘not … only, but … as well’, try to use

. ‫ﻛ ﻟ‬/‫ أ ً ﺎ‬... ‫ ﺒﻞ‬،

‫ ﻓ‬... ‫ﻻ‬

!

The phrase ‘subject matter’ can be rendered here as ‫ﻣﻮﺿﻮع‬.

!

The expression ‘to be confined to’ or sometimes ‘to confine oneself to’ can be translated into ‫ ﯾﻘﺘﺼﺮ‬or ‫ﯾﻨﺤﺼﺮ‬.

~

He was not only working in the media, but was working as a university lecturer as well.

!

In English, after some connectors, such as ‘and’ and ‘but’, the subject can be deleted when it refers to the same subject used in the previous clause. This is an example of ‘ellipsis’, a linguistic phenomenon that occurs regularly in English.

!

Attention needs to be paid to the verb tense/aspect as the emphasis is on the continuity of the action in a specified period in the past in both clauses: ‘was working’ and ‘was working’. They can be respectively rendered as

... ‫ﯿ اول ﻤﻬ ﺔ‬

‫ ﻟ‬/‫ﻌ ﻞ‬

‫ﻟ‬

.... ‫ﻛﺎن ﯿ اول ﻤﻬ ﺔ‬/‫ﻛﺎن ﻌ ﻞ‬

EX: Translate the following sentences, paying extra attention to the connectors used: 1.

He had worked in different roles: first as a lawyer and then as a judge. On top of that, he had been working as a journalist for one of the Egyptian daily newspapers.

2.

The war between the two neighbouring countries has caused not only destruction and death but also generations of hatred between the two communities.

3.

Not only did she forget my birthday, but she also didn’t even apologize for forgetting it.

Conjunction

239

4.

Have you not realized that he told her implicitly that she was stupid? On top of that, he told her frankly that she was unfriendly.

5.

Apply for the job as soon as possible. Do not hesitate. As far as I know, several benefits are being offered in addition to the high salary that you’ll get.

6.

Besides the selection of good books, there is one other reason for his excellence in writing, for which he deserves unlimited credit.

EX: Evaluate the translation of the following text titled ‫اﻟﻘﻄﺎر اﻟﺼﺎﻋﺪ إﻟﻰ‬ ‫‘ ﺑﻐﺪاد‬The Train Heading up to Baghdad’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb translated by Pragnell and Sadkhan (2011: 10-11), paying extra attention to the additive connectors used: The train moved off sluggishly, as though it did not want to surprise those saying good-bye with its speed, having been so long at rest in the station.

ِ ‫ﺴﺎر‬ ‫اﻟﻘ ﺎر ﻤ ﺎﻗﻼً ﺄﻨﻪ ﻻ ﯿ ّد أن ُﻔﺎﺠﺊ‬ ‫ُ ﻋ ﻪ َﻌ ُرﻛ دﻩ اﻟ ﻞ ﻓﻲ‬ ‫اﻟ ُ ِّدﻋ‬ ‫اﻟ ّ ﺔ‬

From within, it started to let out hot water and thick steam furiously. This created a fearsome spectacle at the front that was intensified by the terror of its raucous and nauseating din. Its shrill whistle tore through the surrounding air.

ِ ِ ‫ﺤﺎر‬ ‫ﻤﺎء ًا‬ ً ، َ ،‫وﻗ أﺨ َ َﻘ ف ﻤ ﺠ ﻓﻪ‬ ‫ﺎر ًﻔﺎ ﺸ ﱠ َﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻤﻘ ﻤ ﻪ ﻤ ًا ُﻤﻔ ًﻋﺎ‬ ‫وُ ًا‬ ‫ و ﺎن‬،‫زادﺘﻪ رﻫ ﺔ ﻗﻌﻘﻌ ﻪ اﻟ ِ ﺔ اﻟ ﻘ ُ زة‬

I turned my head towards the city, and a dark open space came into my view, in which there shone far off, dreary gloomy street lamps that stretched their sickly shadows along the streets of Basra bustling with people.

‫أدرت أرﺴﻲ ﺼ ب اﻟ ﯿ ﺔ ِﻓﺎﻋ ﻀ‬ ُ ‫ﺒّ ﺔ ُﻤﻌ ﺔ ﺘﻠ ﻊ ﻓ ﻬﺎ ﻤ ﻌ‬ ‫ﻨ‬ ‫ﺔ ﺘ ّ ِ ﻼﻟﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﻤ ﺎﺒ ﺢ ﻤ ﺤ ﺔ‬ .‫ﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺸ ِارع اﻟ ة اﻟﻔّ ارة ﺎﻟ ﺎس‬ ‫اﻟ‬

My craning face was enveloped by a cold breeze; I shook with inward pleasure and with a shudder brought my head in, leaving the window wide-open to be buffeted by clouds of dark, far-

‫وﺠﻬﻲ اﻟ ُ ِّﻠﻊ‬ ‫وﺤﱠﻔ‬ ِ ‫ وأدﺨﻠ ُ راﺴﻲ‬،‫ﻏﺎﻤ ﺔ‬ ‫ ِﺒﻠ ّ ة‬، ُ ‫ِﻓﺎرﺘ ﻔ‬ ِ ِ ‫اﻟ ِﺎﻓ ة‬ ‫ﻓﺎﻏ ة ﺘ ﻼ َ ﻬﺎ‬ ُ ‫ﺎرِﺘﻌﺎش وﺘ‬ . ِ‫أﻨ ﺎم اﻟ د اﻟ ُ اﻤﻲ اﻟ ُ ﻠ‬

.‫ُﻐ ﱠ ﻪ‬

ِ ‫ﺎردة‬

‫ﻨ ﺔ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ﺼﻔ ﻩ اﻟ ﺎد َ ّ ق اﻟ‬

240

Chapter Eight

reaching cold. EX: The following two extracts are adapted from a collection of short stories titled ‫‘ راﺋﺤﺔ اﻟﺸﺘﺎء‬The Scent of Winter’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012). Complete the translation by using the appropriate connector: Text 1 The janitor stood at the door of the classroom. _________ he turned towards the school yard _________ raised his head towards the sky. _________ he found it overcast, he came back immediately to close the classroom doors. _________ he left. (pp. 16-7)

‫ﺎب اﻟ ّ ﻒ ﺜ‬ ‫وﻗﻒ اﻟﻔّاش ﻋ‬ ‫ِاﺴ َار ﻨ ﺴﺎﺤﺔ اﻟ رﺴﺔ ورﻓﻊ رأﺴﻪ‬ ‫ وﻟ ﺎ وﺠ ﻫﺎ ﻤ ﻬ ﺔ‬،‫إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﺎء‬

‫أﺒ اب‬

‫ﻐﻠ‬

‫ﻌ ﻠﺔ‬

.‫ف‬

‫ﺎﻟﻐ م ﻋﺎد‬ ِ‫ ﺜ اﻨ‬.‫اﻟ ﻔ ف‬

Text 2 The

woman

shut

the

window.

_________ she moved inside the room and sat down at a small table covered by a yellow sheet. _________ she opened the box, took out a pair of scissors and a needle and started to sew a button that had come off. (pp. 18-9)

‫ْ داﺨﻞ‬ ‫أﻏﻠﻘ ِ اﻟ أة اﻟ ﺎك ﺜ ﺘ‬ ‫ﺨﻠﻒ ﻤ ة ﺼﻐ ة‬ ‫اﻟﻐ ﻓﺔ وﺠﻠ‬ ِ ‫ ﻌ ذﻟ ﻓ‬. ‫ﻤ ة ﺸﻒ أﺼﻔ‬ ‫أت‬ ْ ‫وق وأﺨ ﺠ ْ ﻤﻘ ً ﺎ وﺒ ة و‬ .‫زر ﻤﻘ ًﻋﺎ‬ ‫ًا‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ﺘ‬

3 Clauses of concession Finite clauses of concession are commonly introduced by ‘though’, ‘although’, ‘even though’, etc. However, non-finite clauses are introduced by ‘in spite of’, ‘despite’, and so on, as shown below: With non-finite clauses

With

finite

clauses

in spite of, despite, with all, for all, notwithstanding (very formal) (‘but’

but,

yet,

however,

nevertheless,

Conjunction

241

group)

nonetheless

With finite clauses (‘though’ group)

though, although, even though, despite that, much as

In Arabic, clauses of concession are introduced by the following concessive elements:

... ‫ﻓﺈﻨﻪ‬/‫ إﻻ إﻨﻪ‬،... ‫ ﺎﻟ ﻏ ﻤ‬، ‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻏ ﻤ‬ ‫أن‬/‫إن‬

‫ ﻏ‬،‫أن‬/‫ ﺒ إن‬،‫أن‬/‫ إﻻ إن‬، ‫ ﻤﻊ ذﻟ‬،‫أن‬/‫ ﻤﻊ إن‬، ‫ﻟ‬

These concessive elements are used to signal the unexpected result in view of what has been mentioned before. By way of explanation, let us discuss the following example extracted from Hans Küng’s Book ‘Islam: Past, Present and Future’ (2007 cited in al-Shuraīqī 2016: 27-8): Although they were at first small in number, they had considerable significance, since they had a capital of tens of billions of US dollars. As can be observed, the writer utilizes two opposing or contrasting statements, that is, ‘they were at first small in number’ and ‘they had considerable significance’ combined by ‘although’. To use ‘in spite of’ or ‘despite’, for instance, we need to change the finite clause to a non-finite clause, as in: In spite of being small in number, they had considerable significance … This has been translated by al-Shuraīqī (ibid.) as:

‫ذات‬

‫اﻟ وﻻر‬

‫ إﻻ أﻨﻬﺎ ﺎﻨ‬،‫ﻬ رﻫﺎ‬

‫وﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻏ ﻤ أﻋ ادﻫﺎ اﻟﻘﻠ ﻠﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻔ ة اﻷوﻟﻰ ﻤ‬

‫ﻋﻠﻰ رأس ﻤﺎل ﻗ رﻩ ﻋ ات اﻟ ﻠ ﺎرات ﻤ‬

‫ﻠ‬

‫ة ﻌ ﻤﺎ ﺘ‬

‫أﻫ ﺔ‬

.‫اﻷﻤ ﻲ‬

242

Chapter Eight

EX: Translate the following sentences/short texts followed by certain notes, paying extra attention to the conjunctions used.

ِ ‫ﻘﻞ ﻤ ﺨ ًا‬ َ ‫ إﻻ إﻨﻪ اﻨ‬،‫ة‬

‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ن اﻟ‬

‫ﱡ اﻟﻌ‬

‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻏ ﻤ أﻨﻪ ﻻ‬

.‫ة ﻷﺴ ﺎب ﻋﺎﺌﻠ ﺔ‬

~

‫ﻟﻠﻌ ﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﯿ ﺔ‬

!

Here ‫ إﻻ إﻧﮫ‬،... ‫( ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ‬also ‫ ﻓﺈﻧﮫ‬،... ‫ )ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ‬lends itself to connectors, such as ‘although’, ‘though’, ‘but’, ‘however’, etc. However, note that in English one cannot use two connectors (unlike in Arabic, in which the second connector tends to be used with a ‘resumptive’ function). So, for example, it is wrong in English to say: ‘Although …, but …’.

!

Attention needs to be paid to tenses and aspects in the above sentence. While in the first clause the emphasis is put on an unchanging situation or general truth expressed by ّ‫ﻻ ﯾﺤﺐ‬, thus lending itself to a simple present tense ‘he does not like …’, the emphasis in the second clause is placed on the duration of the action of moving to a big city, thus triggering a ‘recently’ interpretation.

!

The expression ‫ ﻷﺳﺒﺎب ﻋﺎﺋﻠﯿﺔ‬can be translated as ‘for family reasons’.

~

She invited all her friends to her birthday party, yet nobody came.

!

Here, the connector ‘yet’ can be replaced with connectors such as ‘but’, ‘however’, ‘nevertheless’, etc. As such, it can be translated into ‫وﻟﻜﻦ‬, ‫ﻣﻊ ذﻟﻚ‬, ‫أن‬/‫ﻏﯿﺮ إن‬, ‫أن‬/‫إﻻ إن‬, and so forth, depending on the complement of the sentence.

~

I sold my house and my car in order to enrol at the university, but I could not pay the university fees.

!

The verb ‘to enrol’ (also spelt ‘to enroll’) means to become or make somebody a member of a club, school, college, university, etc. It lends itself to ‫ﯾﺴﺠّﻞ‬.

!

‘I could not’ lends itself to ‫ﻟﻢ أﺗﻤﻜﻦ‬, ‫ﻟﻢ ﯾﻜﻦ ﺑﻤﻘﺪوري‬, ‫ﻟﻢ أﺳﺘﻄﻊ‬, etc. (for more details, see Chapter 2).

Conjunction

243

!

The connector ‘in order to’ here can be replaced with ‘to’, ‘so as to’, or ‘with a view to’. They all lend themselves in Arabic to purpose particles, such as ‫ﻟـ‬, ‫ﻛﻲ‬, ‫ﻟﻜﻲ‬, ‫ﺑﻐﯿﺔ أن‬, ‫ﻣﻦ أﺟﻞ‬, etc.

!

While the connectors ‘to’, ‘in order to’, or ‘so as to’ are followed by the first form of the verb, ‘with a view to’ is followed by the first form of the verb plus ‘–ing’, as in:

I sold my house and my car with a view to enrolling at the university, but I could not pay the university fees.

‫ ﻓﺈﻨﻪ ﺘ ّ َ ﻤ إدارة اﻟﻘ‬، ‫ﺎﻟ ﻏ ﻤ ﻋ ِم ﺨ ِﺘ ِﻪ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌ ﻞ اﻹدار‬ ِ ِ .‫زﻤﻼﺌ ِﻪ‬ ‫ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺘ ِﻪ اﻟ ّ ﺔ ﻤﻊ‬ ‫ ﻤﻌ ً ا ﻋﻠﻰ‬، ٍ ‫ﻤﻠﻔ‬

‫ٍﻞ‬

~

!

As stated above, ... ‫ ﻓﺈﻧﮫ‬،.... ‫ ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ‬lends itself to one connector. As the connector ‫ ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ‬here is followed by a phrase ‫ﻋﺪم‬ ‫‘ﺧﺒﺮﺗﮫ‬his lack of experience’, it can be translated as ‘in spite of’ or ‘despite’ as these are both followed by phrases.

~

Iraq is one of the richest countries in the world. However, its people have been living in a state of poverty for three decades.

!

The expression ‘one of the’ + a superlative degree which is followed by a noun in a plural form takes a singular verb and lends itself to ‫ ﺻﯿﻐﺔ اﻟﺘﻔﻀﯿﻞ‬+ ‫واﺣﺪة ﻣﻦ‬/‫واﺣﺪ‬, as in:

One of the richest countries is … One of the best students is … One of the largest companies is … !

... ‫واﺣد ﻣن أﻏﻧﻰ اﻷﻗطﺎر‬ ... ‫واﺣد ﻣن أﻓﺿل اﻟطﻠﺑﺔ‬ ... ‫واﺣدة ﻣن أﻛﺑر اﻟﺷرﻛﺎت‬

The tense in the second sentence is present perfect continuous, in which the emphasis is shifted towards the duration of the described event or situation that began in the past and is seen as relevant to the present time and still in progress. In Arabic, such a tense/aspect lends itself to a present tense, that is, ‫ﯾﻌﯿﺶ‬, but the emphasis can be reflected by the word ‫‘ﻣﻨﺬ‬since’ in place of ‫ﻟﻤﺪة‬ ‘for (the period)’. Let us compare the above sentence with this next sentence in which a present perfect ‘have lived’ is used:

Iraq is one of the richest countries in the world. However, its people

244

Chapter Eight

have lived in a state of poverty for three decades. Here, the present perfect can be translated into a past tense, that is, ‫ ﻋﺎش‬along with ‫ ﻟﻤﺪة‬to reflect the emphasis which is put in the source text on the duration of the described event or situation that began in the past and is seen as relevant to the present time. ~

Despite his great skills, his name was not short listed.

!

Here, ‘despite his great skills’, which can be replaced with ‘for all his skills’, is an equivalent of ‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ‬, ‫ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ‬, etc.

~

In spite of state aid, the local governments are continuing to seek extra aid.

!

‘In spite of’ can be replaced with ‘despite’ or more formally with ‘notwithstanding’, as in:

Notwithstanding state aid, the local governments are continuing to seek extra aid. EX: Translate the following sentences into Arabic: 1.

Kuwait is considered to be America’s principal supplier of oil despite the decrease in its share of total American oil imports.

2.

Although he has gone to London for treatment three times, he has continued to suffer from shortness of breath.

3.

Iran had declared that it was determined to use its agricultural revenues to fund its nuclear programme. However, it has recently withdrawn its declaration.

4.

The crisis still remains and stagnation prevails throughout all sectors of the country’s economy despite the Egyptian government’s attempts to raise living standards.

5.

Security has been tightened for three years. Nonetheless, the city is still unsecured.

Conjunction

245

6.

Although the referee sent off the Brazilian goalkeeper 10 minutes before the end of the match, Brazil managed to withstand the Argentinian onslaught.

7.

Much as I would like to help, I have other work I must submit within these days.

EX: Translate the following text written for the purposes of this course into English:

‫ وﻟ ﻪ وﺠ َ أن ﺠ ﻊ اﻟ ت‬،‫ﺒ ًﺎ ﺼﻐ ًا ﺎﻟﻘ ب ﻤ اﻟ ﺎﻤﻌﺔ‬ ٍ ‫ ﻟ ا ﻗﱠ َر أن‬.‫ْ ﻤﺎ ﻔ ّ ﻋ ﻪ‬ ‫ وﻟ ﻪ ﻟ‬،‫ﻋﻘﺎر‬ ‫َﻞ ﺄﻛ ﻤ ﻤ‬ ِ . ٍ ‫ة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻏ ﻤ رﻏ ِ ﻪ ﻓﻲ ﺸ اء ﺒ‬

‫ﻗﱠ َر ﺼ ﻘﻲ أن‬ ِ ّ‫ اﺘ‬. ‫ﻏﺎﻟ ﺔ اﻟ‬ ‫ﺸﻘﺔ ﺼﻐ‬

EX: The original text is extracted from a collection of short stories titled ‫‘ ﻟﯿﺎﻟﻲ اﻟﺴﯿﺪ ﺳﻠﻤﺎن‬Nights of Mr Salman’ by Karīm ‘Abid (translated by and cited in Eric Winkel 2010: 14-5). Use the appropriate connector to complete his translation.

________ the affection flowing these last four hours at the café, and the reception and concern she got from me, ________ she didn’t recognize me.

‫ﺎ وﺘ ﺤ ﻲ واﻫ ﺎﻤﻲ‬

She kept on talking about her sorrows and sad memories, _______ she couldn’t connect them to me.

‫ّﻠ ْ ﺘ ّ ْث ﻋ أﺤ اﻨﻬﺎ وذ ﺎﺘﻬﺎ وﻟ ﻬﺎ‬ .‫ﻟ ﺘ ّ ﻤ ر ﻬ ﺎ ﺒﻲ‬ ّ

I supposed our extended breakups that recurred over the past three decades had muddled her memory. ________ I wasn’t prepared for it to go this far.

‫اﻟ ﺎﻋﺎت اﻷرﻊ اﻟ ﻲ‬

‫ﻏ‬

‫رﻏ اﻟ ّد اﻟ‬ ‫ﻗ ﺎﻫﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎﻓ‬

.‫ ﻟ ﻬﺎ ﻟ ﺘ ﻌّ ف ﻋﻠﻲ‬،‫ﺒﻬﺎ‬ ّ

‫ﻠﺔ اﻟ ﻲ‬

‫أن اﻨﻘ ﺎﻋﺎﺘ ﺎ اﻟ‬

‫اﻟﻌﻘ د اﻟ ﻼﺜﺔ اﻟ ﺎﻀ ﺔ ﻗ‬

ُ‫ﻀ‬ َ ‫اﻓ‬ ‫رت ﻋ‬ ْ ّ ‫ﺘ‬

‫ ﻟ ﻲ ﻟ أﻛ أﺘ ﻗﻊ أن‬،‫ذاﻛ ﺘﻬﺎ‬ . ‫ﻞ إﻟﻰ ﻫ ا اﻟ‬

‫اﻟﻼﻓ‬

‫أر‬

‫اﻷﻤ ﺴ‬

246

Chapter Eight

4 Clauses of reason Finite clauses of reason are most commonly introduced by ‘because’, ‘since’, ‘as’, and ‘seeing that’. However, non-finite clauses are normally introduced by ‘because of’, ‘due to’, ‘owing to’, ‘in view of’, ‘thanks to’, or without any conjunction, as in: With finite clauses

because, since, as, seeing that, now that

With non-finite clauses

because of, due to, owing to, in view of, thanks to, on account of

Correlative conjunction

As …, why don’t …

In Arabic, clauses of reason (be they finite or non-finite) are commonly introduced by ‫ﻷن‬, ‫ﺑﺴﺒﺐ‬, ‫ﻧﻈﺮا ﻟـ‬ ً , and so on, as in:

‫أن‬/‫ إذ إن‬،‫أن‬/‫إن‬

‫ ﺤ‬،‫ ﻔ ﻞ‬،‫ ﻨ ًا ﻟـ‬،

،‫ﻷن‬

... (‫ﻟ ﺎذا ﻻ‬/‫ ﻓـ)ﻟ َ ﻻ‬... ‫أن‬/‫ﺎ إن‬ To illustrate, let us discuss the following text extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ واﺧﺰﯾﺎه‬What a Shame’ by Samīra al-Māni‘ (translated by and cited in Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009: 132-3):

‫ة‬

‫ ﯿ اﻗ ﺎن ﺸﺎﺸﺔ اﻟ ﻠﻔ ن اﻟ‬.‫ ﻌ أن رأﺘﻪ وﺤ ً ا ﻤ ﺤ ًار‬،‫ﻠ ﺠﺎﻟ ﺔ ﻤﻌﻪ ﻟﻠ ﺎﻤﻠﺔ‬ .‫أﻤﺎﻤﻬ ﺎ و ّ ﺜﺎن‬

In the original text, ‫‘ ﺑﻌﺪ أن‬after’ can be replaced with ‫‘ ﻷن‬because’ without changing the semantic effect. Having given full consideration to the intended meaning of ‫ﺑﻌﺪ أن‬, the translators have opted for ‘seeing that’, thus maintaining the relationship between the two clauses, as in: She remained sitting with him out of courtesy, seeing that he was lonely and dejected. Both of them watched the bright television screen in front of them as they spoke.

Conjunction

247

EX: Translate the following sentences/short texts followed by certain notes, paying extra attention to the conjunctions used.

‫ﺎﻋ ة‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫أﻟ ﺔ اﻟﻠﻬ‬

ِ ‫اﻟ ارس‬ ‫اﻻﺒ اﺌ ﺔ‬

‫ِاﺨ َ ﻋ د ﻤ أ ﻔﺎل إﺤ‬ . ‫ﻤ ﻤ ﺎن اﻟ‬

~

!

The verb ‫اِﺧﺘﻨﻖ‬, which is in the active form, lends itself to a passive form ‘X was/were suffocated’.

!

The expression ‫ إﺣﺪى اﻟﻤﺪارس ا ِﻻﺑﺘﺪاﺋﯿﺔ‬can be rendered into ‘one of the primary schools’.

!

The connector ‫ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ‬can be translated as ‘because of’, ‘due to’, ‘owing to’, or just the preposition ‘by’.

!

The phrase ‫ أﻟﺴﻨﺔ اﻟﻠﮭﺐ اﻟﻤﺘﺼﺎﻋﺪة ﻣﻦ ﻣﻜﺎن اﻟﺤﺮﯾﻖ‬can be translated into ‘the flames emitted from the fire’.

~

Study hard today since you might not be able to do so tomorrow.

!

Here, the connector ‘since’ can be replaced with ‘because’ or ‘as’. They all are followed by a clause, that is, a subject + a tensed verb; and they all lend themselves to ‫ﻷن‬.

!

Further, in the second clause ‘you might not be able…’, likelihood and ability are expressed by ‘might’ and ‘be able to’ respectively – they can be translated as

... ~ !

‫ن ِﺎﺴ ﺎﻋ‬

‫ﻞ أﻻ‬

ُ / ‫ن ﺈﻤ ﺎﻨ‬

‫ ر ﺎ ﻻ‬/‫ن ﻘ ورك‬

‫ﻗ ﻻ‬

All flights into Heathrow have been delayed due to thick fog. As can be seen, the tense in the above sentence, which is in the passive voice expressed by ‘have been delayed’, is present perfect. It can be translated into:

... ‫ﺘ ّ ﺘﺄﺠ ﻞ ﺠ ﻊ اﻟ ﺤﻼت‬ ... ‫أُ ِّﺠﻠ ْ ﺠ ﻊ اﻟ ﺤﻼت‬

248

Chapter Eight

!

Here, the connector ‘due to’ which is followed by a phrase, can be replaced with ‘because of’, ‘owing to’, thus lending itself to ‫ﺑﺴﺒﺐ‬ or ‫ﻧﻈﺮا ﻟـ‬ ً . In order to change it to ‘because’, ‘as’, or ‘since’, you need to change the phrase ‘thick fog’ to a clause, such as ‘there has been thick fog’, as in:

All flights into Heathrow have been delayed because there has been thick fog.

.‫ة ﻤ ﻀ ﺴﻲ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ﺴﻘ‬

‫ﻋﻠﻲ ﻤ اﺠﻌﺔ أﻗ ب ﻋ ﺎدة أﺴ ﺎن‬ ّ

~

!

Here, the modalized preposition ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ‬is used to express necessity, thus lending itself to ‘have to’, and the like.

!

The connector ‫ﺑﺴﺒﺐ‬, which is followed by a phrase, can be rendered by connectors such as ‘because of’, ‘due to’, ‘owing to’, etc.

!

When the noun ‫ ﻣﺮاﺟﻌﺔ‬is translated into a verb, such as ‘to go’, ‘to visit’, and so forth, then there will be a ‘class shift’, that is, changing the parts of speech.

!

The word ‫ ﺣﺸﻮة‬lends itself to ‘filling’.

~

The patient’s life was saved thanks to the doctor’s skill.

!

Here, a passive voice in the simple past tense, expressed by ‘was saved’, is used. As such, it can be translated by using either ‫ﺗ ّﻢ‬ followed by a noun ‫ اِﻧﻘﺎذ‬or just a simple past tense in the passive voice ْ‫أُﻧ ِﻘﺬت‬.

!

The connector ‘thanks to’, which can be replaced with ‘because of’, has a positive overtone here, thus lending itself to ‫ ﺑﻔﻀﻞ‬or just ‫ﺑﺴﺒﺐ‬. However, when it has a negative overtone, it lends itself to ‫ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ‬only. Consider the following example:

Thanks to the storm, we did not have electricity last night.

Conjunction

249

EX: Translate the following sentences into Arabic: 1.

Thanks to a variety of domestic political changes, Iraq has been suffering from a great number of problems.

2.

In view of his long service to the university, he was appointed as a head of the English department.

3.

I had to escort my father on his trip to Germany since he cannot speak German.

4.

Seeing that she’s coming to class anyhow, I decided not to take notes for her.

5.

As you are in need of money to buy a house, why don’t you take out a loan or sell your car?

6.

The market in the Gulf region has deteriorated recently because of the strict import controls that have been imposed by various governments.

7.

I won’t invite my neighbour to my birthday party in view of his silly behaviour.

8.

She told off her son because he had behaved badly at the party.

9.

All shops were shut since it was a public holiday.

10. We hope to see much more of you now that you’re living around here. 11. We should invite all our friends seeing as we have already prepared everything. 12. The party was cancelled on account of bad weather conditions. EX: Translate the following text written for the purposes of this course into English, paying extra attention to the connectors used:

ِ ‫ﻨ ا ﻟ ِة ِاﻟ‬ ‫غ ﻌ‬ َ ّ‫ ﻗﱠ َر أن ﻘ َﻞ ﻋ ﻋ ﻠِ ِﻪ و ﻔ‬،‫اﻤﺎﺘ ِﻪ اﻟﻌﺎﺌﻠ ﺔ‬ ً ‫إذ ﱠ‬ ‫ اﻷﻤ اﻟ ِاﻀ ﱠﻩُ أن ﺄﺠ َ ﺸّﻘ ًﺔ ﻗ ًﺔ ﻤ‬.‫إن ﻋ َﻠ ُﻪ اﻟ ﺎﻟﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﯿ ٍﺔ ﻌ ٍة ﺠ ً ا‬ ِ ‫ﺎن ﻋ ﻠِ ِﻪ و ﺎﻓ إﻟﻰ ﻋﺎﺌﻠِ ِﻪ ﻓﻲ ﻋ‬ ِ ‫ﻨ‬ ِ ‫ﻤ‬ ‫ﺎﺤ ِﻪ ﻓﻲ‬ ، ‫ وﻟ‬. ‫ﻠﺔ ﻨﻬﺎ ِﺔ اﻷﺴ ِع ﻓﻘ‬ َ ٍ ‫ﻋ ﻠِ ِﻪ ﻟ ﺘﻘ ﻞ ِاﺴ ﻘﺎﻟ ﻪ ﻬ‬ .‫ﻟﺔ‬ ُُ ُّْ

‫اﻟ ﻲء إﻟﻰ أُﺴ ِﺘ ِﻪ؛‬

250

Chapter Eight

EX: Complete the translations of the following texts taken from different literary sources. When she felt that her wings could not carry her _________ hunger, she stopped at the river and sat on a small rock near the bank. She looked at the river and started talking to it:

‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺤ ﻠِﻬﺎ‬

‫ﻬﺎ ﻻ ﺘﻘ‬

‫أن أﺠ‬ ّ ْ ّ ‫ﻟ ّ ﺎ أﺤ‬ ‫ ﺘ َ ّﻗﻔ ْ ﻋ اﻟ ﻬ وﺠﻠ ْ ﻋﻠﻰ‬،‫اﻟ ع‬ ِ ‫ ﻨ ْت إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﻬ‬.‫ﺼ ٍة ﺼﻐ ٍة ُﻗ َب ﻀﻔ ﻪ‬ :‫أت ﺘُ ﺎﺠ ﻪ‬ ْ ‫و‬

(“‫ ﻗ ﺔ ”اﻟﻔ اﺸﺔ واﻟ ﻫ ة‬، ‫)زﻫ اء ﻨﺎﺼ‬ Joyce’s ghost strolls between the trees down a deserted street, leaning on his stick. He continually adjusts his hat _________ the wind is about to blow it away.

‫اﻷﺸ ﺎر ﻓﻲ‬

‫ﯿ ّل ﺒ‬ ،‫اﻟ ﺎس ﻤﻌ ً ا ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋ ﺎزﺘﻪ‬

‫ ﻷن اﻟ ﺢ‬،‫ّ ﻗ ﻌ ﻪ ﻓ ق رأﺴﻪ‬ (“

Suddenly, my little girl whispered: “Daddy. Be a king!”

‫ﺠ‬

‫ﻛﺎن ﺸ ﺢ ﺠ‬

‫ﺸﺎرع ﺨﺎل ﻤ‬

‫وﻓﻲ ّﻞ ﻤ ة‬ .‫ﺘ ﺎد ﺘ ﺢ ﺒﻬﺎ‬

‫ ﻗ ﺔ ”ﺠ‬،‫زﻓ اف‬

ْ ُ .. ‫ ﺎ ﺎ‬:‫ﺼﻐ ﺘﻲ وﺤ ﺘﻲ‬

‫)ﻤ‬ ‫ﻓ ﺄة ﻫ‬ .‫ِﻤﻠ ً ﺎ‬

‫وﻷﻨﻲ ﻻ أﺠ ﺴ أن أﻛ ن ﻠًﺎ أو ﻗ ًدا أو‬ being a dog, a monkey, or a cat, I ‫ﻠﺔ‬ ‫ﻗ ﺔ ﻓﻘ ﻘ ﻤ ﻬ ﺘًﺎ ﻟﻠ ﺎت ﻟ‬ remained stunned for a short _________ I was only good at while. This was a new game that we hadn’t played before. _________ I love her to death and hope that she can forget the pains in her belly, I thus became a king …

‫ﻗ ﻞ؛ وﻷﻨﻲ‬ ‫ﻬﺎ‬

‫ﻫ ﻩ ﻟﻌ ﺔ ﺠ ﯿ ة ﻟ ﻨﻠﻌ ﻬﺎ ﻤ‬

‫أﻤ ت ﺒﻬﺎ ﺤ ﺎ وأﺘ ﻰ أن ﺘ ﻰ آﻻم‬ .‫ﻓﻘ ﺼ ُت ﻤﻠ ً ﺎ ﻫ ا‬

(“‫ﻪ اﻟﻘ ﺔ‬

‫ ﻗ ﺔ ”ﻤﺎ‬، ‫)وراد ﺒ ر اﻟ ﺎﻟ‬

Conjunction

251

5 Clauses of purpose In English, there are two types of clauses of purpose. They are: ! !

finite clauses of purpose introduced by ‘so that’ or ‘in order that’, and non-finite clauses which are usually infinitival introduced by ‘in order to’, ‘so as to’, ‘to’, and the like.

However, when the clause of purpose (be it finite or non-finite) has a negative meaning, it is normally introduced by ‘for fear that’, ‘for fear of’, ‘lest’, and so on. in order that, so that, lest, for fear that, on the ground(s) that …

With finite clauses

With non-finite clauses

to, in order to, so as to, with a view to, in search of, for fear of, for the purpose of, in hope(s) of, with the aim of, on the ground(s) of …

In Arabic, clauses of purpose are introduced by the following:

،‫ ﻟ ﻼ‬،‫ ﻟ ﻼ‬،‫ﻼ‬

،‫ ﻐ ﺔ أن‬،‫ ﺴﻌًﺎ‬،‫ ًﺎ‬،‫ﻟﻌﻞ‬ ّ ،‫ﻋﻞ‬ ّ ،‫ ﻤ أﺠﻞ‬،‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬،‫ ﻟ ﻲ‬،‫ ﻲ‬،‫ﻟـ‬ ،( ‫ﻤ‬/‫ ﻤ ﺎﻓﺔ )أن‬،( ‫ﻤ‬/‫ ﺨ ًﻓﺎ )أن‬،‫ ﻋﻠﻰ أﻤﻞ‬،‫ ﺒﻬ ف‬،‫ ﻟﻐ ض‬،‫ ﻐ ض‬،‫ ﺒ رﻌﺔ‬،‫ﺔ‬ ... ( ‫ﻤ‬/‫ﺨ ﺔ )أن‬

To illustrate, let us discuss the following text extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ ﺻﻔﺤﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺘﺎب اﻟﻤﻮﺗﻰ‬Excerpt from The Book of The Dead’ by Ibrāhīm al-Faqīh (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 867):

‫ﻲء ﻤﺎ اﻋ اﻩ ﻤ‬

‫ﺸ ًﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻤﻼﻤ ﻬﺎ‬

‫إﻟ ﻬﺎ ﻋّﻠﻪ‬

‫ق اﻟ‬

‫ﻋﺎد ﻤ ﺠ ﯿ‬

.‫ﺤ ة وذﻫ ل‬

Once again he glanced over at her, and noticed something in her features that shed light on what had baffled him. As can be seen, by the effect of ‫ﻋﻠﮫ‬, the scope of intention is greater than the extent of causation. However, in the target text, the translators have imposed different specifications on the scene when opting for the additive

252

Chapter Eight

connector ‘and’, thereby emphasizing the completion of the act of noticing at a specific point in the past. Had they given adequate consideration to the scope of intention and extent of causation, they would have suggested a rendering, such as ‘Once again he glanced over at her in an attempt to notice something in her features that shed light on what had baffled him’. To elaborate, the following two examples extracted from a collection of short stories titled ‫‘ أﻣﻮت ﻛ ّﻞ ﯾﻮم‬I Die Every Day’ by ‘Alī Muhammad alJa‘kī (translated by and cited in Zagood and Pragenll 2017: 90) can be examined:

‫ت اﻟ ﻠ‬

‫أذﻨﻲ ﻋ اﻟ‬

‫ وأﻏﻠ‬، ‫ء اﻟ ﻌ‬

‫أﻓ ﻌﻞ زوا ﻊ ﻤ اﻷﺼ ات اﻟ ﺎز ﺤ ﻰ‬

‫ أر اﻟ‬،‫ﻓﻲ ﺤﺎﻟﺔ ﺘ ﯿ ﺘﺎم‬

‫ ﻟ ﻲ ﻛ‬،‫خ ﺒﻲ‬

‫ﻛ‬

‫ ﻛﺎن‬... ‫ﺒ اﺨﻠﻲ‬ ...

As can be seen, a clause of purpose introduced by ‫‘ ﺣﺘﻰ‬in order to’ is used by the writer. In this non-finite clause of purpose, the scope of intention is greater than the extent of causation. This has been reflected by the translators when they have opted for ‘in order to’: I was in a state of complete numbness. I was able to see a light in the distance but I closed my ears to my true voice inside. It was screaming to me, but I was making waves of noise in order to silence it. (pp. 90-1) In the following example, a non-finite clause of purpose introduced by ‫ﻛﻲ‬ ‘in order to’ is employed by the writer. Again, in this clause of purpose the scope of intention is greater than the extent of causation as it is not asserted that he helped his guts bring up what they have.

‫ ﻛﻲ أﺴﺎﻋ أﺤ ﺎﺌﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ إﺨ اج ﻤﺎ ﺒﻬﺎ‬،‫ﺎﻷﻏ ﺎن اﻟ ﺎﻓﺔ‬

‫ﯿ ﻓﻌ ﻲ اﻟﻘﻲء إﻟﻰ اﻟ‬ .

‫ﻤ ﺠ‬

Being fully aware of the scope of intention and extent of causation, the translators have opted for a finite clause of purpose introduced by ‘so that’ where the scope of intention is greater than the extant of causation. Vomiting forces me to cling on the dry branches so that I can help my guts bring up the hell that they hold. (pp. 120-1)

Conjunction

253

EX: Translate the following sentences/short texts followed by certain notes, paying extra attention to the conjunctions used.

َ ‫ أﻤﺎ ﻫ ﻓ ﺎﻓ‬،‫ ﻷﻨ ﻲ ﺴﺎﻓ ُت إﻟﻰ أورﺎ ﺴﻌًﺎ وراء اﻟ ﻌ ﻓﺔ‬،‫ﺎﻤﺎ‬ ً ‫ﻨ ﻤ ﻠﻔﺎن ﺘ‬ .‫ًﺎ ﻋ ﻓ ﺼﺔ ﻋ ٍﻞ‬

~

!

Here the purpose connectors ‫ ﺳﻌﯿًﺎ‬and ‫ ﺑﺤﺜًﺎ‬can be translated as ‘in search of’, ‘looking for’, etc.

!

The word ‫ أﻣﺎ‬here lends itself to ‘as for’, ‘with respect to’, ‘in respect of’, etc. or just ‘however’.

.‫ص‬

‫ﻗﻬﺎ اﻟﻠ‬

ِ ‫ف ﺨ ّﺔ أن‬

‫وﻀﻊ ﺠ َﻊ ﻨﻘ ِدِﻩ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬ َ

~

!

Here, the connector ‫ ﺧﺸﯿّﺔ أن‬can be rendered as ‘for fear that…’ or ‘for fear of …’. The difference between them is that the former is followed by a finite clause while the latter is followed by a nonfinite clause.

~

She woke up early for fear of missing the first lecture.

!

As can be seen, the connector ‘for fear of’ is followed by a phrase ‘missing the first lecture’. It can be translated into ‫ﻣﻦ‬/‫ ﻣﺨﺎﻓﺔ أن‬or ‫ﻣﻦ‬/‫ﺧﺸﯿﺔ أن‬. To replace it with ‘for fear that’, you need to change the phrase ‘missing the first lecture’ to a clause, that is, a subject + a tensed verb, as in:

She woke up early for fear that she might miss the first lecture. ~

He often changes his address so that the police cannot find him.

!

The adverb of frequency ‘often’ which is the equivalent of ‫ﻏﺎﻟﺒًﺎ ﻣﺎ‬ can be placed at the beginning. Placing ‫ ﻏﺎﻟﺒًﺎ ﻣﺎ‬at the beginning will help to make the sentence more readable.

!

The connector ‘so that’, which is followed by a clause containing a modal verb, such as ‘can’, ‘could’, etc., can be translated into ‫ﻣﺨﺎﻓﺔ أن‬, ‫ﺧﺸﯿﺔ أن‬, ‫ﻛﯿﻼ‬, and so forth, depending on the complement of the sentence.

254

Chapter Eight

~

I wrote down all the doctor’s instructions lest I should forget them.

!

The phrasal verb ‘to write down’ lends itself to ‫ﯾﺪون‬/‫ن‬ ‫دو‬ ّ ّ .

!

Attention needs to be paid to the connector ‘lest’ in terms of meaning and use. In terms of meaning, it has a negative overtone (i.e. it means ‘so that … not’), thus lending itself to ‫ﻛﯿﻼ‬, ‫ﻟﻜﯿﻼ‬, ‫ﻟﺌﻼ‬, etc. Regarding its use in English, it is normally followed by the modal verb ‘shall/should’, but sometimes used without. In translating the modal verb ‘shall/should’ into Arabic, it is ignored.

~

He withdrew from the election for fear that he might not obtain votes in his constituency.

!

The word ‘vote’ lends itself to ‫ ﺻﻮت‬which collocates well with verbs such as ‫ﯾﺤﺼﺪ‬, ‫ﯾﺤﺼﻞ‬, and the like.

!

The word ‘constituency’ can be rendered as ‫داﺋﺮة اِﻧﺘﺨﺎﺑﯿﺔ‬.

~

He visits the dentist from time to time so as to have his teeth checked.

!

Here, the connector ‘so as to’ can be replaced with ‘to’ or ‘in order to’, thus lending itself to ‫ﻟـ‬, ‫ﻛﻲ‬, ‫ ﻟﻜﻲ‬etc.

!

In English, there is a difference between ‘to have his teeth checked by somebody else’ and ‘he checked them by himself’. In the above example, there is an implicit doer, that is, ‘a dentist’ that can be added in this way:

He visits the dentist from time to time so as to have his teeth checked (by the dentist). In Arabic, however, we say ‫ ﯾﻔﺤﺺ أﺳﻨﺎﻧﮫ‬in both cases.

‫ إﻻ إﻨ ﻲ ﻟ أﺘﻌّﻠ إﻻ‬،‫ﻲ أﺘﻌّﻠ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﻔ ﻨ ﺔ‬

‫ﻟﻘ ﻋ ُ ﻓﻲ ﻓ ﻨ ﺎ ﻟ ِة ﺴ‬ .‫اﻟ ﻲء اﻟﻘﻠ ﻞ ﻤ ﻬﺎ‬

~

Conjunction

255

!

The connector ‫ ﻛﻲ‬can be translated into ‘to’, ‘in order to’, or ‘so as to’.

!

The connector ‫( إﻻ إن‬also ‫ )إﻻ أن‬lends itself here to ‘however’.

~

The minister of finance held a press conference after his meeting with the head of the Chamber of Commerce in order to shed light on the most important steps that the ministry would take over the next few months.

!

Here, the noun ‘conference’ ‫ ﻣﺆﺗﻤﺮ‬collocates well with the adjective ‘press’ ‫ ﺻﺤﻔﻲ‬and the verb ‘to hold’ ‫ﯾﻌﻘﺪ‬/‫ﻋﻘﺪ‬.

!

The connector ‘in order to’, which is followed by a phrase, lends itself to ‫ﻛﻲ‬, ‫ﻟﻜﻲ‬, ‫ﻟـ‬, and so on.

!

The expression ‘to shed light on’, which is a synonym of ‘to cast light on’, lends itself to ‫ﯾﺴﻠﻂ اﻟﻀﻮء ﻋﻠﻰ‬.

!

The expressions ‘minister of finance’ and ‘chamber of commerce’ can be translated as ‫ وزﯾﺮ اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬and ‫ ﻏﺮﻓﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة‬respectively.

!

The verb ‘to take’ in this context can be translated as ‫ ﯾﺘ ّﺨﺬ‬or ‫ﯾﺘﺒﻨّﻰ‬.

EX: Translate the following sentences into Arabic: 1.

Kuwait decided to strengthen the bilateral relations between the two countries so as to enhance regional security.

2.

The Union of Chambers of Commerce in Saudi Arabia asked all chambers in the Kingdom to instigate field studies of their industries, which are to be submitted to the Ministry of Industry in order to be the basis for developing a national industrial policy in the Kingdom.

3.

She is on a special diet, under her doctor’s supervision, in order to lose weight.

256

Chapter Eight

EX: Translate the following text written for the purposes of this course into English:

‫ﻤﺔ ﺘ‬

‫ل ﻋﻠﻰ ﻓ ﺼﺔ ﻋ ﻞ ﻤ‬

.‫ﺎت و اﺘ ٍ ﻻ ﺄس ﻪ‬ ‫ﺔ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫رﺠﻞ إﻟﻰ أورو ﺎ ﻗ ﻞ ﻋ ة أﻋ ا ٍم ﻐ ﺔ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻫﺎﺠ‬ ٌ . ‫ﻟﻪ وﻟﻌﺎﺌﻠ ﻪ اﻟﻌ اﻟ‬

‫وﺼﻞ إﻟﻰ أورو ﺎ ﺤ ﻰ وﺠ َ ﻋ ﻼً ﻓﻲ إﺤ‬ ‫ ﻤﺎ إن‬،ً‫وﻓﻌﻼ‬ َ .‫ﺘ ّوج ﻫ ﺎك ﻤ ﻓ ﺎة ﻋ ﺔ ﺘﻌ ﻞ ﻤﻌﻪ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺔ ذاﺘﻬﺎ‬

‫أن ﯿ ك ﻋ ﻠﻪ وأﺴ ﺘﻪ و ﻌ د إﻟﻰ ﻗ ﻪ اﻟ ﻲ ُوِﻟ ﻓ ﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﻗﱠ َر ذات ﻟ ﻠﺔ و ﻞ ﻏ‬ ِ ‫ﻌ اﻋ‬ .‫أﻤ ِﻪ‬ ‫ﻊ أن ﻌ‬ ‫أﻨﻪ ﻻ‬ ً

EX: Re-translate the following text extracted from a short story titled ‫طﺒﻠﯿﺔ‬ ‫‘ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﻤﺎء‬A Tray from Heaven’ by Yūsuf Idrīs (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 279-81).

‫ﺎت ﯿ ﺠ ن ﻓ ﻬﺎ ﻤ اﻟ ﺦ ﻋﻠﻲ أن ﻌ د إﻟ ﻪ‬

‫ﻠ ﺎت‬

‫ﻌ‬

‫ﻠﻘ ن ﻤ‬

.

‫ﺒ أ اﻟﻌﻘﻼء‬ ‫رﺸ ﻩ و‬

… some of the village elders began shouting placatory remarks from afar with a view to making Sheikh Ali regain his senses and hold his tongue. EX: Complete the translations of the following texts extracted from a collection of short stories titled ‫‘ ﻗﺼﺺ ﻋﺮاﻗﯿﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﺻﺮة‬Modern Iraqi Short Stories’ translated by Almanna and al-Rubai‘i (2009). He falls silent then whispers, Alas, what a shame! I now find myself like some gravedigger who is looking to a rise in the death rate _________ improve his life, or simply _________ buy an electric washing machine. Here I am awaiting the death of someone _________ the person whom I most love may live, without my considering whether this other person has someone to love him. (pp. 193-4)

‫ ﺎ‬... ‫ ﻫﻪ‬... (

‫ت أﺨﻔ‬

‫و‬

‫)ﺼ‬

‫ﻋ ﻪ أو ﻟ‬

‫ﻟ‬

‫ﻟﻸﺴﻒ أﺠ ﻨﻲ ﻗ ﺼ ُت ﻤ ﻞ ﺤّﻔﺎر‬ ‫ﯿ ﻰ ازد ﺎد ﻋ د اﻟ ﺘﻰ‬ ‫اﻟﻘ ر اﻟ‬ ‫ﻏ ﺎﻟﺔ ﻤﻼ‬

‫اﻟ ت ﻵﺨ ﻟ ﻲ‬ ‫ﻓﻲ أن‬

‫ﻋ ﻗﻠ‬

ّ ‫دون أن أﻓ‬

‫ أﻨ‬... ‫ﻛﻬ ﺎﺌ ﺔ‬ ‫أﺤ‬

.‫ّﻪ‬

‫ ﻗ ﺔ ”اﻟ‬،‫اﻟ ﻤﻠﻲ‬

‫ﻤ‬

‫ﻌ‬

‫ﻟﻶﺨ ﻤ‬ ‫)ﻤ‬

(“‫ﺤﻲ‬ ّ

Conjunction

She

raises her hand carefully _________lose her balance; she pulls her clothes some centimeters from the wall to which her face sticks; she peels the layers of paint from the wall – is life growing underneath the layers of paint, or under the skin of cement? (pp. 60-1) I pressed myself into the earth, and began pushing hard with my back _________ somewhere would open for me, all the time looking at the open mouth above me, as my hands protected my face and bare shoulder from the dripping froth. (pp.104-5)

Night descended across the desert. The space inside the hollow became even more horrific. I was no longer able to see anything at all, nor was I able to make any movement _________ the snake might notice my presence. (pp. 108-9)

I didn't reply to their greetings _________ they could see my angry eyes from the first moments _________ shoulder their responsibilities in a way that would make the people of the kingdom happy and offer them the services that should not be forgotten in my new epoch. (pp. 144-5)

257

‫ ﺘ ع‬.‫ّﻞ ﺘ ازﻨﻬﺎ‬ ‫ ﻟ ﻼ‬،‫ﺘ ﻓﻊ ﯿ ﻫﺎ ر‬ ‫ات اﻟ ار اﻟ ﻠ ﻘﺔ ﺒ ﺠﻬﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﻋ ﺴ‬

‫اﻟ ﺎة‬

‫ ﻫﻞ ﺘ‬.‫اﻟ ﻼء‬

.‫ﺠﻠ اﺴ ﻲ‬ (“

‫ﻬ‬

‫أدﻓﻌﻬﺎ‬

ّ ‫ ﺘﻘ‬.‫رداﺌﻬﺎ‬ ‫اﻟ ﻼء؟ ﺘ‬ ‫ﺘ‬

‫ ﻗ ﺔ ”ﻤ‬،‫)ﻫ ﻔﺎء زﻨ ﺔ‬ ‫ﺎﻷرض ورﺤ‬

‫ﻘ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ﯿ‬

(“‫ ﻗ ﺔ ”ﺤ ﺎ ﺔ ﻗ ﺔ‬، ‫د ﺠ ار‬

‫)ﻤ‬

‫ ﻟﻌّﻠﻬﺎ ﺘﻔ ﺢ ﻟﻲ ﻤ ًﺎﻨﺎ وأﻨﺎ أﺘ ّﻠﻊ‬،‫ﻌ ﻒ‬ ّ ‫ واﺘﻘﻲ ﻠ ﺎ‬،‫إﻟﻰ ﺸ ﻗ ﻪ اﻟ ﻔ ﺤ ﻓ ﻗﻲ‬

‫ﻋﻠﻰ وﺠﻬﻲ و ﻔﻲ‬

‫اﻟ ﻘﺎ‬

. ‫اﻟﻌﺎر‬

‫ﺨّ اﻟﻠ ﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﺔ ّﻠﻬﺎ وأﺼ ﺢ داﺨﻞ‬ ‫ ﻟ‬،‫ ﻟ أﻋ أر ﺸ ًﺎ‬.‫اﻟ ﻔ ة ﺸ ًﺎ رﻫ ًﺎ‬ ‫أن ﺘﻔ‬

‫ﺔ ﺨ ًﻓﺎ ﻤ‬

‫أﻋ أﺴ ﻊ اﻟ‬

.‫إﻟﻲ اﻟ ّﺔ‬ ّ

(“‫ ﻗ ﺔ ”ﺤ ﺎ ﺔ ﻗ ﺔ‬، ‫د ﺠ ار‬ ‫اء ﻤ‬

‫ﺔ ﻟﻬ ﻟ وا ﻋ ﻲ اﻟ‬

‫ﻋﻠﻰ‬

‫)ﻤ‬

‫ﻟ أرد اﻟ‬

‫ّأول اﻟﻠ ﺎت؛ ﺤ ﻰ ﯿ ّ ا‬ ‫ﻞ ﻌ ﺸﻌ اﻟ ﻠ ﺔ‬ ‫ﻤ وﻟ ﺎﺘﻬ‬

‫أﻻّ ﺘُ ﻰ‬ ‫ﻪ‬

‫وﺘُﻘّ م ﻟﻪ اﻟ ﻤﺎت اﻟ ﻲ‬ . ‫ﻓﻲ ﻋﻬ اﻟ ﯿ‬

‫ ﻗ ﺔ ”ﻤﺎ‬، ‫)وارد ﺒ ر اﻟ ﺎﻟ‬

(“‫اﻟﻘ ﺔ‬

258

Chapter Eight

6 Result clauses Finite clauses of result are commonly introduced by ‘so’, ‘therefore’, ‘thus’, and the like. However, non-finite clauses are introduced by ‘hence’ or ‘and hence’. so, therefore, thus, as such, as a result, as a consequence, consequently, accordingly, for this reason

With finite clauses

such + a noun + that With non-finite clauses

hence, and hence

In Arabic, clauses of result (be they finite or non-finite) are commonly introduced by ‫ﻟﺬﻟﻚ‬, ‫ﻟﺬا‬, ‫وﻋﻠﯿﮫ‬, and so on, as in:

‫ و ﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ‬،‫ﺔ ﻟﻬ ا‬

‫ ﻨ‬، ‫ﺔ ﻟﻟ‬

‫ ﻨ‬،‫ وﻫ ا‬،‫ وﻤ ﻫ ﺎ‬،‫ وﻋﻠ ﻪ‬، ‫ و ﻟ‬،‫ ﻟ ا‬، ‫ ﻟ ﻟ‬،‫ﻓـ‬

... ‫أد إﻟﻰ‬

...‫ ﻤﺎ ﻔﻲ ﻟـ‬... ،... (‫)أن‬

‫ اﻷﻤ اﻟ‬،‫ ﻤ ﺎ أد إﻟﻰ‬،‫ﻘﺎ ﻟ ك‬

/‫ ﻟ رﺠﺔ‬... ‫ ﻤ‬... ،... (‫)أن‬

، ‫ذﻟ‬

/‫ ﻟ رﺠﺔ‬...

To illustrate, let us consider the following text taken from a novella titled ‫‘ اﻟﻔﺮاﺷﺔ واﻟﺰھﺮة‬The Butterfly and the Blossom’ by Zahrā’ Nāsir (translated by and cited in Fred Pragnell 2017: 36-7):

ِ ِ ِ ُ ‫ ))ﺨ ﺠ‬:‫ازداد أﻟ ُﺠ وح اﻟ َﻠ ْ ﻔﺎة ﻓ ﱠﻗﻔ ْ ﻋ اﻟ ﻼم ﻟ ﺎت ﺜُ ﱠ اﺴ دت ﻗﺎﺌﻠﺔ‬ ‫َردت اﻟ ﺼ َل إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﻬ ِ ﻟ ِ ﻲ ﻓﻘ ُت وﻋ ﻲ ُﻫ ﺎ‬ ‫اﻟ‬ ‫ِﻤ ﺘ‬ ُ ‫ات ُ ُ َﻋ ﻰ أ‬ .((‫َﺼﺢ ِإﻻ ﻓﻲ اﻟ َ ﺎح‬ ُ ‫وﻟ أ‬

The pain increased, so she stopped talking for a few moments and added: “I got out from under the bushes. I was thirsty and wanted to get to the river but I fainted here. I did not wake up until morning”.

In the original text, the finite clause ‫ ﺗﻮﻗﻔﺖ ﻋﻦ اﻟﻜﻼم ﻟﺤﻈﺎت‬is an expected result of the finite clause ‫ازداد أﻟﻢ ﺟﺮوح اﻟﺴﻠﺤﻠﻔﺎة‬. Having analysed the text and figured out the relationship between the two clauses, the translator has opted for ‘so’, thus maintaining the relationship intact. Further, the act of getting out of the bushes is an expected result of the state of being thirsty.

Conjunction

259

The relationship between the two clauses is introduced without any conjunction in both texts. EX: Translate the following sentences followed by certain notes, paying extra attention to the conjunctions used.

ِ ‫ﻤ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻬﻞ أن ﻨ ﻫ أﻨﻪ‬ ّ

‫ ﻟ ﻟ ﻟ‬،‫ﺔ‬

ِ ِ ‫اﻷدﻟﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘ‬ ُ ‫اﻟ ﻬ اﻟ‬ َ ‫ان ﻤﻌ‬ .ٌ‫ﻤ ﻨ‬

~

!

The verb ‫ اِﻟﺘﮭﻢ‬here can be translated as ‘to destroy’.

!

The noun ‫أدﻟﺔ‬/‫ دﻟﯿﻞ‬is a non-countable noun in English, thus best translated as ‘evidence’.

!

The verb ‫ﯾُﺒﺮھﻦ‬/‫ ﺑﺮھﻦ‬can be rendered into ‘to prove’.

~

The enemy forces intended to use nuclear weapons against us. Thus, the United Nations intervened to put an end to these threats.

!

The expressions ‘enemy forces’ and ‘nuclear weapons’ lend themselves to ‫ ﻗﻮات اﻟﻌﺪو‬and ‫ أﺳﻠﺤﺔ ﻧﻮوﯾﺔ‬respectively.

!

The verb ‘to intend’ used in the past can be translated into ْ‫أرادت‬, ‫ﻧﻮت‬, or ‫ﻛﺎن ﻓﻲ ﻧﯿﺘﮭﺎ‬.

!

The connector ‘thus’ is normally used to link a reason with its result(s), with the meaning of ‘for this reason’, thus lending itself to ‫ﻟﺬﻟﻚ‬, ‫اﻷﻣﺮ اﻟﺬي أدى إﻟﻰ‬, ‫ﻣﻤﺎ أدى إﻟﻰ‬, and so forth.

~

He has lived two years in America, three years in Australia, and six years in Britain, hence his fluency in English.

!

As can be seen, the connector ‘hence’ is followed by a phrase, thus lending itself to ... ( ْ‫وﻣﻦ ھﻨﺎ ﺟﺎء)ت‬. Here, it can be replaced with ‘and hence’ without being preceded by a comma.

!

The word ‘fluency’ can be translated into ‫طﻼﻗﺔ‬.

260

Chapter Eight

EX: Translate the following sentences into Arabic: 1.

The dollar has fallen against the yen. As a result, Japanese goods have become more expensive than the USA’s for Americans.

2.

It was such a lovely day that we spent it all on the beach.

3.

He has read a lot of Nageeb Mahfouz and Ihsan Abdulqudus, hence his fictional style of writing.

4.

We talked until the early hours and, consequently, I overslept.

5.

She has spent most her life reading poems by Abbasid poets. For this reason, she decided to study Abbasid literature.

6.

He over-exercised yesterday, ignoring the doctor’s instructions. As a result, he had an angina attack.

7.

Your brother has skipped school on many occasions. Accordingly he’s failed his Math test.

8.

A great number of tourists visit this area in summer. As a consequence, selling hand-made objects is the main source of income for locals.

EX: The following texts are extracted from a collection of short stories titled ‫‘ أﻣﻮت ﻛ ّﻞ ﯾﻮم‬I Die Every Day’ by ‘Alī Muhammad al-Ja‘kī (translated by and cited in Zagood and Pragnell 2017). Re-translate them, paying extra attention to the clauses of result in both texts. … sounds expressing the contradictions of the locked desert, sounds, their source unknown, come from afar and shoot within you. They come from behind the gates of time, sounds that are repeated by the deep valleys. Thus the map of your homeland is drawn in your memory. (p. 34)

‫اء‬

‫ﺘ ﺎﻗ ﺎت اﻟ‬

‫رﻫﺎ‬

‫اﻷﺼ ات اﻟ ﻌ ة ﻋ‬

‫ أﺼ ات ﻻ ﺘﻌ ف ﻤ‬... ‫اﻟ ﻘﻔﻠﺔ‬ ...

‫ﻌ ﺼﺎرﺨﺔ ﻓ‬

‫ﻤ‬

‫ﺘﺄﺘ‬

‫ ﺘ رﻫﺎ اﻷود ﺔ‬، ‫ﺘﺄﺘﻲ ﻤ وراء ﺒ ا ﺎت اﻟ ﻤ‬ ‫ﺔ‬

My grandfather used to tell me: your country is the one that provides you with the necessities of life. So ours is where we can find something to eat.

‫ﺨ‬

‫ذاﻛ ﺘ‬

‫ﻫﻲ اﻟ ﻲ‬ ‫ﻋﻠ ﻪ‬

‫ﻨ‬

‫ﻓﻲ‬

‫ﻓ ﺴ‬

،‫اﻟﻌ ﻘﺔ‬

...

‫اﻟ‬

‫ إن أرﻀ‬: ‫ﻗﺎل ﻟﻲ ﺠ‬ ‫ وو ﺎ ﻫ اﻟ‬، ‫رﻤﻘ‬

‫ﺘ‬

Conjunction

You should prepare what we have left. I have received the order and we cannot stay any more in this low-lying area. (p.48)

‫ﻤﺎ ﺘ ﻘﻰ‬

261

‫أن ﺘﻌ‬

‫ ﻋﻠ‬.‫ﺸ ً ﺎ ﻨﺄﻛﻠﻪ‬ ‫ ﻟﻘ ﺘﻠﻘ اﻷﻤ وﻟ ﻌ ﻤ ﺎل‬... ‫ﻟ ﺎ‬ .‫ﻟﻠ ﻘﺎء ﻓﻲ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﻔﺢ اﻟ ا ﺊ‬

7 Time clauses In English, time clauses are introduced by conjunctions of time, such as ‘when’, ‘while’, ‘after’, ‘before’, ‘during’, etc. While some of these conjunctions of time introduce finite clauses, others introduce non-finite clauses, as shown below:

With finite clauses

when, while, whilst, as, once, as soon as, after, before, the moment, the minute, soon after …

With non-finite clauses

immediately after, before, after, shortly after, shortly before, on the heels of, during …

Correlative conjunction

hardly ... when ..., scarcely ... when ..., barely ... when ..., it was ... when ..., no sooner ... than ...

In Arabic, time clauses are introduced by the following conjunctions of time:

،( ‫)ذﻟ‬

‫ ُﻌ‬،‫ ﻌ ﻤﺎ‬،( ‫ ﻌ )ذﻟ‬،(‫ ﻌ )أن‬،‫ ﺤﺎﻟ ﺎ‬، ‫ ﻓﻲ ﺤ‬،‫ ﺤ ﺎ‬،‫ ﺒ ﺎ‬،‫ﻋ ﻤﺎ‬

، ‫ ﻋﻘ‬،( ‫ ُﻗ ﻞ )ذﻟ‬،( ‫ ﻗ ﻞ )ذﻟ‬،(‫ ﻗ ﻞ )أن‬،( ‫ ﻋ ﺔ )ذﻟ‬،( ‫ ﻏ اة )ذﻟ‬،( ‫ﺼ ﺔ )ذﻟ‬ ... ‫ آﻨ اك‬، ‫ ﺤ‬، ‫ وﻗ‬، ‫ ﻋ ﺌ‬،‫ﻓﻲ أﻋﻘﺎب‬ ... ‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬...

... ‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬...

‫ ﻟ ﯿﻠ‬،... ‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬...

‫ﻤﺎ ﻟ‬

... ‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬... ِ

‫ﻟ‬

‫ ﻟ‬،... ‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬... ‫ﻤﺎ ﺎد‬

... ‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬... ‫أن‬/‫ﻤﺎ إن‬

262

Chapter Eight

In the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ ﻋﻠﻲ اﻷﺣﻤﺮ‬Ali the Red’ by Lu’aī Hamza ‘Abbas, a number of linking words, such as ‫ﻗﺒﻞ‬, ‫ﺣﯿﻨﻤﺎ‬, and ‫ﻓـ‬, are employed by the writer to show time sequencing:

‫ وﻗ ﺘ ﺎﻋ ﺨ ﻓﻲ ﺤ ﺎ رددت‬،‫ﺘ ددت ﻗ ﻞ أن أرد وأﻨﺎ أر اﻟ ﻗ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻬﺎﺘﻒ‬ ... ‫رﺠﻞ ﻟ ﺄﻛ ﻤ ِاﺴ ﻲ اﻟ ﻼﺜﻲ‬ ٌ ‫ﻓ ﺄﻟ ﻲ‬ I hesitate before answering while I see the number on the phone. My fear rose when I answered and a man asked me to confirm my full name. By the effect of ‫ ﻗﺒﻞ‬and the grammatical form ‫وأﻧﺎ‬, the state of hesitation occurred before the act of answering, and at the moment of seeing the number on the phone. In contrast, by the effect of ‫ ﺣﯿﻨﻤﺎ‬the state of fear and its rising occurred at the moment of answering. However, the act of asking occurred after the state of fear. All the processes employed by the writer are in the past and the emphasis is put on their completion. It is worth noting that there is no time lapse between the state of hesitation and the act of seeing the number on the phone on the one hand, and the state of fear and the act of answering on the other. Had the translators given full consideration to these issues, they would have suggested a translation, such as: I hesitated, seeing the number on the phone before answering. My fear rose when I answered and a man asked me to confirm my full name. EX: Translate the following sentences followed by certain notes, paying extra attention to the conjunctions used.

‫ّ َر ﻟﻐ َ ُﻪ‬

‫ ﻗﱠ َر أن‬،‫ﻗ ﻞ أن ﺎﻓ َ إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﻠ ﺔ اﻟ ّ ة ِﻻﻛ ﺎل دراﺴِ ِﻪ ﻫ ﺎك‬ .‫اﻹﻨ ﻠ ﺔ ﻓﻲ أﺤ اﻟ ﻌﺎﻫ اﻟ ﺠ دة ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﯿ ِ ِﻪ‬

~



In the above sentence, there are two actions or activities: one occurred before the other, that is, he decided to improve his English before travelling to the UK.

~

After he had retired, he decided to work in the private sector.

Conjunction

!

263

In the above complex sentence, there are two clauses with two tenses ‘past perfect’ after ‘after’, and simple past in the second clause. It can be rewritten by using ‘before’ as follows:

He had retired before he decided to work in the private sector. Or by changing it into a simple sentence as follows: After having retired, he decided to work in the private sector. Immediately after having retired, he decided to work in the private sector. Having retired, he decided to work in the private sector. !

The verb ‘to retire’ can be rendered as ‫ﯾﺘﻘﺎﻋﺪ‬/‫ﺗﻘﺎﻋﺪ‬.

!

The word ‘sector’ can be translated as ‫ﻗﻄﺎع‬. ~

!

It was only a few months since her divorce when she got married again. ‘It was only … when …’ which lends itself in Arabic to

... ‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬... ‫إﻻ‬/ ‫ِ ﺴ‬

‫ﻟ‬

can be replaced with ‘hardly … when …’ or ‘scarcely … when …’, as in: Hardly had a few months passed since her divorce when she got married again. Scarcely had a few months passed since her divorce when she got married again. !

Attention needs to be paid to the word ‘since’ in these structures as it lends itself here to the preposition ‫ﻋﻠﻰ‬. ~

Scarcely had two weeks passed since his wife’s resignation when he also decided to resign from his job.

264

Chapter Eight

!

Extra attention needs to be paid to the tenses and position of the subject when using these structures ‘scarcely … when …’, ‘barely … when …’, or ‘hardly … when …’, as follows:

Scarcely + past perfect (had + V3) … when + simple past (V2) Hardly + past perfect (had + V3) … when + simple past (V2) Barely + past perfect (had + V3) … when + simple past (V2) !

The noun ‘resignation’ which is derived from the verb ‘to resign’ is an equivalent of ‫اﺳﺘﻘﺎﻟﺔ‬.

~ !

No sooner had the lecture begun than the professor left the class due to the bad behaviour of one of the students. ‘No sooner … … than …’ which semantically encodes immediate sequencing is an equivalent of

... ‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬... ‫ ﻤﺎ ﺎدت أن‬، ... ‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬... ‫أن‬/‫ﻤﺎ إن‬ However, when it is translated into ‫ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ‬, which only sometimes implies immediate sequencing, the translation will not be accurate. !

Attention needs to be paid to the tenses and position of the subject when using these structures ‘no sooner … than …’ and ‘as soon as …, …’ as follows:

No sooner + past perfect (had + V3) … than + simple past (V2) As soon as + simple past (V2) …, simple past (V2) !

‘Due to’, which can be replaced with ‘owing to’, ‘thanks to’, ‘because of’, and the like, lends itself to ‫ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ‬or ‫ﻧﺘﯿﺠﺔ‬.

َ ‫ٌﻞ ﺤ ﻰ وﺠ‬  

ٌ ‫اﻟ ﺠ ﺔ وﻗ‬

‫ ﻗ‬،‫ﻠ ﺔ اﻵداب‬ .‫ة‬

‫ِ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺘ ّ ِﺠ ِﻪ ﻤ‬ ‫ﻟ‬ ‫ﻋ ﻼً ﻓﻲ إﺤ اﻟ ﺎت اﻟ‬

~

... ‫ ﺣﺗﻰ‬... ‫ﯾﻣض‬ ‫ ﻟم‬can be translated as ‘no sooner … than …’, ِ ‘scarcely … when’, and the like or ‘it wasn’t long since … before …’. The preposition ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ‬in such a structure lends itself to ‘since’.

Conjunction

~

265

No sooner had the plane taken off than I had tinnitus.

!

The phrasal verb ‘to take off’ lends itself to ‫ﺗﻘﻠﻊ‬/‫ أﻗﻠﻌﺖ‬as it collocates well with ‫‘ طﺎﺋﺮة‬plane’ in Arabic.

!

The word ‘tinnitus’ lends itself to (‫ﻲ‬ ّ ‫طﻨﯿﻦ )ﻓﻲ أُذﻧ‬. ~

While I was watching the football match, three thieves broke into the house and stole all my money.

!

In the above sentence, there are three clauses with three tenses/aspects ‘past continuous = was watching’, ‘simple past = broke into’, and ‘simple past = stole’.

!

The phrasal verb ‘to break into’ can be translated into ‫ﯾﻘﺘﺤﻢ‬/‫ اِﻗﺘﺤﻢ‬as it collocates well with ‫‘ ﻟﺼﻮص‬thieves’ in Arabic.

!

Similarly, the verb ‘to steal’ lends itself to ‫ﯾﺴﺮق‬/‫ﺳﺮق‬.

EX: Translate the following sentences into Arabic: 1.

After each meal, you should brush your teeth; otherwise, you will get tooth decay.

2.

After the accused in the case had been arrested, he was remanded in custody for 24 hours under investigation.

3.

When I was in Egypt last year, I visited the Pyramids.

4.

My brother returned from Morocco after he had completed his studies and graduated in Political Science.

5.

The team held a victory celebration on the heels of their winning season.

EX: Translate the following text written for the purposes of this course into English, paying extra attention to the connectors used:

‫ﺘ ّ ق ﻟ اء ﻫ ا ﺎ ﻷﻓ اد‬ ‫ﺨ ﺠ ْ إﻟﻰ أﻗ ب ﻤ‬ ،‫ ﻌ ﺔ‬، ْ ّ ‫اﻟ ّ ق وﺘ‬ ‫إن وﺼﻠ ْ إﻟﻰ ﻤ‬ ِ ‫أﻨﻬﺎ ﻗ ﻨ ْ ﻨﻘ دﻫﺎ و ﺎﻗﺔ‬ . ‫اﻻﺌ ﺎن ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬

،‫ﻌ أن ﺘ ﺎوﻟ ْ ﻓ رﻫﺎ وﻨ ّﻔ ْ ﺸﻘ ﻬﺎ‬ ‫ ﻤﺎ‬. ‫ﻋﺎﺌﻠ ﻬﺎ ﺎﺴ ﺔ ﺤﻠ ل اﻟﻌﺎم اﻟ ﯿ‬ ِ ْ ‫ﻤ إ ﺎد ﻤ ﻗﻒ ﻟ ﺎرﺘﻬﺎ ﺤ ﻰ اﻛ ﻔ‬

266

Chapter Eight

‫ ﻋ ﻫﺎ‬.‫ ﺼﺎدﻓ ﻬﺎ ﺠﺎرﺘﻬﺎ‬،‫ﻘﻬﺎ ﻨ ﺴّﺎرﺘﻬﺎ‬ ‫ وﻫﻲ ﻓﻲ‬. ‫رت أن ﺘﻌ د إﻟﻰ اﻟ‬ ْ ‫ﻟ ا ﻗﱠ‬ ِ ‫ﻓﻲ ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ا اﻟ م اﻟ‬ . ‫دﺤ‬ ‫ﻗﱠ رت أن ﺘﻘ ض ﻤ ﻬﺎ اﻟ ﻠﻎ ﻼ ﺘ ﻫ إﻟﻰ اﻟ‬ ُ EX: The following two extracts are adapted from a collection of short stories titled ‫‘ راﺋﺤﺔ اﻟﺸﺘﺎء‬The Scent of Winter’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012). Complete the translation by using the appropriate connector: Text 1

‫ ﻤﺎ‬.‫اﻟ ﺎﺤﺔ‬

A black cat leapt in the middle of the courtyard. _________ had it shaken off the drops of rain _________ it jumped to take refuge under a tree. _________, very soon, it came out again towards the courtyard _________ curled itself up under a nearby staircase. (pp. 18-9)

‫ﻋ ﻨﻔ ﻬﺎ‬

‫أﻨﻬﺎ‬

‫ ﻏ‬،‫ة‬

‫ﻨ ْ ﻗ ٌﺔ ﺴ داء وﺴ‬ ‫إن ﻨﻔ ْ ﻗ ات اﻟ‬ ‫ﻲ‬

‫ﺤ ﻰ وﺜ‬

‫ﺘ‬

،‫ﺴ ﻋﺎن ﻤﺎ ﺨ ﺠ ْ ﺜﺎﻨ ﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﺎﺤﺔ‬ ‫وﻛّ رت ﻨﻔ ﻬﺎ ﺘ‬ . ‫ﺴّﻠ ﻗ‬

Text 2

‫واِرﺘ‬

‫ﺒ ﺎﻤ ﻪ وﺨ ج ﻤ‬

He got up, put on his pyjamas _________ went out of his room.

_________he went down the corridor

‫ﻨﻬ‬

.‫ﻏ ﻓ ﻪ‬

‫وﻓ َﺢ ﺎب‬ ‫أن ﻋ َ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻤﺎ ﻟ‬ ‫ﺤ ﻰ ﺘ ﺎول اﻨ ب اﻟ ﺎء‬ ‫اﻟ‬

and opened the door of the house _________ he took the rubber hosepipe, removed the mud which caked its end, turned on the tap _________ began watering his garden. (pp. 42-3)

،‫ﺒ ﻬﺎﯿ ﻪ‬

‫اﻟﻌﺎﻟ‬

.‫ﻘﻲ ﺤ ﻘ ﻪ‬

‫وأزال اﻟ‬

‫اﻟ ﺎ‬

‫وﻓ ﺢ اﻟ ﻔ ﺔ و أ‬

EX: Re-translate the following texts extracted from different sources as required: I ran to the kitchen to get her some water, as she complained her mouth was dry. Soon after, I ran to the telephone and called a doctor from the nearest hospital.

‫ﺦ ﻷﻨﺎوﻟﻬﺎ ﺸ ﺔ ﻤﺎء‬ ‫ًﺎ‬

‫إﻟﻰ اﻟ‬

‫ وﻤﺎ إن ﻓﻌﻠ‬،‫ﻠ ﻬﺎ ﻷن رﻘﻬﺎ ﺠﺎف‬ ‫ﻟﻬﺎ‬

‫إﻟﻰ اﻟﻬﺎﺘﻒ ﻷ ﻠ‬ ‫ﻔﻰ‬

‫ﺠ‬

‫ﺤﻰ ﺠ‬

‫ﻤ أﻗ ب ﻤ‬

Conjunction

267

(Husni and Newman 2008: 212-3) I ran to the kitchen to get her some water, as she complained her mouth was dry. Scarcely_____________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ The general manager’s house was not far from the plant; it only took ten minutes by car before the driver pointed to a grand, white house with two floors, which appeared at the end of a clean tarmac road.

‫اﻟﻌﺎم ﻌ ً ا‬ ‫ﺎء‬

‫اﻟ ّ اﻟ ﯿ‬ ‫ﻤ‬ ‫ﻟ‬ ‫إﻻ دﻗﺎﺌ ﻋ‬ ‫ﻋ اﻟ ﻌ ﻞ؛ إذ ﻟ ﺘ‬

‫ﻤﻘ‬

‫ ﺒ‬،‫ﺤ ﻰ أﺸﺎر اﻟ ﺎﺌ إﻟﻰ دار ﻓ ﺔ‬ ‫ﻟ ﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻨﻬﺎ ﺔ‬

(Husni and Newman 2008: 228-9)

‫ ﻻﺤ‬، ‫ﺎ ﻘ‬

.‫ﻨ ﻒ‬

The general manager’s house was not far from the plant; it was only ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ You had hardly settled in when he started and awoke from his deep sleep, as though he’d been stung.

‫ﺤ ﻰ ِاﻨ ﻔ‬

‫ﻤ‬

‫ِت ﺘ ﻘ‬

‫ﻤﺎ‬

.‫ﻨ ﻤﻪ اﻟ ﻘ ﻞ ﺎﻟ ﻠ وغ‬

(Husni and Newman 2008: 256-7) Barely______________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ It did not take long before a crowd began to gather near the threshing floor.

‫ﻞ ﺤ ﻰ ﺎن ﻗ‬ .‫ﻤ اﻟ ﺎس‬

‫وﻫ ا ﻟ‬ ٌ ‫وﻗ‬ ‫ﺘ ّ ﻊ ﻋ اﻟ ن ﻋ د‬

(Husni and Newman 2008: 270-1) It wasn’t long________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ The moment he approached the platform I was standing behind, I felt that a

‫ﻤﺎ إن ِاﻗ ب ﻤ اﻟ ّ ﺔ اﻟ ﻲ‬

268

Chapter Eight

strange person had into our restaurant. (Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012: 114-5)

‫أﻗﻒ وراءﻫﺎ ﺤ ﻰ ﺸﻌ ت ﻏ ًﺎ دﺨﻞ‬ .‫ﻤ ﻌ ﺎ‬

Hardly______________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ As soon as he saw the cloak raised to his face he came up to me me with faltering steps that made me feel again that he was not all right. (Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009: 98-9)

‫ﻤﺎ أن أر اﻟﻌ ﺎءة ﺘُ ﻓﻊ ﻓﻲ وﺠ ِﻬ ِﻪ‬ ‫ات ﻤ ﺘ ﺔ‬ ، ‫ﺤ ﻰ ﺘ ّﺠﻪ ﻨ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻤﺎ‬ ‫أﺸﻌ ﺘ ﻲ ُﻤ ًدا أﻨﻪ ﻟ‬

.‫ﯿ ام‬

No sooner___________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ The problem is that the moment you start thinking about arranging a room, pieces of furniture appear from under the ground and every one yells at you saying I am here! Do you want to forget me? (Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009: 154-5)

‫ﻓﻲ‬

‫ﻗ ﻊ‬

‫ﻤﺎ إن ﺘ أ اﻟ ﻔ‬

‫ﻠﺔ أﻨ‬

‫ ﺤ ﻰ ﺘ ﻌ‬،‫ﻏ ﻓﺔ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ﺘ‬

‫ ّﻞ واﺤ ة‬،‫اﻷرض‬ ‫اﻷﺜﺎث ﻤ ﺘ‬ ‫أن‬ ‫ أﺘ‬،‫ﻫﺎ أﻨﺎ ﻫ ﺎ‬ ‫ﺘ ﺢ‬

!‫ﺘ ﺎﻨﻲ‬

The problem is that once________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________

Conjunction

269

8 Conditional clauses Finite and non-finite clauses of condition are commonly introduced by the subordinators ‘if’ (in affirmative clauses) and ‘unless’ (in negative clauses), as in: Finite clause: If you are ready, let me know. Non-finite clause: If ready, let me know. There are four main conditional structures in English: Type

Use

Example

Zero

It is used when the action in the main clause is always true when if-clause is true. (real world, general truths, etc.)

If you click on this icon, your document is saved automatically.

‫ إن‬،‫إذا‬

It is used when we think that the condition is very likely to be fulfilled. (future + likely)

If I meet him tomorrow, I’ll invite him.

‫ إن‬،‫إذا‬

Second

It is used when we think that the condition is possible but very unlikely to be fulfilled. (future + unlikely)

If I had enough money, I would buy your car.

‫ﻟﻮ‬

Third

It is used when we feel that the condition is impossible to be fulfilled as it refers to the past. (imaginary events + events in the past)

If I had met him, I would have invited him.

‫ﻟﻮ‬

First

Translation ...

...

In addition to these subordinators, that is, ‘if’ and ‘unless’, there are several conjunctions that can be used to signal a condition in a finite clause, such as ‘provided that’, ‘providing that’, ‘as long as’, ‘so long as’, ‘on condition that’, and the like.

270

Chapter Eight

With finite clauses

if, if not, unless, as long as, in the event that, in case that, on condition that, provided that, providing, the... the..., whether ... or ...

With non-finite clauses

in the event of, in case of, but for

In Arabic, conditional clauses begin with ‫إذا‬, ‫إن‬, ‫ﻟﻮ‬, and so on, as in:

‫ﺔ‬

‫ ﺸ‬، ‫ إن ﻟ‬، ‫ إذا ﻟ‬، ‫ ﻤﺎ ﻟ‬،‫ إﻻ إذا‬،‫ ﻓﻲ ﺤﺎل‬،‫ ّﻠ ﺎ‬،‫ ﺎﻟ ﺎ‬،‫ ﻋﻠﻰ أن‬، ‫ ﻟ‬،‫إن‬ ْ ،‫إذا‬ .... ‫ ﻟـ‬... (‫ ﻟ )ﻻ‬،... ‫ أم‬... ‫ ﺴ اء‬، ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺸ‬، ،‫أن‬

To illustrate, let us consider the following text taken from a novella titled ‫‘ اﻟﻔﺮاﺷﺔ واﻟﺰھﺮة‬The Butterfly and the Blossom’ by Zahrā’ Nāsir (translated by and cited in Fred Pragnell 2017: 4-5):

‫ ))ﻻ‬:‫ ﻓﻘﺎﻟ ْ ُﺒ ّﺔ‬. ‫ﺘ َ ﱠﻘ‬ ‫ﺘﺄﻛﻠ َ اﻟ رﻗ َﺔ‬ ُ ِ ‫ أَﻨ‬،‫ﺨ اء‬ .((‫ﺴﺄﻗﻊ‬ ‫اﻟ رﻗ َﺔ ُ ّﻠﻬﺎ‬ ُ

‫إذا ﻟ ﻨﻌ ﻞ ﻟ ﻘ ﻘﻬﺎ ﻓﻠ‬

‫اﻷﺤﻼم ﺠ ﻠﺔ ﺎ ُﺒ ّ ﺔ وﻟ‬ ُ ‫أَﺴ ﻊ اﻟ ﱡ‬ ‫ و أوﻩ! اﻨ ﻬﻲ ﺎ‬...‫ و‬...‫ﻒ ﻋ اﻷَﺤﻼ ِم و‬ ‫ﻗ‬ َ ُ ِ ‫ اﻨ ﻬﻲ ﺎ ﺨ اء أوﻩ! اﻨ ﻬﻲ! إذا أﻛﻠ‬.‫اﻟ ﻲ ِأﻗﻒ ﻋﻠ ﻬﺎ‬ ُ ُ

“Dreams are beautiful, Brown, but if we do not work to realize them, they will not be realized”. Brown said: “I cannot stop dreaming... and... and… and Oh! Be careful, Green. You are eating the leaf I’m standing on. If you eat the whole leaf, I’ll fall down”. In the above text, two conditional clauses introduced by ‫ إذا‬are employed by the writer. They are

‫إذا ﻟ ﻨﻌ ﻞ ﻟ ﻘ ﻘﻬﺎ ﻓﻠ ﺘ َ ﱠﻘ‬ ‫ﺴﺄﻗﻊ‬ ‫إذا أﻛﻠ ِ اﻟ رﻗ َﺔ ُ ّﻠﻬﺎ‬ ُ

~ ~

As the conditions in these two sentences describe possible situations, not unreal or imaginary situations, they are real conditions. The translator has reflected the type of the condition in his rendering when opting for ‘if we do not work to realize them, they will not be realized’ and ‘If you eat the whole leaf, I’ll fall down’. Following is another example extracted from a short story titled ‫ﻓﻮﺿﻰ‬ ‘Mess’ by ‘Arif ‘Alwān (cited in Almanna and al-Rubai’i 2009: 153):

Conjunction

‫ﻗ ﻊ اﻷﺜﺎث‬

‫ ﻟ‬،‫ﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺴﻬ ﻟﺔ‬

‫ﺘ‬

‫ ﻷﻤ‬،

271

‫ﺎﻟ‬

‫ﺎن اﻷﻤ ﯿ ﻌّﻠ‬

‫ ﻟ‬،‫ﻓ ّ ُت‬ .‫ﺎﻤﺎ‬ ً ‫ﻤ ﺄﻟﺔ ﺘ ﻠﻒ ﺘ‬ As can be noticed, a finite clause of condition introduced by ‫ ﻟﻮ‬is employed by the writer. It is hypothetical and unreal as the reality (they are pieces of furniture which are difficult for him to arrange) is the opposite of what the clause expresses (books are easy for him to arrange, but they are not books). To reflect this, the translator may use the English ‘third conditional’ type of sentence, as in: I thought if they had been books, they could have been arranged easily, but pieces of furniture are a totally different matter. In such a third conditional type of sentence ‘had’ can be used in place of ‘if’, as in: I thought had they been books, they could have been arranged easily, but pieces of furniture are a totally different matter. As stated above, conditional clauses can be introduced by different words. To reinforce this point, let us consider the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ اﻟﺮﺣﯿﻞ‬The Departure’ by ‘Alī Muhammad alJa‘kī (translated by and cited in Zagood and Pragnell 2017: 28-9):

‫ ّﻠ ﺎ‬... ‫ و ﻐ ز ﻓﻲ ﺠ ﻲ ﻘ ة‬،‫أﻋ ﺎﻗﻲ‬

‫ ﺸ ﻬﺎ اﻟ ﺎد‬،‫ْ ﺜ ة ﻤ ﻋﺔ‬ .‫ﻨﻲ ﻟﻠ ﻠﻒ‬ ‫ﻤ ﻬﺎ دﻤﻲ‬

‫أﺼ‬ ‫اﻗ‬

She became a forbidden fruit whose prickly thorns pierced deep inside, penetrating deep in my body. The closer I came to her, the more my blood held me back. In the original text, a conditional clause introduced by ‫ ﻛﻠﻤﺎ‬is employed by the writer. By the effect of ‫ﻛﻠﻤﺎ‬, the emphasis is placed on the regularity and frequency of the act of approaching her. Here, the writer does not talk about a single event but a series of events cognitively viewed from a distal perspective, thus being seen as a point on the timeline. Giving full consideration to the conditional clause utilized in the original text, the translators have opted for ‘the –er …, the more …’, thus producing an accurate translation. Following is another example taken from a short story titled ‫ﺧﺰﯾﻦ‬ ‫‘ اﻟﻼﻣﺮﺋﯿﺎت‬A Hidden Treasure’ by Fu’ād al-Takarlī (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 204-1):

272

Chapter Eight

‫ﻲ ﻤ‬

‫ ُﻤ ً ﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﺴ ﻌﺎﻨﺔ‬،‫ﻛ أر أن أﻫ ﻞ ّﻞ ﻤﺎ ﺤ ﻞ ﺒﻬ وء‬ .‫ ﻟ ﻻ ﻨ ة أﺨ ﻤ ﻋ ﻬﺎ‬،‫أﺤﺎﺴ اﻟﻘ ﺎﻋﺔ ﻹﻨ ﺎز ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﻬ ﺔ‬

I simply wanted to ignore what had happened, and was determined to draw from my store of contentment and satisfaction in order to achieve this, if it had not been for another look from her. In the original text, the writer employs a negative hypothetical condition introduced by ‫ﻟﻮﻻ‬. This has been reflected in the target text, as the translators have opted for the conditional clause ‘if it had not been for’ followed by a noun phrase. In English, in addition to ‘if it had not been’ followed by a noun phrase, this negative hypothetical condition can be expressed by ‘but for’ followed by a noun phrase, as in this example adapted from Leech and Svartvik (2002: 112): But for Messi, we would have lost the match. In this example, there is an implicit process of doing, that is, ‘Messi had played well’ where ‘Messi’ is the Actor of the process, ‘played’ is the process of doing characterized by multiplexity, that is, the quantity consists of more than one element, and ‘well’ is a manner circumstance construing the way in which the process is actualized and presented. In this implicit process, the act of playing is approached from a distal perspective, thus being seen as a point on the timeline. Building on this, ‘but for Messi’ simply means ‘if Messi had not played well’; therefore, it can be rendered into:

.‫ﻨﺎ اﻟ ﺎراة‬

‫ﻨﺎ اﻟ ﺎراة = ﻟ أن ﻤ ﻲ ﻟ ﯿﻠﻌ ْ ﺠّ ً ا ﻟ‬

‫ ﻟ‬،‫ﻟ ﻻ ﻤ ﻲ‬

EX: Translate the following sentences/short texts followed by certain notes, paying extra attention to the conjunctions used.

ِ ‫إن ﻟ ﺘﻘ ﺒ ﻬ ِ ﺠ ِﻊ أورِاﻗ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬ ‫ ﻟ ا‬،‫ ﻓﺈﻨ َ ﻗ ﺘ ﻰ ﻌ ً ﺎ ﻤ ﻬﺎ‬،‫ﺎء‬ ْ َ .(( ‫أﻨ ُﺢ ﺄن ))ﻻ ﺘ ّﺠﻞ ﻋ َﻞ اﻟ ِم إﻟﻰ اﻟﻐ‬ !

‫ إن‬here can be translated as ‘if’.

!

The verb ‫ﯾﺠ ّﮭﺰ‬/‫ ﺟ ّﮭﺰ‬can be rendered as ‘to prepare’.

!

The word ‫ ﻗﺪ‬can be translated into ‘may’ or ‘may well’.

~

Conjunction

~

273

If you study hard, you will pass the exam. If you had studied hard, you would have passed the exam. Had you studied hard, you would have passed the exam.

!

In the first example here (a typical ‘first conditional’ sentence in English), the connector ‘if’ can be translated as ‫ إذا‬or ‫إن‬. However, in a sentence like this:

If you had studied hard, you would have passed the exam. Or this (a variant form of the English ‘third conditional’ type of sentence): Had you studied hard, you would have passed the exam. it lends itself to ... ‫ ﻟـ‬،... ‫ﻟﻮ‬, as in:

.‫ ﻟﻜﻨﺖ ﻗﺪ اِﺟﺘﺰتَ ا ِﻻﻣﺘﺤﺎن‬،ٍ‫ﻟﻮ ﻛﻨﺖَ ﻗﺪ درﺳﺖَ ﺑﺠﺪ‬ ~ !

Unless you study hard, you will not pass the exam. Here, the connector ‘unless’ means ‘if not’, thus lending itself to

‫ﻣﺎﻟﻢ‬, ‫إذا ﻟﻢ‬, and the like. !

As for ‘will not’, it lends itself to ‫ ﻟﻦ‬without ‫ ﺳـ‬or ‫ﺳﻮف‬.

~

Unless my son’s health improves, I shall not travel tomorrow.

!

As stated above, the connector ‘unless’ can be translated into ‫ﻣﺎﻟﻢ‬,

‫إذا ﻟﻢ‬, and the like. !

Like ‘will not’, ‘shall not’ lends itself here to ‫ ﻟﻦ‬without ‫ ﺳـ‬or

‫ﺳﻮف‬. ~

If the contract is for an unspecified period, either party shall have the right to rescind the contract, providing there is reasonable justification.

!

Here, the connector ‘if’ is used in a legislative text; therefore, it can be replaced with ‘in the event that’, thus lending itself to ‫إذا‬,

274

Chapter Eight

ْ , or ‫ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎل‬. ‫إن‬ !

The word ‘either’ lends itself here to ‫ ﻛ ّﻞ‬or ‫أي‬.

!

The modal verb ‘shall’ in this type of legal prescriptive usage has nothing to do with futurity, thereby lending itself to a simple ّ . present tense ‫ﯾﺤﻖ‬

!

In legal English, the verb ‘to rescind’ collocates well with the noun ‘contract’, and thus it can be translated as ‫ﯾﻔﺴﺦ‬/‫ ﻓﺴﺦ‬in Arabic.

!

The word ‘providing’ can be replaced with expressions, such as ‘provided that’, ‘on condition that’, and the like; they all lend themselves to ‫ﺷﺮﯾﻄﺔ أن‬, ‫ﺑﺸﺮط‬, ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷﺮط‬, etc.

~

In the event that the buyer fails to pay any due instalments, the remaining unpaid instalments shall all become due together.

!

As stated above, the expression ‘in the event that’ can be replaced with ‘if’, thus lending itself to ‫ إذا‬or ‫ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎل‬.

!

The verb ‘to fail’ in legal Arabic lends itself to ‫ﯾﺘﻘﺎﻋﺲ ﻋﻦ‬/‫ﺗﻘﺎﻋﺲ‬. Similarly, the verb ‘to pay’ can be translated as ‫ﺗﺴﺪﯾﺪ‬/‫ﺳﺪاد‬/‫ﯾﺴﺪد‬/‫ﺳﺪد‬.

!

The adjective ‘due’ meaning ‘having to be paid’ lends itself to

‫ ُﻣﺴﺘﺤﻖ‬, ‫واﺟﺐ اﻟﺪﻓﻊ‬, and the like. !

The word ‘instalment’ (also spelt ‘installment’) can be translated as ‫ﻗﺴﻂ‬.

ِ ‫ﺎﻛﻞ ﺠ ّ ﺔ‬ َ ‫ ﺴ اﺠﻪ ﻤ‬،‫ ﻓ ّ ﻗ ﻲ‬، َ ‫ﺎﻟ ﺎ إﻨ َ ﺘ ﻬ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻠ ﻞ وﻻ ﺘﻬ ّ ﺒ راﺴ‬ .‫ﻫ ﻩ اﻟ ﺔ‬

~

!

The word ‫ طﺎﻟﻤﺎ‬can be translated as ‘as long as’, ‘since’, and so on.

!

The verb ‫ﯾﺴﮭﺮ‬/‫ ﺳﮭﺮ‬can be rendered into ‘to stay awake till late at night’, ‘to remain awake till late at night’, and the like.

~

You will not succeed in business as long as you bank on loans.

Conjunction

275

!

The connector ‘as long as’ lends itself to ‫طﺎﻟﻤﺎ‬.

!

The verb ‘to bank’ on something/somebody can be replaced here with ‘to rely on’, thus lending itself to ‫ﯾﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ‬.

!

Attention needs to be paid to ‘will not’ as explained above.

~

The harder you work, the more money you earn.

!

The structure ‘the –er …, the more …’ can be translated into ‫ﻛﻠﻤﺎ‬. It can be changed to a simple sentence as follows:

Working harder, you will earn more money. It is worth mentioning when we delete ‘the more’, we need to insert the modal verb ‘shall’ or ‘will’, if there is none after the subject of the second clause.

.‫ﻤﻬﺎرة ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻀ ع‬ !

‫َ أﻛ‬

‫ أﺼ‬، ‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﺎر ﻓﻲ ﺎ‬

‫ُﻛّﻠ ﺎ ﺘ ّ ﻨ َ أﻛ‬

~

The word ‫ ﻛﻠﻤﺎ‬here lends itself to ‘the more/–er …, the more/– er …’ (see above) or ‘whenever …’.

EX: Translate the following sentences into Arabic: 1.

If I had been you, I would not have assigned my shares in that plot of land.

2.

In the unlikely event of a fire, alarms will sound and you should exit immediately, so don’t worry.

3.

Had she given full consideration to these issues, she would not have made such a silly mistake.

4.

In the evening, I either read a book or watch TV as long as I have nothing else to do.

5.

I will lend you this sum on condition that you pay me back within two months.

6.

I cannot finish the report unless you help me.

276

Chapter Eight

7.

Had you visited the dentist earlier, you would not have suffered from such a severe toothache.

8.

But for my dad, we would not have completed our studies.

9.

The more you walk, the more you get hooked by the habit of taking regular exercise.

EX: The following texts are extracted from a collection of short stories titled ‫‘ ﻗﺼﺺ ﻋﺮاﻗﯿﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﺻﺮة‬Modern Iraqi Short Stories’ (translated by Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009). Complete the translation, paying special attention to the clauses of condition introduced by the words highlighted for you. “… and I have the right to exclude your confession only _________ you’re prepared to go back to ‘them!’” said the judge. (pp. 24-5)

_________I recall it and think about it, I feel that I’m overwhelmed by a sudden fear running through my bones and spreading like fire through my blood. He screams, “What should I do, then?? Time is running out and death is approaching. _________time passes, _________death gets. Death is final, worms eat away and the cheeks waste away in a dark coffin under the soil”. (pp. 42-3)

_________I recall this memory, I have had that same fear until the white hair has come to cover everywhere, as you can see. (pp. 92-3)

‫أن ﺘ ﺠﻊ‬

‫ ﺸ‬،‫اﻋ اﻓ ﻫ ا‬

‫ﻟ‬

“ ‫ﺜﺎﻨ ﺔ ”إﻟ ﻬ‬

‫ ”ﺜﻼث ﻗ‬، ‫)ﻋ اﻟ ﺎر ﻨﺎﺼ‬ (“

‫ﺎﺤ ﻲ ﺨ ف‬ ‫ﺒ ﻤﻲ ﻤ ﻞ‬

‫وﻤ ﺤﻘﻲ رﻓ‬

‫ﻟﻠ‬

‫ وﻓ ّ ت ﺒ ﻟ‬،‫ﻛّﻠ ﺎ ﺘ ّ ت‬ ‫ق ﻋ ﺎﻤﻲ و‬ ‫ﻤ ﺎﻏ‬ .‫اﻟ ﺎر‬

‫ﺢ( ﻤﺎ اﻟﻌ ﻞ إ ًذا؟؟ ﻓﺎﻟ ﻗ‬

)

‫ ﻛّﻠ ﺎ‬... ‫داﺌ ً ﺎ وﻫ ا ﻌ ﻲ أن اﻟ ت ﻘ ب‬ ‫ واﻟ ت‬..‫اﻗ ب اﻟ ت‬ ‫ﻀﺎق اﻟ ﻗ‬

‫ ﺘﻔ ﺦ ﻟﻠ ود ﻓﻲ‬... ‫ دود ﺄﻛﻞ‬... ‫ﻨﻬﺎ ﺔ‬ (“‫ﺤﻲ‬ ّ

‫ﻋ ﻗﻠ‬

‫اﻟ اب‬

‫ﺘﺎﺒ ت ﻤ ﻠ ﺘ‬

‫ ”اﻟ‬،‫اﻟ ﻤﻠﻲ‬

‫ ﺘ ر اﻟ ف ﺤ ﻰ‬،

. ‫ﺎﺘ‬

‫)ﻤ‬

‫ﻛّﻠ ﺎ ﺘ رت اﻟ‬

‫ﻏ اﻨﻲ اﻟ‬

(“‫ ”ﺤ ﺎ ﺔ ﻗ ﺔ‬، ‫د ﺠ ار‬

‫)ﻤ‬

Conjunction

277

9 Transition & contrasting In English, there are a number of expressions that can be used for the purposes of marking transition, contrasting, or beginning a discussion. They are: ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

As for With respect to With reference to In respect of With regard to As regards Regarding Concerning

phrase

,

subject

…

verb tense, aspect, etc.

As can be noticed, special attention needs to be paid to their use. They are followed by a phrase and then a clause preceded by a comma, as in: As for the advantages of using the Internet, it can be used by people to search for information. However, there is one exception, that is, ‘as far as … concerned’. It is used in this way: As far as the advantages of using the Internet are concerned, it can be used by people to search for information. These words and expressions can be translated into Arabic, as follows:

__________‫ﻓـ‬/‫ﻓﺈﻨﻪ‬ ّ ،___________________________ ‫أﻤﺎ ﻓ ﺎ ﯿ ﻌّﻠ ﺒـ‬

__________‫ﻓـ‬/‫ﻓﺈﻨﻪ‬ ّ ،____________________________ ‫ﱡ‬

__________‫ﻓـ‬/‫ﻓﺈﻨﻪ‬ ّ ،_____________________________ ‫ﺔ ﻟـ‬

‫أﻤﺎ ﻓ ﺎ‬ ‫أﻤﺎ ﺎﻟ‬

_________ ‫ﻓـ‬/‫ﻓﺈﻨﻪ‬ ّ ،____________________________ ‫وﻓ ﺎ ﯿ ﻌّﻠ ﺒـ‬

__________ ‫ﻓـ‬/‫ﻓﺈﻨﻪ‬ ّ ،_____________________________ ‫ﱡ‬

__________‫ﻓـ‬/‫ﻓﺈﻨﻪ‬ ّ ،______________________________ ‫ﺔ ﻟـ‬

‫وﻓ ﺎ‬ ‫و ﺎﻟ‬

It is worth noting that in English one can use ‘for one’s part’ or ‘in one’s turn’ for the purpose of marking transition or contrasting. By way of

278

Chapter Eight

explanation, let us consider the following examples extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ ﻗﺴﻤﺘﻲ وﻧﺼﯿﺒﻲ‬Qismati and Nasibi’ by Mahfouz (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 114-5):

‫ وأن‬،

‫ ﺎن ﻋﻠ ﻬﺎ أن ﺘ ﻀﻊ اﺜ‬.‫ﺎﻋﻔﺔ‬

‫ﻋ ﺎ ﺔ ﻓﺎﺴ ﻐ ﻗ ﻬﺎ ﻤ ﺎﻋ ﻬﺎ اﻟ‬ .

‫أﻤﺎ ﺴ‬

‫ وأن ﺘ ﻲ اﺜ‬، ‫ﺘ ﻒ اﺜ‬

Sitt Anabaya, for her part, was completely absorbed by her twin burden, as she had to breastfeed, change and raise not one but two children. Here, the writer induces his readers to zoom in on ‫‘ ﺳﺖ ﻋﻨﺒﺎﯾﺔ‬Sitt Anabaya’. To this end, he invites his readers to place their perspective point somewhere inside the depicted place looking at her by adopting a proximal perspective where other details are backgrounded in attention. This has been reflected in the target text when the translators have opted for ‘for her part’. Further, by the effect of the modalized preposition ‫ﻋﻠﻰ‬ preceded by ‫ﻛﺎن‬, there is a shift from a force-neutral selection process to a force-dynamic pressure. This force-dynamic framework enables us to capture the cause (she had to breastfeed, change and raise not one but two children) of the result (she was completely absorbed by her twin burden). Being fully aware of the function of the modalized preposition ‫ﻋﻠﻰ‬, the translators have opted for ‘had to’, thus reflecting such a necessity in the past. Following is the second example (ibid.):

‫اﻟ ة رﻗ اﻟ ﻼﻤﺢ ﻋ ﻠﻲ‬ ‫ ﻓ ا ﻗ ﻲ ﻋ‬،‫واﺨ ﻠﻔ ﻘ رة ﻗﺎدر ﺼ رﺘﺎﻫ ﺎ‬ ّ .‫ﺴ داو وأﻨﻒ ﯿ ر ﺎﻟ ﺎﻤﺔ‬ ‫ أﻤﺎ ﻨ ﻲ ﻓ ﺎن ذا ة ﻗ ﺔ وﻋ‬، ‫اﻟﻌ‬ Thank God, they had different features; Qsmati had a deep brown complexion, with soft lineaments and hazel eyes, while Nasibi had a white complexion with black eyes and a large nose. As can be seen, the writer induces his readers to locate their perspective point on Qsmati’s face and then encourages them by the effect of ‫ أﻣﺎ‬to place their perspective point on Nasibi’s in an attempt to compare between them. To put it differently, here a cognitive operation of zooming in is utilized by the writer where he invites his readers to zoom in on Qsmiti’s face and then zoom in on Nasibi’s, thus resulting in a more restricted frame. Being fully aware of this, the translators have resorted to ‘while’, thus reflecting a similar restricted frame.

Conjunction

279

To reinforce this point, the following example extracted from a short story titled ‫‘ ﺻﻔﺤﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺘﺎب اﻟﻤﻮﺗﻰ‬Excerpt from The Book of The Dead’ by Ibrāhīm al-Faqīh (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 901) may be considered:

‫داﺨﻞ اﻟﻔ ﻞ‬

‫ﻫﺎدﺌﺔ إﻟﻰ ﻤﻘﻌ ﻫﺎ وﺘ‬

... ‫ّﻠﻪ ﻻ ﻌ ﻬﺎ‬

‫ ﺘ ﻠ‬،‫اع‬

‫ًﻓﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬ ‫وﻫﻲ ﺄﻨﻬﺎ ﻟ‬ ‫ﺎﻤﺎ ﻏ ًﺎ ﺒ رﺴﻬﺎ ﺄن اﻷﻤ‬ ً ‫ وﺘﻬ اﻫ‬،‫ﻋ ﻫﺎ اﻟ اﻓﺊ‬

As for her, it was as though she was not party to the fight; she sat calmly in her chair, while her warm fragrance spread throughout the classroom. She took a strange interest in her lessons, as if the entire thing did not concern her. In the above example, there is implicit ‫‘ أﻣﺎ‬as for’ replaced by the connector ‫‘ و‬and’. By the effect of ‫‘ وھﻲ‬and she’, the writer invites his readers to place their perspective point somewhere inside the depicted classroom looking at the girl by adopting a proximal perspective where other participants are backgrounded in attention. Having given this full consideration, the translators have opted for ‘as for’, thus inducing the target-language readers to adopt a similar perspective point. EX: Translate the following sentences/short texts followed by certain notes into Arabic, paying extra attention to the conjunctions used. Completing your MA study may be the one of the best things you can do right now. With respect to opening a shop in the city centre, it’s hard to say the same thing.

~

!

The subject of the first sentence, which is ‘completing your MA ّ . study’, lends itself to ‫إن إﻛﻤﺎل دراﺳﺔ اﻟﻤﺎﺟﺴﺘﯿﺮ‬

!

As stated above, ‘with respect to’ can be translated into ‫أﻣﺎ ﻓﯿﻤﺎ‬

‫ﯾﺘﻌﻠﻖ‬, ‫ﯾﺨﺺ‬ ‫أﻣﺎ ﻓﯿﻤﺎ‬, and the like. ّ ~

With regard to handling the complaints that you may receive, you need to bear in mind that your customers are always right. 

The expression ‘to bear in mind’ can be translated as ‫ﺗﺄﺧﺬ ﺑﻌﯿﻦ‬

‫ا ِﻻﻋﺘﺒﺎر‬,‫ ﺗﻀﻊ ﻧﺼﺐ ﻋﯿﻨﯿﻚ‬,‫َﻌﺮف‬ ِ ‫ﺗ‬, ‫ﺗ َﻌﻲ‬, ‫أﻻ ﯾﻐﯿﺐ ﻋﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﻚ‬, etc.

280

Chapter Eight

~

You know that working from home has many advantages. As regards its disadvantages, it might be difficult to meet the deadline.

!

The word ‘advantage’, which is the opposite of ‘disadvantage’, can be rendered into ‫ﻓﺎﺋﺪة‬, ‫أﻣﺮ إﯾﺠﺎﺑﻲ‬, ‫ﻣﯿﺰة‬, and the like.

!

The word ‘deadline’ lends itself to ‫اﻟﻤﻮﻋﺪ اﻟﻤﺤﺪّد‬.

~

As far as kids are concerned, they might give you a chance to get up early so that you can get some exercise. 

As stated above, ‘as far as … concerned’ can be translated into

... ‫ ﻓـ‬/‫ﻓﺈﻨﻪ‬ ّ ،... ‫أﻤﺎ ﻓ ﺎ ﯿ ﻌّﻠ ﺒـ‬ ... ‫ ﻓـ‬/‫ﻓﺈﻨﻪ‬ ّ ،... ‫أﻤﺎ ﻓ ﺎ ﱡ‬ ... ‫ ﻓـ‬/‫ﻓﺈﻨﻪ‬ ّ ،... ‫ﺔ ﻟـ‬ ... ‫ ﻓـ‬/‫ﻓﺈﻨﻪ‬ ّ ،... ‫ﱡ‬

... ‫ ﻓـ‬/‫ﻓﺈﻨﻪ‬ ّ ،... ‫ﺔ ﻟـ‬

‫أﻤﺎ ﺎﻟ‬ ‫وﻓ ﺎ‬

‫و ﺎﻟ‬

EX: Write 10 sentences on different topics in Arabic using expressions, such as ‫أﻣﺎ ﻓﯿﻤﺎ ﯾﺘﻌﻠّﻖ‬, ‫ﯾﺨﺺ‬ ‫أﻣﺎ ﻓﯿﻤﺎ‬, ‫أﻣﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟـ‬, ‫وﻓﯿﻤﺎ ﯾﺘﻌﻠّﻖ‬, ‫ﯾﺨﺺ‬ ‫وﻓﯿﻤﺎ‬, or ّ ّ ‫وﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟـ‬, and then translate them into English. English

Arabic

Conjunction

281

10 It is/was + adjective/past participle + that/to ... It

It

is/was

is/was

adjective/past participle useful expected anticipated known possible impossible probable likely unlikely feasible easy difficult . .

that/to …

that/to …

This structure ‘it is/was + adjective/past participle + that/to …’ lends itself to ‫ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﺒﻌﯿﻀﯿﺔ‬in Arabic, as in: It is useful/important that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﻣﮭم أن‬/‫ﻣن اﻷھﻣﯾﺔ ﺑﻣﻛﺎن‬ It is expected that … ... ‫ﯾﺗوﻗّﻊ أن‬/‫ﻣن اﻟﻣﺗوﻗّﻊ‬ It is probable that … ... ‫ﯾُرﺟّﺢ أن‬/‫ﻣن اﻟﻣرﺟّﺢ‬ It is possible/likely that … ... ‫ﯾُﺣﺗﻣل أن‬/‫ﻣن اﻟ ُﻣﺣﺗﻣل‬ It is unlikely that … ... ‫ﯾُﺳﺗﺑﻌد أن‬/‫ﻣن اﻟ ُﻣﺳﺗﺑﻌد‬ It is undisputable/indisputable that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﻣﺳﻠم ﺑﮫ أن‬ It is well known that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﻣﻌروف أن‬ It is clear/apparent that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟواﺿﺢ أن‬ It is clear/obvious that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﺑدﯾﮭﻲ أن‬ It is necessary that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﺿروري أن‬ It is difficult/hard that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﺻﻌوﺑﺔ أن‬/‫ﻣن اﻟﺻﻌوﺑﺔ ﺑﻣﻛﺎن‬ It is an easy/straightforward fact/ ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﺳﮭل‬/‫ﻣن اﻟﺳﮭوﻟﺔ ﺑﻣﻛﺎن‬ matter that … It is strange that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﻐرﯾب أن‬ It is decided that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﻣﻘرر أن‬ It is advisable that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟ ُﻣﺳﺗﺣﺳن أن‬ It is rare/infrequent that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﻧﺎدر أن‬ It is a prevalent fact that … ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﺳﺎﺋد أن‬

282

Chapter Eight

It is regrettable that … It is a commonplace/fact/matter that … It is understood that … It is agreed (upon) that … It is hoped that …

... ‫ﻣن اﻟﻣؤﺳف أن‬ ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﺷﺎﺋﻊ أن‬ ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﻣﻔﮭوم أن‬ ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﻣﺗﻔﻖ ﻋﻠﯾﮫ أن‬ ... ‫ﻣن اﻟﻣؤ ّﻣل أن‬

The following expressions in Arabic can be translated differently, as in: It is worth mentioning that … It is worth noting that … Needless to say … It goes without saying that …

... ‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﺠﺪﯾﺮ ﺑﺎﻟﺬﻛﺮ أن‬ ... ‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﺠﺪﯾﺮ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻼﺣﻈﺔ أن‬ ... ‫ﻣﻦ ﻧﺎﻓﻠﺔ اﻟﻘﻮل إن‬

EX: Translate the following sentences followed by certain notes, paying extra attention to the conjunctions used.

‫ﺎﻨ ﺎ‬

‫اﻟ ﺎﻤﻌﺎت ﻓﻲ ﺒ‬

‫أﻛ‬

‫اﻟ ﻌ وف ﱠ‬ ‫أن ﺠﺎﻤﻌﺔ أﻛ ﻔ رد واﺤ ة ﻤ‬

‫ﻤ‬

~

. ‫واﻟﻌﺎﻟ‬

!

The expression ... ‫ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻌﺮوف أن‬lends itself to ‘it is well known that …’.

!

The expression ... ‫ واﺣﺪة ﻣﻦ أﻛﺒﺮ‬can be rendered into ‘one of the largest …’. ~

It is clear that co-operation between the UK and K.S.A in the field of industrial and commercial development is in progress.

!

Here, the expression ‘it is clear’, which can be replaced with expressions like ‘it is obvious’ or ‘it is apparent’, can be translated as ... ‫ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻮاﺿﺢ أن‬or ... ‫ﯾﺒﺪو ﺟﻠﯿﺎ أن‬, and the like.

!

The expression ‘in the field of’ lends itself to ‫ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎل‬or ‫ﻓﻲ ﺣﻘﻞ‬.

!

The expression ‘in progress’, which can be replaced with ‘ongoing’, lends itself to ‫ﺟﺎرﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﺪم وﺳﺎق‬.

Conjunction

283

~

It is worth mentioning that the petroleum production of Iraq was a million barrels a day last September.

!

In English, the adjective ‘worth’, which means ‘having a particular value’, is followed by Verb 1 + ‘–ing’, as in:

It is worth mentioning It is worth doing … It is worth noting … !

Technical terms such as ‘petroleum’, ‘production’, and ‘barrel’ lend themselves to ‫ﺑﺘﺮول‬, ‫اِﻧﺘﺎج‬, and ‫ ﺑﺮﻣﯿﻞ‬respectively.

~

It is indisputable that the Mesopotamian civilization is one of the oldest civilizations in the world.

!

The expression ‘it is indisputable’, which can be replaced with ‘it is unquestionable’, lends itself to ‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺴﻠﻢ ﺑﮫ‬, ّ‫ﻻ ﺷﻚ‬, ‫ﻻ ﻏﺒﺎر‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ‬, ‫ﻻ ﯾﺨﺘﻠﻒ اِﺛﻨﺎن ﻋﻠﻰ‬, ‫ﻻ ﺧﻼف ﻋﻠﻰ‬, and the like, depending on the context in which it is used.

!

The adjective ‘Mesopotamian’ derives from ‘Mesopotamia’, which refers to ‫ﺑﻼد ﻣﺎ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻨﮭﺮﯾﻦ‬.

!

The word ‘civilization’, derived from the verb ‘to civilize’, lends itself here to ‫ﺣﻀﺎرة‬.

~

It is probable that the Republican Party will win the forthcoming elections that will take place next October.

!

Here, ‘it is probable’ can be replaced with ‘it is possible/likely’ and ‘it is unlikely’ as all of them are used to express likelihood. However, it is worth noting that ‘it is probable’ is stronger than ‘it is possible/likely’, which is in turn stronger than ‘it is unlikely’, thus lending themselves to ‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺮﺟّﺢ‬, ‫ﻣﻦ اﻟ ُﻤﺤﺘﻤﻞ‬, and ‫ ﻣﻦ اﻟ ُﻤﺴﺘﺒﻌﺪ‬respectively.

!

The adjective ‘republican’ ‫ ﺟﻤﮭﻮري‬derives from the noun ‘republic’ ‫ﺟﻤﮭﻮرﯾﺔ‬. However, here it refers to one of the two main political parties in the US, viz. ‘the Republican Party’ and ‘the Democratic Party’.

the

noun

284

‫ة‬

Chapter Eight

!

The word ‘party’ has multiple meanings, such as (1) a social occasion to which people are invited to eat, drink, enjoy their time ‫ﺣﻔﻠﺔ‬, (2) a group of people who have the same political aims and ideas ‫ﺣِ ﺰب‬, and (3) a person who forms one side of a legal agreement, contract, etc. ‫ﻓﺮﯾﻖ‬/‫طﺮف‬.

!

The phrasal verb ‘to take place’ lends itself to ‫ ﺗُﺠﺮى‬rather than ‫ ﺗﺤﺪث‬or ‫ ﺗﻘﻊ‬as it collocates well with the noun ‫‘اﻧﺘﺨﺎب‬election’.

‫ﺎﻨ ﺔ زﺎرة ﻗ‬

‫ﻤ اﻟ ُ ﻘّ ر ﱠ‬ ‫أن رﺌ َ اﻟ زراء اﻟ وﺴﻲ ﺴ ور اﻟﻌﺎﺼ ﺔ اﻟ‬ . ‫ﻟﻠ ﺎﺤ ﻓﻲ ﺸ ون اﻟ ق اﻷوﺴ‬

~

!

The expression ... ‫ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻘﺮر أن‬can be translated into ‘it is/has been decided that …’. However, a more idiomatic rendering of this journalistic-type sentence could begin with: ‘The Russian Prime Minister is due/scheduled to visit…’.

~

Needless to say, helping the poor and the needy during the whole year, not only in during Ramadan, will be rewarded.

!

As stated above, ‘needless to say’ lends itself in Arabic to ‫ﻣﻦ ﻧﺎﻓﻠﺔ‬

‫ اﻟﻘﻮل‬or a similar expression. !

In English, when an adjective is preceded by the definite article ‘the’, it is used as a plural noun, typically referring to a group or category of people. Therefore, ‘the poor’ and ‘the needy’ lend themselves to ‫ اﻟﻔﻘﺮاء‬and ‫ اﻟﻤﺤﺘﺎﺟﻮن‬respectively.

!

To produce a rendering that runs smoothly and naturally, you may need to add words like ‫ ﻋﻤﻞ‬or ‫أﻣﺮ‬, as in:

. ... ‫أﻣﺮ‬/ٌ ٌ ‫ ﻋﻤﻞ‬... ‫إن ﻣﺴﺎﻋﺪة‬ EX: Translate the following sentences into Arabic: 1.

It is expected that the British Prime Minister will today arrive in Dubai for a three-day tour.

2.

It was decided that Jamaica would house the headquarters of the International Sea-bed Authority according to the stipulations of the Treaty on the Law of the Sea.

Conjunction

3.

285

It is well known that there are Seven Wonders of the World, two of which are in the Arab World: they are the Pyramids in Egypt and the Hanging Gardens of Babylonian Iraq.

11 Back to simple sentences As stated earlier, in English, there are three main types of sentences, viz. !

Simple sentences consisting of one finite clause, i.e. one subject and one verb injected with a tense and aspect, etc.

!

Compound sentences consisting of two independent clauses conjoined by connectors, such as ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘so’, and so forth.

!

Complex sentences consisting of two clauses (one of them is a dependent clause) joined by subordinators, such as ‘therefore’, ‘because’, ‘although’, and so on.

It is very important for translation students and language learners to be fully aware of these three types and how to use them. In this section, we will try to learn how to change complex and compound sentences to simple ones and vice versa. In order to change a complex/compound sentence to a simple one, we need to learn how to change a finite clause to a non-finite clause. Generally speaking, a finite clause can be changed to a non-finite clause by: !

deleting the subject of the finite clause, providing it refers back or forward to the same subject of the other clause,

!

stripping the verb of the finite clause of its tense, aspect, etc. thus having only one tense, as in:

While I was watching TV last night, I heard somebody knock on the door. While watching TV last night, I heard somebody knock on the door. However, when there are two different subjects referring to two different referents, sometimes we cannot delete the subject as the meaning will be different, as in: While I was watching TV, my friend came to visit me. While watching TV, my friend came to visit me.

286

Chapter Eight

In addition to these two steps, that is, deleting the subject and stripping the verb of its tense, aspect, etc. at times the connector itself needs to be changed. Let us consider the following example: I did not understand why he left his country. In this example, two processes, namely a mental process ‘I did not understand’ and a material process ‘he left his country’ are conjoined by ‘why’, thus creating a complex sentence. It is worth noting that the act of leaving occurred before the state of not understating. Further, there is an implicit mental process indicating that the Senser heard or knew that the Actor left his country. This implicit mental process is backgrounded in attention. By utilizing this grammatical form and content specification, the language user establishes a perspective point positioned first at the state of not understanding, from which a line of viewing moves in a prospective direction forward to the act of leaving. In the material process, that is, ‘he left his country’, an open path with gapping over the Goal (i.e. the ending point), is employed by the speaker. To change the finite clause ‘he left his country’ to a non-finite clause, one may suggest these: I did not understand the reason behind him leaving his country. I did not understand the reason for him leaving his country. Following are more examples: After he had retired, he decided to work in the private sector. Here, there are two finite clauses, namely ‘he had retired’ and ‘he decided’, and one non-finite clause ‘to work in the private sector’. It is worth noting that in the non-finite clause ‘to work in the private sector’, the scope of intention is greater than the extent of causation. By contrast, it is asserted that he retired and decided; therefore, the extent of causation is greater than the scope of intention. The finite clause ‘he had retired’ can be changed to a non-finite clause by deleting the subject ‘he’ after ‘after’ and changing the helping verb ‘had’ into ‘having’, as in: After having retired, he decided to work in the private sector.

The word ‘immediately’ can be used with ‘after’ as in: Immediately after having retired, he decided to work in the private sector.

Conjunction

287

In addition to deleting the subject and changing the helping verb to ‘having’, you may delete the connector ‘after’, as in: Having retired, he decided to work in the private sector.

Following is another example: He often changes his address so that the police cannot find him. In the above example, by the effect of ‘often’, the emphasis is placed on the regularity and frequency of the act of changing his address. Here, the writer does not talk about a single event but a series of events cognitively viewed from a distal perspective, thus being seen as a point on the timeline. In the clause of purpose (so that the police cannot find him), the interaction between the police and him is construed as unidirectional based on an asymmetrical action schema where the transfer of energy flows from the Actor (the police) to the Patient (him). To change the finite clause of purpose ‘the police cannot find him’ to a non-finite clause of purpose without changing the action-chain schema, you can use ‘not to’, ‘in order not to’, ‘so as not to’, etc. followed by a phrase in the passive voice, as in: He often changes his address in order not to be found by the police. EX: Change the following sentences to simple ones without changing their meanings. Then, translate them into Arabic. ~

He withdrew from the election for fear that he might not win votes in his constituency.

!

Here, the connector ‘for fear’ is followed by that-clause, thus, it is a complex sentence. In order to change it to a simple sentence, you need to change the finite clause into a non-finite clause, as in:

He withdrew from the election for fear of not winning votes in his constituency. ~

It is probable that the Republican Party will win the forthcoming elections that will take place next October.

!

Here, in order to change this complex sentence that has three clauses to a simple one, you may delete ‘It is probable that’, change the first modal verb ‘will’ to ‘may well’, and change ‘that will take place next October’ to ‘of next October’, as in:

The Republican Party may well win the elections of next October.

288

Chapter Eight

~

It is expected that the British Prime Minister will arrive in Dubai for a three-day tour today.

!

Here, in order to change this complex sentence to a simple one, you may delete ‘it is expected that’ and change the modal verb ‘will’ to ‘is expected to’, as in:

The British Prime Minister is expected to arrive in Dubai for a three-day tour today. ~

If you study hard, you will pass the exam. Unless you study hard, you will not pass the exam.

!

In order to change a complex sentence containing a conditional clause beginning with ‘if’ to a simple one, you need to change ‘if’ to the preposition ‘by’, delete the subject, and strip the verb ‘to study’ of its tense, as in:

By studying hard, you will pass the exam. !

However, to change a complex sentence containing a conditional clause beginning with ‘unless’ to a simple one, you need to change ‘unless’ to the preposition ‘without’, delete the subject, and strip the verb ‘to study’ of its tense, as in:

Without studying hard, you will not pass the exam. ~

Whether you apply for the job electronically or not, you will not be short listed.

!

Here, in order to change a complex sentence containing a conditional clause beginning with ‘whether’ followed by ‘or not’ to a simple one, you need to change ‘whether … or not’ to ‘with or without’, delete the subject, and strip the verb ‘to apply’ of its tense, as in:

With or without applying for the job electronically, you will not be short listed. ~

The more you exercise, the healthier you feel.

!

As stated earlier, the structure ‘the more/-er …, the more/-er …’

Conjunction

289

can be translated into ‫ﻛﻠﻤﺎ‬. It can be changed to a simple sentence as follows: Exercising more, you will feel healthier. As indicated earlier, when we delete ‘the more’, we need to insert the modal verb ‘shall’ or ‘will’, if there is none, after the subject of the second clause. ~

In the lecture, she often writes down the teacher’s notes lest she should forget them. In the lecture, she often writes down the teacher’s notes for fear that she may forget them.

!

In order to change a complex sentence containing a purpose clause beginning with ‘lest’ or ‘for fear that’ to a simple one, you need to change ‘lest’ or ‘for fear that’ to ‘in order not to’ or ‘so as not to’, and delete the subject and the modal verb, as in:

In the lecture, she often writes down the teacher’s notes in order not to forget them. ~

She will tell us about the accident when she arrives home. She will tell us about the accident as soon as she arrives home.

!

In order to change a complex sentence containing a time clause beginning with ‘when’ or ‘as soon as’ to a simple one, you need to change ‘when’ or ‘as soon as’ to ‘immediately after’, delete the subject, and strip the verb ‘to arrive’ of its tense, as in:

She will tell us about the accident immediately after arriving home. EX: Change the following sentences as required. Then, translate them into Arabic: 1.

After I had done my homework, I decided to visit my neighbour.

Having______________________________________________________ 2.

If you attend all lectures, you will not fail such an easy exam.

290

Chapter Eight

By_________________________________________________________ 3.

It is probable that most of the students will pass the final exam.

Most of the students ___________________________________________ 4.

Although I did not answer two questions accurately, I passed the exam.

In spite of ___________________________________________________ 5.

No sooner had she arrived home than she called her mother.

When _______________________________________________________

6.

Though she has a lot of relatives and friends in the town, she feels unhappy.

Despite _____________________________________________________ 7.

My brother left home as soon as he finished his homework.

My brother left home immediately after ____________________________ 8.

The questions in yesterday’s exam were so difficult that I could not answer them all.

The questions in yesterday’s exam were too ________________________ 9.

I could not visit you last night because I was very tired.

I could not visit you last night because of __________________________ 10. He has changed his address many times recently for fear that the police may arrest him.

Conjunction

291

He has changed his address many times recently in order not to ___________________________________________________________ 11. His application has not been accepted by the company, since he does not have enough experience to perform such a role. His application has not been accepted by the company owing to ___________________________________________________________ 12. My neighbour withdrew from the election two days ago for fear that he might not win votes in his constituency. My neighbour withdrew from the election two days ago for fear of ____________________________________________________________ 13. The weather in Germany last week was so cold that I could not leave the hotel. The weather in Germany last week was too ____________________________________________________________ EX: Re-write the following sentences without changing their meanings. Then translate them into Arabic: 1.

She invited all her friends to her birthday party. However, nobody attended. (use ‘despite’)

2.

Iraq is one of the richest countries in the world. However, its people have been living in a state of poverty for three decades. (use ‘although’)

3.

My brother’s life was saved thanks to the doctor’s skill. (use ‘therefore’)

4.

In view of his long service to the college, he was appointed as a head of the English department. (use ‘because’)

5.

I wrote down all the doctor’s instructions lest I should forget them. (use ‘in order to’)

292

Chapter Eight

6.

He woke up early for fear that he might miss the first lecture. (use ‘in order to’)

7.

As soon as he graduated from the university, he got a job in one of the biggest companies. (use ‘no sooner’)

8.

All flights into Kuwait airport have been delayed due to the bad weather. (use ‘because’)

9.

He took out a loan with a view to enrolling at the university, but he could not pay the university fees. (use ‘in spite of’)

10. The enemy forces intended to use nuclear weapons against us. Thus, the United Nations intervened to put an end to these threats. (use ‘since’) 11. If the contract is for an unspecified period, either party shall have the right to rescind the contract, on condition that there is reasonable justification. (use ‘in the event that’ + ‘providing’) 12. As soon as the lecture began, the professor left the class due to the bad behaviour of one of the students. (use ‘no sooner’) 13. He decided to take out a loan to buy a new house in the centre of the city. However, the bank refused his application on the grounds that he had no job. (use ‘though’) 14. Our neighbours never parked their truck in front of their house in order not to bother us. (use ‘for fear that’). 15. Barely had the company launched its new product when it went bankrupt. (use ‘as soon as’) 16. Despite searching everywhere, my brother couldn’t find his wallet. (use ‘although’) 17. She has travelled to the UK recently in search of a good job. (use ‘in order to’)

12 Revision Ex 1: Translate the following sentences into Arabic. 1.

Having explained the topic to my students, I asked them a question, but, unfortunately, no one answered it.

Conjunction

293

2.

Your failure in the exam was due to your laziness throughout the year.

3.

No sooner had the teacher left the class than he heard one of his students shout out to him: “You’re excellent”.

4.

It was not long after his wife’s death when he too died.

5.

Had he given full consideration to his studies in the past, he would not have put himself and his family in such an embarrassing situation.

6.

With or without preparing yourself for the final exam, you won’t pass the exam because of the teacher’s negative attitude.

EX 2: Have a look at the translation of the following literary text titled ‫ﻲ‬ ّ ‫‘ اﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻋﻦ ﻗﻠﺐ ﺣ‬Search for a Live Heart’ by Mūhsin al-Ramlī (translated by and cited in Almanna and al-Rubai‘i 2009: 36-7). Then, translate the literary text titled ‫‘ ﻗﻠﻖ‬A Worry’ written for the purposes of this course into English, paying special attention to the connectors used and the differences between Arabic and English in terms of the length of sentences: Oh, my God, what about my mother’s heart then. My mother who remains pinned to the window day and night, puffing on cigarettes, her tearful eyes checking the road to see if he’s getting out of a passing car ... he might get out at any moment. He must get out because he has to come back.

‫ أﻤﻲ اﻟ ﻲ‬... ‫أﻤﻲ إ ًذا؟‬ ‫اﻟ ﺎﻓ ة ﻟ ﻞ ﻨﻬﺎر ﺘ ﻀﻊ‬ ‫ﺘ ﻗ ﺎن‬

‫اﻟ اﻤﻌ ﺎن‬

‫ﻛ ﻒ ﻗﻠ‬

‫ﺘ ّت ﻋ‬ ‫وﻋ ﺎﻫﺎ‬ ‫اﻟ ﺎﺌ‬

‫ ﺘ اﻩ ﯿ ّﺠﻞ ﻋ ّﻞ اﻟ ﺎرات‬... ‫اﻟ‬ ‫ ﻗ ﯿ ل ﻓﻲ أ ﺔ‬... ‫ ﯿ ل‬... ‫اﻟ ﺎرﻗﺔ‬

‫ ﺒﻞ ﺤ ً ﺎ ﺴ ل ﻷﻨﻪ ﻻﺒّ أن‬.. ‫ﻟ ﺔ‬ Neighbours, too, want to bring us ‫ وﺤ ﻰ اﻟ ان ﯿ دون ﻟ ﯿ ﻘﻠ ا ﻟ ﺎ‬،‫ﻌ د‬ news of his return as quickly as ‫ ﻓﻬ‬،‫ﻋﺔ ﻟ ﻗﻔ ا ﺤ ﻨ ﺎ‬ ‫ﺨ ﻋ دﺘﻪ‬ they can to put an end to our sorrow as they realize that one moment more of sorrow might be too much for us.

‫ﺔ ﺤ ن إﻀﺎﻓ ﺔ ﻗ‬

‫ﯿ ر ن ﺄن أ ﺔ ﻟ‬ .‫ﺘﻘ ﻲ ﻋﻠ ﺎ‬

294

Chapter Eight

.. ٌ ‫ﻗﻠ‬

ِ ‫ْت أﻤﻪ ِﻋ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ أﺤّ ﻤ اﻟ‬ ‫ﺎك ﺘ‬ ُ ‫ ﻟ ﺘ‬. ‫وﺼ ل وﻟ ِ ﻫﺎ اﻟ ﺤ‬ ُُ ّ ‫ﺘ‬ ‫ ﻟ ﻟ أﻏﻠﻘ ِ اﻟ ﺎك وأﺨ ْت ﺘ ّ ﻰ‬،‫ ﺸﻌ ْت ﺎﻟ د‬.‫اﻟ ﯿ ﺔ آﻤ ﺔ ﻟ ا ﺎﻨ ﻗﻠﻘﺔ ﻋﻠ ﻪ ﺠ ً ا‬ ‫وﻓ ْ روا ًﺔ وراﺤ ْ ﺘﻘ أ ﻲ ﺘ ّﻠ َ ﻤ‬ ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ‬، ‫ ﻌ ذﻟ‬،‫دت‬ ْ ّ ‫ ﺘ‬.‫داﺨﻞ اﻟﻐ ﻓﺔ‬ ِ ِ ‫و ﺄﻨﻬﺎ ﻓ ﺎة ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌ‬ ّ ‫ ﻤﺎ إن ﺴ ﻌ ْ ﺼ َت اﻨﻔ ﺎر ﺤ ﻰ ﻗﻔ ْت ﻤ اﻟ‬.‫ﺤﺎﻟﺔ اﻟ ﻠﻞ‬ ... ‫ّ ﻋ ﻩ ﻤ ﺠ ﯿ‬

‫ﻟ ﻔ ﺢ اﻟ ﺎك ﺜﺎﻨ ﺔ وﺘ‬

‫ﻤ اﻟﻌ‬

!

The verb ‫ﺗﺳﻣر‬ can be translated as ‘to pin to’, ‘to remain pinned ّ to’, ‘to be nailed to’, and the like.

!

The idiomatic expression ‫أﺣر ﻣن اﻟﺟﻣر‬ ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ‬lends itself in ّ English to ‘on pins and needles’ or ‘to be on tenterhooks’.

!

ّ ‫( أﺧذت ﺗﺗﻣ‬also ‫ﺸﻰ‬ ّ ‫ )راﺣﺖ ﺗﺘﻤ‬can be translated The expression ‫ﺷﻰ‬ as ‘to start/begin + Verb 1 + –ing’.

!

The verb ‫ﯾﺗﺧﻠّص‬/‫ ﺗﺧﻠّص‬lends itself to ‘to get rid of’.

!

The expression ‫ ﻗﻔز ﻣن اﻟﺳرﯾر‬can be translated as ‘to rush to one’s feet’, ‘to jump to one’s feet’, or just ‘to jump out of bed’.

!

The connector ‫ﻛﺄﻧﮭﺎ‬, which lends itself to ‘as if’ needs to be followed by the past perfect tense ‘had been’ or ‘were’.

EX 3: The following text is extracted (with a slight modification) from a short story titled ‫‘ ﺛﻼث ﻗﺼﺺ ﻟﯿﺴﺖ ﻟﻠﻨﺸﺮ‬Three Stories not for Publishing’ by ‘Abdulsattar Nāsir (ibid. pp. 14-5). Try to: ! ! !

identify the verbs used in Arabic along with their tenses, and then compare them with their suggested translations. identify the connectors used in the source text and how they have been translated. re-translate the text using different connectors.

Once the king had restored the half of the treasury’s revenues, he announced a mysterious and great

‫ ﺤ ﻰ‬،‫ﻨ ﻒ أﻤ اﻟﻪ‬ ‫ ﻤﺎت ﻓ ﻪ‬،

‫ﻏﺎﻤ‬

‫وﻤﺎ أن أرﺠﻊ اﻟ ﻠ‬ (

‫أﻋﻠ ﻋ )ﻨ‬

Conjunction

295

‘victory’ in which tens of soldiers had died. Despite that, all the townsfolk were filled with happiness … In this way the people carried on, happy and contented. No one ever mentioned the treasurer, the guard or even the queen, who once had been the mistress of all.

.‫د‬ ‫ﻗ ﻏ ت أﻫﻞ اﻟ ﯿ ﺔ‬

‫ﻋ ات اﻟ‬

‫اﻟ ﻌﺎدة ﺎﻨ‬

‫ﻟ‬

... ‫ﻛﻠﻬ‬ ... ‫ﻋﺎش اﻟ ﺎس ﻓﻲ ﻤ ة واﺒ ﻬﺎج‬ ‫اﻟ ز أو اﻟ ﺎرس‬ ... ‫ﻊ‬

‫ﻟﻟ‬

‫وﻟ ﺄت أﺤ ﻋﻠﻰ ذ‬

‫ﺴ ة اﻟ‬

‫أو اﻟ ﻠ ﺔ اﻟ ﻲ ﺎﻨ‬

EX 4: The following two extracts are adapted from a collection of short stories titled ‫‘ راﺋﺤﺔ اﻟﺸﺘﺎء‬The Scent of Winter’ by Mahmūd ‘Abdulwahhāb (translated by and cited in Sadkhan and Pragnell 2012). Complete the translation by using the appropriate connector: Text 1

__________

we entered the classroom, the bell stopped ringing. __________ had I sat down under a closed window __________ two teachers passed us on their way to the classrooms. __________ one of them was speaking in a low voice, the other was listening. (pp. 14-5)

‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﻠ ﺔ اﻟ ﻲ دﺨﻠ ﺎ ﻓ ﻬﺎ اﻟ ّ ﻒ ِاﻨﻘ ﻊ‬ ‫ﺸ ﺎك‬ ‫ ﻤﺎ إن ﺠﻠ ُ ﺘ‬.‫رﻨ ُ اﻟ س‬

‫ﻤﻐﻠ ﺤ ﻰ ﻤّ ت ﻋﻠ ﺎ ﻤﻌﻠ ﺎن ﻓﻲ‬ ْ ‫ ﺒ ﺎ ﺎﻨ‬،‫ﻘﻬ ﺎ إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﻔ ف‬ ‫ ﺎﻨ‬، ‫ٍت ﺨﺎﻓ‬ ‫إﺤ اﻫ ﺘ ّﻠ‬ .

‫اﻟ ﺎﻨ ﺔ ﺘ‬

Text 2

__________

he folded the newspaper, which was in his hands, __________ he called the waiter. She pushed the tea tray to one side, and they stood up.

‫ﯿ ﻪ ﺤﻰ‬

‫ة اﻟ ﻲ ﺒ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ﻤﺎ إن‬

.‫ﻨﺎد اﻟ ﺎدل‬

.‫ا ﻌ ْت ﻫﻲ ﺠﺎﻨ ﺎ ﺼ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎ وﻗﺎﻤﺎ‬

296

Chapter Eight

‫ داﺨﻞ‬،

__________ they left their place, their table was reflected in the mirror: two vacant chairs on either side of the table and a tea tray. (pp. 30-1)

‫ﺘ ﺎ ﻤ ﺎﻨﻬ ﺎ اﻨﻌ‬

‫ﺴ ﺎن ﻓﺎرﻏﺎن ﻋﻠﻰ‬

‫وﺤ‬

:‫ ﻤﺎﺌ ﺘﻬ ﺎ‬،‫اﻟ آة‬

. ‫ وﺼ ﺔ اﻟ ﺎ‬،‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎﺌ ة‬

EX 5: Instructors: evaluate with your students the translation of the following text titled ‫ اﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎر‬translated for the purposes of this study, paying extra attention to the translation of connectors: In economics, an investment is the purchase of goods that are not to be consumed at the actual moment, but are to be used in the future; in this way, wealth is created. In finance, an investment refers to a monetary asset purchased with the hope that it will generate income or appreciation in the future, thus being sold at a higher price. It is worth noting that there are always risks involved in any investment in shares. For instance, if you invest in a small number of companies or a single sector, then you can be more exposed to the risk of losing money due to falls in the share prices of those companies. Therefore, it is advised that you spread your investments across different types of companies in different sectors.

‫ ﺸ اء‬،‫ﺎد‬ ،‫اﻟ ﺎﻟﻲ‬

‫ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻠ اﻻﻗ‬،‫ﻌ ﻲ اﻻﺴ ﺎر‬

‫ﺎﺌﻊ ﻻ ﯿ ّ اﺴ ﻬﻼﻛﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻗ‬ ‫ و ﻬ ﻩ‬،‫وﻟ ﻬﺎ ﺴ ﻌ ﻞ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻘ ﻞ‬ .‫ﻊ اﻟ وات‬

‫إﻟﻰ‬

ُ‫ﻘﺔ ﺘ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ ﻓﺈن اﻻﺴ ﺎر‬،‫أﻤﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎﻟ ﺔ‬

‫ﻠ‬

‫أﺼﻞ ﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﯿ ّ ﺸ اؤﻩ ﻋﻠﻰ أﻤﻞ أن‬ ،‫ﻤ ر دﺨﻞ أو ﺘ ﺘﻔﻊ ﻗ ﻪ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻘ ﻞ‬ .‫ﻌ أﻋﻠﻰ‬

‫و ﻟ ُﯿ ﺎع‬

‫وﺘ ر اﻹﺸﺎرة إﻟﻰ أن اﻻﺴ ﺎر ﻓﻲ اﻷﺴﻬ‬

‫ ﻓﻌﻠﻰ ﺴ ﻞ‬،

،‫ﺎت‬

‫ﺎﺤ ﻪ‬

‫داﺌ ً ﺎ ﻤﺎ‬ ‫ ﻋ ﻤﺎ ﺘ‬،‫اﻟ ﺎل‬

‫ﻓﻲ ﻋ د ﻤ اﻟ‬

‫ﻓﻘ ان اﻟ ﺎل‬

.‫ﺎت‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ‬

‫ﻤ ﺎ‬

‫ﻓﺈﻨ ﺴ ﻌّ ض إﻟﻰ ﺨ‬ ‫اﻨ ﻔﺎض ﻗ ﺔ اﻷﺴﻬ ﻓﻲ ﺘﻠ اﻟ‬

‫ﺢ أن ﺘﻘ م ﺒ زﻊ اﺴ ﺎراﺘ‬

‫ﺎت وﻓﻲ ﻗ ﺎﻋﺎت‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ﻟ ا ُﯿ‬ ‫أﻨ اع ﻤ ﻠﻔﺔ ﻤ‬

.‫ﻤ ﻠﻔﺔ‬

CHAPTER NINE DISCOURSE MARKERS

In any language, there are a number of markers or language signals that can be used by speakers or writers like traffic signs to ‘signpost’, or guide listeners or readers through a text. Being fully aware of their functions, the translators, as language users, can “understand the logical structure of what they read and listen to, the order of the events, and the attitudes of the [writer or] speaker” (Parrot 2010: 345). In each section hereof, the commonly used discourse markers are introduced in both languages and then followed by examples along with some notes.

1 Summarizing & rounding off in short, in brief, in summary, in conclusion, briefly, finally, eventually, all in all, on the whole, to summarize, to sum up, to recap, to recapitulate, to conclude, to cut a long story short, to round it off, etc.

،(‫)إﻟﻰ اﻟﻘ ل‬ ...

~

‫ ﻨ ﻠ‬،‫ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌ م‬،‫ ﻋ ًﻤﺎ‬،‫ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻹﺠ ﺎل‬،‫ ﺎﻹﺠ ﺎل‬،ً‫إﺠ ﺎﻻ‬ ‫ وﻓﻲ اﻷﺨ‬،‫ وﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻬﺎ ﺔ‬،‫ وﻓﻲ اﻟ ﺎم‬،‫ ﺈ ﺎز‬،‫ ﺎﺨ ﺎر‬،‫ﺨﻼﺼﺔ اﻟﻘ ل‬

To sum up, some people like to work from home while others do not.

298

Chapter Nine

!

‘to sum up’ lends itself to ‫ﺑﺎﺧﺘﺼﺎر‬, ‫ﺧﻼﺻﺔ اﻟﻘﻮل‬, etc.

‫ﻤ ود وﻟ ﻨ ّ ﻤ‬

!

‫وﺼﻠ ﺎ إﻟﻰ‬

‫ ﻨ‬،‫ﺎر و ون ﻟﻒ ودوران‬

.‫ ﻟ ا ﻤ اﻷﻓ ﻞ ﻟ ﺎ أن ﻨﻔ ق و ﻬ وء‬.‫ﻤﻌﺎ‬ ً

‫ﺎﺨ‬

‫اﻟﻌ‬

~

How this Arabic phrase ‫ ﺑﺪون ﻟﻒ ودوران‬should best be translated will always depend on the exact context and the level of formality indicated. The high-register word ‘circumlocution’ would be right only for a very formal context, and in this example additional ways to translate it could be: the long and the short of it is… to come straight to the point… to get straight to the point… to cut to the chase… In an informal, colloquial and highly idiomatic context such as literary or dramatic dialogue, the Arabic phrase ‫ﺑﺎﺧﺘﺼﺎر وﺑﺪون ﻟﻒ‬ ‫ ودوران‬could also be rendered as: (with) no messing around let’s not mess around basically (In spoken British English this word is commonly used in this sense)

2 Numbering & ordering points first(ly), second(ly), third(ly), next, then, finally, and finally, last, lastly, etc.

... ‫ وأﺨ ًا‬، ‫ ﻌ ذﻟ‬، ‫ ﺜ‬،‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ء‬... ،‫ ﺜﺎﻟ ًﺎ‬،‫ ﺜﺎﻨًﺎ‬،ً‫أوﻻ‬

Discourse Markers

~

299

The Egyptian President, Hosni Mubarak, visited three countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) last week; first he visited Kuwait, then Qatar, and finally, Bahrain.

!

The lexical item ‘president’ lends itself to ‫رﺋﯿﺲ‬. Related words include ‘presidency’ ‫ رﺋﺎﺳﺔ‬and ‘presidential’ ‫رﺋﺎﺳﻲ‬.

!

The expression ‘the Gulf Cooperation Council’ lends itself to ‫ﻣﺠﻠﺲ‬ ‫اﻟﺘﻌﺎون اﻟﺨﻠﯿﺠﻲ‬.

!

Note that while ‘first of all…’ is common as the beginning of a list in British English, ‘second of all…’, ‘third of all…’, and so on are not considered stylistically acceptable in this variety of English (but are gaining ground internationally under the influence of American English). Like all writers, translators need to be as aware as they can be of their target readership.

3 Reformulation in other words, to put it differently, to put this differently, put differently, to put it simply, in a sense, in simpler words, what I mean is …, cast in less technical terms, that is to say, namely, etc.

، ‫ ﻤﺎ أﻋ ﻪ ﻫ‬،‫ﻌ ﻰ‬

~

،‫ أﻋ ﻲ‬، ‫ ﻠ ﺎت أﺨ‬/‫ﻠ ﺔ‬

، ‫ ﻌ ﺎرة أﺨ‬، ‫ﻌ ﻰ آﺨ‬

.... ‫ ﻫ ا ﻌ ﻲ‬،

‫ ﻠ ﺎت أ‬،

، ‫أ‬ ‫أﻗ‬

Try not to be unsociable. In other words, try to do your best to go out and make some friends in such a lovely town.

!

In English, the word ‘sociable’ ‫اِﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬, which is the opposite of ‘unsociable’ ‫ﻏﯿﺮ اِﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬, is used to refer to people being generally willing and happy to meet, talk to, and interact with

300

Chapter Nine

other people, whether known or unknown to them. Consider this example: They’re a really unsociable couple – they never come to any of the staff parties. ‘Social’, on the other hand, has a range of uses and generally refers to anything that is thought to be to do with, or to support, living in society with happiness and wellbeing. This may include helping the more vulnerable members of a society, as in: My cousin’s a senior social worker in North London. Its antonym ‘unsocial’ means the opposite, of course, but has limited uses and collocations. Consider the following example: Yes, this job’s well paid, but that’s mainly because of the unsocial hours (i.e. having to work some evenings and/or weekends). !

The expression ‘to do your best’ (also ‘to do your very best’, ‘to do your utmost …’, ‘to make every (possible) effort …’) can be translated into ‫ﯾﺒﺬل ﻗﺼﺎرى ﺟﮭﺪه‬, ‫ﯾﺒﺬل ﻣﺎ ﺑﻮﺳﻌﮫ‬, ‫ﻻ ﯾﺪّﺧﺮ ﺟﮭﺪًا‬, and the like.

، ‫ ﺎﻋ ﻘﺎد‬،‫ وﻫ ا‬، ‫ﻘﻬ ﻷﻨﻬ رّ ﺎ ﻌ رون ﻤ‬ ‫ﻤ اﻷﻓ ﻞ أﻻ ﺘﻘّ م ﺸ‬ . ّ ‫ ﻻ ﺘ ﻌ ﻞ اﻷﻤ ر وﺤﺎول أن ﺘ‬، ‫ ﻌ ﻰ أﺨ‬.‫إﻟ ﻪ‬ ‫ﻤﺎ ﺘ‬

~

!

The expression ...‫ ﻣﻦ اﻷﻓﻀﻞ‬can be translated into ‘it is better …’ or ‘it is preferable …’.

!

‫ أﻻ‬which means ‫ أن ﻻ‬lends itself here to ‘not to’.

!

‫ ﯾﻘﺪّم ﺷﻜﻮى‬simply means ‫ﯾﺸﺘﻜﻲ‬, thus lending itself to ‘to complain’. However, verbs such as ‘to bring’, ‘to lodge’, or ‘to make’ can be used as they collocate well with the noun ‘complaint’ ‫ﺷﻜﻮى‬.

!

‫ ﺑﺤﻖ‬lends itself to the preposition ‘against’. In English we usually complain ‘about’ something or someone. We can also complain ‘to’ (someone) ‘about’ (something), as in:

Jane complained to her boss about her excessive unsocial hours. However, when using the noun rather than the verb, we generally make/lodge/post a complaint ‘about’ something and ‘against’

Discourse Markers

301

someone. As an illustration, the following example can be considered: I lodged a complaint about the poor room service. Then, I posted a complaint against the hotel management. !

‫ ﺑﻤﻌﻨﻰ آﺧﺮ‬can be translated into ‘in other words’, ‘to put this differently’, ‘to put differently’, and the like.

!

‫ ﻻ ﺗﺴﺘﻌﺠﻞ اﻷﻣﻮر وﺣﺎول أن ﺗﺘﺮﯾﺚ‬can be merged into ‘take your time over this’, ‘try to proceed cautiously’, or ‘try to proceed in a measured way’. ‘Don’t rush to judgement (on this)’, ‘don’t make a rushed decision’, or ‘don’t make a hasty decision’ would also be suitable as an idiomatic expression. We can also say ‘don’t act in haste’, and the idiomatic expression ‘hold your horses’ would be OK in a suitably informal, colloquial context. ‘Give it time…’ is also a fairly common expression of advice that might be suitable here.

4 Replacement & correction instead, rather, but rather, or, alternatively, I mean, to be more precise, to be more accurate, more accurately, etc.

،

.‫ﻠﺔ‬

‫ أﻗ‬،‫ أﻋ ﻲ‬،( ‫ﻋ ذﻟ‬/ ‫ﻀﺎ )ﻤ‬ ً ‫ ﻋ‬،( ‫ﻋ ذﻟ‬/ ‫ ﺒ ﻻً )ﻤ‬،‫ أو‬، ‫ و ﺎﻷﺤ‬،‫ ﺒﻞ‬،‫وﻨ ﺎ‬ ... ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻨ أدق‬،‫ﻛﻲ أﻛ ن أﻛ دﻗﺔ‬

‫اﻟ‬

!

‫ﻲ ﺘ ج ﻤ‬

‫اﻟ ﻐ‬

‫ ﻗ ﺘ ﺎج ﻌ‬. ‫ﻨﻬﺎ ﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﻟ‬

. ‫أن ﺘﻐّ ﻋ ﻠ‬

‫ ﻋﻠ‬،‫دﻗﺔ‬

‫إﻨﻬﺎ ﻟ‬

‫وﻷﻛ ن أﻛ‬

~

‫ إﻧﮭﺎ ﻟﯿﺴﺖ ﻧﮭﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ‬can be rendered literally into ‘it is not the end of the world’ as it might be a calque from the English expression ‘it is not the end of the world’. One could say instead: ‘look, things

302

Chapter Nine

could be a lot worse…’.

‫ ﻷﻛﻮن أﻛﺜﺮ دﻗﺔ‬lends itself to ‘to be more precise’ or ‘to be more

!

accurate’. The verb ‫ﯾﺨﺮج‬/‫ ﺧﺮج‬here means ‫ ﯾﺘﻐﻠﺐ‬or ‫ﯾﺘﺠﺎوز‬, thus lending itself to ‘to overcome’. One could also say ‘deal with’ or ‘get over/round’ (the problem/difficulty). There are many phrasal verbs in common use in English, and the translator should probably try to use them especially if the context suggests more informal language. It is worth noting that formal registers of English tend to use more single, rather than multi-word vocabulary and also more Latinbased words, and becoming aware of this fact should be part of the translator’s training.

!

5 Comparison: similarity similarly, and by the same token, but by the same token, in the same way, comparably, likewise, equally, etc.

،‫ﻘﺔ ﻨﻔ ﻬﺎ‬

~

‫ و ﺎﻟ‬،‫ وﻟﻸﺴ ﺎب ﻨﻔ ﻬﺎ‬،‫ﻨﻔ ﻪ‬

‫ وﻟﻠ‬،‫ أ ً ﺎ‬،‫ و ﺎﻟ ﻞ‬،‫وﻋﻠﻰ ﻨ ﻤ ﺎﺜﻞ‬ ... ‫ واﻟ ﻲء ﺎﻟ ﻲء ُﯿ‬، ‫ ﻟ‬،‫و ﺎﻟ ﻘﺎرﻨﺔ‬

Some colleagues believe that our head of the department is a real charmer, but by the same token, some others believe that he is not.

!

The denotative meaning of the lexical item ‘charmer’ is ‫ﺳﺎﺣﺮ‬. However, in such a context, it can be translated into ‫ق‬ ٍ ‫ إﻧﺴﺎن را‬or something similar.

Discourse Markers

!

303

‘but, by the same token’ can be translated into

... ‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﻧﻔﺴﮫ‬،‫وﻟﻜﻦ‬ ... ‫ﻧﺎﺣﯿﺔ أﺧﺮى‬/‫ ﻣﻦ ﺟﮭﺔ‬،‫وﻟﻜﻦ‬ .‫رﻫﺎ‬

‫ﻤ‬ !

‫ ﻌ ﻘ ون أﻨ أﻨ‬،‫ﻨﻔ ﻪ‬

‫ وﻟﻠ‬، ‫ ﻟ ﻬ‬،‫ﻠﺔ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ أﻨ ﺘﻌ ﻘ أﻨﻬ ﺴ‬،

‫ﻋ‬

‫ ﻋﺰﯾﺰي‬can be translated into ‘my dear’, ‘honey’, ‘sweet heart’, and the like, depending on the relationship between the in-text participants. Here, it is not clear, thus lending itself to ‘my dear’.

!

‫ وﻟﻠﺴﺒﺐ ﻧﻔﺴﮫ‬،‫ ﻟﻜﻨﮭﻢ‬lends itself to ‘but, by the same token’ or ‘but, for the same reason’.

‫اﻟ ﻠ ﺎت اﻷﺠ ﺔ‬

‫ﻟ ﻪ ﻗ رة ﻓﺎﺌﻘﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻨ‬

‫ﻟ‬

،‫ُذﻨﺎ ﻤ ﺴ ﻘ ﺔ‬ ً ‫ﻠ أﺨﻲ أ‬ .‫ﻨ ًﻘﺎ ﺼ ً ﺎ‬

~

!

‫ ﯾﻤﻠﻚ أذﻧًﺎ ﻣﻮﺳﯿﻘﯿﺔ‬can be rendered into ‘to have a good ear for music’.

!

The cognate accusative ‫ ﯾﻨﻄﻖ ﻧﻄﻘًﺎ‬along with the adjective ‫ﺻﺤﯿ ًﺤﺎ‬ can be translated into ‘to pronounce (foreign words) properly or correctly’, ‘to pronounce well’, and ‘somebody has good pronunciation (of foreign/English sounds/words)’.

6 Comparison: dissimilarity on the other hand, in comparison, by comparison, by contrast, in contrast, however, on the contrary, in spite of that, despite that, yet, etc.

‫ وﻋﻠﻰ ﻋ‬، ‫ذﻟ‬/‫ﻫ ا‬

‫ﻤ‬

‫ وﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻘ‬، ‫ﻨﺎﺤ ﺔ أﺨ‬

... ‫أن‬/‫إن‬

‫ وﻤ‬، ‫ﺠﻬﺔ أﺨ‬

‫وﻤ‬

‫ ﻏ‬،‫أن‬/‫ إﻻ إن‬، ‫ذﻟ‬/‫ وﻋﻠﻰ ﺨﻼف ﻫ ا‬، ‫ذﻟ‬/‫ﻫ ا‬

304

Chapter Nine

،‫ ﺑﻞ‬.‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻮاﺿﺢ أﻧﮫ ﻟﻢ ﯾﺘﻀﺎﯾﻖ ﻣﻦ ﻛﻠﻤﺎت اﻟﻠﻮم واﻟﺘﻮﺑﯿﺦ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺻﺪرتْ ﻣﻨﮭﺎ‬ .‫ ﻛﺎن ﯾﺸﻌﺮ ﺑﺘﺄﻧﯿﺐ اﻟﻀﻤﯿﺮ‬،‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﻜﺲ‬

~

!

The discourse marker ‫ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻮاﺿﺢ‬can be translated into ‘it is clear’, ‘it is obvious’, ‘it is apparent’, etc.

!

Here ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﻜﺲ‬،‫( ﺑﻞ‬also ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻨﻘﯿﺾ‬،‫ )ﺑﻞ‬is used in Arabic to indicate that something is the opposite of something which has been mentioned. Therefore, it can be translated into ‘on the contrary’, ‘by contrast’, etc.

!

The noun ‫ﻟﻮم‬, which is derived from ‫ﯾﻠﻮم‬/‫ﻻم‬, can be translated into ‘to blame’ or ‘to criticize’.

!

Similarly, the noun ‫ﺗﻮﺑﯿﺦ‬, which is derived from ‫ﯾﻮﺑِّﺦ‬/‫وﺑّﺦ‬, lends itself to ‘rebuke’, ‘reprove’, ‘scold’, ‘reproach’, and the like.

!

The expression ‫ﺗﺄﻧﯿﺐ اﻟﻀﻤﯿﺮ‬, which is used in Arabic to refer to a feeling of uneasiness or anxiety of the conscience caused by a sense of guilt, can be translated into ‘compunction’. Actually, the lexical item ‘compunction’ has a very limited usage, as in the expressions to have no compunction about… with no compunction To illustrate this point, the following two sentences may be considered:

He had no compunction whatsoever about cheating the tax authorities. The human traffickers put the lives of their passengers at risk with no compunction. Consider the following related phrases: !

a matter of conscience

‫ﻣﺴﺄﻟﺔ ﺿﻤﯿﺮ‬

!

!

a crisis of conscience

‫أزﻣﺔ ﺿﻤﯿﺮ‬

!

!

a pang of conscience

‫وﺧﺰ اﻟﻀﻤﯿﺮ‬

!

!

conscientious; scrupulous; having scruples about… doing

‫ﻲ‬ ّ ‫ﺻﺎﺣﺐ ﺿﻤﯿﺮ ﺣ‬

!

Discourse Markers

305

something !

~

unscrupulous; having no/few scruples

‫ﺿﻤﯿﺮه ﻣﯿّﺖ‬

!

To tell you the truth, the teacher did not seem offended by his colleagues’ criticisms. In contrast he seemed to enjoy them.

!

‘To tell you the truth’ as an attitude marker can be translated into ‫ﺑﺼﺮاﺣﺔ‬, ‫ﺑﺄﻣﺎﻧﺔ‬, ‫ﻻ أﺧﻔﯿﻚ‬, etc. It is worth noting that this discourse marker can be replaced with ‘frankly’, ‘to be frank’, ‘to be honest (with you)’, and the like. The expression ‘if I’m honest (with you)’ is becoming increasingly common in spoken informal English. The even more informal (and somewhat vulgar) expression ‘straight up…’ could also be a suitable translation if the context were right.

!

The lexical item ‘offended’ can lend itself here to ‫ ﻣﻨﺰﻋﺞ‬or ‫ﻣﺘﻀﺎﯾﻖ‬.

~

In the south of Iraq all the land is flat. In contrast, in the north of Iraq there are hills and mountains.

!

Here ‘in contrast’ (also ‘by contrast’) should be followed by a clause, thus lending itself here to ‫أﻣﺎ‬, as in ... ‫ ﻓﺈن‬،‫أﻣﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺷﻤﺎل اﻟﻌﺮاق‬. In order to change the clause to a phrase, ‘in contrast to’ or ‘by contrast with’ can be used, as in:

In contrast to the south of Iraq, the north of Iraq is full of hills and mountains. By contrast with the south of Iraq, the north of Iraq is full of hills and mountains.

306

Chapter Nine

7 Exemplifying & narrowing down for example, for instance, such as, to illustrate, to demonstrate, to explain, to elaborate, to illuminate, by way of illustration, by way of demonstration, by way of explanation, by way of elaboration, to make this (point) clear, to reinforce this (point), etc.

،‫ﺎب اﻟ ﻀ ﺢ‬

‫ وﻤ‬،‫ﺎح‬

... ‫ﺎب اﻹﺴﻬﺎب‬

‫ﺎب اﻹ‬

‫ وﻤ‬،‫ ﺨ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺴ ﻞ اﻟ ﺎل‬،‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺴ ﻞ اﻟ ﺎل‬

‫ وﻤ‬،‫ﺎب اﻻﺴ ﻔﺎﻀﺔ‬

‫ وﻤ‬،‫ﺎب اﻟ ّﺴﻊ‬

‫ وﻤ‬،‫ﺎب اﻟ ح‬

‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺴ ﻞ اﻟ ﺎل‬،‫ﻊ ِاﺒ ﻲ اﻟﻌ ف ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌ ﯿ ﻤ اﻵﻻت اﻟ ﺴ ﻘ ﺔ‬

‫ﺘ‬

.‫ إﻻ إﻨﻬﺎ ﻻ ﺘﻌ ف اﻟﻌ ف ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﺎن‬. ‫اﻟﻌ د واﻟﻘ ﺎرة واﻟ ﺎﻨ‬

‫وﻤ‬

~

!

The verb ‫ ﺗﺴﺘﻄﯿﻊ‬can be translated into ‘can’ or ‘be able to’.

!

‫ اﻟﻌﺰف‬can be rendered into ‘to play’, thus leading to a ‘class shift’ to use Catford’s (1965) term, that is, changing parts of speech through the nexus of translation.

!

‫( إﻻ إن‬also ‫)إﻻ أن‬, which can be replaced here with ‫أن‬/‫ﻏﯿﺮ إن‬, ‫ﺑﯿﺪ‬ ‫أن‬/‫إن‬, and the like, can be translated into ‘however’.

!

The musical instruments ‫اﻟﻌﻮد‬, ‫اﻟﻜﻤﺎن‬, ‫اﻟﻘﯿﺜﺎرة‬, and ‫ اﻟﺒﯿﺎﻧﻮ‬lend themselves to ‘lute’, ‘violin’, ‘guitar’, and ‘piano’ respectively.

‫ﻗﺎﺒﻠ ُ ﻓﻲ ﺤ ﺎﺘﻲ اﻟ‬ ُ ‫ ﻓﻌﻠﻰ ﺴ ﻞ اﻟ ﺎل ﻗ ﻞ ﺸﻬ ﻗﺎﺒﻠ‬، ‫ﻤ اﻟ ﺎﻫ‬ .‫اﻟ ﻐ ﺔ اﻟ ﻬ ة ﻨﺎﻨ ﻲ ﻋ م واﻟ ﻘ ُ ﻤﻌﻬﺎ ﺼ رة‬

~

!

The word ‫ ﻣﺸﺎھﯿﺮ‬can be translated into ‘famous people’ or ‘celebrities’.

!

The emphasis in the original text is placed on the duration of the period indicated by the phrase ‫‘ ﻓﻲ ﺣﯿﺎﺗﻲ‬in my life’, thus lending

Discourse Markers

307

itself to a present perfect tense. The verb ‫ اﻟﺘﻘﻂ‬can be translated into ‘to take’. However, here it might be best to translate the latter part of the sentence as ‘I met the famous singer Nancy Ajram and had my picture taken with her’ since it seems to be implied that some third party actually took the picture unless it was a selfie.

!

~

Most car companies, such as Toyota and Nissan, manufacture their automobiles in many different countries around the world.

!

The verb ‘to manufacture’ lends itself to ‫ﺗﺼ ّﻨﻊ‬/‫ﯾﺼ ّﻨﻊ‬. Related words include ‘manufacturer’ ‫اﻟ ُﻤﺼﻨّﻊ‬/‫ اﻟ ُﻤﻨﺘﺞ‬or ‫اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ‬ ‫اﻟ ُﻤﺼﻨّﻌﺔ‬/‫اﻟ ُﻤﻨﺘﺠﺔ‬.

!

The word ‘automobile’ simply means ‘car’. It is worth noting that the lexical item ‘automobile’ is really American usage, but it is much less common than ‘car’, even for the states. In UK English, it can be used in formal written contexts as a highregister term for ‘car’.

‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺴ ﻞ‬،‫ ﻓﻠ رأت اﻟ وﺠﺔ زوﺠﻬﺎ‬.‫ة‬ ‫ورّ ﺎ ﯿ د‬

‫اﻟ وﺠ‬

‫ﻠ ﻤ ﺎﻛﻞ ﺒ‬

‫إن ﺴ ء اﻟﻔﻬ وارد ﻓﻲ ﺤﺎﻻت‬ ّ ‫ ﻓﻲ ﻤﻘﻬﻰ ﻤﻊ ﻓ ﺎة أﺨ ﻫ ا ﻗ‬،‫اﻟ ﺎل‬ .‫وﺨ ﺔ‬

~

‫إﻟﻰ ﻋ اﻗ‬

!

‫ ﺳﻮء اﻟﻔﮭﻢ‬lends itself to ‘misunderstanding’.

!

The word ‫ وارد‬here can be translated into ‘to occur’, ‘to arise’, etc. as they collocate well with the noun ‘misunderstanding’.

!

‫ ﻋﻮاﻗﺐ وﺧﯿﻤﺔ‬can be translated into ‘disastrous consequences’ as it is a very common and natural collocation.

308

Chapter Nine

8 Elaborating in this respect, in this regard, in this connection, with reference to this, with this in mind, approach from such a perspective, building on this, on this basis, to reinforce this (point), to elaborate, by way of elaboration, etc.

‫ وﻋﻠﻰ ﻫ ا‬،‫ و ﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ ﻤﺎ ﺘﻘّ م‬،‫ وﻓﻲ ﻫ ا اﻟ ال‬،‫ وﻓﻲ ﻫ ا اﻟ ﺎق‬،‫وﻓﻲ ﻫ ا اﻟ د‬ ،‫ وﻤ ﺎب اﻹ ﺎح‬،‫ وﻤ ﺎب اﻟ ﻀ ﺢ‬، ‫ وﻟ ﻌﻠ ﻤﺎت أﻛ‬، ‫ وﻟ ﻀ ﺢ أﻛ‬،‫اﻷﺴﺎس‬ ... ‫ﺎب اﻹﺴﻬﺎب‬

‫ﯿ ﻗﻊ أن ﻔ ﺢ ﻓﻲ‬

‫ وﻤ‬،‫ﺎب اﻟ ّﺴﻊ‬

‫ ﺼّح وز‬،‫وﻓﻲ ﻫ ا اﻟ د‬ ‫ وﻓﻲ ﺴ ﺎق‬.‫اﻟ ﻬ اﻟ ﻘ ﻞ ﺴ ﻘ ﻋﻼﻗﺎت ﻤﻊ ﻤ ﺎرف إﺴﻼﻤ ﺔ ﺨﺎرﺠ ﺔ‬ ‫ف ﻫ‬

‫ف اﻟ‬

‫ وﻤ‬،‫ﺎب اﻻﺴ ﻔﺎﻀﺔ‬

‫اﻟ ﺎﻟ ﺔ أن اﻟ‬

‫ﻤ إﻗﺎﻤﺔ ﻤ ﻞ ﻫ ا اﻟ‬

‫وﻤ‬

~

‫أن اﻟﻬ ف اﻟ ﺌ‬

‫ أﻀﺎف اﻟ ز‬،‫ﻤ ّ ﻞ‬ .‫ﻐ ض ﺨﻠ ﻤ ﺴ ﺔ ﻤﺎﻟ ﺔ ﺘﻌ ﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ وﻓ اﻟ ﺎد اﻹﺴﻼﻤ ﺔ‬

!

The noun ‫ إﻗﺎﻣﺔ‬can be translated into a verb, such as ‘to establish’ or ‘to set up’. This is an example of ‘class shift’ to use Catford’s (1965) term.

!

The expression ‫( ﻓﻲ ھذا اﻟﺻدد‬also ‫ )ﻓﻲ ھذا اﻟﺳﯾﺎق‬can be translated into ‘in this regard’, ‘in this respect’, ‘in this context’, and so forth.

!

The expression ‫ وزﯾر اﻟﻣﺎﻟﯾﺔ‬lends itself to ‘the minister of finance’.

Discourse Markers

309

9 Ignoring & discounting apart from this, regardless of this, irrespective of this, etc.

‫ف اﻟ‬

، ‫ذﻟ‬/‫ﻋ ﻫ ا‬/ ‫ﻤ‬

‫ﻌﺎﻨ ن ﻤ ﻤ ﺎﻛﻞ‬

‫ﻔ‬

‫ ﻨﺎﻫ‬، ‫ذﻟ‬/‫ﻌ ل ﻋ ﻫ ا‬ ... ‫ذﻟ‬/‫ﻋ ﻫ ا‬

‫ ﻓﺈن اﻟ‬،‫اﻟ ﻨ ﺔ‬

‫ﻔ‬

، ‫ذﻟ‬/‫ﻌ ً ا ﻋ ﻫ ا‬ ‫ ﻐ اﻟ‬/ ‫ذﻟ‬/‫ﻋ ﻫ ا‬

‫ﻋ أﺠ ر اﻟ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ﻐ‬

.‫ﺔ‬

‫ﺎﻋﺎت اﻟﻌ ﻞ اﻟ ُ ﻐّ ة واﻨﻘ ﺎع اﻟ ﺎر اﻟ ﻬ ﺎﺌﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬

!

‫( ﺑﻐﺾ اﻟﻨﻈﺮ‬also ‫)ﺑﺼﺮف اﻟﻨﻈﺮ‬, which is used in Arabic to mean without regard to something else, ‘irrespective of’ or ‘regardless of’.

‫ﻋ ﯿ ة ﺘ ﻌّﻠ‬

~

can be translated into

!

The verb ‫ ﯾﻌﺎﻧﻲ‬lends itself to ‘to suffer from’.

!

‫ اﻧﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﺘﯿﺎر اﻟﻜﮭﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ‬can be translated into ‘power cut’. ‘Power outage(s)’ is possible in more technical writing, but generally not a common usage in British English.

~

Regardless of people’s religions, the legislation must be applied to all people in the country.

!

‘Regardless of’, which means without considering or taking into account, can be translated into ‫ ﺑﺻرف اﻟﻧظر‬or ‫ﺑﻐض اﻟﻧظر‬.

!

The noun ‘legislation’, which is a non-countable noun in English, lends itself to ‫ ﺗﺷرﯾﻌﺎت‬in Arabic.

310

Chapter Nine

10 Emphasizing actually, in fact, as a matter of fact, indeed, etc.

... ‫ ﺤًﻘﺎ‬،‫ ﺎﻟﻔﻌﻞ‬،ً‫ ﻓﻌﻼ‬،‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻘ ﻘﺔ واﻟ اﻗﻊ‬،‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟ اﻗﻊ‬،‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻘ ﻘﺔ‬

~

I think it would be a good idea to send her an email. In fact, you should sit with her and explain to her what happened in the party face to face

!

The discourse marker ‘in fact’ can be translated into ‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﺣﻘﯾﻘﺔ‬. However, in this context, it can be rendered into ‫واﻷﻓﺿل‬, ‫ﺑل‬ ‫اﻷﻓﺿل‬, ‫ﺑل ﻣن اﻷﻓﺿل‬, etc.

!

The phrase ‘face to face’ lends itself to ‫وﺟ ًﮭﺎ ﻟوﺟﮫ‬.

‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻘ ﻘﺔ أﻨﺎ أﻋ ﻓﻪ ﺘ ﺎم اﻟ ﻌ ﻓﺔ‬.‫أﺨ ﺘ َ ﻋّ ة ﻤ ات أﻻ ﺘ ﻋ ﻩ إﻟﻰ اﻟ ﻔﻠﺔ‬ .‫ﻋ اﻟ ﺎﻛﻞ‬ ‫ﯿ‬ ‫ﻓﻬ ﺸ‬

~

!

The aspect is ‘perfect’ indicated by the phrase ‫ﻋ ّدة ﻣرات‬, thus lending itself to a present perfect tense.

!

‫ أﻻ‬which means ‫ أن ﻻ‬can be rendered into ‘not to’.

!

The discourse marker ‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺣﻘﯾﻘﺔ‬can be translated into ‘actually’, ‘in fact’, etc.

!

‫ ﺗﻣﺎم اﻟﻣﻌرﻓﺔ‬lends itself to ‘very well’.

Discourse Markers

311

11 Order of importance most importantly, most significantly, primarily, initially, above all, essentially, basically, etc.

،ً‫ أوﻻ‬،‫ ﻗ ﻞ ّﻞ ﺸﻲء‬،‫ﺒ ء‬

~

‫ذ‬

‫ ﺎد‬،‫ أوﻟًﺎ‬،‫أﺴﺎﺴﺎ‬ ،‫ﻞ أﺴﺎس‬ ً

،‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻘﺎم اﻷول‬

... ‫وﻗ ﻞ ّﻞ ﺸﻲء‬

Basically, before I put any money in the project you’ve proposed, I want to know more information about it.

!

The discourse marker ‘basically’, which means the most important thing, can be translated into ‫ وﻗﺑل ﻛ ّل ﺷﻲء‬،‫ أوﻻ‬or ‫ﻓﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﻣﻘﺎم اﻷول‬.

12 Particularizing particularly, in particular, specifically, more specifically, to be more specific, etc.

... ‫دﻗﺔ‬

~

‫أﻛ‬

‫ وﻋﻠﻰ ﻨ‬،‫ وﻻ ﺴّ ﺎ‬،‫ و ﺎﺼﺔ‬،

‫ و ﺎﻷﺨ‬،‫ص‬

‫ﻓﻌﻠﻰ وﺠﻪ اﻟ‬

In some countries, people tend to argue about money-related issues. More specifically, they argue when they are out of work.

!

The expression ‘money-related issues’ means ‘issues which are related to money’, thus lending itself to ‫ اﻟﻘﻀﺎﯾﺎ اﻟﻤﺘﻌﻠّﻘﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺎل‬or

312

Chapter Nine

‫اﻟﻘﻀﺎﯾﺎ اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬. !

The discourse marker ‘more specifically’ can be translated into ‫ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪًا‬, ‫وﺑﺨﺎﺻﺔ‬, ‫وﺑﺎﻷﺧﺺ‬, etc.

~

There are many beautiful cities in Oman. In particular, tourists should visit Nizwa and Sohar.

!

Here ‘in particular’ and ‘particularly’ are used in English to highlight something important, or individual. They can be replaced by ‘in specific’ and ‘specifically’ which are more formal.

13 Generalizing generally, in general, generally speaking, broadly speaking, on the whole, by and large, etc.

... ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻨ ٍ ﻋﺎم‬،ٍ‫ﻞ ﻋﺎم‬ ~

،ً‫ إﺠ ﺎﻻ‬،‫ ﻋ ًﻤﺎ‬،‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌ م‬

Generally speaking, there are five main asset classes including cash, fixed interest, property, domestic shares, and international shares.

!

The technical words ‘asset’, ‘cash’, ‘interest’, ‘property’, and ‘share’ which are used in business lend themselves to ‫ﻣﺎل‬/‫أﺻﻞ‬, ‫ﻧﻘﺪ‬, ‫ﻓﺎﺋﺪة‬, ‫ﻣﻠﻜﯿﺔ‬, and ‫ﺣﺼﺔ‬/‫ ﺳﮭﻢ‬respectively. ~

Broadly speaking, I agree with most things you have just discussed.

!

‘Broadly speaking’, which can be replaced with ‘generally speaking’, ‘in general’, or ‘generally’ can be translated into ‫ﻋﻤﻮ ًﻣﺎ‬, ‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﻤﻮم‬, ‫ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺎم‬, etc.

Discourse Markers

313

14 Balancing contrasting points on the one hand …, ...on the other (hand) for one thing ..., for another … while/whereas …

...

~ !

‫ﺠﻬﺔ أﺨ‬/‫ وﻤ ﻨﺎﺤ ﺔ‬،... ‫ﺠﻬﺔ‬/‫ﻤ ﻨﺎﺤ ﺔ‬ ... ‫ ﻓﺈن‬،...

‫وﻓﻲ ﺤ‬/‫ﺎ‬

‫و‬

On the one hand he’s looking for a job with a higher salary, but on the other hand, he enjoys his current job. The word ‘salary’ lends itself to ‫راﺗﺐ‬. Related words include ‘wages’ ‫ أﺟﻮر‬and ‘pension’ ‫راﺗﺐ ﺗﻘﺎﻋﺪي‬.

‫ﻌ ﻞ ﻫﺎﺘﻔﻪ أﺜ ﺎء‬

‫ ﻤ ﻨﺎﺤ ﺔ ﻓﻬ ﻏﺎﻟًﺎ ﻤﺎ‬.‫ﻻ أﺤّ اﻟ ب ﻤﻌﻪ ﻷﻨﻪ ﺴﺎﺌ ﻤ ﻬّ ر‬ .‫ وﻤ ﻨﺎﺤ ﺔ أﺨ ﻓﻬ ﻻ ﯿ ﻘّ ﺈﺸﺎرات اﻟ ور‬،‫اﻟﻘ ﺎدة‬

!

‫( ﻻ أﺣﺒّﺬ‬also ‫ )ﻻ أﻓﻀّﻞ‬can be translated ‘I do not prefer’, etc.

!

The verb ‫ﯾﺮﻛﺐ‬/‫رﻛﺐ‬ َ , which literally means ‘to ride’, can be translated here ‘to be driven’ or ‘to be a passenger with him’. It is worth noting that in UK English, it would be more natural and idiomatic to say ‘I prefer not to be driven by him’ or ‘I prefer not to be a passenger with him’. However, American English speakers may well be happy to say ‘I’d rather not ride with him’. ‘To give somebody a lift’, which means to provide transportation for somebody, that is, to take him/her somewhere in your car, can also be used here with some modulation.

!

The lexical item ‫ﻣﺘﮭﻮر‬ in such a context lends itself to ‘careless’, ّ ‘reckless’, ‘dangerous’, etc. ‘Reckless’ is a good adjective to describe some people’s driving habits. This word and ‘dangerous’

314

Chapter Nine

are of course stronger than ‘careless’.

... ‫ ﻓﻤﻦ ﻧﺎﺣﯿﺔ‬and ...‫ وﻣﻦ ﻧﺎﺣﯿﺔ أﺧﺮى‬can be rendered into ‘on the one

!

hand … and on the other (hand) …’ or ‘for one thing … and for another …’. !

‫ ﻻ ﯾﺘﻘﯿّﺪ‬can be translated into ‘to ignore’, ‘not respect’, etc.

!

‫ إﺷﺎرات اﻟﻤﺮور‬lends itself to ‘traffic signs’. ~

!

My sister is a bad teacher. For one thing, she once fell asleep in class. For another, she usually arrives late to class. ‘for one thing’ and ‘for another’ lend themselves to

...

‫ﺠﻬﺔ أﺨ‬/‫ وﻤ ﻨﺎﺤ ﺔ‬،... ‫ﺠﻬﺔ‬/‫ﻨﺎﺤ ﺔ‬

‫ﻓ‬

Note that ‘for one thing’, ‘for a second’, ‘for another’, etc. can be used to introduce a list of reasons or identify a series of examples.

15 Attitude markers Finally, there are a number of discourse markers that can be used by speakers or writers to mark their attitudes. Following are the commonly used ones:

!

actually

!

frankly/clearly/obviously

!

honestly/to be honest

!

to tell you the truth

!

of course

!

certainly/definitely

!

literally

!

fortunately

‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟ اﻗﻊ‬،‫! ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻘﺔ‬

‫ ّﻞ وﻀ ح‬،‫اﺤﺔ‬

،‫! ﺒ ﻀ ح‬

‫ق‬

،‫ﺄﻤﺎﻨﺔ‬

‫ ﻻ أﺨﻔ‬،‫ ّﻞ ﺼ اﺤﺔ‬،‫اﺤﺔ‬

! !

‫ ﺤ ً ﺎ‬، ‫ ّﻞ ﺘﺄﻛ‬،‫ًﻌﺎ‬ ! ‫ ﻗ ًﻌﺎ‬، ّ ‫ ﻤ اﻟ‬، ‫ﻞ ﺘﺄﻛ‬ ! ‫ ﺎﻟ ف اﻟ اﺤ‬،‫! ﺤ ﻓ ﺎ‬ ‫اﻟ‬

‫! ﻟ‬

Discourse Markers

!

unfortunately

!

hopefully

!

basically

!

surprisingly

‫! ﻟ ء اﻟ‬

‫ ﻤ اﻟ ّﻤﻞ‬،‫ ﻋﻠﻰ أﻤﻞ‬،‫! ﻨﺄﻤﻞ‬ ‫ﻞ‬

!

not surprisingly

!

sadly

!

admittedly/undeniably

!

confidently

!

undoubtedly

!

in fact

!

preferably

!

regrettably

315

،‫اﻟ ﻫ ﺔ‬

‫ﻻ‬

‫ﻞ أﺴﺎس‬

،‫أﺴﺎﺴﺎ‬ ! ً

‫ وﻤﺎ ﯿ‬،‫ ﻐ ﺔ‬،‫ ﺎﻨ ﻫﺎش‬،‫! ﻓ ﺄة‬

‫ ﻤ اﻟ ُ ﺴﻒ‬،‫ن‬ ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻨ‬، ‫ ﻻ أﻨ‬، ّ ‫أﻗ‬ ‫ﺎرﻩ‬

‫ُﻤ ﻫ‬ ‫ﻌً ﺎ‬ !

ُ ‫! ﻤ اﻟ‬ ،‫! أﻋ ف‬ ‫اﻨ‬

‫ﻞ ﺜﻘﺔ‬

!

‫ ﻻ ﺨﻼف ﻋﻠﻰ ذﻟ‬،‫ ﺤ ً ﺎ‬، ّ ‫ ﻻ ﺸ‬، ّ ‫! ﺒﻼ ﺸ‬ ‫! ﻓﻲ اﻟ ﻘ ﻘﺔ‬ ‫ ﻤ اﻟ ُ ﻔ ّ ﻞ‬،‫! ُﻔ ّ ﻞ‬ ،‫ ﻤ اﻟ ُ ن‬، ِ ُ ‫ ﻤ اﻟ‬،‫ ﻟﻸﺴﻒ‬،‫! ﻤ اﻟ ﺴﻒ‬ ‫ﻤ اﻟ ُ ّ ﻟﻶﻤﺎل‬

Undoubtedly, these students had the right to complain about the teacher. !

The attitude marker ‘undoubtedly’ can be replaced here with ‘certainly’, ‘definitely’, ‘unquestionably’, etc. thus lending itself to ّ‫ﻻ ﺷﻚ‬, ‫ﻻ ﺧﻼف ﻋﻠﻰ‬, ‫ﻻ ﯾﺨﺘﻠﻒ اﺛﻨﺎن‬, ‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺆ ّﻛﺪ‬, ‫ﺑﻜ ّﻞ ﺗﺄﻛﯿﺪ‬, etc. ~

I invited all my friends to my stag party. However, regrettably, no one attended.

!

The expression ‘stag party’ (also a ‘stag night’ or ‘bachelor party’), which is a party held for men who are about to get married, shortly before their wedding, is different from a ‘hen party’ (also known as a ‘hen night’ or ‘bachelorette party’), which is a party held for women who are about to get married, shortly before their

316

Chapter Nine

wedding. Both lend themselves to ‫ ﺣﻔﻠﺔ اﻟﺤﻨّﺎء‬or ‫ﻟﯿﻠﺔ اﻟﺤﻨّﺎء‬. !

The discourse marker ‘regrettably’ is used here to indicate that something is disappointing or regrettable, thus lending itself here to ‫ﻟﻸﺳﻒ‬, ‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺆﺳﻒ‬, ‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺤﺰن‬, etc.

ُ ‫ف ﻗ ِاﻨ ﺎﺒ ﻲ وأﻨﺎ أﻗ ب ﻤ ﻤ ﻪ ﻷﻨ ﻲ ﺴ ﻌ ُ أﻨﻪ ﺴﻠ‬ َ ‫ﻻ أﻨ ُ أن اﻟ‬ .‫اﻟﻠ ﺎن‬ !

~

‫ ﻻ أﻧﻜﺮ‬can be translated into ‘undeniably’, ‘admittedly’, or ‘to tell you the truth’.

!

The verb ‫اﻧﺘﺎب‬, which collocates well with the noun ‫‘ ﺧﻮف‬fear’, lends itself to verbs such as ‘to feel’, ‘to experience’, ‘to have’, or more idiomatically ‘to be filled with’, ‘to be paralyzed by/with’, ‘to be trembling with’, and the like.

!

The phrase ‫ ﺳﻠﯿﻂ اﻟﻠﺴﺎن‬means showing no respect in the way that he talks to somebody else. Depending on how strong the language used is, the Arabic phrase could be translated as ‘sharp-tongued’ or ‘foul mouthed’ if involving vulgar verbal abuse. The adjective ‘lippy’ suggested by some dictionaries is very colloquial.

EX: Evaluate the translation of the following text titled ‫‘ اﻟﺒﻨﺘﺎﻏﻮن‬The Pentagon’, paying extra attention to discourse markers. Sources close to the Pentagon declared yesterday that one of the Iraqi units stationed in the middle of the highway between Basra and Baghdad had announced that it was in revolt. The same source said that a great number of Iraqi troops had been seen two days ago leaving Baghdad and heading for Basra in order to be ready for any emergency.

‫ذ ت ﻤ ﺎدر ﻤﻘّ ﺔ ﻤ اﻟ ﺎﻏ ن أﻤ‬ ‫اﻟﻌ اﻗﻲ اﻟ ا ﺔ ﻓﻲ‬ ‫وﺤ ات اﻟ‬ ‫إﺤ‬ ‫أن‬

‫ة و ﻐ اد ﻗ أﻋﻠ‬

‫ةﻤ‬

‫وﻫﻲ‬

. ‫ﺎر‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ﺒ‬

‫ر ﻨﻔ ﻪ أن وﺤ ات‬

‫ﻒ اﻟ‬

‫ﻤ‬

.‫ﺘ دﻫﺎ‬

‫وأﻀﺎف اﻟ‬

‫اﻟﻘ ات اﻟﻌ اﻗ ﺔ ﺸ ﻫ ت ﻗ ﻞ ﯿ ﻤ‬ ‫ًﺎ ﻷ‬

‫ةﺘ‬

‫ﺘﻐﺎدر ﻐ اد ﺎﺘ ﺎﻩ اﻟ‬

Discourse Markers

However, the Iraqi News Agency contradicted the news as reported by the source close to the Pentagon. The agency added that the situation in Iraq was stable, with the exception of some sporadic clashes between the Iraqi troops and opposition forces in the north of Iraq. Further, a source close to the Pentagon declared that the US navy was determined to step up military manoeuvres in the days ahead. In an unrelated context, the spokesman for the Japanese police announced that 25 people had been killed and more than 100 people injured following an explosion that hit the capital, Tokyo. He added that work was in progress to rescue the injured and remove the dead bodies from under the rubble.

317

‫ﻤﺎ ﺠﺎء‬

‫إن و ﺎﻟﺔ اﻷﻨ ﺎء اﻟﻌ اﻗ ﺔ ﻗ ﻨﻔ‬ ّ ‫إﻻ‬ ‫ر اﻟ ﻘّ ب ﻤ‬ ‫اﻟ أوردﻩ اﻟ‬ ‫ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬ .‫اﻟ ﺎﻏ ن‬

،

‫ب ﻤ‬

‫أن اﻟ ﻀﻊ ﻓﻲ اﻟ‬

‫ﺎدﻤﺎت اﻟ ﻔ ﻗﺔ اﻟ ﻲ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ﺎ ﻌ‬

‫وأﻀﺎﻓ‬

‫إن اﺴ‬

‫اﻟﻘ ات اﻟﻌ اﻗ ﺔ وﻗ ات اﻟ ﻌﺎرﻀﺔ‬

‫ﺒ‬

‫وﻗﻌ‬

‫اﻟ ﺎﻏ ن أن‬

‫ﻫ ا وذ‬

.‫ﻓﻲ ﺸ ﺎل اﻟﻌ اق‬

‫ﻤ‬

‫ر ﻗ‬

‫ﺔ ﺘﻌ م اﻹﻛ ﺎر ﻤ اﻟ ﺎورات‬

‫ﻤ‬

‫ﺔ اﻷﻤ‬

.‫ﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻗﺎﺒﻞ اﻷ ﺎم‬

‫اﻟ ﺴ ﻲ‬ ‫ﻗ‬

‫اﻟ ﺎ‬

‫ﺎﻟﻌﺎﺼ ﺔ‬

‫اﻟﻌ‬

‫ أﻋﻠ‬،‫وﻓﻲ ﺴ ﺎق ﻤ ﻔ ﻞ‬

‫ﺔ اﻟ ﺎ ﺎﻨ ﺔ أن ﺨ ﺔ وﻋ‬ ‫ﻤﺔ ﺸ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ﻤ‬

‫اﻟ‬

‫ﻋ‬

‫ﺸ ً ﺎ ﻗ ﻗ ﻠ ا وأﻛ‬ ‫أﺼ ا ﻨ ﺔ اﻨﻔ ﺎر ﻋ ﻒ‬ .

،‫اﻟ ﺎ ﺎﻨ ﺔ‬

ٍ ‫وأﻀﺎف أن اﻟﻌ ﻞ‬ ‫ﺠﺎر ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗ م وﺴﺎق ﻻﻨﻘﺎذ‬ .‫اﻷﺤ ﺎر‬

‫ﻤ ﺒ‬

‫اﻟ ﺤﻰ وﺨ اج اﻟ‬

318

Chapter Nine

16 Revision EX 1: Translate the following sentences into Arabic, paying extra attention to the discourse markers used. 1.

Try not to be unsociable. In other words, try to do your best to go

2.

I do agree with you that the new employee is the best-dressed

out and make some friends. person in the company. Indeed, she has a really good taste in fashion. 3.

You might need to change a few things. To be more precise, I think you should travel somewhere.

4.

I’ve told you many times not to invite the boss to the party. Actually, I know him very well; he is a trouble maker.

5.

All in all, you have to make sure before signing the contract that you and your colleagues are happy with the job description.

6.

If you need to get something off your chest, albeit in a professional manner, you can do so in a private conversation with your manager. However, there is no need to add lengthy explanations to your resignation letter when deciding to quit a job.

7.

By and large, there is much to be said for the new programme.

8.

The weather was bad this week, particularly on Friday.

9.

I have met many famous people. For example: one time I met Adel Imam.

10.

I like sleeping while listening to slow music. As a matter of fact, I can’t fall asleep without it.

EX 2: Translate the following text into English, paying extra attention to the discourse markers used.

ِ ‫ك أﻤ ؟ ﻫﻞ ﺎﻨ أﺠ ُ َ ﺠّ ة؟‬ َ ‫ﻛ ﻒ ﺎن اﺨ ُﺎر‬ ِ ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟ ﻏ ﻤ أن‬. ‫ﻻ أُﺨﻔ‬ ‫ إﻻ إﻨ ﻲ ﻟ أﺘ ّ ﻤ‬،‫اﻻﻤ ﺎن ﺎن ﺴﻬﻼً ﺠ ً ا‬ َ ِ .‫ وذﻟ ﻷﻨ ﻲ ﻟ أﻗ أ ﺠّ ً ا ﻟﻼﻤ ﺎن‬.‫اﻹﺠﺎ ﺔ ﻋ ﺠ ﻊ اﻷﺴ ﻠﺔ‬

-

Discourse Markers

!

319

َ‫ ﻻ أ ُﺧﻔﯿﻚ‬can be translated into ‘to tell you the truth’, ‘frankly speaking’, ‘frankly’, etc.

EX 3: The following two texts are extracted from a short story titled ‫طﺒﻠﯿﺔ‬ ‫‘ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﻤﺎء‬A Tray from Heaven’ by Yūsuf Idrīs (translated by and cited in Husni and Newman 2008: 272-6). Identify any discourse marker used in the original text and then comment on its translation:

‫ﻤ ﻨ ادر اﻟ ﺦ ﻋﻠﻲ‬

‫ﻨﺎدرة أﺨ‬

‫أن ﺘﻠ‬

... ‫أس ﺤ ﺎر‬

‫ ﻓﻼ ر‬،‫ن‬

‫و ﺎن اﻟ ﺎس ﺤ‬

‫ ﻓ أﺴﻪ‬.‫ﺎن ﻫ ﻨﻔ ﻪ ﻨﺎدرة‬

‫اﻟ‬

At that moment people began to laugh. This was undoubtedly another of Sheikh Ali’s jokes. In fact, he himself was regarded as a joke. His head was the size of a donkey’s …

‫ ﻓﺎﻟ ﺦ ﻋﻠﻲ‬.

‫ أﻤﺎ أن ﯿ ّ ث اﻟ ﺎس ﻋ ﻓﻘ ﻩ ﻓ ﻟ ﺸﻲء ﯿ ﻓﻊ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻐ‬...

‫ﺎﻤﺎ ﺒﻼ دﺨﺎن‬ ً ‫ و ﺎن ﻔ ّ ﻞ أن ﯿ ﻘﻰ أ‬.‫ﻛﺎن ﺨ ﻻً ﺠ ً ا رﻏ ﻗ ﻩ ﻤﻼﻤ ﻪ و ﻼﻤﻪ‬ .‫ﻋﻠﻰ أن ﻠ ﻤ أﺤ ﻫ أن ﯿﻠﻒ ﻟﻪ ﺴ ﺎرة‬

And whenever people talked about his poverty he would be driven to rage. Sheikh Ali was, in fact, quite shy, despite his stern features and words. He preferred to go for days without smoking, rather than ask any of the villagers to roll him a cigarette.

REFERENCES

Abdel-Fattah, M. M. (2005). “On the Translation of Modals from English into Arabic and Vice Versa: the Case of Deontic Modality”, Babel, Vol. 51(1), pp. 31–48. ‘Abid, K. (2010). ‫‘ ﻟﯿﺎﻟﻲ اﻟﺴﯿﺪ ﺳﻠﻤﺎن‬Nights of Mr Salman’. London: Sayyab Books Ltd. Al-‘Abrī, S. (2015). Translating and Annotating Ideology- loaded Texts: ‘Women’s Liberation through Islam’ and ‘Thirty Facts about Islam’ as samples. BA final Year Project. Oman: University of Nizwa. Ali, M. (2013). Women’s Liberation through Islam. Accessed on June 24, 2015: www.islamreligion.com. Al-Māni‘, S. (1997). ‫‘ اﻟﻘﺎﻣﻌﻮن‬Oppressors’. London: Al-Ightirāb Al-Adabī. Almanna, A. (2014). Translation Theories Exemplified from Cicero to Pierre Bourdieu. Germany: Lincom Europa. —. (2016a). The Routledge Course in Translation Annotation: ArabicEnglish-Arabic. London/New York: Routledge. —. (2016b). Semantics for Translation Students: Arabic-English-Arabic. Oxford: Peter Lang. —. (forthcoming). Modern Arabic Short Stories. An Arabic-English Reader. Almanna, A., and Almanna, F. (2008). Translation: History, Theory and Practice (in Arabic). London: Sayyab Books Ltd. Almanna, A., and Al-Rubai‘i, A. (2009). Modern Iraqi Short Stories: a Bilingual Reader. London: Sayyab Books Ltd. Almanna, A., and Hall, M. F. (2015). Moroccan Short Stories: a Bilingual Reader. Germany: Lincom Europa. Al-Rubai‘i, A. (1996). Translation Criticism: A Model for Assessing the Translation of Narrative Fictional Texts. Unpublished PhD thesis. Iraq: Al-Mustansiriya University. —. (2005). Translation Criticism. England, Durham: Durham Modern Languages Series. Al-Shuraīqī, M. (2016). Translating Hans Küng’s Book ‘Islam: Past, Present and Future’ and Annotating the Local Strategies Adopted. BA final Year Project. Oman: University of Nizwa.

The Nuts and Bolts of Arabic-English Translation

321

Aziz, Y. (1989). A Contrastive Grammar of English and Arabic. Iraq: Mosul University Press. Biber, D., Conrad, S., and Leech, G. (2002). Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Essex: Pearson Education Limited. Burnett, F. H. (1994). The Secret Garden. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Catford, J. C. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Celce-Murcia, M., and Larsen-Freeman, D. (1999). The Grammar Book: An ESL/EFL Teacher’s Course (2nd edn). Boston: Heinle and Heinle Publishers Inc. Coe, N., Harrison, M., and Paterson, K. (2006). Oxford Practice Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Collins Cobuild English Grammar (1990). Glasgow: HarperCollins Publishers. Dickins, J., Hervey, S. and Higgins, I. (2002). Thinking Arabic Translation. London/New York: Routledge. Evans, V. and Green, M. (2006). Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Fisiak, J. (1981). Theoretical Issues in Contrastive Linguistics (ed.). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Fries, C. C. (1945). Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Freeborn, D. (1987). A Course Book in English Grammar. London: Palgrave. Goddard, C. (1998/2011). Semantic Analysis: A Practical Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Griffiths, P. (2006). An Introduction to English Semantics and Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Halliday, M.A.K. (1970). “Functional Diversity in Language as Seen from a Consideration of Modality and Mood in English. Foundations of Language”. International Journal of Language and Philosophy, Vol. (6), pp. 322–361. —. (1976). “Notes on transitivity and Theme in English. Part 2”. Journal of Linguistics, Vol. 3 (1), pp. 199-244. nd

—. (1994). An Introduction to Functional Grammar (2 edn). London et al.: Arnold. Halliday, M.A.K., and Hasan, R. (1976). Cohesion in English. London: Longman Group Ltd.

322

References

Halliday, M.A.K., and Matthiessen, C. M.I.M. (1985/2014). Halliday’s Introduction to Functional Grammar (4th edn). London/New York: Routledge. Husni, R. and Newman, D. (2008). Modern Arabic Short Stories: a Bilingual Reader. London: Saqi Books. —. (2013). The A-Z of Arabic-English-Arabic Translation. London: Saqi Books. Hoye, L. (1997). Adverbs and Modality in English. London: Longman. Jarjour, M. (2006). A Relevance-Theoretic Account of the Translation of Ideological Assumptions in the Language of the News with Specific Reference to Translation from English into Arabic. Unpublished PhD thesis. England: University of Salford. Khalil, A. (1999). A Contrastive Grammar of English and Arabic. Jordan: Jordan Book Centre Company Limited. Kearns, K. (2000/2011). Semantics. Basingstoke/New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Kreidler, C. W. (1998). Introducing English Semantics. London/New York. Routledge. Lado, R. (1957). Linguistics across Cultures: Applied Linguistics for Language Teachers. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Langacker, R. W. (1991/2002). Concept, Image, Symbol: The Cognitive Basis of Grammar (2nd edn). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Leech, G. and Short, M. (1981). Style in Fiction: A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose. London: Longman. Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. (2002). A Communicative Grammar of English (3rd edn). London/New York: Routledge. Lyons, J. (1977). Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mahfouz, N. (1959/1986). ‫‘ أوﻻد ﺣﺎرﺗﻨﺎ‬Children of Gebelawi’. Beirut: Dār Al-Adab. Malone, J. L. (1988). The Science of Linguistics in the Art of Translation. Albany: State University of New York Press. O’Grady, W. (1997). “Syntax: The Analysis of Sentence Structure”. In O’Grady, W., M. Dobrovolsky and F. Katamba (eds.) Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction, pp. 181-213. London/New York: Longman, Pragnell, F. (2017; bilingual edn). ‫‘اﻟﻔﺮاﺷﺔ واﻟﺰھﺮة‬The Butterfly and the Blossom’. München: Lincom Europa Academic Publishers. Pragnell, F., and Sadkhan, R. (2011). Ten Stories from Iraq. A Bilingual Reader. London: Sayyab Books. Parrot, M. (2010). Grammar for English Teachers (2nd edn). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

The Nuts and Bolts of Arabic-English Translation

323

Perkins, M. R. (1983). Modal Expressions in English. London: Frances Pinter. Quirk, R., and Greenbaum, S. (1973). A University Grammar of English. London: Longman Group Limited. Starkey, P. (2008). Oppressors (trans). [No publisher]. Sadkhan, R. and Pragnell, F. (2012). ‫‘ راﺋﺤﺔ اﻟﺸﺘﺎء‬The Scent of Winter: a Bilingual Reader’. London: Sayyab Books Ltd. Stewart, P. (1997). Children of Gebelaawi (3rd edn; trans.). Colorado Springs: Three Continents Press Ltd. Talmy, L. (2000). Toward a Cognitive Semantics. Vol. 1: Concept Structuring Systems. Cambridge: MIT Press. Vinay, J. P., and Darbelnet, J. (1958/1995). Stylistique comparée du français et de l’anglais. Méthode de traduction. Paris: Didier (trans. and ed.) J. C. Sager and M. J. Hamel, Comparative Stylistics of French and English: A Methodology for Translation. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Winkel, E. (2010). ‘Nights of Mr Salman’ (trans.). London: Sayyab Books Ltd. Wright, W. (1975). A grammar of Arabic Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Yule, G. (1996). Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Zagood, M. and Pragnell, F. (2017; bilingual edn). ‫‘ أﻣﻮت ﻛ ّﻞ ﯾﻮم‬I Die Every Day’. München: Lincom Europa Academic Publishers.

INDEX

ability modality 3, 10, 22, 39, 67, 213, 215-6, 224, 225, 247 absolute accusative see cognate accusative absolute object see cognate accusative accepter as a semantic role 14 accompaniment circumstance transitivity process 121 accurate translation 9, 10, 64, 67, 74, 264, 271 active grammar 4, 6, 15, 42, 125-135, 169, 186, 229, 247 activization see active actor as a semantic role 17, 18, 30, 70, 76, 96, 100, 108, 126, 127, 150, 151, 272, 286, 287 addition conjunction 235-40 addressee as a semantic role 13, 67, 221, 222 adjective (Adj.) 4, 11, 15, 20, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 33, 42, 43, 47, 49, 60, 61, 114, 140, 141, 144, 172, 178, 186, 189, 191, 193, 197, 210, 255, 274, 281, 283, 284, 284, 303, 313, 316 adjective phrase (AdjP) 114 adverb (Adv.) 4, 6, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 22, 26, 28, 47, 76, 82, 83, 118, 152, 167, 234, 253 adverb of degree 26, 47 adverb of manner 26, 47-52 adverb of place 13, 14, 47, 76, 152 adverb of time 12, 13, 14, 47, 152 adverbial 47, 234, 235 advisability modality 213, 214-5 advisability reading see advisability

advising pragmatics 155 affected participant as a semantic role 30, 125, 127, 136 affirmative grammar 30, 33, 34, 152, 269 affixation morphology 140, 141 agonist cognitive linguistics 136, 137, 140 analytic causative semantics: causation 131, 136, 138 angle circumstance transitivity process 122 antagonist cognitive linguistics 136, 137, 140 argument semantics 135 articles grammar 3, 20, 185-197, 202, 209, 211, 284 asker as a semantic role 13, 54 aspect grammar 3, 6, 8, 9, 10, 15, 21, 37, 41, 55, 62-107, 173, 238, 242, 243, 265, 277, 285, 286, 310 asymmetrical action schema cognitive linguistics 127, 287 atelicity grammar: tense 8, 70 attention cognitive linguistics 125, 189, 278, 279 attitude marker discourse 305, 314-17 authority 136, 137, 139, 221, 222 auxiliary grammar 30, 53, 54, 55 background cognitive linguistics 125, 189, 278, 279, 286 balancing contrasting points discourse 313 bald on-record strategy pragmatics 67 base form grammar 20, 31, 32, 66, 82, 83, 85, 93, 97, 152 behalf as a cause circumstance 120, 121 behaver transitivity process 8, 111

325

The Nuts and Bolts of Arabic-English Translation

behavioural process see process of behaving bidirectional cognitive linguistics 188 bounded cognitive linguistics 70, 80, 99, 187, 192, 195, 200, 208 boundedness see bounded bounding see bounded buyer as a semantic role 13 capacity modality 224, 225 category shift translation 41 Catford 10, 22, 27, 36, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 91, 126, 165, 183, 194, 306, 308, 321 causality see causative causation semantics 11, 18, 66, 137, 138, 140, 147, 148, 251, 252, 287 causative semantics: causation 3, 131, 136, 138, 140, 141, 142, 146 cause circumstance transitivity process 120 causee cognitive linguistics 136, 137, 139, 140 causer cognitive linguistics 136, 137, 139, 140 certainty modality 223, 224, 225 circumstance transitivity process 7, 18, 47, 96, 97, 118, 119-25, 145, 146, 151, 272 class shift translation 42, 43, 144, 183, 248, 306, 308 cleaner as a semantic role 30 client transitivity process 150, 151 closed path cognitive linguistics 140 cognate accusative Arabic 19, 25-9, 47, 304 cognitive content cognitive linguistics 108 cognitive grammar cognitive linguistics 18 cognitive linguistics 5, 136, 322 cognitive operation cognitive linguistics cognitive operation of zooming cognitive linguistics 278, 279 cognitive perspective cognitive linguistics 18, 19, 64, 65, 70, 82, 86, 89, 91, 94, 96, 97, 99, 136, 219, 271, 272, 278, 279, 286, 287 cohesion textuality 3, 5, 232

collocation semantics, textuality 3, 20, 21, 22, 27, 37, 129, 161, 165, 168, 169, 170, 172, 178, 203, 210, 254, 255, 256, 274, 284, 300, 307, 316 collocational stock semantics 3 company as an accompaniment circumstance 121 comparison as a manner circumstance 120 competence translation 1, 2, 4, 6, 59 complementizer syntax 13, 54, 164 complementizer clause syntax 13 complementizer phrase (CP) syntax 54, 55 complex sentence grammar 3, 6, 13, 15, 74, 75, 145, 166, 263, 285, 286, 288, 289, 290 compound sentence grammar 3, 6, 13, 15, 232, 233, 285 concession as a contingency circumstance 123 concession textuality 122, 123, 234, 240-5 condition as a contingency circumstance 122, 231, 235, 269-77, 288, 289 conditional clause textuality 231, 269, 270, 271, 272, 288, 289 conjunct textuality 8, 232-5 conjunction textuality 10, 75, 76, 77, 232-97 conjunctive adverb grammar 234 connector textuality 3, 11, 15, 59, 90, 183, 210, 229, 232, 235, 237, 238, 239, 240, 242, 243, 245, 247, 248, 249, 252, 253, 254, 255, 259, 265, 266, 273, 274, 275, 279, 285, 286, 287, 288, 293, 294, 295 constituency theory syntax 233 content transitivity process 45, 96, 225, 226, 236 content specification semantics, cognitive linguistics 70, 137, 139, 286 contextual tense Arabic 8, 9, 62, 63, 64, 95, 103, 104, 105 contingency circumstance transitivity process 122

Index continuous cognitive linguistics 205 contrasting textuality 277, 278, 313 contrastive linguistics 1 convergence see generalizing translation coordinating conjunct see coordinating conjunction coordinating conjunction textuality 8, 232 correction discourse 301 correlative conjunction textuality 75, 76, 77, 235, 246, 261 countable noun grammar 185, 186, 192, 194, 197, 198, 199, 259, 309 decider as a semantic role 13 deep structure syntax 54, 55 default as a contingency circumstance 122, 231 definite article grammar 187, 188, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 202, 209, 284 degree as a manner circumstance 120 denotative meaning semantics 195, 203, 302 deontic modality 222 dependency see dependency theory dependent clause textuality 3, 232, 233, 234, 285 desirability modality 214 det see determiner determiner syntax 233, 234 differential linguistics see contrastive linguistics direct mode of narration grammar 96, 150, 154 direct speech grammar 149, 152, 157, 158, 173 discounting discourse 310 discourse marker 3, 297-319 discrete cognitive linguistics 205 dissimilarity discourse 304 distal perspective cognitive linguistics 18, 19, 64, 65, 82, 89, 91, 94, 96, 97, 99, 271, 272, 287 distance as an extent circumstance 119

326 DO-support grammar 30, 55 duration as an extent circumstance 119 eater as a semantic role 13 elaborating discourse 308 elative grammar 193 emphasizing discourse 311 epistemic modality 219, 222, 223-6 equivalence translation 18, 25, 41, 49, 56, 91, 140, 167, 172, 185, 210, 235, 237, 244, 253, 264 equivalent see equivalence exclaiming speech act 156 exemplifying discourse 307 existent transitivity process 116 existential process transitivity process 116 expectation modality 213, 214-5, 224 explicit process transitivity process 47 expression of quantity see quantifier extent circumstance transitivity process 119 face pragmatics: politeness 67 face-threatening mode pragmatics: politeness 67 fact grammar: tense 81 final see path finite clause grammar: syntax 7, 8, 11, 18, 19, 69, 70, 94, 95, 127, 164, 233, 234, 240, 241, 246, 251, 252, 258, 261, 269, 270, 271, 285, 286, 287, 288 finite verb grammar: syntax 11, 15, 17-25, 164 Fisiak 1, 322 focusing as a matter circumstance 122 force dynamically neutral cognitive linguistics 139, 140, 222 force dynamics cognitive linguistics 220 force-dynamic pressure cognitive linguistics 278 force-dynamic value cognitive linguistics 222 forgetter as a semantic role 135 frame frame semantics 27, 188, 279 framing verb see reporting verb frequency as an extent circumstance 119 Fries 1, 321

327

The Nuts and Bolts of Arabic-English Translation

full equivalent translation 172 functional grammar 5 future grammar: tense 6, 7, 9, 15, 62, 64, 86, 93-102, 150, 151, 152, 180, 219, 226, 269 future continuous tense 97-100 future perfect continuous tense 101-2 future perfect tense 99-100 futurity modality 94, 213, 216, 220, 225, 226, 274 generalizing translation: procedure 203 generalizing discourse 312 generalizing translation see generalizing generic reference grammar 191 gerund grammar 17 given as a semantic role 12 goal as a semantic role 12, 96, 286 grammar 3, 4, 5, 18, 41, 91, 203, 234 grammatical category grammar 41, 63, 68, 72 grammatical form grammar 72, 66, 69, 70, 80, 91, 137, 139, 205, 222, 223, 262, 286 ground cognitive linguistics 18, 19, 219 grounded see ground guise as a role circumstance 121 habit grammar 4, 8, 81, 83 habitual see habit habituality see habit helping verb grammar 53, 56, 152, 287 idiomatic expression semantics 4, 68, 131, 174, 294, 301 idiomaticity see idiomatic expression ignoring discourse 309 immediate reality cognitive linguistics 86, 94, 219 immediate sequencing grammar, semantics 77, 264 imperative grammar: type of sentence 152, 153, 157, 158 implicit process transitivity process 47, 125, 272

inaccurate translation 9 indefinite article grammar 20, 185, 186, 188 independent clause grammar: syntax 232, 233, 285 indirect mode of narration grammar 54, 149-53, 154 indirect speech grammar 149, 152, 154, 157, 158, 160, 164 infinitive grammar 17 infl see inflection inflection syntax 53, 54, 55, 233, 234 inhabitant as a semantic role 13 initial see path intention cognitive linguistics 11, 14, 18, 66, 137, 138, 140, 147, 148, 251, 252, 287 interaction cognitive linguistics, communication 127, 188, 286 internal segmentation cognitive linguistics 205 interrogation grammar: syntax 53-9, 61, 83, 84, 105, 152, 153, 157, 159 interrogative see interrogation interrogative particle see interrogation interrogative sentence see interrogation intransitive grammar 109, 135, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145 intra-system shift translation 44, 165, 194 introductory verb grammar 75, 150 inversion syntax 53, 54, 55, 56 irreality cognitive linguistics 86, 94, 21920, 224 jussive case Arabic 66 lack of ability modality 213, 215-6 lack of company as an accompaniment circumstance 121 lack of necessity modality 213, 214 Lado 1, 323 Langacker 219, 323 left-hand boundary cognitive linguistics 99 level shift translation 41, 91

Index lexical causative semantics: causation 136, 140 lexis semantics 41, 91 likelihood modality 7, 215, 223, 224, 225, 247, 283 linguistic representation semantics 108 linguistics 1, 5 linking verb grammar; textuality 42 literary text text-typology 175, 293 location circumstance transitivity process 18, 119, 127, 151 long distance dependency syntax 56 lost opportunities modality 213, 215 manner circumstance transitivity process 47, 96, 120, 272 material process see process of doing matter circumstance transitivity process 122 means as a manner circumstance 120 medial see path mental image cognitive linguistics 64, 189 mental process see process of sensing modal verb grammar: part of speech 8, 10, 93, 97, 99, 101, 133, 158, 164, 213-9, 226, 227, 253, 254, 274, 275, 287, 288, 289 modality 3, 7, 8, 55, 86, 94, 213-31 modalized particle 7, 220 modalized phrase 8, 93 modalized preposition 144, 221, 223, 248, 278 modalized verb see modal verb mode of narration grammar 54, 96, 149-184 modulation translation: procedure 33, 127, 237, 313 mood grammar 55, 213 morphological causative semantics: causation 136, 138, 140-5 morphological tense Arabic 8, 9, 19, 44, 63, 64, 86, 95 multiplexity cognitive linguistics 26, 139, 187, 189, 191, 192, 194, 195, 200, 202, 205, 272

328 narration see mode of narration narrowing down discourse 306 nationality adjective grammar 189 necessity modality 8, 213-4, 221, 223, 248, 278 negation grammar 9, 10, 22, 30-41, 66, 67, 71, 82, 84, 89, 94, 122, 130, 152, 166, 183, 208, 225, 236, 248, 251, 254, 269, 272 negative see negation negative particle see negation negative pragmatics: politeness 67 news media text typology 164, 170, nominal Arabic grammar 6, 90, 118 non-countable noun grammar 186, 197, 198, 199, 259, 309 non-finite clause see non-finite verb non-finite verb grammar: syntax 15, 1725 non-tensed verb see non-finite verb noun (N.) grammar: part of speech 4, 20, 21, 25, 26, 27, 33, 43, 49, 69, 117, 161, 165, 168, 169, 170, 172, 178, 179, 183, 185, 186, 188, 189, 192, 193, 194, 197, 198, 199, 200, 202, 203, 204, 206, 207, 228, 229, 243, 248, 255, 258, 259, 264, 274, 283, 284, 300, 304, 307, 308, 309, 316 noun phrase (NP) grammar: syntax 3, 14, 15, 114, 115, 135, 191, 192, 233, 272 numbering discourse 299 nunation Arabic grammar 20, 185-8, 198, 202, 209 object (O) grammar: part of speech 19, 25, 69, 142, 143, 157, 233 obligation modality 8, 213-4, 222 offer modality 215 offerer as a semantic role 14 open path cognitive linguistics 18, 64, 69, 286 operation of actionalizing cognitive linguistics 19, 69 opinion modality 213, 214, 223, 224, 225

329

The Nuts and Bolts of Arabic-English Translation

optimal equivalent see full equivalent order of importance discourse 311 ordering points discourse 298 partially bounded cognitive linguistics 80, 99 participant transitivity process 30, 47, 67, 96, 97, 118, 125, 127, 136, 137, 145, 188, 220, 279, 303 particularizing discourse 312 partitive grammar 3, 11, 15, 185, 186, 203-9 passive grammar 6, 10, 15, 22, 24, 42, 125-35, 145, 165, 169, 186, 229, 231, 247, 248, 287 passive causative semantics 131 passivization see passive past grammar 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 24, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 38, 39, 43, 44, 53, 55, 62, 63, 64-80, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 112, 128, 129, 132, 133, 137, 139, 143, 144, 150, 151, 152, 154, 158, 164, 165, 166, 171, 172, 215, 219, 221, 223, 225, 226, 233, 234, 238, 243, 244, 245, 248, 252, 259, 262, 263, 264, 265, 269, 278, 281, 294 past continuous tense 64, 68-72 past participle 9, 17, 128, 129, 132, 133, 215, 281 past perfect continuous tense 64, 78-80 past perfect tense 64, 72-78, 295 path cognitive linguistics 18, 27, 64, 65, 69, 76, 140, 286 perfect grammar: aspect 6, 9, 15, 21, 62, 64, 72, 75, 78, 79, 81, 88, 90, 99, 100, 101, 102, 132, 158, 166, 243, 244, 247, 263, 264, 294, 307, 310 perfect progressive grammar: aspect 62, 64 permission modality 213, 215, 216, 222

perspective cognitive linguistics 18, 19, 64, 65, 70, 82, 86, 89, 91, 94, 96, 97, 99, 136, 219, 272, 278, 279, 286, 287 phrasal verb idiomaticity 26, 165, 254, 265, 284, 302 player as a semantic role 14 polite request modality 154, 213, 217 portion excerpting cognitive linguistics 186, 187, 195, 200, 208 positive pragmatics: politeness 67 possessed transitivity process 115, 116 possessor transitivity process 115, 116 possibility see likelihood power differential cognitive linguistics; force dynamics 136, 140 powerful cognitive linguistics; force dynamics 136, 137, 140 powerless cognitive linguistics; force dynamics 136, 136, 137, 140 powerlessness cognitive linguistics; force dynamics 136, 137, 139, 222 pragmatics 5, 322 predicate grammar: syntax 30, 174 prediction grammar: syntax 30 preference modality 213, 217 prepositional phrase (PP) grammar: syntax 29, 47, 98, 114, 115, 118, 168, 220, 224 present grammar: tense 81-93 present continuous 26, 81, 84-88 present in the past 96, 98, 151, 152 present perfect 9, 21, 75, 81, 8890 present perfect continuous 21, 81, 90-2 present active participle Arabic 79, 87, 98 pre-transferring adjustment translation: technique 21, 23, 27 procedure translation: procedure 3, 5 process transitivity 108-18 process of behaving 8, 83, 108, 110-12 process of being 108, 114-5

Index process of desideration see process of desiring process of desiring 67, 96 process of doing 30, 70, 76, 96, 100, 108-9, 112, 118, 127, 150, 151, 272 process of existing 108, 116 process of happening 108, 109 process of having 8, 19, 108, 115-6, 117 process of saying 54, 63, 70, 96, 97, 108, 109-10, 150, 151, 152, 176, 226, 236 process of sensing 76, 96, 112-3 product as a role circumstance 122 progressive grammar: aspect 6, 15, 41, 62, 64, 85, 102 prohibition modality 213, 214, 221, 222 pronoun (Pro) grammar: part of speech 7, 17, 53, 54, 76, 96, 127, 135, 139, 150, 151, 151, 157 proximal perspective cognitive linguistics 278, 279 purpose as a cause circumstance 121 purpose grammar; textuality 234, 243, 2517 quality as a manner circumstance 120 quantifier grammar: syntax 197-202, 203 quantity cognitive linguistics 26, 27, 187, 189, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 203, 205, 272 quoted speech grammar 149 rank shift see unit shift reality cognitive linguistics 18, 19, 86, 94, 219, 220, 224, 271 reason as a cause circumstance 120 reason grammar; textuality 234, 246-50 receiver as a semantic role 12 recipient semantics; transitivity process 96 reciprocal action schema cognitive linguistics 188 reformulation discourse 299 relative clause grammar 73, 92, 98, 127 replacement discourse 301

330 reported speech grammar 75, 149, 157, 173, 182 reporting verb grammar 157, 158, 164, 165, 171, 172, 174, 181, 182 requesting pragmatics: speech act 155 restricted frame cognitive linguistics 279 result grammar; textuality 258-61 resultant as a semantic role 136 role circumstance transitivity process 121 rounding off discourse 297 sayer transitivity process; semantic role 54, 96, 110, 150, 151, 176, 221, 222, 226, 236 seller as a semantic role 13 semantic effect semantics 246 semantic parsing semantics 2, 3, 12-4 semantic repetition semantics 43 semantic role semantics 3, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 30, 135 semantics 5, 321, 322, 323, 324 senser transitivity process 76, 96, 113, 286 shift translation 10, 22, 27, 36, 41-6, 91, 126, 127, 144, 165, 183, 186, 194, 248, 306, 308 similarity discourse 303 simple grammar: aspect 6, 7, 8, 9, 18, 27, 31, 44, 55, 62, 64, 65, 66, 67, 71, 72, 75, 81, 82, 83, 84, 93, 95, 128, 129, 130, 233, 234, 242, 248, 263, 264, 265, 274 simple future tense 93-7 simple past tense 8, 9, 18, 27, 31, 44, 64, 65-72, 128, 248 simple present tense 81-4, 129, 242, 274 simple sentence grammar; syntax 6, 66, 166, 263, 275, 285, 288, 289 source as a semantic role 12 source as an angle circumstance 122 spatial as a location circumstance 119, 127 speech act pragmatics 153-6 state of dividedness cognitive linguistics 203, 205 statement grammar: type of sentence 152, 153, 157, 158 sth accepted as a semantic role 14

331

The Nuts and Bolts of Arabic-English Translation

sth asked as a semantic role 13 sth bought as a semantic role 13 sth cleaned as a semantic role 30 sth decided as a semantic role 13 sth eaten as a semantic role 13 sth forgotten as a semantic role 135 sth given as a semantic role 12 sth making forget as a semantic role 135 sth offered as a semantic role 14 sth played as a semantic role 14 sth sold as a semantic role 13 sth written as a semantic role 13 structure shift translation 10, 22, 41, 126, 127 style linguistics 4, 5, 25, 202, 321 stylistics 3, 5, 323 subject (S.) grammar: part of speech 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 30, 31, 40, 53, 55, 56, 60, 83, 135, 152, 164, 233, 234, 238, 247, 253, 264, 275, 277, 280, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289 submission cognitive linguistics: force dynamics 136, 137, 139, 221, 222 subordinating conjunction grammar; textuality 233, 234 suggesting pragmatics: speech act 155 suggestion modality 216 summarizing discourse 297 superlative degree grammar 189, 193, 243 surface structure syntax 54, 55 syntactic parsing syntax 2, 3, 6-11 syntax 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 11, 13, 15, 23, 28, 54, 60, 140, 145, 150, 233, 322, Talmy 19, 69, 187, 205, 323 temporal as a location circumstance 119 tense grammar 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 26, 27, 31, 37, 38, 39, 44, 55, 60, 62-107, 128, 129, 132, 145, 150, 158, 164, 166, 173, 182, 219, 238, 242, 243, 244, 247, 248, 253, 263, 264, 265, 274, 277, 285, 286, 288, 289, 294, 307, 310

tensed verb see finite verb text type 3, 4, 14 text-typology see text type thanking pragmatics: speech act 156 thematic case see semantic role thematic role see semantic role theta role see semantic role time clause grammar; textuality 261-8 time gap grammar: tense; semantics 63, 64, 68, 76, 91, 262 time lapse see time gap time marker grammar 7, 8, 9, 85, 87, 91 timeline grammar: tense 18, 19, 26, 27, 64, 65, 76, 89, 91, 94, 96, 97, 98, 99, 151, 152, 271, 272, 287 traditional grammar 5, 232 transfer of energy cognitive linguistics 127, 287 transformation syntax 53, 54, 55, 56 transition grammar; textuality 277 transitive grammar: verb 135, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145 transitivity functional grammar 3, 108-25 translation by a hyperonym see generalizing translation translation theories translation 5 translation training translation 3 transposition translation: procedure 43 traveller as a semantic role 13, 17, 18, 151 unbounded cognitive linguistics 70, 186, 187, 192, 194, 200 unboundedness see unbounded unbounding see unbounded unchanging situation grammar 81, 242 unidirectional cognitive linguistics 127, 287 uniplexity cognitive linguistics 27, 139, 187, 189, 200, 205, 208 unit shift translation 27, 36, 43-4, 186 verb of feeling transitivity 112 verb of perceiving transitivity 113 verb of thinking transitivity 112 verb of wanting transitivity 113 verb phrase (VP) grammar: syntax 53, 54, 55, 62, 233, 234

Index verbal Arabic grammar 6,7,47, 55 verbal process see process of saying verbiage see content verb-specific semantic role semantics 12, 13, 30, 135 viewpoint as an angle circumstance 122 Vinay and Darbelnet 33, 43, 127 voice grammar 6, 10, 15, 42, 60, 12535, 145, 165, 231, 247, 248, 287

332 weak verb Arabic grammar 29 wh phrase grammar: syntax 55 wh question grammar: syntax 53-6, 118 windowing cognitive linguistics 64 writer as a semantic role 13 yes-no question grammar: syntax 53, 54, 55, 67, 154 zooming cognitive linguistics 278, 279