The Emperors Of Rome

THE EMPERORS OF ROME ANTONINUS PIUS Antoninus Pius, full name Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (86-161), Roman emperor from 138 to 161. He was born in Lanuvium (now Lanuvio, Italy), of a distinguished Roman family. Antoninus was consul in 120, and, after a period as governor of the province of Asia (now Turkey) he became one of the chief advisers of Emperor Hadrian. In 138 Hadrian adopted Antoninus and named him his successor. Antoninus became emperor when Hadrian died later the same year. He acquired the name Pius (Latin for “dutiful” or “conscientious”), probably because of his insistence that divine honors be accorded Hadrian. AUGUSTUS Augustus (63 BC- AD 14), first emperor of Rome (27 BC-AD 14), who restored unity and orderly government to the realm after nearly a century of civil wars. He presided over an era of peace, prosperity, and cultural achievement known as the Augustan Age. Originally named Gaius Octavius, Augustus was born in Rome on September 23, 63 BC; he was the grandnephew of Julius Caesar, whom he succeeded as ruler of the Roman state. Caesar was fond of the youth and had him raised to the College of Pontifices—a major Roman priesthood—at the age of 16. When Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC, Octavius was in Illyria, where he had been sent to serve; returning to Italy, he learned that he was Caesar’s adopted heir. He consequently took the name Gaius Julius Caesar, to which historians have added Octavianus; in English, the name is usually shortened to Octavian. AURELIAN, LUCIUS DOMITIUS Lucius Domitius Aurelian, full name LUCIUS DOMITIUS AURELIANUS (212?-275), Roman emperor (270-275), born probably in Sirmium, Pannonia. He was a common soldier who attained high military office under the Roman emperors Valerian and Claudius II. After the death of Claudius in 270, Aurelian was elected emperor by the army. He defeated the Alamanni, a German tribe; surrendered the province of Dacia to the Goths; and made the Danube River the northern boundary of the empire. In 270 the aggressiveness of Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, sent Aurelian to the East. He defeated Zenobia in two battles and beseiged her in Palmyra, which capitulated in 272; he then took the queen prisoner and razed the city. Aurelian did much to restore the discipline of the army and to advance the general welfare and unity of the empire; he was awarded the title Restitutor Orbis (“Restorer of the Empire”) by the Senate. He was assassinated by some of his officers while on an expedition against the Persians. AURELIUS, MARCUS Marcus Aurelius, full name Marcus Aelius Aurelius Antoninus (121-180), Roman emperor (161-180) and Stoic philosopher. Marcus Aurelius, whose original name was Marcus Annius Verus, was born in Rome on April 20, 121, the nephew by marriage of Antoninus Pius, later emperor. After the latter succeeded to power, he adopted his nephew and married him to his daughter (145). Marcus Aurelius became emperor in 161, and throughout his reign he was engaged in defensive wars on the northern and eastern frontiers of the empire. His legions succeeded in repelling the invasion of Syria by the Parthians in 166, but Rome was again forced into battle in 167 by the Germanic tribes on the Rhine-Danube frontier. Marcus Aurelius returned to Rome intermittently during the German campaign to make legal and administrative reforms. Although he was particularly concerned with public welfare and sold even his personal possessions to alleviate the effects of famine and plague within the empire, he ruthlessly persecuted the Christians, believing them a threat to the imperial system. In 176 he returned to the northern frontier, hoping to extend the boundaries of the empire northeastward to the Wisła (Vistula) river. He died of the plague in Vindobona (now Vienna) on March 17, 180, before he could begin the invasion. His plan was abandoned by his son and successor, Commodus. CALIGULA Caligula, real name GAIUS CAESAR (12-41), Roman emperor (37-41), born probably in Antium (now Anzio, Italy), the youngest son of the Roman general Germanicus Caesar and the grandnephew of the Roman emperor Tiberius. His early life in military camps earned him the nickname Caligula (Latin, “Little Boot”) because of his small military shoes. Tiberius named his grandson, Tiberius Gemellus, and Caligula joint heirs to the throne, but the Roman Senate and people chose Caligula as sole emperor. Caligula adopted Gemellus as his son but later had him murdered. A clement ruler for the first six months, he became a vicious tyrant after a severe illness. Historians believe that he probably went insane. He squandered his fortune on public entertainment and building projects; banished or murdered most of his relatives; had people tortured and killed while he dined; made his favorite horse a consul; declared himself a god; and

had temples erected and sacrifices offered to himself. In 41 the officers of his guard formed a conspiracy against him, and he was assassinated. CARACALLA Caracalla, nickname of the Roman emperor who ruled as Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (188-217). Originally named Bassianus, he was born in Lugdunum, Gaul (now Lyon, France), and was nicknamed Caracalla because he introduced into Roman fashion a long cloak or tunic from Gaul called the caracalla. When his father, Emperor Lucius Septimius Severus, died in 211, Caracalla became joint emperor with his younger brother, Publius Septimius Geta. In 212 Caracalla became sole emperor after causing the murder of Geta and the massacre of several thousand of Geta's followers. Caracalla's reign was marked by cruelty, extravagance, and treachery, particularly in military campaigns against the Alamanni and the peoples of Gaul and Parthia. During his reign the Baths of Caracalla and the Arch of Septimius were constructed in Rome. Caracalla was assassinated in Mesopotamia by Marcus Opellius Macrinus, who then succeeded him as emperor. CLAUDIUS I Claudius I (10

BC-AD54),

Roman emperor (AD41-54).

Claudius was born TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS DRUSUS NERO GERMANICUS in Lugdunum (present-day Lyon, France). His father, Nero Claudius Drusus, was a younger brother of Tiberius Claudius Nero Caesar, later the Roman emperor Tiberius. Claudius held no important public office until the age of 47, when he became consul during the reign of his nephew, Emperor Caligula. When the latter was assassinated in AD41, Claudius was proclaimed emperor by the Praetorian Guard, who found him hiding in the palace. The first acts of his reign gave promise of mild and just government; but in 42, when a conspiracy against his life was uncovered, he went into semiretirement. His wife Messalina became largely responsible for administering the government for a time. She practiced cruelties and extortions without restraint. Aside from the excesses perpetrated under the influence of Messalina, Claudius's reign was that of an able administrator, both in civil and military affairs. Mauretania (present-day northern Morocco and western Algeria) was made a Roman province; the conquest of Britain was begun; and the Roman armies fought successfully against the Germans. Judea and Thrace also became Roman provinces during his rule. Claudius expended enormous sums in building, especially in the construction of the famous Claudian Aqueduct. His administration was characterized by a decline in the power of the nobility and by the practice, later commonplace, of granting responsibility and wealth to the personal followers of the emperor, including former slaves. CLAUDIUS II Claudius II, full name Marcus Aurelius Claudius Gothicus (AD 214-270), Roman emperor (268-270), born in Illyria. He was an officer in the Roman army, commanding the troops on the Illyrian border during the reigns of emperors Decius, Valerian, and Gallienus. On the death of Gallienus in 268 the soldiers of Claudius's command proclaimed him emperor. His short reign was marked by successful military campaigns against two German tribes, the Alamanni and the Goths, that were threatening Roman provinces. In honor of his victory over the Goths he became known as Gothicus. COMMODUS, LUCIUS AELIUS AURELIS Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus (161-192), Roman emperor (180-92), born at Lanuvium, son of Emperor Marcus Aurelius. His reign was marked by extravagance, violence, and license. To display his physical strength he participated in gladiatorial combats. He demanded to be worshiped as a god and assumed the title of Hercules Romanus. Many attempts were made against his life, and he was eventually murdered. CONSTATINE THE GREAT Constantine the Great (about AD 274-337), Roman emperor (306-337), the first Roman ruler to be converted to Christianity. He was the founder of Constantinople (present-day İstanbul), which remained the capital of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire until 1453. CONSTANTIUS I Constantius I, full name FLAVIUS VALERIUS CONSTANTIUS, called Constantius Chlorus (AD250?-306), Roman emperor (305-06). He was a general and administrator under Emperor Maximian, who adopted him and gave him the government of Gaul and the rank of caesar in 293. When his coemperors, Maximian and Diocletian, abdicated in 305, Constantius became emperor in the West and prepared to conquer the Picts of Scotland. He died at Eboracum (modern York, England) during the campaign, after proclaiming his son Constantine the Great his successor as emperor. CONSTANTIUS II

Constantius II, full name FLAVIUS JULIUS CONSTANTIUS (317-61), Roman emperor (351-61), second son of Constantine the Great. On his father's death (337) Constantius was given the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire and became involved in a war with Shapur II, Sassanid king of Persia. When his brother, the Western emperor Constans I, was murdered by a usurper, Magnentius, in 350, Constantius led an army into the Balkans, where he defeated Magnentius at the Battle of Mursa (modern Osijek, Croatia) and became (351) sole ruler of the empire. After campaigning against the Germans and Sarmatians on the Danube River in 357, he returned to the East, where he continued the war against the Sassanids until his death. Constantius favored the Arian form of Christianity, and was an opponent of St. Athanasius, the orthodox bishop of Alexandria. CONSTANTIUS III Constantius III (died 421), Western Roman emperor (421). A general in the service of the Western emperor Honorius, Constantius became virtual ruler of the western provinces in 414, when he forced the Visigoths out of Gaul into Spain. In 417 he married Honorius's sister, Galla Placidia. The next year he recalled the Visigoths from Spain and established a kingdom for them in southern Gaul under their ruler Wallia (reigned 415-19). During the last year of his life, Constantius was officially recognized by Honorius as co-emperor. DECIUS Decius (201-251), emperor of Rome (249-251), best known as the instigator of the first thoroughgoing persecutions of the Christians. He was born Gaius Messius Quintus Trajanus Decius in Lower Pannonia (modern Hungary). He was in command of troops along the Danube River in 249, when his soldiers, against his will, proclaimed him emperor. The reigning emperor, Philip I, subsequently led an army against him, but was defeated at Verona and killed in action. Decius was then accepted as emperor by the Roman Senate. He persecuted the Christians by ordering all inhabitants of the Roman Empire to signify their willingness to worship the pagan gods. Among the victims of this persecution were Pope Fabian, who was martyred; Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, who was forced into exile; and Origen, the church father, who was imprisoned and tortured. The Christian church was long divided on the question of the proper treatment of those Christians (called Iapsi) who publicly accepted the orders of Decius but afterward returned to the church. In June 251 Decius led a Roman army to engage the Goths, who were attacking in the Dobruja. Although surrounded, the Goths refused to surrender, and in the final assault on them Decius was killed, reputedly through the treason of Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus, who then became emperor. DIOCLETIAN Diocletian (245-313), emperor of Rome (284-305), who reformed the administrative machinery of the empire, introducing the two-tiered system of augusti and caesars. Diocletian was born Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus of humble parents in Dalmatia and became an officer in the Roman army. When Emperor Marcus Aurelius Numerianus died in 284, Diocletian's troops proclaimed him emperor. Carinus, the brother of Numerianus, contested the claim and defeated Diocletian's forces in battle in Moesia in 285 but was killed by one of his own officers, and Diocletian's rule was assured. He was immediately faced with uprisings in many parts of the vast empire and selected as his colleague a Pannonian officer, Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus, better known as Maximian, giving him the title of caesar in 285 and of augustus in 286. In order to obtain more assistance in defending and administering the empire, and also in order to assure a peaceful succession to the throne, Diocletian selected two more colleagues in 293, each with the title of caesar. He adopted one of them, Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus, better known as Galerius, as his son; Maximian adopted the other, Constantius I. The empire was divided into 101 provinces, grouped into 12 larger divisions, each called a diocese, and into 4 major parts, over each of which a caesar or augustus was placed. All edicts were signed jointly by the four rulers, but the superior rank of the augusti and the supremacy of Diocletian over the others were retained. DOMITIAN Domitian, full name TITUS FLAVIUS DOMITIANUS (AD51-96), Roman emperor (AD81-96), known primarily for his conflict with the Senate and the Roman aristocracy. Domitian was the second son of Emperor Vespasian and the brother of Emperor Titus, whom he succeeded. In Germany he defeated the Chatti (83) and began construction of the limes, a line of fortifications marking the Roman frontier between the Rhine and Danube rivers. In Britain, Roman control was extended north into Scotland by 84, and in eastern Europe an invasion of the Dacians was ended when they were forced back across the Danube in 88. In 89 Domitian suppressed a revolt led by Antonius Saturninus, governor of Upper Germany. GALLIENUS, PUBLIUS LICINIUS EGNATIUS Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus (died 268), emperor of Rome (253-268). He was made joint ruler on the accession of his father, Valerian, in August 253. In 258 Gallienus defeated the Alamanni, a group of

German tribes who were making incursions into the Roman provinces along the Danube River. The Alamanni rose again, however, and forced their way into Italy, where Gallienus gained a second victory over them near Mediolanum (now Milan). Meanwhile, Valerian had been engaged in wars with Shapur I, the Sassanid king of Persia (reigned 241-72), by whom he was taken prisoner in 260 and put to death. Gallienus then became sole emperor, but in name only, because self-appointed rulers arose in all outlying parts of the Roman Empire. To use his troops most effectively, he established a highly mobile cavalry force that was retained by his successors. During an attack on Mediolanum, held by a usurper, Gallienus was killed in a plot instigated by some of his officers. He was succeeded by Claudius II, his cavalry commander. GALLUS, GAIUS VIBIUS TREBONIANUS Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus (205?-253), emperor of Rome (251-253). He served under Emperor Decius in the campaign against the Goths in 251 and is said to have contributed by his treachery to the death of Decius. Gallus thereupon became emperor, and shortly afterward he purchased peace with the Goths by agreeing to let them retain the booty and captives they had acquired in their war with Rome and by pledging to pay them a fixed annual tribute. In 253 the Roman Empire was again invaded by the Goths, but they were defeated in the Roman province of Moesia (mostly in what is now Serbia and northern Bulgaria) by the provincial governor Aemilianus, whose troops then proclaimed him emperor. Gallus marched forth to suppress the insurrection but was killed by his own soldiers before his army and that of Aemilianus could meet. HADRIAN Hadrian (in Latin, Publius Aelius Hadrianus) (AD76-138), emperor of Rome (117-138), who declared an end to the expansion of the empire and drew back to the limits established by Augustus. One of the most cultured of the emperors, he was a patron of virtually all the arts. Hadrian was born January 24, 76, either in Itálica, near Seville, Spain, or in Rome. When his father died in 85, he became the ward of a relative, the future emperor Trajan. Educated in Rome, Hadrian held various civil and military posts until Trajan became emperor in 98. He then served with distinction in military campaigns with Trajan on the Danube frontier and was made consul several times. As archon of Athens (112) he immersed himself in Greek culture, for which he demonstrated an abiding attachment. When Trajan died in 117, Hadrian was proclaimed emperor by the army, and his appointment was then ratified by the Roman Senate. JULIAN THE APOSTOLATE Julian the Apostate, full name Flavius Claudius Julianus (331?-363), Roman emperor (361-363), who tried to restore paganism after the adoption of Christianity by Constantine the Great. A nephew of Constantine, Julian was brought up as a Christian; because he later renounced that faith, Christian historians labeled him the Apostate. In 355 Julian's cousin, Emperor Constantius II, gave him the title caesar and made him commander of Roman forces in Gaul. During the next three years he campaigned against the Alamanni and the Franks, who had invaded Gaul, driving them back across the Rhine. In 360 his troops proclaimed him emperor. A civil war with Constantius was prevented only by the latter's death in 361. Julian proceeded to Constantinople (present-day İstanbul) and Antioch, where he reinstated the worship of the old Greco-Roman gods, organizing it on the pattern of the Christian church. His reign was cut short when he was killed fighting the Persians in Mesopotamia on June 26, 363. Two satirical works by Julian have been preserved, along with a collection of his speeches and letters. MAXIMIAN Maximian (emperor), in Latin Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus (240?-310), Roman emperor (286305, 306-08), born of humble parents in the Roman province of Pannonia (in present Slovenia). Because of his distinguished military service, the emperor Diocletian made him coruler of the Roman Empire with the title augustus. When Diocletian abdicated in 305, however, he compelled Maximian to do the same. Maximian retired to private life in Lucania, southern Italy, but returned to Rome in 306 to assist his son, the Roman emperor Marcus Maxentius. Two years later, however, he was driven from Italy by Maxentius, who wished to rule alone. He sought refuge in Gaul with his son-in-law,Constantine the Great. Maximian conspired to seize control of the government, but was forced by Constantine to commit suicide. MAXIMUS, GAIUS GALERIUS VALERIUS Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximinus (died 313), Roman emperor (308-313), a nephew of Emperor Galerius. Maximinus was defeated by Emperor Licinius, with whom he had ruled the eastern half of the Roman Empire, and died soon after. He is said to have been a bitter persecutor of the Christians. MAXIMINUS, GAIUS JULIUS VERUS

Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus (173-238), Roman emperor (235-238), noted for his cruelty and rapacity. He was born of rustic parents in Thrace, on the western shore of the Black Sea, and rose to the command of the Roman army under the emperor Alexander Severus. During a campaign against the Germans, Maximinus fomented a conspiracy in which Alexander was slain. Maximinus was then proclaimed emperor. He and his son were killed by their own soldiers near Aquileia, Italy. NERO Nero (AD37-68), fifth emperor of Rome and the last of the Julio-Claudian line. Born Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus on December 15, 37, at Antium and originally named Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, Nero was the son of the consul Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (died about 40) and Agrippina the Younger, great-granddaughter of Emperor Augustus. In 49 Agrippina married her uncle, Emperor Claudius I, and the following year she persuaded him to adopt her son, whose name was then changed. Later, Claudius married Nero to his daughter Octavia and marked him out for succession, bypassing his own son, Britannicus. On Claudius's death (54), the Praetorian Guards, under their prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus, Agrippina's agent, declared Nero emperor at the age of 17. NERVA, MARCUS COCCEIUS Marcus Cocceius Nerva (about AD35-98), Roman emperor (AD96-98), known as the first of the so-called good emperors. He was born in Narnia, Umbria, to parents of senatorial rank. He was twice consul: in 71 with the emperor Vespasian as colleague, and in 90 with the emperor Domitian as colleague. When Domitian was assassinated in 96, Nerva was elected emperor by the Senate, reflecting the choice both of the people and of the soldiers. As an emperor Nerva displayed great wisdom and moderation. The activities of the informers who had flourished under Domitian were checked. Nerva chose senators as his councillors and allowed the Senate to perform its traditional functions. He attempted to reduce the costs of the government. Being interested in the economic welfare of his country, he had the Senate pass an agrarian law that provided for the purchase of land for poor citizens. PHILLIP Philip (of Rome), full Latin name Marcus Julius Philippus, called The Arabian (204?-249), emperor of Rome (244-249). He distinguished himself in the Persian campaign and in 243 was made praetorian prefect. After inciting a mutiny against the young emperor Gordian III, whom the soldiers then killed, Philip had himself proclaimed emperor. He thereupon concluded a treaty with the Persians. Subsequently he warred against the Goths and other European tribes. In 248 he celebrated the 1000th anniversary of the founding of Rome with secular games in the Circus Maximus. Philip was killed in battle near Verona while attempting to quell a mutiny headed by his rival and successor, Decius. SEVERUS, LUCIUS SEPTIMIUS Lucius Septimius Severus (146-211), Roman emperor (193-211), who accentuated the military and despotic character of the imperial office. He was born in Lepcis Magna (near the modern city of Al Khums, Libya). After receiving a law education in Rome, Severus held a number of military and political titles. He became quaestor militaris, a revenue collector for the military, in the province of Baetica in Spain in 172, and by 190 he was governor of Pannonia, a Roman province in central Europe. When the Roman emperor Lucius Aelius Commodus was murdered in 192, the Roman consul Publius Helvius Pertinax became emperor. He, in turn, was slain a year later, and Severus, determined to avenge his death, returned to Rome with his army. TIBERIUS Tiberius (42 BC-AD37), second emperor of Rome (AD14-37), the elder son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla. Tiberius was born Tiberius Claudius Nero Caesar in Rome on November 16, 42 BC. Four years later his mother divorced his father and married the triumvir Octavian, later Emperor Augustus, who had Tiberius carefully educated. In 20 BC Tiberius commanded an expedition to Armenia, and he subsequently helped subdue the Rhaetians and fought against the Pannonians (12-9 BC). In 11 BC Tiberius, at his stepfather's command, dissolved his happy marriage to Vipsania Agrippina (died AD20), daughter of the Roman general Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, and married Augustus's daughter Julia, who was Agrippa's widow. In 6 BC he retired to the island of Rhodes, where he devoted himself to study for seven years. TITUS Titus, full name Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus (39-81), Roman emperor (79-81), who destroyed the Temple of Jerusalem and completed the Colosseum. He was born December 30, 39, in Rome, the elder son of Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus, later Emperor Vespasian. Titus served as a military tribune in Germany and Britain and later fought under his father's command during the Jewish rebellion in Palestine.

After Vespasian became emperor in 69, Titus was left in command of the Roman army in Palestine, and he brought the war to a close with the capture of Jerusalem and the destruction of the Temple in 70. To commemorate this victory in the Jewish war, his brother, Emperor Domitian, later erected the Arch of Titus. TRAJAN Trajan (Latin, Marcus Ulpius Trajanus) (53?-117), Roman emperor (98-117), conqueror of Dacia and Mesopotamia. He was born in Itálica (near modern Seville, Spain), of a family probably Roman in origin. He was trained as a youth in the Roman army and took an active part in campaigns in Spain, Syria, and Germany during the reigns of the emperors Titus and Domitian. Trajan achieved distinction as a general of outstanding ability, and in 91 he was elected a consul. In 97 he was adopted by Emperor Nerva as his colleague and successor. On the death of Nerva the following year, Trajan, who was at that time inspecting the Roman frontier in Germany, became the sole ruler of the empire. He did not return to Rome until several years later, however. He celebrated his accession by largesses to his soldiers and also made provisions for the maintenance of the children of poor freemen in Rome and other Italian cities, thus continuing the system of governmental benevolence initiated by Nerva. In 101 Trajan set out on his first campaign against the Dacians in southeastern Europe. The struggle was long and fierce, but by 106 the Romans had completely subdued the country, which became the Roman province of Dacia (present-day west central Romania). This conquest was celebrated by a triumph and by games that lasted four months. The famous Trajan's Column in the Forum of Trajan in Rome was erected (circa 106-13) to commemorate the victory. VALERIAN Valerian (emperor), in Latin, Publius Licinius Valerianus (died after AD260), Roman emperor (253-60). Upon the murder of Emperor Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus and the death of Gallus's rival, the provincial governor Aemilianus, Valerian was proclaimed emperor by his troops. He appointed his son Publius Licinius Valerianus Egnatius Gallienus to rule jointly with him. Valerian was an able ruler, but throughout his reign invading armies threatened every frontier of the empire. He left Gallienus in charge of the European wars in order to concentrate on the invasions of his eastern boundaries by the Goths and the Persians. The latter destroyed the Roman army and took Valerian prisoner at Edessa (now Şanlıurfa, Turkey) in 260. He died in Persian captivity, and Gallienus succeeded him. VESPASIAN Vespasian, full name TITUS FLAVIUS SABINUS VESPASIANUS (AD9-79), Roman emperor (69-79), born in Sabine Reate, near Rome. During the middle of the 1st century AD he commanded a legion in Germany and in Britain conquered the Isle of Wight. In 66 he campaigned against the Jews in Judea. Upon being chosen emperor in 69, he left the war in Judea to his son Titus and returned to Rome, where he restored the government and the public finances. After the capture and destruction of Jerusalem by Titus in 70, the world was at peace for nine years. Other important events of Vespasian's reign include the suppression of a formidable revolt (69-70) by the Germanic Batavians under their leader Julius Civilis; conquests in Britain by the Roman general Gnaeus Julius Agricola; the development of a more extensive educational system; and the construction of the Colosseum in Rome. His son Titus succeeded him as emperor.