The-best-guide-writingielts.pdf

Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa

Collected and Shared by Tran Manh Trung – Foreign Language Department Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa Province ************************

THE BEST GUIDES TO IELTS WRITING

Thanh Hoa City 12/2012

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FORMAL AND INFORMAL WORD LIST (Collected and selected by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University) Rules for formal writing are quite strict, though often unstated. Formal writing is used in academic and scientific settings whenever you want to convey your ideas to a wide audience, with many possible backgrounds and assumptions. Unlike casual conversation or emails to friends, formal writing needs to be clear, unambiguous, literal, and well structured. Table 01:

Ord

INFORMAL/EVERYDAY

FORMAL/ACADEMIC

VIETNAMESE MEANING

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09

a lot of/ loads of/ plenty of a bit to get together to start/to begin big thing stuff to find out to do again

a great deal of /numerous/ several Somewhat (before adj. or adv.)/ slightly to collaborate with sbd on smth to initiate/to commence smth/v-ing large (number/percentage), considerable device/object material to ascertain/discover to repeat

nhiều một chút ít cộng tác bắt đầu khởi đầu lớn, to lớn vật dụng/vật thể chất liệu, vật liệu tìm ra, tìm thấy lặp lại

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10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 37 38

to do well to set up to cut down on to go up to come up with to look into to go up and down to bring up a question to get rid of to turn down smth to turn out smth to take smth back to put off smth to put up with to put away smth to put down to smth to come about to give up to go back/give back to give off smth to give away to carry out smth to seem to climb to help to stop to use to shorten to show to go

to succeed to establish to reduce to increase to create to investigate to fluctuate to raise a question to eliminate to refuse to produce to retract (a statement) to postpone smth to tolerate to save to attribute to to occur to relinquish return to swh/ smth to produce (heat) to betray to conduct to appear to ascend to assist/ aid to cease to consume to decrease/ to abbreviate to demonstrate to depart

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thành công thiết lập giảm bớt tăng lên tạo ra điều tra dao động đưa ra vấn đề loại bỏ từ chối làm ra, tạo ra rút lại hoãn lại chịu đựng tiết kiệm, để dành quy cho, gán cho xảy ra từ bỏ trở lại/ trả lại sản sinh, tạo ra tiết lộ, phản bội tiến hành hình như, dường như đi lên, tăng lên (số lượng) giúp đỡ dừng lại dùng, tiêu dùng giảm bớt/ rút ngắn chỉ ra, chứng minh đi, khởi hành

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39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 67

to want to end to tell to keep to say no to free to mend/ to fix to need to live in the end at once at the same time at first on and off mainly next again and again so understanding lack chance sweat house sight friendly whole lively lucky

to desire to finish/ to terminate to inform preserve/ retain to reject to release/ to liberate to repair to require to reside finally/ultimately immediately simultaneously/ concurrently initially intermittently principally/primarily subsequently repeatedly therefore/ consequently comprehension deficiency opportunity perspiration residence vision amiable complete energetically/animated fortunate

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mong muốn kết thúc thông tin, cho biết giữ gìn/ giữ từ chối trả tự do, phóng thích sửa chữa cần ở tại, trútại cuối cùng ngay lập tức đồng thời, cùng lúc đầu tiên gián đoạn, lúc cólúc không chủ yếu tiếp theo lặp đi lặp lại vìthế, vìvậy sự hiểu sự thiếu hụt cơ hội, dịp mồ hôi nơi cư trú (count) khả năng nhìn, thị giác thân mật toàn bộ đầy sinh lực/ sống động may mắn

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68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96

childish wrong worse cheap dim mad to lay back in charge of enough better clear empty to ask for hot (topic) more and more to get bad to get worse horrible to come in to talk about to go down to come up with to look at to pin down to experience the influence of Let’s consider … I love/like/prefer On top of that

immature/ infantile incorrect/questionable inferior to inexpensive indistinct insane to relax responsible for sufficient superior to transparent vacant to require/ to request controversial Increasingly/ unceasingly/non-stop to obtain/ to receive disappointing to deteriorate unacceptable to enter to discuss to descend to suggest to examine to determine to be influenced It is important to consider … Personally, I favour … Another point is …

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như trẻ con (tính cách) sai/ cóvấn đề thấp kém hơn rẻ không rõràng, mờ điên thư giãn chịu trách nhiệm đầy đủ tốt hơn, giỏi hơn rõràng trống không đòi hỏi, yêu cầu đang gây tranh cãi tăng lên không ngừng đạt được, lấy , mua tồi tệ, đáng thất vọng trở nên xấu đi không thể chấp nhận, kinh khủng đi vào thảo luận đi xuống, giảm xuống gợi ý, đưa ra xem xét quyết tâm , dứt khoát chịu ảnh hưởng hãy cân nhắc, xem xét Tôi thích, tôi ủng hộ một điểm khác nữa là

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97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 126

Government must make laws In a nutshell Every coin has two sides by chance to try to swap as far as x goes to skip by accident kids O.K to make up for to catch on smth to go down with a disease to go up to get in touch with to let somebody know to call off to sort out to deal with small to think of about to do (research) hard to keep up a lot stand for next

There is a need for laws To state it briefly/ In brief There are advantages and disadvantages to Incidentally to attempt/ to endeavor to exchange in respect of / with respect to omit/not attend smth accidentally infants/offsprings acceptable/ satisfactory to compensate for to understand to contract a disease to increase to contact to inform to cancel to resolve to handle/ to address minimal/limited/ modest to conceive of/imagine an estimated, approximately, roughly to carry out, perform, undertake difficult, problematic,challenging to maintain a substantial amount, a considerable sum denote, represent adjacent

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cần cóluật về … tóm lại mọi vấn đề đều cóưu điểm vànhược điểm nhân tiện cố gắng trao đổi đối với, về phần bỏ qua, không tham dự ngẫu nhiên, tình cờ trẻ em được, chấp nhận được đền bù, bùlại nắm bắt, hiểu mắc bệnh tăng lên liên hệ. liên lạc cho biết huỷ bỏ, bãi bỏ giải quyết, đi đến quyết định giải quyết, xử lý nhỏ, bé nghĩ về, suy tính khoảng chừng tiến hành (nghiên cứu), đảm nhiệm khó khăn duy trì nhiều chỉ, thay cho kề cận

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127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 152 153 154 155 156

prove rich the same as drink man old people crooks great, awesome sick of, fed up with feature before to think (that) Because Nobody can say I think that About And but to write a cheque carefull/cautious to check to agree with to go over to hand / to give In accordance with to involve lost to make sure to order

confirm affluent, wealthy, prosperous equivalent to beverage (count) male senior citizens, retirees offenders, lawbreakers preferable, desirable dissatisfied with characteristic Prior to to assume (that) Owing to or due to the fact that/As a result of It is impossible to predict … It seems that/ It could be argued that Regarding/ Concerning as well as while/whereas to issue a checque prudent (imprudent)/prudential to verify to be bound by exeed to submit Pursuant to to entail inadvertently mislaid to ensure to authorise

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khẳng định giàu có giống nhau, tương đương đồ uống đàn ông người cao tuổi tội phạm tuyệt vời, đáng ao ước không hài lòng đặc điểm trước cho rằng vì Không cóthể dự đoán trước nNười ta nói rằng Về, về phần còn, cũng như nưng, khi mà viết tờ ngân phiếu cẩn thận, thận trọng kiểm tra đồng ývới vượt quá, quámức trình lên, nộp Phùhợp với kéo theo, kèm theo vôtình thất lạc để đảm bảo rằng uỷ quyền

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157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185

to pay to supply to take away when we get … Whenever we like / want One after the other There are no big differences between This shows that to put smth into action etc./ and so forth./ and so on. i.e e.g vs. nice/ cute smart come lifestyle 19th century workmate tired drunk sad who to get your money back to pay your bills really to go up to to work breathing

to settle to furnish to withdraw On receipt of … Without prior notice … At regular intervals No significant differences emerges between This demonstrates that To be implemented/ carried out among other examples namely, / that is, For example, versus/as apposed of attractive intelligent arrive way of life / manner of life The nineteenth century colleague exhausted intoxicated dejected whom ( đại từ tân ngữ, sau giới từ) refund your payment to settle your account extremely to reach to function respiration

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trả tiền, thanh toán cung cấp lấy ra, rút (tiền) ra Khi nhận được … Không báo trước … Đều đặn Không cósự khác biệt đáng kể nào Điều này chỉ ra rằng Được tiến hành, được đưa vào hoạt động vàv.v tức là, chẳng hạn vídụ chống lại, ngược với hấp dẫn, lôi cuốn thông minh đến lối sống Không viết tắt đồng nghiệp mệt mỏi bị say rượu buồn, chán nản ai lấy lại tiền trả tiền hoáđơn mua hàng, thanh toán cực kỳ, vôcùng lên tới (con số), đạt tới hoạt động sự hôhấp

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186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214

meat-eater chance wrong died out relevant relatives copy break mix preference to come across to do away with to build up to finish off to back up to put forward to put across to obey a law poor country That’s why/ why new dependence quarrel In the same way to look for way money to imagine place

carnivore opportunity erroneous extinct pertinent kindred imitate fracture blend predilection to find to abolish to accumulate to conclude to support/to advocate propose to express to comply with a law developing country For this reason, … / … the reason for … novel surbodination debate/dispute Similarly, to seek manner/solution currency to conceive / conceivably location

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động vật ăn thịt cơ hội sai sót tuyệt chủng thích đáng, đúng chỗ họ hàng thân tộc bắt chước đập vỡ pha trộn sự thiên vị tìm thấy bãi bỏ tích luỹ kết luận ủng hộ đề xuất, đề nghị biểu lộ, bày tỏ tuân thủ pháp luật nước nghèo Vílýdo này mới sự phụ thuộc Cãi nhau Tương tự như vậy Tìm kiếm giải pháp tiền tệ tưởng tượng nơi, vị trí

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215 216 217 218 219 220 221 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244

viewpoint fast/quickly how much when (conj) In/For many years to make smth better /to get better To put on weight verb + not + any + noun verb + not + many/much + noun to give as you can be seen wood to describe to learn by heart to go on may be somehow job to take on to give dad plane (not) smoke. to follow these guidelines. gran/granny/nana every year/ each year glasses shop fridge

stance rapidly/ as a matter of urgency to what extent (not applicable to price or amount) At the time of … During a considearble period of years to improve/to upgrade to gain weight verb + no + noun verb + few/little + noun to provide as can be seen timber to depict to memorise to continue possibly, perhaps in a certain way occupation employ donate, contribute father aeroplane to refrain from smoking to adhere to these guidelines. grandmother annually spectacles retail outlet refrigerator

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lập trường, quan điểm nhanh tới mức độ nào Khi mà Trong nhiều năm cải thiện, làm cho tốt hơn Tăng cân … không (cái gì) … không (cái gì) đưa cho, cung cấp như ta cóthể thấy gỗ môtả ghi nhớ tiếp tục cólẽ bằng cách nào đó nghề nghiệp thuê cho, tặng bố máy bay không hút thuốc theo sự chỉ dẫn bà hằng năm kính đeo mắt cửa hiệu tủ lạnh

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245 246 247 248 249 250

TV/ telly boss change phone you back bin man and so on. / and so forth / etc.

television employer transform return your call refuse collector among other examples. / or avoid using them

tivi ông chủ chuyển đổi gọi điện lại người thu rác v.v.

Academic Language The term academic language commonly refers to the language that is used in formal situations such as classrooms, college or universities. Moreover, it is the language of textbooks and exams. Academic language is the language used by teachers and students in order to acquire new knowledge and skills. It differs in structure and vocabulary from language used in daily social interactions. This means that academic language includes specialized vocabulary, as well as conventional text structures such as the use of nominal groups, i.e., groups of words that provide more information about particular concepts. For example, the language of linguistics includes words like morphology, language acquisition, or language learning.

Features of Academic Language The uses of specific linguistic features depend on the discipline for which an assignment is written. For example, an essay in history may contain a number of past tense verbs than a paper that discusses the dialects spoken by a particular speech community in which the present tense verbs are used. The three features of academic languag are lexical, grammatical, and discourse”.

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IELTS Writing Task 2: Useful Language Memorising set phrases for use in the IELTS test is a highly effective way of achieving a higher score. Try learning the following signposting language which will make you sound more confident and sophisticated when writing an opinion or argument essay in Task 2. Introducing the topic   

Some people argue that… Have you ever considered… ? The question raises the issue of…

Stating an opinion (thesis statement)   

I believe that… It is my belief that… This essay will argue that…

Indicating the scope of the essay   

In this essay, I will state… This essay will examine… … will be covered in this essay.

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Giving reasons   

One reason for this is that… This can be explained by… This can be attributed to the fact that…

Giving further reasons   

Not only that, but… A further reason is… It should also be stated that…

Citing general opinions   

It has been claimed that… It is widely believed that… There is a widespread belief that…

Refuting opinions   

I would dispute this, however. However, this is not necessarily the case. There are some faults with this reasoning, however.

Hedging strategies  

It could be argued that… One explanation might be that…

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

This suggests that…

Strengthening an argument   

There can be no doubt that… Therefore, we can say beyond any doubt that… These are just some of the reasons why…

Concluding and summarising   

To sum up, … / In summary, … / In short, … Overall, … / On the whole, … To return to my original idea,…

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IELTS Writing Task 1: Useful Language 1. THE LANGUAGE OF APPROXIMATION In report writing it is good style to use approximation. Approximation means describing numbers or statistics by using a fraction that is similar to the exact number. There are a number of reasons for doing this. Firstly, it is easier for people to understand and remember. Secondly, the numbers or statistics may be more detailed than necessary. Table 02: Ord 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

numbers/statistics 65 % 28 % 21 % 49 % 74 % 33.333 % 92 % 98,5 % 19.98 % 26 % 48.873 % 74.25 %

similar fractions about two-thirds of just over a quarter of about a fifth of just under a half of almost three – quarters of a third of most of almost all about a fifth of just over a quarter of almost a half of nearly three - quarters

Ord 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

numbers/statistics 1,043 115 9 2 4 6/7 749,982 1,256,890,534 101,997 248.112 1,695,193 97

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similar fractions over a thousand over a hundred fewer than ten a small number a few several about three-quarters of a million over 1.2 billion about 100,000 a quarter of a million about 1.7 million just under a hundred

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2. THE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS: Table 03:

Nouns

a rise an increase a surge a growth a peak a fluctuation a variation a period of stability a plateau a fall a decrease a decline a dip

Verbs

to rise to increase to surge to grow to peak to skyrocket to fluctuate to vary to fall to decrease to decline

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to dip to dive to plunge

Phrases

to show an upward trend to show a downward trend to hit the highest point to hit the lowest point to reach a peak to show some fluctuation to fluctuate wildly to remain stable to remain static to remain unchanged to stay constant to reach a plateau to level off to flatten out the highest the lowest the second highest the third highest compared to compared with relative to

Adverbs

sharply suddenly rapidly abruptly dramatically

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significantly steadily considerably markedly slightly gently gradually wildly

Adjectives

sharp sudden rapid abrupt dramatic steep significant steady considerable marked slight gentle gradual

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MORE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS: A. Introduction 1. The graph (biểu đồ)/table (bảng)/ shows (cho thấy)/indicates (chỉ)/ illustrates (minh hoạ)/ reveals (tiết lộ)/ represents (trình bày) …

2. It is clear from the graph/table …

3. It can be seen from the graph/table …

4. As the graph/table shows …

5. As can be seen from the graph/table …

6. As is shown by the graph/table …

7. As is illustrated by the graph/table …

8. From the graph / table it is clear …

B. Verbs 1. to constitute/ make up: tạo thành

2. to comprise: bao gồm

3. to account for: chiếm đến

4. to amount to : lên đến (số)

5. to stand at: giữ ở (số)

6. to treble: gấp ba lần

7. to double: gấp đôi

8. to increase three fold: tăng gấp ba lần

9. to halve: chia đôi, giảm đi một nửa

10. to diminish: sụt giảm, làm sụt giảm

11. to slow down: chậm lại

12. to remain the same/ unchanged: không thay đổi, giữ nguyên

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13. to deplete: làm giảm

14. to lessen: giảm bớt, làm giảm bớt

15. to escalate: leo thang, tăng nhan

16. to stand at the same level: giữ nguyên

17. to fall to … %: giảm tới … %

18. to fall from … %: giảm xuống dưới … %

19. to fall by …%: giảm khoảng … %

20. to drop to … : giảm tới … %

21. to rise to … %: tăng tới … %

22. to rise by … %: tăng khoảng

23. to rise from … %: tăng từ … % 24. to increase at …% /reduce at … %: tăng/giảm … % 25. to increase to … /reduce to … : tăng/giảm tới … (số) 26. to remain relatively steady: vẫn duy trìtương đối ổn định C. Adverbs 1. exceptionally: cábiệt, khác thường

2. remarkably: đáng chúý

3. moderately: vừa phải

4. extremely/enormously: cực kỳ, rất

5. substantially: to lớn, đáng kể

6. marginally: hơi, đôi chút

7. hardly/ scarcely: hầu như không

8. slowly: chậm

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D. Prepositions and prepositional phrases 1. In/within the range of … and … :Trong phạm vi 2. For/During the first six months, …: Trong sáu tháng đầu 3. During the remainder of the year, …: Trong thời gian còn lại của năm … 4. During the first half of this century, …: Trong nửa đầu thế kỷ này … 5. Between 1950 and 1960, …: Giữa năm 1950 và1960 … 6. In the period from 1960 to 1990, … :Trong giai đoạn từ 1960 to 1990 … 7. In the period between 1950 and 1960, … : Trong giai đoạn giữa năm 1950 và1990 … 8. From that time on: Từ thời gian đó trở đi 9. Over a ten-year period, … : Trong giai đoạn 10 năm 10. Throughout the nineteenth century: Trong suốt thế kỷ 19 11. Unlike …: Không giống với … 12. In contrast to …: so với … /tương phản với … 13. In comparison with … : so sánh với …

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E. Nouns and noun phrases 1. overview: cái nhì n khái quát, cái nhì n tổng quan 2. a large number /percentage of … : một số lớn /một tỷ lệ phần trăm lớn của … 3. the whole/total amount/quantity of … : tổng lượng của … 4. the total number of … : tổng số của … 5. An increase of … %: sự tăng lên … % 6. trend: khuynh hướng

7. correlation: mối liên hệ

8. a drop of … %: sự giảm … %

9. an increase in … : sự tăng về …

10. a slight increase: sự tăng nhẹ

11. a drop in …: giảm về ….

F. Comparison 1. Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 …: So sánh các con số của năm 1990 vànăm 2000 … 2. Compared to/with x, y is …: So với x, y thì… 3. Comparing with x, y is more …: so với x , y thìhơn… 4. Comparing X with Y we find that … : So sánh X với Y chúng ta nhận thấy … 5. Comparing x with y, it can be seen by us that …: So sánh x với y chúng ta cóthể thấy rằng …

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Types of Trend

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THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS Rule 01: Avoid using contractions or abbreviations. (Ex. Use can not instead of can’t) Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives. These are very common in informal speech and writing, but are considered inappropriate in academic writing. Non-academic: I don’t think that I’m working hard. Academic: I do not think that I am working hard. For example: can’t, couldn’t, wouldn’t, didn’t, I’ll, I’ve, I’d, won’t, etc… Note that “cannot” is one word. Do not use abbreviations or symbols. Spell the words out. Ex: & = and; dept. = department

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Rule 02: Use third person voice or impersonal language. (Ex. One can interpret...instead of You can interpret...) In other words, the impersonal language should be used. Most formal writing aims to establish an air of objectivity and impartiality, an air with which the personal pronouns I, me, and my seem inconsistent. In truth, objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices, but there is something to be said for seeming as well as being objective. Moreover, some professors prohibit their students from using firstperson pronouns as a kind of discipline: many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions where persuasiveness demands objective evidence, and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this tendency. The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author. The reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work "objectively", as the work of a dispassionate and disinterested (that is, unbiased) researcher. So, one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the first person pronoun "I". This can be difficult, as lecturers often say, "tell me what you think". Well, they do want to know what you think, but presented as a rational, objective argument. For this reason we also avoid using emotive language; instead we let the "facts" - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us. It is important to note that while the avoidance of "I" has long been part of the academic tradition, these days some academics consider its use to be acceptable. So, you may encounter different views about the use of "I" over the course of your degree. In any case, you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the "personal element". Your lecturer, Cathi Lewis, for example, has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the use of "I" in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturer's Advice section of this tutorial). Regardless of your

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particular lecturer's views, you will need to learn how to use "I" sparingly. So let's look at how we can write passages without reference to the first person pronoun. Avoid personal "I", "you", and "we", except for the thesis statement. So, instead of: "As I mentioned above...", write" "As was mentioned above..." except for the thesis statement. So, instead of: "As I mentioned above...", write" "As was mentioned above..." There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun "I":

One way is to let the assignment "speak for itself": for example, "I show..." becomes "The report shows..." "I interpret the results as..." becomes "The results indicate..." Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction: Instead of

write

"We administered the questionnaire..." "The questionnaire was administered..." (active voice)

(passive voice)

"I surveyed the literature"

"The literature was surveyed"

(active voice)

(passive voice)

"I took a sample..."

"A sample was taken"

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(active voice)

(passive voice)

NOTE: for further help with using the passive voice, go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this Website. - The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than a real individual. Consider the following sentence: You eat peas with a fork, not with a knife. - This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another. The meaning of the sentence is actually something like, "Peas should be eaten with a fork, not with a knife." This you is a fictional character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one, and who is standing in for a whole class of persons. - The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal writing. Since your reader, too, is you, the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the reader's space for the maintenance of an impersonal air.

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Rule 03: Be sure to use transitions between points, within a paragraph. Use appropriate linking words/phrases to show the links between paragraph, as well as to link sentences within paragraphs. Do not use simple linking words (e.g. and, but, so) except for variety. Conjunctions: avoid weak conjunctions such as "but." This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a sentence. Look in the thesaurus for others, such as "however," "moreover," "nevertheless," "nonetheless," "regardless," etc. Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with "And", “Or”, and "Because," you should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly. - Coordinating Conjunctions (and, but, or, yet, so): Put a comma before these conjunctions. (Don't use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing.) example: The movie has already started, but my friend has not arrived yet. - Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts: either . . . or): * Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences). example: Eric is not only an outstanding teacher, but he is also a gourmet cook. * You don't need a comma if it only connects words or phrases. example: Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook. - Transitional Words and Phrases: * Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence. example: I like to travel. Specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals.

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* Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences. example: I like to travel; specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals. * Use a comma before and after the transitional word/phrase in the middle of a clause. example: I like to travel, and, specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals.

Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases Adding Information and not only . . . but also also moreover (more formal) furthermore (more formal) in addition (more formal)

Examples We have seen the movie twice, and now we want to see it again. Not only did my brother break his leg, but he also bruised his rib. My friend speaks Korean and English. She also speaks Chinese. Cheating is dishonest. Moreover, it hinders students from learning. Students should be on time. Furthermore, they must be prepared. You must complete this essay by 5 p.m. In addition, you must do the exercises on page 47.

Giving Examples for example for instance specifically in particular The first (second, another, etc.) example/reason is . . .

Examples I have been to many countries. For example, I have been to Russia, Canada, Mexico, and Spain. He often eats strange foods. For instance, he once ate cow brains. I like to travel. Specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals. I love fruit. In particular, I like bananas, pineapple, and berries. My friend hates skiing for several reasons. The first reason is that she dislikes being cold. Another reason is that she often falls.

Showing a Contrast but however

Examples Bill earned an A on his essay, but Susan got a B. We wanted to leave at 8:00. However, Mike arrived too late.

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on the other hand otherwise instead in contrast (more formal)

She hates housecleaning. On the other hand, she doesn't mind cooking. Students should attend class. Otherwise, they may lose their status. I am not going out tonight. Instead, I will stay home and watch a video. Women usually enjoy shopping. In contrast, men often dislike it.

Showing a Concession yet nevertheless (more formal) even so however although even though despite the fact that . . . despite

Examples He knows that he should do his homework, yet he never does it. I need to wear reading glasses. Nevertheless, I hate how I look in them. I know you don't like to study. Even so, you must pass your exam. There are many benefits to exercising. However, you must take some precautions to avoid injury. Even though the book is difficult to read, it is very interesting. Although the book is difficult to read, it is very interesting. Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis, she lost the match. Despite Kate's skill at tennis, she lost the match.

Showing a Similarity likewise (more formal) similarly (more formal) in the same way

Examples Math was hard for me in high school. Likewise, it is hard in college. Houseplants require much care and attention. Similarly, outdoor plants must be cared for properly. Rock climbing takes much practice and skill. In the same way, learning to write well requires a great deal of practice.

Showing a Result so as a result therefore thus (more formal) as a consequence consequently (more formal)

Examples Janet passed her exam, so she is very happy. Tim was late. As a result, we could not go to the concert. James is not feeling well. Therefore, he will not be here today. The committee voted against the proposal. Thus, we must consider another idea. I forgot that the cake was in the oven. As a consequence, it burned. Tina lost her keys. Consequently, she could not drive home.

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Establishing Time Relation or Sequence first second finally in conclusion in summary meanwhile

Examples First, I think that she is studying hard. Second, I believe that she is a bright student. Finally, I know that she has great potential. In conclusion, I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship. In summary, we should offer her some financial help. Jeff was working hard to clean the house. Meanwhile, his brother was watching television.

Showing a Condition or whether . . . or if . . . (then)

Examples I must study hard, or I will fail my exam. Whether you are coming or not, I am still going to Amy's party. If you want to get good grades, then you must do your homework.

Explaining or Emphasizing in fact actually in other words namely (more formal)

Examples The bookstore sells cards. In fact, they have the best cards around. James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa. He was late to class again. In other words, he didn't wake up on time. The plan needed only two things to succeed—namely, time and money.

Giving an Alternative or either . . . or neither . . . nor (more formal)

Examples We can go to the beach, or we can go to the mountains. You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment. I like neither that person nor his brother.

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Rule 04: Use present tense In writing about literature the present tense must be used. Ex: The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away. NOT: The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away.

 DO: When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley, he feels pain in his stomach.  DON’T: When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man, he felt pain in his stomach. In English, the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events, and those that are usually true. It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly, or that something is true in general. As shown in the following examples: - I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 o’clock. - Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals. Moreover,it is used to express facts. For example, the planets go round the sun. In the present simple, the verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns: I, you, they, and we. However, in the third person singular (he, she, and it), the verb ends with “s” or “es”, as in the following examples: - I usually goaway at weekends. - Sarah catchesthe early train. More precisely, in academic writing, the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and predominantly used. For example, in linguisticsessays, it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which is always true. - A child acquires language during the critical period.

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- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate. - Code switching occurs in bilingual societies. Tense-shifting: ─ NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays. Although the past tense is acceptable, (as long as there is no switching to other tenses), try to always use the present tense. Even though the novel/short story/play/poem, etc. obviously has been written in the "past," writing/discussion of texts should be in present tense.

Rule 05: Avoid using colloquialisms (slang). For example: kids, dude, gal, guy, homies, etc… Don't use slang. This is the time to show off the best English you know. Find the correct way to express your thoughts and convey your ideas, without resorting to slang. Be aware that certain expressions, such as "kids" instead of "children" and "guys" or "gals" instead of "men" or "women", also fall into the category of slang and should be avoided.

Rule 06: Use gender neutral language (replace he, she with they, the character, or by name) Although in the past it was acceptable to use "he" when referring to both men and women, it is no longer acceptable to do so now. Why? Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way people think and act. If pronouns are always "he," and certain professions are always fireman, policeman, chairman, congressmen, etc, then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun use -- will fill those positions, and that women will feel that they do not belong in them. Avoiding sexist pronouns will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles.

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Even if you disagree with the above theory, using "he" only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated in MLA style. You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use "they" or "their" when referring back to that subject. Or you can choose "he or she," but if you need to write "he or she" more than twice in the sentence, you might give your reader a headache. Try to avoid "s/he" or "he/she" simply because it is unsightly. Really the best solution is pluralization. (When implementing the plural solution, remember the principle of agreement. "Everyone needs their umbrella" is not grammatical, because "everyone" is a singular subject.) o o o o

o o

Sexist: If a medical student wants to succeed, he has to learn to budget his time wisely. Liberated: If medical students want to succeed, they have to learn to budget his time wisely. Sexist: If one wants to become a DJ, he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow. Liberated: If one wants to become a DJ, he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow. Sexist: A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience. Liberated: Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience.

Use non-sexist language: Avoid the word "man" and "he/his/him" when referring to general phenomena. When writing sentences, there are two ways to do this: A) Make it plural. Sexist Language Give each student his paper as soon as he is finished. The average student is worried about his grade.

Good Alternative Give students their papers as soon as they are finished. The average student is worried about grades.

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B) If necessary, use ONE, HE/SHE. Sexist Language If a student got an A, he did not have to do the extra work. Anyone who wants to go to the game tomorrow should bring his money.

Good Alternative Anyone who got an A, did not have to do the extra work. If a student wants to go to the game tomorrow, she/he should bring money.

C) Also, see this table: Usually Inappropriate mankind man•fs achievements man-made the common man man the ship six man-hours chairman businessman fireman mailman steward and stewardess policeman and policewoman congressman

Good Alternatives humanity, people, human beings human achievements synthetic, manufactured, machine-made the average person, ordinary people staff the ship six staff-hours coordinator (of a committee or department), moderator (of a meeting), presiding officer, head, chair business executive firefighter mailcarrier flight attendant police officer congressional representative

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Rule 07: Avoid repetition. Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently. Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated. For example, in this section, the phrase “lexical cohesion” is repeated more than twice. In addition, repetition helps to reinforce key ideas and new terms. However, the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text which sounds monotonous, i.e., it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions. This problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence. Use rich vocabulary: You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know. Stay away from over-used adjectives such as "good" or "bad". Instead, use more dramatic, expressive words, such as excellent, wonderful, superb, or adverse, horrible, terrible, etc. Choose the more precise word over the more general one. This will make your language come alive, in speech or in writing, and earn you higher marks.

Rule 08: Avoid using imperative language. Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper, because it comes across as rude (as do many of the sentences in what you are reading right now!). E.g. do not say "Recall that ...". Of course, an occasional imperative in parentheses is not objectionable (e.g. "(see Walker 1996 for more details).").

Rule 09: Be sure to use but and however correctly (See examples of correct usage below) - I do not like homework, but I understand it’s important. - I wish I studied more; however, I still did well on the test - I am sick today and will miss the test, however, this will give me more time to study.

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"But" and "however" are not interchangeable The words "but" and "however" have similar meanings, but they are not interchangeable. If you take a grammatically correct sentence containing "but" and replace it with "however", or vice versa, the result will almost always be incorrect, mainly because of comma punctuation. Correct examples: "I like oranges, but I do not like tangerines." "I like oranges. However, I do not like tangerines." "I like oranges; however, I do not like tangerines." "I, however, do not like grapefruits." "I like oranges however they have been prepared."

If you exchange any of these "but"s and "however"s, then the sentences would become incorrect, and in some cases meaningless.

Rule 10: Avoid using ‘it’ and ‘this’ at the start of a sentence. If necessary, however, join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon. See examples below. Use 'It' as a subject; e.g. 'It is impossible to...' Incorrect: I love the snow. It is fun to play in. Correct: I love the snow; it is fun to play in. (A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon) Notes: It is aceptable to use ‘it’ as a preparatory subject. (See more at Rule 28) It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases:

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1. It goes without saying that …/ Of course, … 2. It is quite clear that …/ Obviously, … 3. It is worth pointing out that …/ Another point is … 4. It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that …/ In my opinion, … 5. It is often argued that …/ People say that … 6. It is sometimes suggested that/ People say that … 7. It is particularly significant that … / Importantly, … 8. It could be argued that …? Perhaps,…. 9. It is likely that …/ Probably, ….

Rule 11: Avoid very strong language E.g. I know. I am sure… Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly Low certainty seldom, rarely, never, improbable, impossible, unattainable ...

Medium certainty/Hedging

High certainty

probably, perhaps, likely, occasionally, sometimes, generally, may, might, can, could, appears to be, seems to be, tends to be, suggests, considers ...

undoubtedly, absolutely, certainly, definitely, incredible, amazing, unbelievable, particularly, very, vitally, totally, wholly, often, must, would, should ...

In addition to a formal voice, you should also maintain a cool-headed, objective tone. Tone usually becomes an issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion, for example, or cultural values. Even when you strongly disagree with an idea, avoid getting "emotional" in your expression. Avoid seeming angry,

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or condescending, or rude. Keep your calm and remain scholarly, and try to portray yourself as one who is objectively assessing the situation. 

Emotional: We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage. For the sake of equality, the rights of liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential!!! Don't let conservatives take over your government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone. This is only going to lead to dozens of more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats!



Objective: Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws. The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individual's freedom was vitally important, and that as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society, the actions should not be decriminalized.

Rule 12: Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences. E.g. Many people think so. They are wrong.

Rule 13: You should NOT: - use brackets and dashes to add information - use exclamation marks (!!!) in your essay

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Rule 14: Avoid very emotional language e.g. I absolutely detest people who…

Rule 15: Do not express personal opinions too strongly e.g. I know…; instead, use milder expressions (e.g. It seems to me that… Express your opinion in a non-emotional way (e.g. It seems that, I therefore feel, etc.)

Rule 16: Do not use over-generalisation (e.g. All politicians are…) Avoid:  Everyone knows that…  What goes around comes around…

Rule 17: Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source. e.g. "A recent study showed…" - which study?)

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Rule 18: Do not use cliches e.g. Rome was not built in a day. Clichés are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing. They should be avoided in professional and academic writing. Examples: Don’t count your chickens before they have hatched. Let sleeping dogs lie. These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech; however, in writing, they appear to be substitutes for clear thought. 

We cannot build a new school at this point in time.



Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age?



The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated.

Some more examples of clichés are:  

Raining like cats and dogs. Like a pig in mud.

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

Over the hill. In the dog house. Back against the wall. Under the gun.

             

My two cents. Stubborn as a mule. Bite your tongue. Dyed in the wool. Wrong side of the bed. The calm before the storm. Hair of the dog, On thin ice. Eye for an eye. Tongue-in-cheek. The third time is the charm.

Rule 19: Do not use personal examples e.g. In my school…

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Rule 20: Do not use colloquial language Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang. Examples: - Let’s do lunch. - I’m going to get back at him. Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English, but it is unacceptable in formal speaking situations, and in written English.

Rule 21: Do not use metaphor A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for example, 'a glaring error', 'the heart of the matter', 'pillar of the community', 'wave of terrorism', and so on.

Rule 22: Do not use similes A simile compares a person, action or object with something else - for example, 'fly like an eagle', 'solid as a rock', 'as happy as Larry', 'pleased as Punch', and so on.

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Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power. Once a metaphor or simile has become a cliché, it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader. Consequently, instead of impressing your readers with your writing style, you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say.

Rule 23: Do not use figures of speech Figures of speech are closely related to clichés. Like metaphors and similes, figures of speech provide a writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic writing. 

The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else.



Management has been on a steep learning curve.



It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack.

Rule 24: Do not use euphemisms Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey. Examples: - a guest of the government (in jail) - pre-owned (used) - passed away (died) - tactical omission (lie)

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Euphemisms are good if they spare someone’s feelings, but they are bad if they obscure meaning, or give a positive connotation to something illegal, immoral, or otherwise unacceptable.

Rule 25: Do not talk about parts of the paragraph.  Do not write:  this paragraph shows…  The topic sentence is…  A quote that proves this is…

Rule 26: Do not begin a sentence with numerals. For example, instead of writing: "400 people..." write: "Four hundred people..." Spell out all numbers less than 10. Ex: 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out. Ex: 15 students…. = Fifteen students … Use numerals 10 or above. Instead of writing: "There were 9 people...", write: "There were nine people..."

Rule 27: Do not use non-specific words. For example: stuff, things, lots, etc…

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Rule 28: Do not use ambiguous words. For example: this, these, his, it, they, there is, there are, etc… These words have no meaning in themselves, but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context. In written text, however, the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader, because there are many possible interpretations of "it" and "this". Notes: 1. It is aceptable to use ‘this’, ‘that’, ‘these’, and ‘those’ when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of the pronoun. Eg: “This character traits …” 2. It is aceptable to use ‘it’ as a preparatory subject. (See more at Rule 10) If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held, you can use the passive form of a reporting verb with it as its impersonal subject. It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years. The following reporting verbs are often used in this way: accept

acknowledge

argue

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estimate

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You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations. When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem. In the sentences overleaf, the subject of appear and seem is it. As you can see, they are followed by that-clauses. It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover. It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai. 3. It is aceptable to use ‘there is’ as a preparatory subject. (See Rule 44)

Rule 29: Do not ask rhetorical questions. Readers want answers! So, instead of: "Do you know where the origin of tea is?" Write: "Tea originated in southern China near the border with India." A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected. A rhetorical question is one in a written text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer, or where the writer goes on to answer the question in the text. Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing: readers might not know the answer and the point being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement. You should not risk your point being misunderstood: make your point clear and 'up front'; for example:

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Informal (includes rhetorical question)

Formal

Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental pollution, so why do we still use them?

The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites, given their vast pollution production, still remains.

What is a team? A team can be one person but will usually end up including many more.

A team can include one person but usually involves many more.

The question is, however, does the "Design School Model" provide a practical solution to the problem of how to formulate strategy?

It is questionable whether the "Design School Model" provides a practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation.

Rule 30: Write "most people”, instead of the incorrect "most of people" Likewise, "most women", "most animals", etc. But "most of the people" is OK.

Rule 31: Do not use the expressions and so on or etc. Instead use such as. The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing. Thus, instead of the informal "Japan imports potatoes, corn, wheat, and so on," write "Japan imports food such as potatoes, corn and wheat." Run on expressions include phrases such as 'and so forth', 'and so on' or 'etc'. Try to complete the sentence properly; do not use these if you can avoid them; for example:

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Informal (includes run on)

Formal Alternative

Nurses must take into consideration patients' dietary needs resulting from allergies, medication, medical conditions and so on.

Nurses must take into consideration patients' dietary needs resulting from allergies, medication and medical conditions.

Public transport includes vehicles Public transport includes vehicles for public use on the roads, for public use, such as buses, airways, waterways etc. trains and aeroplanes.

Rule 32: Place adverbs within the verb Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions. In informal English, adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences; for example:

Informal

Formal Alternative

Then the solution can be discarded.

The solution can then be discarded.

The blood is withdrawn slowly.

The blood is slowly withdrawn.

Rule 33: Avoid phrases such as "I believe," "I feel," and "I think." Even worse are phrases that add an adverb, such as "I strongly believe." Your tone will be much more confident if you just make the statement without preface.

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Rule 34: Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence. Unnecessary words like "Actually", "Really" or "Basically" can be omitted. 8

Rule 35: Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay. For example, instead of writing: "Will you come?" You should write: He asked me if I would come.

Rule 36: Do not use informal language - In formal English one would use the word “whom” instead of the word “who” in certain situations. Formal: Whom did they elect? Informal: Who did they elect? Formal - Use 'whom' as an object: Whom have they chosen for the position? Informal - Use 'who' as an object: Who have they chosen for the position?

Formal : With whom did you study? Informal : Who did you study with? In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures.

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Formal: To which nation does he belong? Informal: Which nation does he belong to? Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language. In informal language we often leave out some words. Formal: She said that she would come. Informal: She said she would come. Formal: Have you seen Annie? Informal: Seen Annie?

Rule 37: Avoid using unnecessary words Wordy phrases

Using better English

1. it would appear that ...

1. apparently ...

2. with the exception of ...

2. except ...

3. in connection with ...

3. about ...

4. are found to be in agreement with ...

4. agree ...

5. a large majority of ...

5. most ...

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6. in the event that ...

6. if ...

7. a disproportionate number ...

7. few ...

8. arrive at a decision ...

8. decide ...

9. for a further period of ten years ...

9. for another ten years ...

10. such is by no means the case ...

10. this is not so ...

11. in the field of education ...

11. in education ...

12. they are without legal representation whatsoever ...

12. they have no legal representation ...

13. in the case of the third question ...

13. in the third question ...

14. at the present time, overseas companies are ...

14. overseas companies are now ...

15. there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health ... 15. the Department of Health is obliged ...

Rule 38: Use singular determiners with plural verbs Determiners like each, every, either and neither are singular. They should be followed by singular verbs. Of course, in an informal style, you can put plural verbs after them, but if you do that in your IELTS essay, the examiner will not be too happy with you. Non-academic: Neither of us like him. Academic: Neither of us likes him.

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Rule 39: Avoid idiomatic language English is highly idiomatic, but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic writing. Of course, it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either. You can use some idioms, but you must avoid the more ‘colourful’ ones like ‘raining cats and dogs’, ‘hit the nail on the head’ or ‘throw the baby out with the bathwater’. Some idioms, on the other hand, are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing.

Rule 40: Do not start sentences with ‘And’, ‘Also’, ‘So’, ‘Or’, ‘Even so’, and ‘But’ Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate. A few decades ago it was considered totally unacceptable. Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with these conjunctions. However, the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them. You must, however, make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side. Instead of these, use `In addition', `However', `Hence', `Consequently', `Alternatively', `Nevertheless' at the beginninge of the sentence.

Rule 41: Do not use informal phrasal verbs You cannot avoid all of them in your writing. It is not necessary either. Just make sure that you do not use a large number of phrasal verbs in your essay. (See Table 01, p2)

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Rule 42: Use passives Passives without ‘agents’ are common in academic and scientific writing. By using passive structures we will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns. Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about an action, but are not interested in saying who or what did / does it. The passive voice is one of the two voices in English. It is contrasting with active voice. In the passive, the object of the active voice becomes the subject, and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action. The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples. - In recent years, researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence). - In recent years, several analyses of survey data have been published. Furthermore, the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language. Certain grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic writing than in general English. So, passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of academic language. Moreover, the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an indirect style and showsthe writer’s objectivity. This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is frequently used in academic writing (it is said that…... he is said to) as shown in the following examples: - The child acquires the language in short period of time.

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- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time. Similarly, using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is considered the most used in written genres

Rule 43: Employ tentative rather than assertive language. - using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases; e.g. 'This is possibly caused by...' or 'This is probably the most important factor.' - using the modal verbs may and might; e.g. 'This may be the most important factor.' - using appears to + V and seems to + V; e.g. 'This appears to be the most important factor.' - avoiding always and every, and replacing them with often and many/much. - avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader. Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language. To express an idea or finding in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers. To avoid making strong claims and expressing subjective opinions, academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language. Compare the tentative and assertive language in the table below.

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Tentative expression

Assertive expression

One could argue that the overall The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved. standard of English in Hong Kong has improved Modal verbs such as could, may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers express uncertainty or tentativeness. Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to, as well as adverbs of probability: perhaps, possibly, probably, likely, unlikely. Of course, depending on viewpoint and the available evidence, a writer can express greater or lesser degrees of certainty. Look at the examples in the table below. 1. Positive and assertive:

Clearly, then, Hong Kong student’s standard of written Chinese is declining.

2. Suggesting likelihood:

The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong student’s standard of written Chinese is declining.

3. Expressing less likelihood:

It may/might/could be the case that Hong Kong student’s standard of written Chinese is declining.

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4. Negative:

It is unlikely that Hong Kong student’s standard of written Chinese is declining.

Rule 44: Use 'One' and ‘There’ as a subject e.g. 'One may ask whether...' ('One' is a formal version of 'You' [plural] in general) and Use 'There' as a subject; e.g. 'There is a serious risk of...' Some more phrases and their alternatives - One could say that … / Perhaps, … - One could draw the conclusion that …/ In conclusion, … - As one might expect … / Naturally … - There is not a shadow of doubt that … / Certainly, … There is the possibility that …. / Possibly, … There can be no doubt that …/ I am sure … There are those who maintain that … / Some people say …. There is a school of thoughts that … / Some people say …. There is a strong likelihood that … / Probably, …

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Rule 45: Use It is because and This is because correctly. Language Analysis: It is because is used in the following situations: 1. To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because: It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place. (like= similar to) It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does. It is because the body is a machine that education is possible. It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living. Structure: It is because + cause + ‘that’ + effect. Grammar: It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + ‘that’+ effect (clause). e.g. It is because of your smile that I feel happy. It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + ‘that’ + effect (clause). e.g. It is because you smiled that I feel happy.

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2. To refer back to a cause, then give an effect, use it is because of this: These countries’ economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem. I know you. I understand you, and it is because of this that I love you. A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is reflected into the eye from that object. It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than white ones. Structures: Cause + ‘and’ + ‘it is because of this that’ + effect Cause + ‘.’ + ‘It is because of this that’ + effect 3. To give an effect first, then explain the cause, use this is because: Examples: - Out in space, the sky looks black, instead of blue. This is because there is no atmosphere. - As the sun begins to set, the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you. More of the light is reflected and scattered. As less reaches you directly, the sun appears less bright. The colour of the sun itself appears to change, first to orange and then to red. This is because even more of the short wavelength blues and greens are now scattered. Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes.

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- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week. They must often work in the evenings or on weekends. This is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times. 4. To answer questions, use it is because, this is because, or because: - How can it be that an “awesome” God knows me by name and loves me without reservation? It is because He created me. - So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration? I believe it is because he sees the consequences for all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy. - Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear, as evidenced by the popularity of shocker, gross-out, supernatural and altogether scary books. Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart? Or maybe it is because those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road? - Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye? This is because the amount of radiation required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye, is just too much for the eye to stand. - “Why are you doing that?” “Because I like it.” - To answer questions, use it is because, this is because, or because - Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye? This is because the amount of radiation required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye, is just too much for the eye to stand. - “Why are you doing that?” “Because I like it.” 5, In 'if ' and 'when' sentences use it is because:

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- If I look confused it is because I am thinking. - If we have no peace, it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other. - When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are.

Rule 46: Use Relative Structures Formal - Use relative structures: The woman thought that it was important to be on time. Informal - Drop certain relative structures: The woman thought it was important to be on time.

Rule 47: Use use nominalisation Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones. For example, instead of Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned. Write: The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police. In general, academic writing tends to be fairly dense, with relatively long sentences and wide use of subordinate clauses. Remember, however, that your main aim is clarity, so don’t be too ambitious, particularly when you’re starting to write.

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Rule 48: Use some sort of “hedging” language and to qualify statements that you make. HEDGING/AVOIDING COMMITMENT In order to put some distance between what you’re writing and yourself as writer, to be cautious rather than assertive, you should: - use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine, suggest, claim, suppose - use ‘attitudinal signals’ such as apparently, arguably, ideally, strangely, unexpectedly. These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language. - use verbs such as would, could, may, might which ‘soften’ what you’re saying. - use qualifying adverbs such as some, several, a minority of, a few, many to avoid making overgeneralisations.

Rule 49: Do not start a sentence with ‘Therefore’. Instead, write, for example, ‘They, therefore, ...’.

Rule 50: Use full names when citing. The first time you mention the author’s or someone’s name, use his/her entire name. For the rest of the essay, use only his/her last name. Thanh Hoa City 12/2012

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