Children or Primary level learners Characteristics Children are said to be natural learners of a foreign language because they can learn it quickly and easily. But for those who have taught 68 yearold children this is not completely true: these little people are able to pick up language quickly, however they are likely to forget it quickly, too! The reason for this could be that a young child faces and has lots of new things and experiences each day. S/he is thought to operate pragmatically: s/he only remembers the important things. When a child gets to live in a foreign community s/he needs to learn the language quickly for communicating and making friends. Whereas the child that lives in his or her own community has no obvious reason for learning the foreign language. Achieving results Children tend to be keen on words and rhythm and are even better than adults at hearing differences of pronunciation and intonation. They tend not be afraid either to use the language in front of their classmates or to make mistakes. They are often curious about various ways of doing things and knowing other cultures. They could find motivating, for example, the fact of finding out what children in some parts of the world usually do. It is important to remember the word ‘real’ because children will learn better those activities and content that are related to reality. However, fantasy should not be neglected because children often have wonderful imaginations and exaggerated or ridiculous things are enjoyable for them. But those who are up to about 8 years old tend to focus their attention on their own real, concrete world: "my mom", "my dad", "my teacher", "my school..." So classroom activities should be based on drawing pictures according to what children talk about, in their own language. Thus, they can learn to describe and talk about their family, their school, and so on, which are relevant things for them. A teacher should get them sing songs in English whose tunes are much fun as those for songs in their own language. Children from the age of eight or nine begin to develop a curiosity about the outside world. This curiosity is fed by the vast amount of information now available to them through TV and the Internet. Children today have a much greater superficial knowledge of the world than adults did when they were their age. This, again, can be utilized in the language classroom, using their natural curiosity to find out about other cultures and countries. However, experience tells that not everything is so positive when teaching English to children, done that they often have a fairly short attention span. So it is necessary to structure the lesson carefully since they get bored quickly. It is recommended to divide it into a series of short, fiveminute activities which should be varied: go from whole class work, to pair work, to the whole class and into groups. A teacher should not forget to get parents involved into their children learning process, because some will have learned English themselves, and may help their child’s learning. But lots of parents may have learned English much more formally, with too much translation and learning of rules. Therefore, teachers should explain to them that today there is great need to learn and use English, since the emphasis is on communicating in the language. Hence, they should be invited into the classroom to see that learning is both an amusing and serious study. Adolescents or Lower and Upper Secondary level learners
Characteristics Young adolescents seem to be not so ideal language learners than children. These learners tend to be afraid of making mistakes. They are not likely to experiment with language and like to be safe. Much of their learning begins to be in terms of 'right' and 'wrong' mainly in those school systems where exams and tests were given much importance. They are not often willing to communicate with adults than children do. They have their own culture, their own lifestyles, their own language and interests. Achieving results It is necessary to recognize the nature of adolescent learners, in that way it could be much easier to understand what approach will be most suitable for them. Their liking for rules and security are tools for the teacher to use, and the language patterns they learned and used in primary school can be categorized and grouped into grammatical structures and functions. Differences and similarities between English and their native language should be discussed. It could be motivating to practice English using topics from other subjects in the school such as history, geography, math and so on. Varieties of language in English, formality and informality could be examined, expressed and compared with those in their own language. Such an approach, regarding both what is positive in these learners and the way to present the language to them, could fit adolescents’ nature and needs. On the other hand, the foreign language may have real purpose for them. As they get closer to think about the world of work, or of going for university, they will recognize the real use of English. And, for some adolescents English is so important in three aspects of 'their' world: pop music, advertising, and computers. Adult and tertiary level learners Characteristics In their working environment, adults have specific needs for learning English as learners do when being at university. The main difference between these two kinds of individuals is that the latter are using English as a continuation of what was done at secondary school. They need to find out what is directly related to the needs of their chosen field of study. Working adults will often have stopped learning English when they left school or even before. But once they have a specific reason connected with their work, they will come back to study English. However this tends to bring a lot of pressure and a fear of failure: adults often have trouble when they feel they have forgotten how to learn. Therefore, once the teacher makes sure that adults understand the aims and objectives of every lesson, their learning will be successful, because they feel that what they are doing is exactly what they need for their work. This is the way in which they are not so different from university students. Achieving results As a teacher, you have to keep in mind the following: a skills Do these students need to speak and listen in English?
If so, will it be with native speakers of English, or with other nonnative speakers? Will this be in facetoface situations, or on the telephone? Will it involve negotiation and figures? Or will it involve giving presentations, perhaps with visual aids charts and diagrams? Is reading more important? Is so, is it whole books in English, or shorter reports and company documents? Will the student have to write in English? Again, will it be long essays and papers (the university situation), or letters, faxes, emails, reports? Will these contain areas of special language (accounting, manufacturing terms, etc.)? b time available How much time can they spend in class with you? Can they study outside the class? Do they know how to use 'self study' efficiently? c level of language What is their present real level? Do they have a passive knowledge of English from school, or from the past? How good is this, and how relevant to what they need English for now? What level of English do they need to achieve now? Is this realistic in the time? If not it is better to be honest and tell them, rather than risk later frustration and disappointment. Problem behavior In many learning cultures, most teachers code with some students that fail to cooperate in some way, that is, the latter disrupt the learning and get significantly out of control. Those disruption moments can be embarrassing not only for teachers but also for students. Problem behavior forms Some forms problem behavior take are disruptive talking, inaudible responses, sleeping in class, tardiness and poor attendance, failure to do homework, cheating in tests and unwillingness to speak in the target language. However such a list is not universal, it only reflects some educational cultures. Problem behavior reasons Reasons for problem behavior are due to factors that have to do with student’s reactions to their teacher’s behavior, or other factors inside the classroom or outside factors. Some of these reasons are: •
The family: sometimes indiscipline is the result of a difficult home situation, that is, some
home attitudes to learning can predispose students to behave problematically. •
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Education: it is said that previous learning experience of all kinds can affect students’ behavior, and some say ‘the last teacher let me…’, so they are influenced by what went before. Selfesteem: teacher approval, a student’s peers and having success lead to selfesteem. A lack of respect from teacher or peers can make students feel frustrated and upset, so disruptive behavior is an attractive option in such a situation. Boredom: Whenever students get engaged with a task they do no tend to behave disruptively. But if they are not given that engagement they may misbehave. When pairs or groups finish early or a chosen activity or topic is inappropriate, students are likely to lose interest and so, behave badly. External factors: if students are tired their concentration on the lesson will be poor. If the classroom is too hot or too cold this may make students get too relaxed or too nervy. Discomfort and noise from outside the classroom can lead to disengagement. What the teacher does: if the way a teacher disciplines a student damages him or her, or if a teacher appears unfair, the student may behave badly in the future.
Preventing problem behavior There exist plenty of strategies teachers can use to avoid problem occurring in the first place, since prevention is always better than the disciplining cure. •
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Creating a code of conduct: it is important to make the students know where they stand. Establishing a code of conduct can be effective if student’s own opinions are included in the code. For example, the teacher and students together can talk about a range of issues such as how often homework is expected, what a good learner is, attitudes to mistakes and feedback, and when to use their mother tongue. When a teacher and students have divergent views about what is acceptable and what is not, the teacher should take their opinions into account, but he or she will have to be firm about what he or she is prepared to accept. Teachers and students: sometimes a teacher’s behavior may be the cause of disruptive events, so it is important to maintain student’s interest and relate to them in appropriate ways. Interest and enthusiasm: teachers should vary activities in order for students to get interested and enthusiastic, so a teacher’s performancehis /her energy and enthusiasm can make students engaged in class work. Professionalism: students generally respect a teacher who shows that s/he knows what s/he is doing. The evidence for this is not only found in his/ her knowledge of the subject, but also in the fact that s/he has invested time in thinking about and planning lessons. Professionalism also refers to practicing what a teacher preaches. If a teacher insists on asking his/her students to bring their homework promptly, then s/he should mark and give it back promptly, too. If a teacher asks his/ her students to come to class punctually, s/he will have to be seen to arrive punctually, too. Rapport between teachers and students: it is said that a critical aspect in the prevention of problem behavior is the rapport between teachers and students. The way to enhance this rapport is by making sure that a teacher listens to what his/her
students say with interest, looking at them when talking to them; it is necessary to ensure that it is not just a matter of responding to the students at the frontor the more extrovert ones but trying and working with all of them in class.
Reacting to problem behavior When problem behavior occurs, it should not be ignored when it happens. A teacher’s reaction should depend upon the particular type of disruption and the person that exhibits the behavior. For such situations the following guidelines could be kept in mind: •
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Act immediately: when a problem behavior takes place, it is vital to act immediately because the longer a type of behavior is left unchecked, the more difficult it is to deal with. Immediate actions could be, for example, stopping talking, pausing, and looking at the student in question. But sometimes, it may demand stronger action. Focus on the behavior not the pupil: a teacher should take care not to humiliate an uncooperative pupil, because it is not his/her character that matters but his/her behavior. Sometimes a teacher is tempted to make aggressive or deprecatory remarks, or to compare the student adversely to other people, these reactions are almost certainly counterproductive, since not only can they foster hostility on the part of the student and/or damage their self esteem, they are also likely to be ineffective in managing the situation. The way in which a teacher deals with problem behavior affects not just the ‘problem student’ by also the class. Hence, it is necessary to treat all students the same, that is, with no favoritism. Take things forward: When a teacher realizes that a simple look or a brief comment is not sufficient, it is necessary to think carefully about how to respond. In such cases, a teacher should always be positive rather than negative. For a teacher to say Let’s do this is usually more effective than saying Don’t do that. It is better to take things forward than stopping them in other words. A teacher’s objective should be to move on to the next stage of an activity or to get a new response rather than focusing on the old one. In special cases, for example, where two or more students have encouraged each other, it could be appropriate to reseat them. Once separated in an effective (but not humiliating) way, students often calm down and the problem behavior dies away. Reprimand in private: discussing a student’s behavior in private and talking about how to improve it is an appropriate action a teacher should take. Even though this is not always possible, it is necessary to try it because disciplining a student in front of his or her classmates could damage that student’s selfesteem. Whenever a teacher deals with individuals during class time eye contact is important; a personal (even formal), relationship has to be established if and when a teacher is required to assert his/her authority. An ideal way to try and deal with problem behavior is to do it after the class. Keep calm: many teachers tend to lose control when shouting to assert their authority, but this action raises the overall level of noise in the classroom too. It is recommended to approach the student who is being disruptive and speak more quietly. Use colleagues and the institution: to have disruptive students in the classroom is a fact that happens to everyone. So when there is a problem a teacher should consult his/her colleagues, and ask them for guidance. But is the problem is threatening to get beyond our control (for instance, a pattern of disruption that continues for a series of lessons), it is advisable to talk to coordinators, directors of studies and/or principals who should all have
considerable experience of the kind of problems being faced and will be in a position to offer a benefit of their experience. Storytelling and comprehension Storytelling and reading The following statement about reading should be carefully considered: •
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Reading is a quest for meaning which requires children to be active participants in the construction of meaning. Readers learn about reading by reading. Children become readers by being fully involved in books, in comics and magazines, in texts on computer screen, with texts of all kinds and by getting joy and satisfaction from reading. Both independent and shared reading are vital for the development of children as readers. Children need to be exposed to many kinds of writing. However, an active involvement with literature is essential. Literature has a social and emotional value that is a vital part of its role in the development of children's language and literacy.
Reading comprehension As language teachers, we often regard the teaching of reading to imply a variety of comprehension activities, most of which: •
require one predetermined response;
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focus on word or structure content of a small section of the text;
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require the children to work out the 'answer' individually;
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depend on the skill of the children to carry out a word/text prediction, search or recall;
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check comprehension, rather than teach it.
Constructive and creative comprehension It is said that there are four main types of mental processes involved when children read or listen to a story: Picturing and imaging. Children create a mental picture of what they are reading or listening to. Predicting and recalling. Children imagine or predict what is going to happen next, or relate what has happened previously to what is taking place. Identification and personalizing. Children identify with, or relate to, the characters and situations in the story according to their own personal experiences. Making value judgments. Children apply their own values to those encountered in the story. Vocabulary Teaching
The Importance of Presenting Vocabulary New words have to be introduced and practiced, making clear the meanings and the ways each of them are used. There are three ways to present (introduce) vocabulary: 1. To show the meaning of words in some way. 2. To use language the students already know in order to make clear the meaning of the new lexical item. 3. To present meanings through sounds. This is little used and has another approach to the problem of introducing difficult words. Words have form (the word's shape), when written, and its sound, when spoken. Some teachers believe that a new word should be always heard before saying it and said before reading it. Most people disagree. Many are convinced that leaning is assisted if both the written and sound forms are presented at the same time. Then, teachers should experiment to find what is best for their own learners. Modes of Presenting Vocabulary There exist many ways of introducing the meaning of a word. These modes can be used alone or in combination. Ostensive means Art of showing.Teachers can hold up things or point to objects in the classroom ( such as pen, bag, tallest boy, etc.) .This approach is especially used with beginners but it should be widely used with mature learners. You should not limit to show things that can be found in the room. There are others ways to show the meaning of words and concepts from the world outside the school as can be seen below. Realia Objects are called realia, real things. Objects can be brought to school: a piece of bread or fruit, a whistle, toys, etc., that could be easily carried. They create interest. Use your imagination, too. Pictures Objects that cannot be easily carried can be presented pictorially. You can collect pictures from magazines. For presenting purposes, simple pictures are better because their meaning is less ambiguous. You may use the blackboard to make rapid sketches of simple things such as a tyre, a cabin or a cat. Most complex items such a zebra, a skyscraper should be drawn or prepared by any means at home on a flashcard. Body Your body and those of the students can be used to get meanings. The techniques you can used are: •
facial expression, to show feelings (e.g. happy, smiling, etc.)
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gesture, using hands and arms to show a range of meanings (e.g. fast, small, curving).
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Mime and actions, to show many verbs and some adverbs (e.g. to eat, to slip, to wake up, etc.)
Verbal definition
There is a variety of ways to define the meaning of a new word using teacher talk. However, a linguistic approach is not suited to beginners if they do not have a large enough vocabulary to understand the teacher's explanation. The following means can be used to help comprehension. Word sets Related words are word sets like child, boy, girl, infant, teenager. Words in a set that the students already know can be used to introduce new related words. Concepts such as clothing, transport, furniture, vegetables can be conveyed by presenting different examples of items belonging to these categories. You can also present a more specific word in reverse. For instance, to introduce the word daisy, you would start from the already known concept of flower. Synonyms Words that mean more or less the same thing are called synonyms. A shrub, for instance, is a small bush. The board is very useful for presenting synonyms using the mathematical sign for equals, for example:
home = house photo = picture
Antonyms Words having an opposite meaning are called antonyms. For instance, poor is the opposite of rich. To indicate an opposite meaning an equals sign crossed through is used, like this:
old = young sad = happy
Cognates In the student's own language there are words that have the same, or very similar, form as the English word. These words are known as cognates. It is important to take into account this valuable resource. There exist other words that resemble each other in the two languages but do not share the same meaning. These are called faux amis (false cognates). Teachers don't have to be afraid of using faux amis, for there are many times more cognates than there are faux amis. For example:
Cognates decision (English)
decisión (Spanish)
Faux amis actual (English)
actual (Spanish)
Illustrative sentences Most words that cannot be explained in the easier ways already described above can be presented through illustrative sentences. See the following two examples and identify the one that has a good illustrative setting.
Example 1: Hates My father hates potatoes, but he loves rice. He likes carrots, beans and most other vegetables, but he refuses to eat potatoes. He hates them.
Example 2: Traffic There is a lot of traffic in cities. Traffic is a nuisance. Traffic is dangerous too.
Translation When there is no easy alternative to suggest, translation takes place. When facing with a grammar word or a formulaic expression like Have you by any chance...?, it is sometimes better to provide the mother tongue equivalent, instead of spending a lot of time trying to define or show the meaning. Audio presentation A third way to signal the meaning of a word is by using sounds. It could be useful to present many words by using a tape recording than by the way already described. The noises of a jet plane, a locomotive, a horse galloping, children splashing in water, and so on, are easily obtained. The simple presentation procedure for this is to tell the class to listen the sound of...
Presenting and practicing structures Teaching useful structures •
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What is a structure? A structure is a pattern of words which make a meaningful utterance or the building blocks of language. The aim of teaching structures: to get students to internalize dozens of useful phrases, but with a sensivity to the generative power of each one.
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Substitution: process by which the meaning of a phrase is changed but its basic shape remains the same.
Some textbooks stressed learning the structures by heart, with little attention to the communicative value of the utterances. Teachers who use these textbooks often retain the mechanical method of teaching those structures, and so we still hear unlikely exchanges of the following sort. TEACHER: This is a table. Is it a table? STUDENTS: Yes, it is. It's a table.
A structural emphasis is still evident in the newer generation of textbooks. Nowadays, though, structures are taught as formulae, with no undue focus on the formal grammar rules which govern the patterns. To work with structures is quite easy. The word order is fixed, and we use what is known as a slot and filler technique to practice it. Take the utterance Are you tired?. If we regard tired as a slot, we can replace it by other adjectives to create Are you bored/hungry/sad/ ill/? and so on. The utterance Are you playing chess this evening? will generate a host of similar questions (watching TV/ going to the cinema? etc). Grammatically, we describe that sentence as using the present continuous tense, with the interrogative form of the second person. As a structure we view it as are you + the ing verb form. Looked at for its communicative (or functional) value, it is a way of enquiring about someone's future intentions. The presentation of a structure As in the presentation of vocabulary, we show a structure's form, its meaning and also its use. We also use the same ostensive or verbal techniques to indicate meaning A step by step procedure Step one: presentation of form and meaning Let us suppose that the structure in the text is I've been learning English for two years. You know that the utterance means that the process is still going on and that it began two years earlier, so you could say something like this: Two years ago, in 19, I began to learn English. It is now 19, so I've been learning English for X years.
Repetition of the structure will follow, enough to familiarize the learner with the sound but not enough to bore them. Then you could show how the basic structure generates other utterance. Building on the model above, you might say when you started driving a car, when you began teaching, when you moved into your house. If possible be truthful, but above all be interesting and even amusing. Step two: blackboard example Now you can write the structure on the board, underlining the key features or highlighting them with colored chalk. Most teachers would write all the words in the utterance, in the following way
I've been learning English for 2 years
Even better, you can show only the bones of the structure, so as not to obscure the form with unnecessary words. This representation is called a skeleton structure, viewing the words that will be slotted in as the flesh of the utterance. Let's add the third person singular to our blackboard model. It will permit the class to talk about others as well as themselves. This change of person causes a grammatical change, but it does not change the word order (the structure). The addition of other persons to the model should only be done when the new utterances will be useful. The skeleton of the structure above, but with the addition of the other persons of the verb, can be seen in the following example. The use of the skeleton structure has made the cue much easier for the class to generate new phrases. I (etc)'ve 1 hour been... ing for 2 weeks S/he's
Step three: guided practice A substitution drill is the usual followup to this step. The teacher calls out the new elements or prompts them by means of visual aids. These might include pictures, flashcards, blackboard sketches or even easily red words on paper (wordcards). The students chant the resulting sentences. Referring to the blackboard for support if necessary. TEACHER: Five years (showing picture of a car). STUDENTS: I've been driving a car for 5 years. TEACHER: Many years (holding a Math book). STUDENTS: I've been learning math for many years. TEACHER: My friend, 20 years (picture of a guitar). STUDENTS: My friend's been playing the guitar for 20 years. TEACHER: My parents, 30 years (picture of local town). STUDENTS: ...
Ways of teaching songs
The ostensive way You illustrate the story line with pictures and mime. This is the best approach for young learners
who do not worry about understanding every word in a text. Most songs can be treated like this. Translation Translate the text into the students' mother tongue. This is most appropriate for pieces which are linguistically complex, but it can also be done to save time. With certain texts it may be worth giving a literal translation, one which respects the word order, as well as the meaning. Cloze texts Write the text on the board, poster or handout, but with key words or phrases deleted. The students pairs have to identify the missing words as they listen. With difficult texts, provide a text which has just a few easy words deleted. With easy texts the deletion rate can be quite high. This is a good way to present a longer poem or song. Some song activities Fill in the blanks: students are given a lyric with some blanks and are asked to fill them by listening to the song without any written clue or with some minimal pairs if the goal is sound discrimination. Scrambled songs: students are given some strips and are asked to organize them by listening to the song. Matching lyrics and pictures: students are given the lyrics and some pictures, then they are asked to write the line from the song directly related to the picture. If the lines are identified with number, they just have to match. Writing your own song: the students write their own lyrics with the music of a specific song. They can work individually, in pairs or in groups. Substitution: the students listen to the song and substitute the nonsense words (intentionally placed by the teacher) for the words sung by the singer. Eliminating and completing: the students listen to a song and read the lyric simultaneously. They must complete the missing words (adjectives, nouns, verbs...) and eliminate those lines and/or words that don't appear in the song, but appear in the lyric they were given. At the end they should be given the right lyric for them to check their answers. Sing along videos: have your students to watch and listen to videos with the lyrics on the screen. They'll have fun while practicing the language and learning it.