Sustainable Competitive Advantage through an effective Supply Chain Management: The case of canned Tuna in Portugal
Prepared for Module CB9011 “Supply Chain Management” by Carlos Ferreira
Submitted on the 3rd April, 2009
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The canned tuna industry has long been one of the key players of the Portuguese food industry. Portugal, a country with a large fishing area, was for a time at the beginning of the 20th century one of the largest canned tuna producers in the world, and maintains an important presence in this market worldwide. However, this industry faces many problems that could jeopardise its ability to exist in the future, including commoditisation of its products, diminishing margins and profits along supply chains, environmental concerns – including depletion of the base resource – and loss of market share to substitutes in the market. In this report, we start by analysing the canned tuna production industry in Portugal, identifying some of the problems that affect it and some of the challenges that the future might bring. Part two of the report analyses the failures of the industry to cope with those challenges, from a Supply Chain Management point of view. In part three, we present the case for Supply Chain Management as a strategic weapon that should deployed by the industry in order to overcome those problems and prepare for the future, while obtaining profits for players engaged and delivering value to the costumer.
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I. The long descent: present problems and future challenges Tuna has long been one of the most important fisheries in Mediterraneanlike countries, such as Portugal. A staple food for centuries (since the Phoenician Civilization, at least), tuna provided an important source of protein intake for seaside populations, so it was only natural that, at the end of the 19th century, in the Southernmost part of Portugal – Algarve, close to the Mediterranean Sea – the budding industrialization would result in tuna (plentiful, affordable and demanded) being processed, canned and sold, both in the internal market and abroad. Success was immediate, and the industry quickly expanded capacity, in what it was accompanied by the fishing industry, continuously improving catchment methods. In the early 20th century, a time of extensive population growth and migration to cities, canned tuna was not only important for nutritional reasons; availability of conservation equipments (such as refrigerators and the like) was null, so food had to be processed or consumed in a short period after purchase. In contrast, canned tuna was a readymade, affordable source of protein that could be carried or kept for a long time – indeed, its long shelf time is, arguably, one of its most important advantages. Not only did it provide areas away from the sea with a variety of food (fish) that is notoriously prone to losing quality quickly after being harvested, it also increased the pace of industrialization, generated several hundreds of jobs in fisheries and in processing, and created a source of revenue from exports. The result was booming demand and falling prices. Three factors conspired to curtail the success of this industry: environmental problems, growing competition from substitutes and commoditisation. Later, as consumer awareness of health issues became more prominent, a fourth factor, food security and traceability, became a relevant issue as well. I.a. Environmental problems and the Sustainability issue Tuna fishery, like most fisheries, is a remnant of Humanity's past as huntergatherer: existing wild resources are extracted with little or no management (Grimond, 2009). In the case of tuna, this problem is compounded by the openaccess regime of the waters where tuna is found. In these situations, cost of extraction of fish rather increases as the available stock increases (Perman et al, 2003); consequently, fishermen are forced to either sell the 3
fish more expensive or to lose on their margins. Producers, on the other hand, must choose between acquiring their input at a higher price or to underutilise their capitalintensive factories, sized for a specific volume flow. These problems presented themselves to the Portuguese canned tuna industry as early as the 1960's, by which time the lack of reserves forced some companies to close and others to merge, resulting in the closure of several factories (Superbrands, 2008). Further environmental problems presented themselves to the industry: from the question of how to dispose of the material and energyintensive packaging (Hospido et al., 2006; Dantas et al., 2008; ULS, 2008) to the problem of bycatch, which caused outrage among environmentalminded consumers (Donley, 2001; Greenpeace, 2008; Grimond, 2009), tuna fishery and canned tuna in particular have been increasingly targeted for lacking Corporate Social Responsibility, and forced to change catchment methods, the majority of which further increase costs and erode margins. Not even the labeling as “dolphinfriendly” has allowed the industry to shake off this image of environmental nuisance, let alone command a premium among competitors. I.b. Food Security and Traceability Closely related to environmental problems, food security has in recent years become a concern, and especially for the canned tuna industry. Indeed, through sewage and medical waste, antibiotics, hormones and, crucially in the case of tuna, heavy metal find their way into the oceans and accumulate in the food chain, which usually sees tuna as one of the highest placed predators. As a result, contamination of tuna with metals especially Mercury (Kuo, 2008; Grimond, 2009) regularly causes scares to consumers and leads to falls in demand. This problem is amplified by the underlying characteristics of fishery as a hunter gatherer activity: several boats might deliver their catch somewhere in harbour to a middleman, who then goes on to sell the stock to different processors. As catchment from different sources comes in, it is mixed together and bundled, precluding any possibility of determining the provenance of a specific stock, let alone a fishbyfish analysis (Roheim, 2008). Again, the dynamics of regulation of fisheries out at sea mean that, to evade fishery
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quotas, it is not unusual for skippers to keep two different log books, one “real” and another for the benefit of authorities' eyes (Grimond, 2009). Any hope of tracing a contaminated stock's origin is, because of this practice, reduced even further. I.c. Growing competition from substitutes It is not hard to imagine the impact the availability of canned tuna had when it was first offered: in a world where preprocessed food availability was limited to preindustrial products – such as cheese or smoked meat – whose cost was greater, canned tuna was able to achieve a significant impact. Readily available from any local shop, producers had the monopoly of affordable, readymade food for decades, as the Portuguese market was essentially closed to imports for political reasons. Only in the wake of the political upheaval and revolution in 1974 did some of these barriers start to tumble, and only after Portugal's entry to the European Economic Community (in 1985), and subsequent introduction to the Single European Market was distribution effectively liberalised. This brought about a rapid increase of alternative products, which quickly caught on among consumers and took a large chunk of the canned tuna market. Nowadays, consumers are presented with ample choice of readycooked, microwave or ovenready meals at affordable prices, in different varieties and flavours, and presenting short life cycles, favouring novelty and helping fight habit and boredom while offering more value for the consumer's money. I.d. Commoditisation Over time, innovation has been slow in the Portuguese canned tuna industry: most brands produce only one variety (canned tuna in sunflower oil) and even the marketleading “Bom Petisco” brand offers only three different products: tuna in sunflower oil, tuna in olive oil and tuna in brine. Likewise, packaging has hardly changed at all: four different sizes are available, but the largest among them (250g and 2kg) are hardly ever available in normal distribution channels, their target being mostly the the fast food industry, which uses canned tuna as an ingredient to sandwiches and salads (Superbrands, 2008). The most recent addition to packaging changes has been the substitution of the tin can for glass jars in a new lineup by “Bom Petisco”, supposedly to convey a premium, high quality look and feel to the product. Inside the new glass jar, however, it's same old, same 5
old: no new varieties are available (Superbrands, 2008). The consequence of this lack of innovation and valueadding has been the copying of the products by competitors, making canned tuna a pure commodity: private brands fight it out among themselves and against distribution's own brands to sell exactly the same product. Over time, even labeling has become increasingly similar; nowadays all the competitors are virtually impossible to be told apart. No competitor benefits from any kind of higher value to their products and, as a result, producers are left to fight for market share, demand being generated artificially by pricing reductions – discounting. Rational consumers opt for the cheapest available, as there is no discernible difference between products on offer, and so the market has slid into a position where producers are locked in a race to the bottom, each trying to undercut the rivals' discounts and trying to lure distribution brands to buy their product and label it as their own. Margins have consequently been squeezed in the process and the industry is stuck in a situation where it strives to obtain everhigher volume, everhigher scale to reduce the price per unit. As we have discussed, consumers have changed their buying behaviour to better profit from this situation. Since none of the producers or brands provides more value, rational consumers are drawn to the lowest price. Of course, the impact of this is further amplified by the brands' constant discounting, and as a result it is not unheard of consumers changing brand every time they go to the supermarket, simply buying the cheapest at the moment. Canned tuna has gained a reputation for being the poor man's food, and indeed studies have characterized it as an inferior good (one that presents a negative income elasticity of demand): as consumers' income increases, the amount of canned tuna they demand is lower (Besanko and Braeutigan, 2005). Canned tuna producers are left to fight for the scarce disposable income of the worseoff consumers, hardly a desirable situation. None of this is good news for the industry. The situation is further complicated by the problems of depletion of the base resource used by the industry and the need to keep large high amounts of output to offset the drop in margins. It is a basis conclusion that as you need to produce ever larger quantities and your input is becoming everscarcer, prices will go up and shortages could arise. Due to the focus on efficiency in this industry, higher costs and lower scale are potentially disastrous.
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II. Losing touch with times: the unmanaged tuna supply chain One could argue that canned tuna producers' hardships are the result of a fundamental weakness in the product they are selling to consumers. We shall argue otherwise, trying to demonstrate this product and concept possess inherent strengths that are not being conveniently used by producers, who consecutively lose opportunities to add value and placing their longterm sustainable competitive advantage (not to mention their business model) in jeopardy. II.a. A poor state of affairs: the canned tuna supply chain There is innate value in tuna: it is a good source of fatty acids and Omega3 (Ramsayer, 2006; Superbrands, 2008; Grimond, 2009), two substances consumers have value in food, for their healthy properties. Canned tuna is considered the most affordable source of both fatty acids and Omega3 consumers can buy over a counter, at least in the USA (The Centre for Consumer Freedom, 2008) – and there's no reason why it shouldn't be so equally in Portugal. Likewise, the product is practical and fits relatively well with consumers' increasing preference for practical, readymade food. However, the industry focus on low price has lead to easily copied products, essentially commodities. As a result, these valueadding benefits are shared by all companies in the market, being essentially neutral. What's more, they have been present in the product all along, so consumers are not willing to pay for them; they take them for granted, making them valueneutral. S Some companies have gained “dolphinfriendly” certification (Ramsayer, 2006; Superbrands, 2008; Grimond, 2009), but here the problems are twofold: the institutions providing such certification are so many that doubts frequently arise from the effectiveness of them (Diamond, 2005); on the other hand, the fact is that most Portuguese canned tuna consumers, which base their purchasing decisions on the lowest possible price, have not been shown to be willing to pay premium for the environmentallyminded label. As a result, the supply chain is left at a situation where all the value is either innate to the product or added at the factory, where it is processed. In both cases, the value is equal for all products, so no differentiation is achieved. There is no value added to any of the competitors. 7
All links in this supply chain are virtually disconnected with each other: fishermen catch and sell their product to wholesale suppliers, without any information about consumer demand. Wholesale suppliers engage in online auctions with producers, in a race to the bottom to supply at lowest prices. Producers, on the other hand, are forced to increase successively the scale of their operation, in order to reduce price, and thus are driven by the system to bargain harder for lower prices from wholesale suppliers. Retailers either charge producers for shelve space – a common practice in countries like Portugal, where distribution is close to monopoly and holds an incommensurate market power – or engage in retailer auctions themselves, offering to buy all the produce from one producer. The rules of these retailer online auctions don't usually provide a level playing field: it is common for the retailer to specify that it won't necessarily buy from the lowest bidding producer (Brus, 2003). The objective of the retailer in these cases is simple: it wants to have a measure of the producers' willingness to accept specific prices, and to use it as a bargaining tool to depress the willingness to accept of the specific producers with whom it wants to work. It is clear from these examples how the canned tuna market works: it is a bargaining based affair, where cutthroat techniques are permanently used to drive prices down, eroding margins along the supply chain. The finished product is permanently discounted, consumers lured into changing brand on a weekly basis, depending on the latest bargain. We can easily characterise the existing relationships along the supply chain as adversarial. The result of all this is clear: production is being pushed along the supply chain, with all players betting on efficiency and consequently needing to roll out supplies at almost any price, in order to avoid the (huge) potential costs of warehousing unsold produce. II.b. Market failure steming from poor Supply Chain Management The results of this state of affairs are negative for all players in the market, and eventually result in market failure: as expected, the growing pressure for costcutting along the supply chain reaches its apex at the very end of the supply chain – the fishermen. The amplifying pressures of retailers over producers, producers over wholesale suppliers and wholesale suppliers over fishermen results in the price of fish being artificially low. However, stocks are being permanently depleted, since producers are investing in plants with an ever increasing capacity to gobble up inputs, in their fight for increasing scale
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and efficiency. It is a well known fact that, as the base resource stock is depleted, the effort needed to maintain the same level of production increases, since the probability of finding as many fish is reduced (Perman et al., 2003). The result of this should be the price of tuna going up, as a signal of the increased scarcity of fish. However, because of the pressure exerted by the other players in the supply chain, the price does not transmit the premium it should as a result of depletion and fishermen are pushed into negative equity. This should prompt some of them to leave the market, establishing a new equilibrium with less fishing capacity and higher prices. However, the industry has found a way to distort this reality, by obtaining government subsidies for fuel and fleet modernization (Grimond, 2009). The result, unfortunately, is taxpayers indirectly financing the industry's environmental unsustainability, the base resource depletion and favouring the status quo, by keeping unprofitable players in the market and removing incentives for innovation. II.c. The industry today: losing competitiveness and wasting opportunities In general terms, one can define sustainable competitive advantage as a more efficient allocation of resources that makes one company's offer difficult (sometimes impossible) to copy and replicate by its competitors. Sustainable competitive advantage is achieved by adapting to change, being responsive to consumers changing demands and adding value – by understanding consumers better and turning that learning into action faster than the competition. Increasingly, one of the vectors of competitive advantage is the ability to provide all this in a responsible fashion, socially, environmentally and economically. It is also important, of course, that all this is achieved in the most costeffective way possible, so the company is efficient and not wasteful. We argue that the tuna industry as a whole – and every player in the supply chain, from fishermen to retailers –, for all the reasons above, presents no sustainable competitive advantage. Except for efficiency, this industry ticks none of the necessary boxes: it is not responsible, valueadding or responsible – in fact, it is notoriously the other way around. Much of this failure is down to inherent failure of the players to engage in successful supply chain management. Adversarial, armslength relationships and a focus on bargaining over cooperation and coinnovation has extended the product's life cycle well beyond what is, arguably, optimal, stifling any attempt at understanding consumers' needs and demand, 9
and putting the industry in the sorry state where it is now, stuck between pressure from retailers, depletion of base resources and the strategic behaviour of consumers. It is our belief that it needn't be this way, that there is scope for competitive advantage to be gained from the industry. We shall next discuss some of the key changes a first mover within this industry could attempt in order to acquire a sustainable competitive advantage.
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III. Supply Chain Management: a strategic weapon to achieve Sustainable Competitive Advantage Thus far, we have identified the present and upcoming pressures exerted upon the Portuguese canned tuna industry and the present state of the industry. We argue that the interaction of social changes (which bring about shifting demand), unsustainable harvest of the base resource, adversarial relationships along the supply chain and an industry geared towards high volumes, scale and low unit price has resulted in market failure, excess depletion of resources and, fundamental for all involved, erosion of margins and profits, in a situation best described as commoditisation. Perhaps, being part of a traditional industry, the canned tuna simply lacked the capacity to adapt? Tempting as that explanation is, it mustn't be taken at face value. We have seen there are opportunities for this industry, but that they have hardly been taken: the industry provides a healthy product (fatty acids and Omega3), as well as a practical one (readycooked, tasty, goes well with almost everything). In an era when consumers are increasingly willing to pay for products that are perceived as healthenhancing, when individual willingness to cook and cooking ability is diminishing and the focus is increasingly on readycooked (or simple preparation) food, the industry should, arguably, be churning out winner after winner and making handsome profits. However, this is not the case. Its innate advantages haven't served the industry well, opportunities are lost and the long decline continues. If opportunities indeed exist, and are routinely wasted on a daily basis, we are forced to conclude this state of affairs has more to do with management than with an inevitable decline, caused by exterior factors. Much of the problem is arguably related to the way the industry views itself: as producers of same old canned tuna. Its detachment from the reality has forced this perception and stopped the industry to reconceptualize itself as producers of readymade, healthy and practical meals, the sort of product present day consumers value and are increasingly willing to pay for. Of course, it is not simply a question of the industry to start viewing itself differently; it is in the supply chain and the relations between players in the industry that provide the most important limitations to the evolution. The various participants in the industry – fishermen, wholesalers, producers and retailers – can only do this by establishing closer, cooperative 11
relations. Instead of adversarial relations, based on bargaining and pressuring the other part, the solution for players is to cooperate and coinnovate, offering costumers valueadding, competitive products. Far from having the solutions for the industry here, we would like to offer a glimpse of the possibilities the canned tuna industry is losing on. The precondition to put any of these in practice is, as we've already mentioned, to establish relations, to maintain communication and to let go of any stereotypes players have of each other; the winwin situations at reach for all are only available for those who understand the value vertical coordination can bring to their business model. III.a. Retailers The, admittedly few and monopolistic, retailer chains in Portugal are faced with changing demand, steming from shifting consumer behaviour. Younger generations of city dwellers are growing accustomed to longer working hours and smaller families, and as a result lack some of the support and comfort of getting home and having someone to cook for them every day. This shift has pretty much changed the way retailers position themselves, with growing emphasis on catering for these people, with smaller incity supermarkets, that can't carry as much diversity as larger operations. These supermarkets need to pack enough diverse readycooked or readytocook meals for their clients, who frequently enter the shop on week days, close to dinner time, searching for a meal. The consumers' preferences have been shifting gradually towards more refined, healthy and interesting foods. It is of these supermarkets' interest to offer fishbased meals, such as salads or sushi – the same way British supermarkets do. These ready meals frequently have a reduced shelf time (as opposed to canned tuna, which can be stocked for years), producers need to be responsive and able to scale their operation to respond to changing demands “just in time”. Aiming at responding efficiently to the consumers' shopping mission for instance, understanding that different days of the week result in different demands for different products – retailers would be able to gain an edge over direct competitors. That which can supply consumers with fresh, healthy, valueadded products with minimum waste will gain a sustainable competitive advantage.
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III.b. Producers Caught on a treadmill of everincreasing scale and focus on efficiency for eversmaller margins, producers lack capital to invest in valueadding activities. It is in their interest to engage with downstream retailers and upstream wholesalers in order to break lose from this spiral of losses. Only producers who understand the advantages of cooperating with all their supply chain, scale their operation for different production and reach out to retailers, offering to show them the advantages of offering valueadding (instead of margincrunching) products can effectively do this. However, producers have one of the toughest tasks in this process: not only will they have to reach out to retailers and show the value of doing things differently, they will have to change their operation accordingly, from a focus on efficiency to a responsive and effective way of thinking. Maybe the producers centuryold operations are not very suited to this sort of change. But it may well be a question of, quite literally, adapt or disappear. Other potential sources of problems are the possibility of having to use new inputs – in which case the relation that is built with wholesalers will be the key to overcome difficulties – and the need to develop “just in time” response systems, which can only be achieved by having close relations with the retailers, who master the needed tools (such as web enablers) that the producers lack. III.c. Wholesalers Much of the potential gains or losses from coordination lie with wholesalers. These are professionals of bargaining, used to pressure upstream fishermen and to be pressured by producers downstream. Can they change their operation to supply fresh inputs on a daily, responsive basis? Are they able to obtain new inputs, in order for producers and retailers to be able to offer innovative and changing products? Do they have the ability to use flowing information to coordinate with other companies in the supply chain? Perhaps, in many situations, producers will be forced to “shop around” for the wholesalers who understand and can apply the concept of supply chain management in practice. We firmly believe finding such responsive wholesalers with whom to coordinate can be the makeorbreak move for these kinds of projects, and could prove to be one of the 13
sources of competitive advantage, being hard to copy by prospective competitors. III.d. Fishermen We feel tempted to dismiss the presentday model of business pursued by traditional fishermen as nonsuited for this sort of project. Responsiveness in the supply chain relies on a degree of predictability, of companies downstream being assured the lead suppliers can reliably increase of decrease their output on demand, within limits. Traditional hunter gatherer fishery doesn't provide this, due to uncertainty of catchment and depletion of the base resource, and it also carries all the market failure and traceability issues we have discussed beforehand. What's more, there's no assurance that demand will stop at tuna, as the need to innovate could prompt the usage of other fish. One potential path to obtain the required levels of control and responsiveness is to engage with aquaculture producers. Although not very widely used in Portugal, aquaculture's importance has been growing worldwidel, with the FAO reporting that approximately 47% of all fish captured in 2008 came from aquaculture (FAO, 2009). There are clearly issues to be solved: some tuna species (most notably bluefin tuna) are little suitable for domestication (Grimond, 2009), but others are being grown in this fashion successfully (Masuma, 2008; Raisfeld and Patronite, 2008), as salmon has in the past (Grimond, 2009); carnivorous fish can raise sustainability issues, being fed by depleting other less commercially valuable species of fish (Diamond, 2005). With all these caveats in mind, we argue however that aquaculture is economically efficient, sustainable if well managed and provides the industries downstream with the kind of predictability of supply and traceability (even in terms of pollutants and antibiotics added) that traditional fishery could never achieve. Optimistic as this idea might sound, it is simply an extreme example of the sort of gains the Portuguese canned tuna industry could obtain by engaging in supply chain management. There are clearly other possibilities on the way, such as frozen meals, that would place less strain on the operations and allow for easier adaptation, but the fact remains that this industry's troubles can be faced and possibly overcome with successful supply chain management, aimed at producing sustainable competitive advantage.
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