Summer Idenitification Assignment Chapter One

Incas : Page 4 •One of the first actual complex societies in human kind. •Powerful empire with a population that amazingly reached 6 million people. •Their society contained : an intricate political system, a large network of paved roads that was able to successfully bridge the cap between many of the tribes. •The Incan society revolved around agriculture. Mayas : Page 4 •Built a perplexing culture, containing a written language, a numerical system comparable to the Romans, an accurate calendar which is remarkable considering the time era, and an agricultural system that was ahead of its time. •The Mayan society revolved around agriculture. Aztecs : Page 4 •Once a nomadic tribe from the North, they finally settled down, ruling much of central and southern Mexico. •Built complex administrative, educational, and medical systems that would be classified in the same caliber as European systems at that time. •On the down side, they created a harsh religion that contained weird tenets of human sacrifice. •The Aztec society revolved around agriculture. •In 1500, the capital, Tenochtitlan, astoundingly had a population of over 100,000 people, which was surprisingly larger than any European city at that time. Algonquin Tribes : Page 7-8 •The Algonquin Tribe, the largest tribe living east of the Mississippi River in North America, shared common linguistic roots. •Lived along the Atlantic seaboard from Canada to Virginia. •Like most Native American tribes, especially after the Agricultural Revolution, some tasks were assigned entirely to men, such as hunting, while women specifically began to tend to the fields, and control the social and economic aspects of their settlements, maintaining important roles in their families, as well as their village in general. Iroquois Confederation : Page 7 •Probably known to be the most intricately organized group of its time. •Centered in upstate New York, containing five distinct “ nations “ : the Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, and Mohawk. Agricultural Revolution : Page 8 •In different regions of North America, cultures were experiencing Agricultural Revolutions of their own, gaining abilities to efficiently and effectively develop food, clothing, shelter, social customs and rituals, with religion continuing to be held in society as top priority. •During this revolution, regions were also experiencing population growth.

Middle Ages : Page 9 •Not particularly interesting, during the Middle Ages, Europe was characteristically divided into countless duchies and kingdoms. •Subsistence agriculture dominated this time period, and commerce was not a headline during this era for few merchants looked beyond their region for business. •The Roman Catholic Church during this time exercised great power over Europe. •The Black Death was marked as one of the most catastrophic disasters of the time.

Prince Henry The Navigator : Page 11 •During the late fifteenth century, an era begun known as the Age of Exploration. •One of the leaders of this time was Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal. •Made a goal to explore the western coast of Africa and establish a Christian empire there. •He was able to explore as far south of Africa as Cape Verde. Renaissance Europe : Page 9-11 •Bridged the cap between the Middle Ages and the Age of Exploration. •After the Black Death occurred, populations began to increase again, and there was also an increase in prosperity with trade and commerce increasing. •Monarchs began to emerge as the power of the Holy Roman Emperor was decreasing. Hernando Cortez : Page 12 •In 1518, a cuban conquistador by the name of Hernando Cortes led an expedition with a small little army of about 600 men into Mexico, upon hearing stories of treasure and gold in this land. •Conquered the strong Aztec leader known as Montezuma, being able to successfully attack the Aztecs by unleashing a devastating disease at the time known as smallpox, starting an epidemic. •Known as the most brutal of the Spanish conquistadors. Francisco Pizarro : Page 13-14 •A Spanish conquistador who conquered the Incans in Peru by 1538, and revealed the wealth of the Incas, opening up the exploration of South America to the Europeans Encomienda : Page 17

•When Spanish migrants established colonies, they also established encomiendas,

which were sets of rules that specified the exact kinds of labors and tributes to be expected from the natives in one's area. Treaty of Tordesillas : Page •This treaty resolved the conflict between Spain and Portugal. •The pope divided the “ New World “ between Spain and Portugal in the spring of 1494.

St. Augustine, Florida : Page 16 •Established in 1565, this fort became the first permanent European settlement in the United States, serving as a military out-post, the executive quarters for the Franciscan missionaries, and the headquarters among North American natives that in the end, were abandoned.

Smallpox : Page 12,14, 18 •Hernando Cortes purposely unleashed this disease on the Aztecs, due to the fact that it was a European disease, and being that they had never been exposed to it, died quickly from it. •Considered to be a method of military force, due to the fact that it quickly wiped out populations and allowed for conquistadors to quickly take over civilizations. •But despite the killings due to the disease, the vast majority of the populations in Spanish Empires remained to be the natives of the conquered lands.

Mestizos : Page 19

•Considering the fact that European men outnumbered European women by

statistically at least ten to one, Spanish people ended up having sexual contact with the native women, and intermarriage led to the populations of the colonies being dominated by a mix race, which became known as the Mestizos. African Slave Trade : Page 20, 23 •Most of the Africans that were forced into the slave trade were from a region below the Sahara Desert in West Africa known as Guinea. •The Slave Trade began long before the exploration era of the New World.

•As early as the 8

th

century, west Africans began selling slaves to traders from the

Mediterranean, responding to a high demand for black men and women desired as domestic servants.

•Most slave traders started out to be Portuguese and Spanish, but by the 17

th

century, the Dutch had overwhelming taken over the slave trade, and eventually the English in the 18th century. Sugar Cane : Page 23

•The market for African slaves grew dramatically in the 16

th

century after an ascent

in a demand for sugar cane, which had moved from the Mediterranean to the Caribbean and Brazil. •Being that sugar was a labor-required crop, worked were highly desired, and it seemed that Africans, known to be domestic servants fit the harsh criteria.

Mercantilism : Page 24

•An economic policy which gained favor throughout Europe in the 16

th

century.

•Was based on the assumption that a nation as a whole contributed to one's economy, not individuals, and the main goal was to increase the nation's net wealth. •A nation's economy depended importing as much as possible from foreign countries, and exporting as little as possible from their own home land.

Protestant Reformation : Page 24-25 •Began in Germany in 1517 when Martin Luther challenged the Roman Catholic Church and its basic tenets, which during its time was the strongest authority in all of the European land. •Challenged the Catholic belief that salvation good be attained by good works and the sale of indulgences, because he believed in a theolgic theory known as predestination. Predestination : Page 25 •A doctrine designed by monk Martin Luther that stated that God had already selected people that he wanted to be saved into heaven and condemned into hell – everyone's destiny was determined before birth, and good works would not be able to alter one's fate. English Reformation : Page 25 •A dispute that occurred between the King of England and the Pope which significantly weakened the Roman Catholic Church's influence in England. •In 1529, King Henry VIII became enraged with the pope because he denied him a divorce from his Spanish wife. In retaliation, King Henry broke away from the Catholic church and established himself as the head of the Church of England. Puritans : Page 26

•Exiles who, under Bloody Mary, fled the country due to not being satisfied with the way religion was being dealt with in England. •They wanted to take action and purify the religious aspects in reform, and that is how they got their name the “Puritans” •Known to be Separatists, worshiping in their own independent congregations. •A Puritan sect of the Separatists were known as the Quakers. •King James, believing in the divine right theory, opposed the Puritans, and didn't acknowledge their religious movements, so the Puritans began to seek relief outside of the kingdom. Dutch West India Company : Page 27-28 •The Dutch were able to establish this company, which included a series of permanent trading posts on the Hudson, Delaware and Connecticut Rivers. •Throughout the years, the Dutch were able to maintain to be at the pinnacle of the fur trading industry. •Encouraged settlement of the region, transporting whole families to the New World, producing the colony of New Netherland and it had Jamestown, Virgina : Page 28 – 29 •Established in 1678 , Jamestown, Virginia was the English's first colony. Spanish Armada ( 1588 ) : Page 29 •Due to England's capability of challenging Spanish sea power, in 1588, when the Spanish king, Phillip II decided to invade England, they were unsuccessful. •King Phillip had the intentions of ending England's competition with Spain and to bring it back into the Catholic Church. •Their failure ended the era of Spain's domination of the Atlantic.

Roanoke : Page 29 •Sir Walter Raleigh from England discovered the Roanoke colony. •In 1587, Raleigh sent 91 men, 17 women and 9 children to Roanoke, officially attempting to establish a colony. •Shortly after arriving to the New World, Virginia Dare was born and is hailed to be the first American-born child of English parents. •Three years late, when John White and the rest of the colonists returned to the island, he found the island to be completely barren, with only one clue “ Croatoan” carved into a post. London Company ( Virginia Company ) : Page 34

• A company with a charter launched by King James I in 1606. •Also known as the Virginia Company. •Quickly launched an expedition headed for Virginia with 144 men on three ships : the Godspeed , the Discovery, and the Susan Constant. •In 1609, it obtained a new charter which increased its power and land that it was able to obtain.

Plymouth Company : Page 34 •A company with a charter launched by King James I in 1606. •Only 104 men survived the journey to Virginia. •Established a colony on a peninsula extending from the river's northern bank and named it Jamestown after the nearby river. •Mostly a colony consisting of men due to the fact that they were unable and/or unwilling to comply with intermarriage with the native women. John Smith : Page 34

•A traveler who is single-handedly hailed to have saved Jamestown from reaching colonial extinction. Tobacco Economy : Page 35-36 •Tobacco was brought to the Europeans thanks to Christopher Columbus after witnessing Cuban Natives smoke small cigars. •By the seventeenth century, tobacco from the Spanish colonies was already in wide use in Europe. •Despite protests that this was a poisonous weed, demand for tobacco still soared. •In 1612, tobacco cultivation began in Jamestown thanks to planter John Rolfe. Headright System : Page 36 •System that granted 50 acre grants to new settlers, and 100 acres to settlers that had already lived there. •A system that was design to recruit workers for the colony. •Encouraged more people to migrate to America. Virginia House of Burgesses ( 1619 ) : Page 36 •On July 30, 1619 , delegates met in a Jamestown church and it became known as the House of Burgesses. •This was the first meeting of an elected legislature, a representative assembly, considered to be one of the firsts in a nation that would later become known as the United States.

Powhatan Indians : Page 37 •The colonies proceeded to attempt to suppress the Indians. •In retaliation, Sir Thomas Dale kidnapped the chief's daughter, Pocahontas, who in 1614 married John Rolfe, which was supposed to contribute to the betterment of her people. Religious Toleration Act ( Maryland ) : Page 38 •Due to the fact that the Calverts had to encouraged Protestants to migrate to Maryland as well as their own Catholics, they adopted a policy of religious toleration to help consider the non-Catholic majority. •George Calvert, the leader at the time appointed a Protestant governor in 1648. •From England in 1649, he sent a draft of an act that concerned religion that guaranteed all Christians freedom of worship. Sir William Berkeley : Page 39 •Appointed governor by King Charles I in 1642, he arrived in Virginia, and was able to maintain control of the government until the 1670s, by defeating the Indians in 1644. •By the 1660s, Berkeley had become an autocrat in his colony, because in 1619, all men over the age of seventeen were allowed to vote, and by 1640, it was limited to only landowners. Bacon's Rebellion ( 1676 ) : Page 39 •Nathaniel Bacon came to Virginia in 1673 was unhappy with Berkley's policies and how Berkeley was treating him, excluding him from an exclusive governor's council called Green Spring Group, and denying him a piece of the Indian fur trade. •Bacon and other dissatisfied landowners struck out against violent Indians, not obeying Berkeley's orders and was later condemned by Berkeley to be a rebel. •This started a rebellion, which was significant because it marked the struggle between defining Indian and colonial lands in Virginia. Mayflower Compact ( 1620 ) : Page 40-41 •An agreement signed by 41 puritans, which officially established a civil government and proclaimed their allegiance to the king.

•The Puritans left England in order to seek better, more fulfilling religious opportunities elsewhere. William Bradford : Page 41 •Appointed as the governor of the Plymouth colony numerous times. Massachusetts Bay Company : Page 42 •A group organized by Massachusetts, after being granted a charter to create a colony in the New World. •Among this group, there were a number of Puritans who saw the potential of this company and began to migrate to New England and create havens for themselves. John Winthrop : Page 42 •Chosen by the Puritan sect of the Massachusetts Bay Company to lead the expedition to New England. •Organized the migration and dominated the colonial politics. Congregational Church : Page 42-43 •In each Puritan community, there was a congregational church . •Each church chose its own minister and regulated its own affairs. •Ministers had no formal political power, but did have a tremendous amount of influence over its church members, who could be the only people that could vote or hold office. “ City Upon A Hill “ : Page 43 •Winthrop and other Puritan leaders, believed that they were founding such a well established holy commonwealth that it could be considered “ a city upon a hill “ because it would be able to set a great example for the rest of the world. Thomas Hooker : Page 43 •A Newtown ( Cambridge ) minister who defied the governor of Massachusetts in 1635 and led his congregation, eventually establishing the town of Hartford, which four years later, established a colonial government and adopted the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, their constitution. Fundamental Orders of Connecticut ( 1639 ) : Page 43 •The Constitution that the town of Hartford, found by Thomas Hooker adopted after being established in 1635. Roger Williams : Page 44 •A young Separatist minister who is thought to be the foundation of Rhod Island. •Argued that the Massachusetts church should abandon completely all allegiance to the Church of England, which was a blunt step forward. •Also called for a complete separation of church and state. •Astonished, the colonial government banished him and he took refuge with Narrangansett tribesmen. •In 1644, he obtained a charter from Parliament to permit him to establish a government. •Rhode Island was the only colony for a while in which members of all faiths, including Jews could worship freely. Anne Hutchinson : Page 45 •A Massachusetts woman who protested against the leaders of the colony stating that some people had no experience to hold office. •Developed a movement among women, in which she lead religious affairs. •Tried for heresy in 1636 after being influential enough to prevent Winthrop's reelection.

Antinomianism : Page 45 •Classified by critics as “ Antinomianism “ , which means “ hostile to the law “ , she created alarm by making assumptions about the “ true “ role of women in Puritan society. Pequot War : Page 46 •A major conflict that occurred in 1637 between the Pequot Indians and English settlers, fighting over the region of the Connecticut Valley. •The English settlers allied with the Mohegan and Narragansett Indians, who were rivals of the Pequots. •The English brutally slayed the Pequots, almost wiping out the tribe. King Philip's War : Page 46-47

• A conflict in 1675 that is considered to be one of the most deadly encounters

between the Whites and the Indians. •The Indian tribe known as the Wampanoags decided in the 1670s that armed resistance would help their secure their lands against the English and they went around terrorizing Massachusetts towns, until the white settlers fought back and prevailed in 1676, receiving critical aid from rivals of the Wampanaogs, the Mohawks and also spies, which led the Wampanoags to diminish in population and be left weak and powerless. English Civil War : Page 48 •In 1642, members of Parliament decided to militarily challenge the king of England, Charles I, who ruled as an absolute monarch and attempted to levy new taxes in attempt to get more money. •Divided between the Cavaliers ( supporters of the King ) and the Roundheads ( the forces of Parliament, who were mostly Puritan ) , this conflict lasted seven years, and in 1649, the Roundheads finally defeated the King replacing him with Roundhead Oliver Cromwell. •Two years after Cromwell died, the son of the beheaded monarch, King Charles II returned from exile and claimed the throne. New Netherland – New York : Page 50 •The territory of New Netherlands that later became known as New York started a conflict between the Dutch and the English, who were commercial rivals, •In 1673, the Dutch briefly conquered New Amsterdam, but they lost it for good a year later in 1674. •James, the English duke of York, renamed the colony New York, which ended to be an extremely diverse colony, containing various cultures such as Scandinavians, Germans, French, Africans, and several different Indian tribes. •Made no effort to impose his Catholic beliefs upon his diverse colony. Dutch Patroons : Page 50-51 •Dutch “ large landowners “ who succeeded even though there were tensions over the distribution of economic and political power in New York. •Power remained greatly among rich English landlords, dutch patroons, and fur traders. William Penn : Page 52 •A wealthy and prominent man who became an evangelist for Quakerism. •Soon became an owner and proprietor of New Jersey, and gained the province that would later become Pennsylvania after Charles II, short on cash granted him, which ended up being a costly mistake because it contained more valuable soils and minerals than other province in English America. •Attempted to attract settlers from Europe and soon Pennsylvania became known as the most cosmopolitan colony, with settlers from far as Sweden and Finland. •Pennsylvania prospered because there were no conflicts between the colonists and the Indians.

Pennsylvania “Charter of Liberties” : Page 52 •William Penn agreed to this charter which established a constitutional assembly, and allowed the lower counties of the colony , which ended up being Delaware establish their own representative assembly. Barbados Sugar Plantation : Page 53 •Due to the fact that sugar was a labor-intensive crop, this resulted into an increased amount of slaves being imported to the Barbados, and English planters in the Caribbean ended up relying on African slaves more and more. •The Sugar economy prospered, and English planters grew to be extremely wealthy. James Oglethorpe : Page 57 •A military hero, Parliament member, he led his forces to find Georgia. •Desired to create a military barrier against the Spanish lands, and wanted to provide a haven for the impoverished English people. •Desperately needed a military buffer between South Carolina and the Spanish settlements in Florida. •Believed that the prisoners and poor people of England could potentially become the farmer and soldiers of his new colony in America. Navigation Acts : Page 60 •After the Restoration occurred in England, King Charles II of England, in 1660, adopted three Navigation Acts that were built to help regulate colonial commerce . •Closed the colonies to all trade except what was carried in English ships ( 1660 ) •All goods being shipped from Europe to the colonies had to pass through England on the way so they could be taxed . ( 1663 ) •As a respond to great evasion of the preceeding laws, custom officials were appointed to enforce the Navigation Acts. ( 1673 ) Dominion of New England ( 1686 ) : Page 61 •James II of England, in 1686 established a single Dominion of New England, which combined the Massachusetts and New England colonies, and in 1688, the colonies of New York and New Jersey. •He appointed a single governor, Sir Edmund Andros, whose crude attitude made him quickly unpopular, especially in Massachusetts when he tried to strengthen the Anglican church. Glorious Revolution : Page 61 •By 1688, James II of England was extremely unpopular and William and Mary of Orange used the loophole that the law stated that the King of England have a Catholic son ascend to the throne after him, and he had two Protestant daughter, and invaded England with a small army and James II fled to France, and William and Mary became the new sovereigns. •Bostonians, upon hearing this news quickly abolished the Dominion of New England and got rid of the governor, Sir Edmund Andros.

Jacob Leisler : Page 61

•Leader of New York dissidents, similar to Nathaniel Bacon in Virginia, he resented exclusion among the colonial elite. •After the Glorious Revolution, he raised a militia and captured the city fort and declared himself new head of government in New York. •Ended up being charged with treason. John Coode's Rebellion : Pages 61-62 •In Maryland, an old opponent of the proprietor's government, John Coode started a new revolt which drove out the leader at the time, Lord Baltime who supported King James II and opposed William and Mary. •Chose a committee to run the government , but in 1691, William and Mary stripped him of his authority. Middle Passage : Page 71-72

•The migration of as many as 11 million Africans to the New World, which ended in the 19th century, many tightly packed in unsanitary ships, bound for the middle passage, the journey across the Atlantic Ocean. •Many died during this during due to the cramming of Africans on ships, and were supplied with little food and water.

Slave Codes : Page 74-75 •Assemblies in the colonies of the New World began to pass slave codes tha drastically shortened the rights of blacks and left most authority to their white masters. •Any trace of African ancestry proved one to be black, which at that time was a disadvantage because that meant they were subject to the harsh slave codes. Pennsylvania Dutch : Page 76

•Palantine Germans who became known as Pennsylvania Dutch due to their own word , Deutsch, which means German, and most Germans went to the Quaker colony in Pennsylvania and numerous German Protestant went to North Carolina after finding New Bern in 1710.

Indigo : Page 78

• A crop that became a staple to the colonial economy in the early 1740s.

•Eliza Lucas, an Antiguan woman who managed her family's plantations successfully experimented with indigo, and discovered that it was an excellent compliment to rice and became a popular import in England. Iron Act of 1750 : Page 79 •The Iron industry ended up being the biggest enterprise in English North America. •In the late eighteenth century, Great Britain experienced an amazing growth in the industry, and this led to English parliamentary regulations that became known as the Iron Act of 1750 restricted metal processing in the colonies. Triangular Trade : Page 81-82 •There was great trade where American colonies exported raw agricultural materials, furs and more, to Britain and the rest of Europe while they, in return, imported manufactured goods. But this trade also included the Caribbean, the west coast of Africa and the Mediterranean.

Stono Rebellion ( 1739 ) : Page 86 •This was a classic example of a rebellion of African slaves against their masters. •In 1739, in South Carolina, there was an uproar of about 100 Africans who seized weapons and killed whites and tried to escape to Florida, but the whites quickly crushed this movements and executed the perpertrators.

Salem Witch Trials : Page 87-88 •An outbreak of the witchcraft phenomenon, the most popular being in Salem, Massachusetts where teenage girls began to exude strange supernatural behavior and were accused of witchcraft and this hysteria led to hundreds of accusations, mostly women, and them being trialed and hung. Great Awakening : Page 91-92 •Beginning in the 1730s, the period known as the Great Awakening reached its climax in 1740s and began a new revival of religion enthusiasm . •Appealed especially to women, and other people who mostly had uncertain fates. •This movement encouraged people to break away from their past and start a relationship with God anew. Enlightenment : Page 92 •The product of scientific and intellectual discoveries in the seventeenth century. •Recognized the workings of nature, celebrated human reasoning and scientific inquiry with an upholding assumption that reasoning would help progress in life and one's culture in general. •This movement was also important because it contributed to the undermining of traditional authority, provoking people to learn how to think for themselves. Harvard : Page 93 •The first college originally created for the education of ministers in Massachusetts in 1636. •Named after a Charlestown minister who had left his library and half his estate to the college by the name of John Harvard. Zenger Trial ( 1734-35 ) : Page 96 •Crimes, law and politics began to be redefined in the seventeenth and eighteenth century. •John Peter Zenger, a New York publisher was defended by the infamous lawyer Alexander Hamilton, for a printed attack on a public official. •The courts ruled that criticisms of the government were not libelous if factually true and this verdict removed some of the restrictions that had been made to the natural right of freedom of the press, and this marked a subtle transformation in legal philosophy.