Strat.

Theories of development By: Billy Keith M. Tan Mark James Ado Gerald Hingpis Ann Charlaine Buenaventura

Theories Of Development • There are several difference in the human development this is categorized according to age. • There are 4 most known theorist of human development. • Erik Erikson • Sigmund Freud • Jean Piaget • Lawrence Kohlberg

Theories of Development Overview: • Erik Erikson- The one who develop the psychosocial theory. • Sigmund Freud – Developer of the Psychosexual theory. • Jean Piaget- the – The one who develop the Cognitive development theory. • Lawrence Kohlberg- Developer of the Moral development theory.

Erik Erikson

Erik Erikson • Was a Jewish German developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on social development of human beings, and for coining the phrase identity crisis. • Erik Erikson believed that every human being goes through a certain number of stages to reach his or her full development.

Erik Erikson • According to his theory, there are 8 stages, that a human being goes through from birth to death. • Each of Erikson's stages of psychosocial development are marked by a conflict, for which successful resolution will result in a favourable outcome.

Psychosocial Development Theory • Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-known theories of personality in psychology. • Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality develops in a series of stages. • Unlike Freud’s theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson’s theory describes the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan.

Psychosocial Development Theory • One of the main elements of Erikson’s psychosocial stage theory is the development of ego identity. • Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction.

Psychosocial Development Theory • According to Erikson, our ego identity is constantly changing due to new experience and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. • In addition to ego identity, Erikson also believed that a sense of competence also motivates behaviors and actions.

Psychosocial Development Theory • Each stage in Erikson’s theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life. • If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy.

Psychosocial Development Theory • In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in development. • In Erikson’s view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality.

Psychosocial Development Theory • During these times, the potential for personal growth is high, but so is the potential for failure.

Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust • The first stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and one year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. • Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child’s caregivers.

Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust • If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children they care for. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.

Psychosocial Stage 2 Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt • Between the ages of one and three, children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc.

Psychosocial Stage 2 Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt • If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.

Psychosocial Stage 2 Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt • If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their own abilities.

Psychosocial Stage 3 Initiative vs. Guilt • Around age three and continuing to age six, children assert themselves more frequently • They begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative, and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions.

Psychosocial Stage 3 Initiative vs. Guilt • Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt • They may feel like a nuisance to others and will therefore remain followers, lacking in self-initiative.

Psychosocial Stage 4 Industry vs. Inferiority • From age six years to puberty, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments • They initiate projects, see them through to completion, and feel good about what they have achieved.

Psychosocial Stage 4 Industry vs. Inferiority • During this time, teachers play an increased role in the child’s development. • If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals.

Psychosocial Stage 4 Industry vs. Inferiority • If this initiative is not encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins to feel inferior, doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach his potential.

Psychosocial Stage 5 Identity vs. Confusion • During adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important. • Children are becoming more independent, and begin to look at the future in terms of career, relationships, families, housing, etc.

Psychosocial Stage 5 Identity vs. Confusion • During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the outcome of their explorations. • This sense of who they are can be hindered, which results in a sense of confusion ("I don’t know what I want to be when I grow up") about themselves and their role in the world.

Psychosocial Stage 6 Intimacy vs. Isolation • Occurring in Young adulthood, we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. • We explore relationships leading toward longer term commitments with someone other than a family member. • Successful completion can lead to comfortable relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship

Psychosocial Stage 6 Intimacy vs. Isolation • Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression.

Psychosocial Stage 7 Generativity vs. Stagnation • During middle adulthood, we establish our careers, settle down within a relationship, begin our own families and develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture.

Psychosocial Stage 7 Generativity vs. Stagnation • We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in community activities and organizations. By failing to achieve these objectives, we become stagnant and feel unproductive.

Psychosocial Stage 8 Integrity vs. Despair • As we grow older and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity, and explore life as a retired person. • It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.

Psychosocial Stage 8 Integrity vs. Despair • If we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our pasts, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.

Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud • Sigismund Schlomo Freud (May 6, 1856 – September 23, 1939) • Freud is commonly referred to as "the father of psychoanalysis" and his work has been highly influential. • The founder Of the Psychosexual Development Theory.

Sigmund Freud • Freud advanced a theory of personality development focussing on the effects of the sexual pleasure drive on a person's emerging personality.

Psychosexual Theory • According to this theory, parts of the personality develop as we move through a series of psychosexual stages. Each stage is characterized by different demands for sexual gratification and different ways of achieving that gratification.

Oral stage (birth to about 15 months)

Oral stage (birth to about 15 months)

• A newborn is governed only by its drives. Only the id is present at this stage, so the infant seeks immediate gratification, achieved through its mouth - feeding, crying, and oral exploration of the world.

Result of oral stage disturbance • According to Freud, disturbance of the oral stage may result in a permanent fixation on the oral channel for gratification. Examples of resulting adult behaviors include smoking, overeating, thumb-sucking, and pencil chewing.

Result of oral stage disturbance • Typical resulting personality traits include impatience, passivity, greediness, dependence and a preoccupation with giving and taking.

Anal stage (15 months to about 3 years)

Anal stage (15 months to about 3 years) • The focus of gratification shifts from the mouth to the anus. • The child experiences pleasure from the elimination of feces. • According to Freud, this brings them into conflict with their parents. • The resolution of this conflict requires the development of the ego, and as such has important implications for behaviors later in life.

Result of anal stage disturbance • Freud suggests that fixations may be caused by either exceptionally strict toilet training or intense pleasure associated with taboos such as smearing feces on the wall.

Result of anal stage disturbance • Too little gratification in this stage results in an 'anal' or obsessive character who has a wish to make a terrible mess and therefore must build defenses against this, such as orderliness, rigidity, and hatred of waste.

Result of anal stage disturbance • They are also obstinate, stingy, punctual and possessive. • Too much gratification will result in opposite behaviors, untidiness, a hot temper and destructiveness.

Phallic stage (3 years to about 5 years)

Phallic stage (3 years to about 5 years) • According to Freud, the focus of gratification is now on the genitals, although this gratification is not the same as that experienced by adults. • Children take an increasing interest in their own genitals, and show a curiosity about other people's bodies.

Phallic stage (3 years to about 5 years) • Freud implies that the major conflict faced during this stage is the Oedipus/Electra conflict. • Freud suggests that an Oedipus conflict applies to boys. A boy wants his mother and therefore is jealous of his father and wants to remove him.

Phallic stage (3 years to about 5 years) • The fear that his father will discover the son's feelings are expressed in terms of fear of castration, but is finally resolved through identifying with the father.

Phallic stage (3 years to about 5 years) • For girls, the Freudian Electra complex describes the events leading up to gender resolution. The young girl has 'penis envy' and resents the mother for not providing her with one.

Result of phallic stage disturbance • According to Freud, the conflicts may result in homosexuality, authority problems, and rejection of appropriate gender roles if not resolved.

Latency stage (around five years until puberty)

Latency stage (around five years until puberty) • The drives that have been responsible for gratification in the previous stages appear relatively inactive. • This is partly due to the repression of sexual drives that is accomplished during the Oedipal stage.

Result of latency stage disturbance • Freud suggests that these repressed drives may be redirected into other activities, such as the formation of friendships, or hobbies.

Genital stage (puberty onwards)

Genital stage (puberty onwards) • With puberty there is re-emergence of the earlier drives. • Drive energy is focused on the genitals once more, but this time with an adult expression of sexuality.

Genital stage (puberty onwards) • Although the term 'genital' suggests that gratification during this stage must inevitably be sexual, Freud emphasized the importance of secondary process thinking as a form of symbolic gratification in this stage.

Genital stage (puberty onwards) • Thus, forming loving relationships or assuming the responsibilities of adult life may all be seen as symbolic ways of satisfying the drive energy of this stage.

Result of genital stage disturbance • If too much libidinal energy is taken up in the first three stages, the individual cannot reach maturity, cannot shift the focus from their own body, their own parents and their immediate needs to larger responsibilities involving others.

Jean Piaget

Jean Piaget • Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) • Renowned for constructing a highly influential model of child development and learning.

Jean Piaget • Piaget's theory is based on the idea that the developing child builds cognitive structures-in other words, mental "maps," schemes, or networked concepts for understanding and responding to physical experiences within his or her environment.

Jean Piaget • Piaget further attested that a child's cognitive structure increases in sophistication with development, moving from a few innate reflexes such as crying and sucking to highly complex mental activities.

Cognitive learning theory • Jean Piaget's CognitiveDevelopment Theory gives us the background for developmentally appropriate practices. • The idea that children's thinking is qualitatively different than adults comes from Piaget.

Cognitive learning theory • This theory also shows us that children need to construct or reconstruct knowledge in order to learn and that they also need rich opportunities to interact with the physical world and with their peers • Piaget's theory identifies four developmental stages and the processes by which children progress through them.

Sensorimotor stage (Infancy) • In this period (which has 6 stages), intelligence is demonstrated through motor activity without the use of symbols. • Knowledge of the world is limited (but developing) because its based on physical interactions / experiences.

Sensorimotor stage (Infancy) • Children acquire object permanence at about 7 months of age (memory). • Physical development (mobility) allows the child to begin developing new intellectual abilities. • Some symbolic (language) abilities are developed at the end of this stage.

Pre-operational stage (Toddler and Early Childhood) • In this period (which has two sub stages), intelligence is demonstrated through the use of symbols, language use matures, and memory and imagination are developed, but thinking is done in a non-logical, nonreversible manner. • Egocentric thinking predominates

Concrete operational stage (Elementary and early adolescence) • In this stage (characterized by 7 types of conservation: number, length, liquid, mass, weight, area, volume), intelligence is demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects.

Concrete operational stage (Elementary and early adolescence) • Operational thinking develops (mental actions that are reversible). Egocentric thought diminishes.

Formal operational stage (Adolescence and adulthood). • In this stage, intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. • arly in the period there is a return to egocentric thought.

Formal operational stage (Adolescence and adulthood). • Only 35% of high school graduates in industrialized countries obtain formal operations; many people do not think formally during adulthood.

Lawrence Kohlberg

Lawrence Kohlberg • Lawrence Kohlberg (October 25, 1927 – January 19, 1987) • An American psychologist born in Bronxville, New York. • Famous for research in moral education, reasoning, and development, he developed stages of moral development.

Lawrence Kohlberg • A close follower of Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development • Kohlberg's work reflects and extends his predecessor's ideas, at the same time creating a new field within psychology: "moral development".

Kohlberg's stages of moral development • Are planes of moral adequacy conceived by Lawrence Kohlberg to explain the development of moral reasoning. • The theory was inspired by the work of Jean Piaget and a fascination with children's reactions to moral dilemmas.

Kohlberg's stages of moral development • This theory holds that moral reasoning, which is the basis for ethical behavior, has six identifiable developmental constructive stages - each more adequate and responding to moral dilemmas than the last.

Moral develoment stages Level 1 (Pre-Conventional) 1. Obedience and punishment orientation (How can I avoid punishment?) 2. Self-interest orientation (What's in it for me?)

Pre-Conventional • The pre-conventional level of moral reasoning is especially common in children, although adults can also exhibit this level of reasoning. • Reasoners in the pre-conventional level judge the morality of an action by its direct consequences.

Pre-Conventional • The pre-conventional level consists of the first and second stages of moral development, and are purely concerned with the self in an egocentric manner.

Stage 1. Obedience and punishment orientation • Individuals focus on the direct consequences that their actions will have for themselves. • For example, an action is perceived as morally wrong if the person who commits it gets punished. • This stage may be viewed as a kind of authoritarianism.

Stage 2. Self-interest orientation • Espouses the what's in it for me position, right behavior being defined by what is in one's own best interest • Stage two reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs of others, but only to a point where it might further one's own interests, such as you scratch my back, and I'll scratch yours

Level 2 (Conventional) 3. Interpersonal accord and conformity (The good boy/good girl attitude) 4. Authority and social-order maintaining orientation (Law and order morality)

Conventional • The conventional level of moral reasoning is typical of adolescents and adults. • Persons who reason in a conventional way judge the morality of actions by comparing these actions to societal views and expectations.

Stage 3 Interpersonal accord and conformity • Individuals are receptive of approval or disapproval from other people as it reflects society's accordance with the perceived role. • They try to be a good boy or good girl to live up to these expectations, having learned that there is inherent value in doing so.

Stage 3 Interpersonal accord and conformity • Desire to maintain rules and authority exists only to further support these stereotypical social roles. • The intentions of actions play a more significant role in reasoning at this stage; 'they mean well...'

Stage 4. Authority and social-order maintaining orientation • It is important to obey laws, dictums and social conventions because of their importance in maintaining a functioning society. • If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would - thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules.

Level 3 (Post-Conventional) 5. Social contract orientation 6. Universal ethical principles (Principled conscience)

Post-Conventional • also known as the principled level, consists of stages five and six of moral development. • Realization that individuals are separate entities from society now becomes salient. • One's own perspective should be viewed before the society's. It is due to this 'nature of self before others'

Stage 5. Social contract orientation • Individuals are viewed as holding different opinions and values. • Those that do not promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest number of people.

Stage 5. Social contract orientation • This is attained through majority decision, and inevitably compromise. • In this way democratic government is ostensibly based on stage five reasoning.

Stage 6 Universal ethical principles • Moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles. • Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice, and that a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws.

Stage 6 • While Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he had difficulty finding participants who consistently used it. • It appears that people rarely if ever reach stage six of Kohlberg's model.