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Tampereen ttkniJUnon horkeakoulu 1540540923
154 054
II
I
ESSENTIALS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR Seventh Edition
Stephen P. Robbins San Diego State University
Pt
*
rriMUice Hall Upper Saddle River. New Jersey 074S8
r
PulJicjliun IJai I. ihrary«cRri«U (sfiit^raniiiCKinal p cm. lndiHlc» hihlioffraphicdl relvrcRcc^ anij index ISBN0-U.U«?0y-4 < IqniniarNinaf be ham v. f. Itriidc-'l
2001055446
Edrwjn D^vid Sluwr Senior Mifupng Editor (Fdiforial):JcTuutductian Fditor Ken jvan Froduciiori \«sistant: Oianne l aicune PermisMOtv. C uorrfinitor: Suzanne Grapfv Associate Direcior. Maaufiicturing: Vincent Scvlta Produt'tiuR Manager: V(U Alamifjtlunng Buyer Dune Feirnno Design Manager: Par Smvrhe .An Diiector: Janet Slu'^ ik huerior Design? Jnnei .SlimiL Coeer VUOanid Cover Uhjscratioa: Jvrry MeDsnicl [Dustralor (Interior): Matrix An ber.'ices Maiugcr, Prim ProdoetioQ: <^hri$c>* Mahon Cmposirion: I (i ' (XTS Infonnaoon Sendees^ Inc. FnO^Serrice Project Maa^emeat: lerri O’Prrt, VG / CCS hirnrmetion Serriccs. Inc pRMer/BiiMUr: (. looncr (>rdru and asknow Icdgmccts borrowed from other source»and reprculuucd, with permissian. in this t«AiixM>k ap^xrar un appropriate pages withis text O^yrisht 200A. 2000.1997,1994,1992 by Pcanoa Educatioo. hic.. Upper Saddle Hirer. 07458. Alt rights reserswl. Printed in the L'nioed States of .Amerrca. This pubUraOcn « |*t<ected b>’ Cnpynghi and pertnissirm should I* obwined Iron the j»ublidicr prior To an> prohibited repruduuktfi. siongv in a retrieval s\-$tem, or cransnus.sion in any fortn or by any mean*, pbonxopying. renmlmg, oridtewUe. for ufunnaoun regarding perniissiijid*). wnre to: Sights and Permn^wns Dq^iticju. PcanoA EdiimtNm L'fD. Pearsoa EducaUun .Australia PTT Linuted Pearsno Lducanim Smppirc. Pte. Ltd, PcATwjn Educteinn N'««h .Asia Lcd^arvm FAmexx). Canada. UdPewrwjc t4iiu-4(*hin de MeiRx>. $.A- de C.V. Fcarwxi h.Jucafvo-Jjpaa Pearvxi FducAita«. Mabym, Pte. Ltd.
Hreiuice Hall
This book is dedicated to my friends and colleagues in The Organizational Behavior Teaching Society who, through their teaching research and c&mmitment to the learning process, have significantly improved the ability of students to understand and apply OB concepts.
Brief Contents Preface n
Part I PROLOGUE 1 I. Introduction to Organizational Behavior 1
Part II
THE INDIVIDUAL IN THE ORGANIZATION 14 Foundations of Individual Behavior 14
*
Personality' and Emotions 30 4.
Basic Motivarinn Concepts 42 Modvarion: From Concepts to Applications JS
6.
Individual Decision Making 69
Part III GROUPS IN THE ORGANIZATION 84 r**- 00 o*
Foundaoons of (Jroup Behavior 84 Understanding Work learns 100 Communication 115
10. Leadership and Creating Trust 130 IL Power and Politics 150 12.
Condict and Neeonation 163
Part IV THE ORGANIZATION SYSTEM 178 13.
Foundations of Or^tanization Structure 17 8
14.
Technology and Work Design 196
15.
Human Resource Policies and Practices 215
16.
Organizadonal Culture 230
17.
Oipmizatiunal (Change and Development 248
Contents Pre^t'e xvij
Part I PROLOGUE 1 1. Introduction to Organizational Behavior 1
Dejiuitfov 2 Cmtributinv DwcwZiwey Goals of Organizational Behavior 5 Explanation S’ Pfvdictioft > Contrrt! S Challenges and Opportunities for OB: A Managerial Perspective tntpfwifig (^liatUy and Productivity 6 Intfncrcifig PeopZr Skills 7 .Wji waging Hbrjtftwxr Diversity 7 IQ Clobaliautiatf j £y/ipoa’frrrtg People 9 StiMulatiug /iiwavtf/ion and Cban^ 9 Coping with '‘‘Tcmporaiiness^* 10 Helping Euiployees Balance Rbrk/Lifi Can/licts JO Declining Employee l oyalty 12 Ifnprwing Ethical Behind or 13 The Plan of * This Bewk 12
Part II THE INDIVIDUAL IN THE ORGANIZATION 14 2.
Foundations of Individual Behavior 14 Values 14 Types of I tf^rer I $ l fjiyatty, and Ethical Behmar 17 WM f7vJU*wn 17
* )*
The Field of Organizational Behavior 2
CoMerrts Atunides 19 19 'Redwing Tb^ AttiuMBebavior
U.
PcrcepQOn 23 Fzr4^rs/rryZwe»<^«’«
. -la
Attriblift on Theory 2i Sbortath ^o yadgittg Otberr 23 Learning 26 Implicirions for Managers 21
Pereonality and Emotions 30 Personality 30 The iViyerfi-Briggx Type InJkator 3t The Big-Five Model 31 Other Key Pemnality Attributes 32 Pcryotutfity tstid Nnifo/?/?/ Culrurt! 33 MitU'hing PerstirM lilies and Jobs 34 ErnoDons 36 HTrat Are
56
ItDisplayed Ef»<stwti$ 3T The Six Universal Emotions 38 Gender a nd Emotions 3 8 Emotions and National Uulture 39 39
0B for Managers
41
4. Basic Motivation Concepts 42 A^Tiat Is Motiv’ation? 45 Earl y Theori es of Mod vaiion 43 Hierarchy frf'Needs Theory 43 Theory X and Theory K 45 Tisj0‘Factor t heory 45 Contemporary
The
MfC/e/iiw/V
ori
es
of
Theory
Modvadon Needs
47 41
Goal-Setting Tbeoty 48 Reinforermem Theory 49 F^fuity Tbeoiy 50 Expeaancy ’Theory 52 IXw’t
Forget:
Moovadon
frepkeatfons for Xlanagers 54
Thtsoncs
Arc
Culture-Bound!
53
Ml *
Contents Motivation: From Concepts tn Apphcadon.s 55 jMa nagemcn l by ("Jhiec Oves 5 5
J inkhig XIRO anti Gt/al-Setting Tbcoiy 37 MBO if/ Pratdct 57 Behavior McMdificadon 5 H iiljat h OS 5^ Li//i:it/g OS Mod /ttid Reinfomintut OS Mi/d in Practice 60 En^loyec RecognicoD Programs 60 Wjb/7Z Are C-mpioyre Recognition Progratnd 60 Linking Recognition Programs and Rern/arctjaent Theory 61 JE’wp/oj*ee /?e<w^?jr7/urt Programf in Pritctice 61 Einf^oyee Involvcm e n t Programs 61 WTwf/ If Empioyee lnvf>/vetn.enrl 61 fRampies of Ewpioyee Z«voZve*tte/tr Programs 62 Linking Emplfjyee Involvement Pr/tgra/nx anti Mativati/w Theories 63 Employee Involvement Prograntv in Praeiice 6J Variable-Pay Programs 64 HTwr.-fre Idrtable-Pay Progta/ns^ 64 Linking Variable-Pay Programs and Expectancy Theory 63 ^ d/^iahle^Pt^ ZVwgj'/wnr bi Practice 66 Slall-Based Pay Plans 66 11 kat ^4 FY 5jbfZZ-Raje
6. UKltvidiul Decision Making 69 How Should Decisions Be Made? 70 Tbe Ratinaaf DftifioN-.Makfng Prwcft ^0 Improving Creativity in Dtdtian Makhfg 71 HUM Deciskms .Actually Made in Oi^anizations 73 SosTMa^J
73
p.
74 7$
60
COMMIU OneloptHK.iliemativtt 7-5 Mukif/g CfMiicts 76 Itiffn/duftf
"77
Ov^auizationul Constrabits 80 da ftm ul Echics in Decision Making 82 Lnp I icfl ri ons for xVlana gers 8 3
GROUPS IN THE ORGANIZATION B4
•s i
Fart
Foundarions of Group Behavior 84
f.
D e fi ning a n (1 Cl xssi lyin g Gruup'^ H4 Basic Group Concepts 85 Roles 83 S7 Cohesiveness 90 Sfze 90 CofnlMsition 92 uS'mmr 93 Group Decision Making 94 The Individuiti I 'ersiis the Qrryup 94 Groupthink and Grouffsbifi 95 Selecting the Best Gre^up Dceision-Makuig Tecbniqtie 97 Implications for Managers 98
8,
Understanding Work Teams 100 Why Have Teams Become So Fc^lar? 101 Teams Versus Groups: VVTiafs ±c Difference? 10 f lypes of Teams i 02 Problem-Solving Teasns 102 Self-Managed iUrk Teams 103 Cross-Fafit'tional lemts 104 nrtual Teams 104 Creating Effeedve'(^ms 105 iVork Design i03 Cosnposil/on 106 Conrm /08 /’nwfw 109 Turning Individuak into Team PJayere 110 77>r CIMHenge fiO Shaping Team Players 111 ImpUcatioos for Managers 112
Contents
9.
(>>mnwnicarion 113 Funcnonx of <'ommunication 114 I'he (3oininunication Process 114 Piremon of Communicahon /^wmi'ord L’/fwani LftMa/ 126 Interpersonal Communicadon 116 f3ral Cow wunieation 116 I Written Conrmunication /I7 .VtftfivxAtf/ Cow w ATtff ftfritf n 127 Chganizddonal Connniinicadon 119 Forwa/ S/»ali- Gro up Networks 119 The Grapet^ine 229 CoMpuier-4ideJ CowsnuHUMtion 222 Barriers to Effective Connnunicaiiun 123 k f///err123 Selective PtTcrpr/ow 123
I
2nfortnation Cherioad 123 Gma^ Stylef 22} Emotions 124 Language 224 Cro55-Cul rural Communicadon 124 Or//urai Context 22} . I O///wrtf/ Guide 126 Krhio; in CorntnunicadoA: k h Wrong u> 'lUl a Lie? 126 Ini p be a dons for .Managers 126
10.
Leadership and Creating Trust 130 HTiat Is I -eadership? 1 JO Trail 'rheories IJ1 Behavioral Theories 131 Ohio State Stvdieif 122 I'nhet xity ofS
Studiee 2 }3
The Managerial Grid 2)3 Sunttnary af Bel>aviaral Tl^eanta 133 (xiodngmc)* theories 134 ,>
21>e Hedier Model 235
it |r K
7lr»ay /J7 Tlkwr H'! iMdar-Paniei^tion Model 119
Contents A.. „„,! Fr,«zr/r. iyifft.-^>>>iyi I i9 Th.rr Theories Updated; Charismatic Leadership \1sivnary Leadership 142 Team Leadership 142 Is Leadership Always Relevant? 143 Trust and Lcadcrslup 144 J I’h/it fx Trust ? 44 Tmsl a nd l^/tdership 146 Tln‘u Typcx QfTt'uxt 146 tiow Do LfW BuM Trustf" 147 linphcations for Managers 148
11.
Power and Politics 150 A Definition of Power 150 Contrasting Leadership and Power 151 Bases of Power 152 Cor/rh’C Pf»wer lf2 Rrwurd Power ! 55 Leptimute Power 15$ I'^perrPower J5J Referent Power 153 Dependency: The Key to Power 154 TAr Genera/ DepenJenty Poxtnlate 154 fnat Creates Dependetfcy? F 54 P(>wer in Groups: Coalitions 155 Power and Sexual Harassment 156 Politics: Power in Andon 157 A De/?«j7fort of Political Behat ittr 157 The hnportaace of a Political Perspective 15S /'fff/orr Contributing to Political Behavior 15S Itnpre/xion Management 160 The Ethics of Behaving Politically 161 Implications for Managers 162
12.
Conflict and Negotiation 163 A Definition of Confltcr 163 Transitions innflict Thought 164 1 be Traditional) ’/rtr ) 64 The Hutnan Retittions Mew 165 The IntcTMiontit Flrti’ /65
contents niffercnuaang
Functional
frrwn
Dysfunctkindl
rhe < xmOki Pn^e*^ 166 S7rtX<* Potent/af Oppvsrtio/f 166 Sfuge Ih ('of^g/tinn {1701 Penwfaliztitrofi Sfagt /11: B^baviw" t6X /I ? l/ttteomes J 69
(tiing Stratcgfcf 171 Issftff in N'egvtifltion 17/ Im pl ications for Managers 176
Part IV THE ORGANIZATION SYSTEM 178 13.
Foundations of Organization Structure 178 What Is Organizanon Structure? 178 5/>efZ4ZZt4jrion 179 Departni mtaii z^fic n 181 Chain of Caffttnn nd 182 Span 0f Ccitnvi 18/ Centralizalion and Decentraiisatitw 184 Farma/izatron 184 Common Organizatimul Designs 185 TAr Simp/e Structure 18S The Bureauciaiy 2^6 Tfre AfoMv Structure J 87 New Options 188 The Team Structure 188 '/ 'be I'lrtual O/^z/isutiow 189 The Boundaryltfs Or^n/zatioft 290 Why Do Structures Diflfer? 191 Strategy 192 Ofganization Size 192 lecbnalogy 192 Environmental Uncertainty 19/ Oi^aniaatioQ Srniecurc and Employee Behavior 193 Imp]icahi>n.s for Managers 195
Technology and Work Design 196 Technolog)’ in the W'brkplace 196 f ff/trmfiOMi Imprvtentent /bwwrer 297 /Vwm Krewjip»rerfi»g 198 Maa Cttfromiwr/M 199
Ckinflicts
165
Organiratirmal Behavior in an E-WorW 200 r{ V nn EAhganisaHanl 200 Seleited Impluations jar Individual bebnxior 201 Seketed ImpUattiims for Group behavior 203 iVill E-Or^s Kedefine Interpersonal Relationsbipsl 20J Work Design 206 task Churucteristic Tbeurics 206 Khnt Rcdcsigyi 209 Popular ftbrk Sebeduie OptfOfts 211 Implications for Managers 213
Human Resource Policies and Practices 21$ Employee Sd ctuon 216 216
d
tlnrten 2)
0 rfnance-Sbnniatian Tenfi 211 Training Programs 218 ryfk*s 0f Tmitiing 2lX Training Xlef/Mcls 220 Performance Appraisal 220 Pn/ti
ff. Ipprnist/l and MetwatiM 221
Wbaf Du H? Evahiffte? 221 Sbou/d Do the Evafuarin^? 222 Perfornmnee Appraisa/Mcibodr 223 /or Iftrfn’ovrng Pr^yonwrtce Appraisab 22S Don'f Eorgef Performance Feedback! 226 About leant Per/wnann Appraisabi' 227 rnyuz7«///rr e Appraisal in a Global Context 223 Implications for Managers 228
Organizational (Culture 230 Defining O^aniutinnat Culture 2 J1 Is a Desaipme Term 231 Do Or^nnizations Haue Cnifmn (^dotres! 231 Strong J
CW/wrer 2^ ?
Whai r>oes Culnire Do? 2J J C/r//wrr’f Innaions 23} Ciilliitv .3^ a Liability 234 Creating and Sustaining Culture 234 How a Culture ffeffim 234 •• (-"inut Alive 233 ^mututy; Huw Cuhtuyt t-urwt 23X
Gmtents
/! fjyw Employees Leam Culture 239 5/ww 239 Rintab 240 iVI/rtfriaJ Symbob 240 241 M^aging Cultuial Change 241 Creating an Ethical Organiiational Culture 242 Spiriniaiity and Organizational Culture 243 H 'br/t h SpbitJtality? 243 H'hy Spn-itr/aiify C'frtftwte'nAtZfj
24 ? Qf
n
Spbituai
Organi&abfftt
(Jritieimf af^phitnahty 24 f Organ iiad on a i Culni re vc rs U5 Na ti onal Culture 246 Organizational Culture and the Paradox of Diversity 246 Implications for Managers 247 17. Organizational Change and Development 248 Forces lor (Change 248 Managing Planned Change 250 Two V^ews of Change 251 The •‘f’.kZ/M
Simik 2SI
The '^U’bfte- Il
the
Tko
Simi/e 2 32 I
reur
in
Penperrtve
2^2
Resistance to Change 2 53 Re.ort/twrf 255 Ch ganiza tutnitl R rnjfante 2 f4 CHrtfow/wg Pe!fi.rtanee ro CA/T»ge 255 Managing Change Through Organizational Development 257 5‘ear/fjrn^ 7i'zrf/tr>tg 231 Snrcey
Feedback
Prwrxr Canxtdtntion 25^ Teayn Buikting 239 infergrvitp Devefapment 260 Contemporaiy Issues tn Otganizadrinal Change 260 Hbrk .y^resf 26) S'tvMir/tf/rAg fonoiwWoj? 262 Knawtedge MafMgewfKt 263 hnplkations for Managers 264 Epdoguc 266 EB^UMA 267 rTn^u (Indea/CiliMery) 285
25S
244
Preface Ihis h<x>k w as created as an altemaiive to the 600- or ?00-page comprehensive textIwKik
id
urganizjnunal
bcharior
(OB).
It
attempt*
to
prwrie
balanced
coverage
all
the key dements comprising the discipline of OB, in a style diat readers will find both infonnarive and interesnng. Tm pleased to say that this text hm achieved a wide fidlowing in shrirf panion
volume
LXIUCSCS
w-ith
and executive programs and in uaditional courses as a com-
cxpcriciiiial.
currently
used
at
more
Canada.
Lann
America,
than
skill
400
Europe.
development,
colleges
Aasmlia,
and and
case,
and
universities Asia.
Ifs
readings in
the
also
books,
Uni
been
led
h
is
States,
translated
into
Bahasa Indonesian, Chinese, Dutch. JajiHiwse. Polish, and Spanish.
RETAINED FROM niE PREVIOUS EDI TION WTiat do people like about this book? Surveys of users have found general agreement about rhe fcdlowing features. Needles:* to say, they vc all been retained in this edition. Lewgn^.
Since
300
inception pages.
in
1984,
I've
tried
tell
me
this
Users
diUgeiidy length
to
keep this hook to
altws
them co n*;] de raid
k J
approximately
in
flexibility in assigning supporting inatenak and projects. ■
naianced ropk
enrrag^.
.Although
short
in
length,
diis
hook
continues to
provide
lialanccd ccnemge of all the key’ concepts in OB. This includes not only traditional
topics
curang-edge
such
issues
as such
personality', as
emotions,
niotivadon. mist,
and
work-life
leadership; habnee,
but
also
workplace
spiri-
tuality'. know ledge management, and e -organizations. This book is trequcurly singled nut fijr the fluid writing style and extensive use <4’ examples. Users regularly tell me that they* find this book “a in versarional." 'iincrtsring." ''snidenc-fricndhC and 'S'crv clear and uiulcrstandahle.'’ ■ rraouaim. This book has never been solely about theorv. It’s about ther •• ory to better explain and predict the behavior of people
in
oiganixauons.
In
each edition of this book, I have fixnised on making sure that readers sec the Part of the rAr*ason I’ve been able to keep this book
.'(Asfaa of kngth
is
that
it
doesn't
tcaching/lcaming
aids.
OB
allowing
knowled^.
include
'i*his
book
review
quesuons,
continues
instructors
the
to
caM?s.
provide
manmufn
shon
exercises,
only
flexibility
the in
B
link between OB theories, research, and implications f<»r practice. or similar
Itasac core
of
design inff and
shaping their cuunc. ^ ghihc^rstfrrott, dftmriy, of
gtobabzabon
and
cnis-cahural
As shown in Exhibit .A, die topics differences,
divenity,
and
ethics
dtfuochouc thu biKiL Rather than presented in sund-akxie cbapcers» thoe
are
disciRaed
nvW Preface EaMbft A Integrative Topics (with specific page references)
CMpler
Diversity
dobalkalion and Cross-Cultural PIfferenew
5, 11-12
3. 7-8,10-11
4. 8-9
16-17, 28
C J
CM m <
17-19 38 33-34. 39 53-54
62
in lA
61,62-63
79-80, 82
76
81
92
92, 98-99
107
110, 111
126
123-24
118, 124-26 10
139-41
145
156-57
161-62
198
203
11 169. 175-76
12 13 14 15
242-43
246-47
246
16
219-20
219
216, 228
262
249
17
249, 250,263
topics have been w oven into the context of relevant issues. Users tell me they find
this
intcgraUve
approach
makes
these
topics
more
hiUy
part
of
OB
and
reiiitbrccs ihvir iniportanvc. ■
WTiilc rhis book may be short in length, it’s not shon
on
‘iiipplemcnis.
bi>di
faculn’
and
Test
and Item
Pile;
Resource
instructor’s
manual,
whidi
wmcs
i»tudencs.
Iiwtrucror's
Library,
It
a
This
provides
complete,
with
a
Web
including
PowerPoint students
a
includes
dedicated
CD'ROM. and
with
support
comprehensive site
die
siuks;
high-lech
and
insights
package
instructor^
manual
(www.prenhall.coiu/mbbins); compiiterirxd rhe into
lest
Robbins ibcir
skills,
for
Item
an File,
SchkAsscssment abilities,
and
mterese. These suppleraenis are described in detail later in this Preface.
NEW TO THE SEVENTH EDITION •n».s seventh ediu«3ii ha.s been updated in tcraw of research, examples, and topic coverage. For instance, you’ll find new inarerial in rftis edioun onOiyanizanunal ohzensliip behavior (Chapters 1 and2> Work-life lulancc (Chapter 1)
Frtface • Ajnabiie's model ofrreaUviti in decision making (Chapter 6) Group demography (Chapter 7) leam-cftecuvencss model (Chapter 8> Low- and high-context cultures (Chapter 9) Leader-member exchange theory (Chapter 10) OB and the e-organization (Chapter 14) Mass ctistomization (C.hapter 14) Flextime and telecommuting (Chapter 14) Employee selection and training (Chapter IS) Workplace spirinialiiy (Chapter 16) Knowledge management (Chapter 17)
SLTPLEMEXTS PACKXGE cf Organizatiffnat Bt^h/triar continues to be supported with an exwisive suppleinenx package for Iwith students and facuic)'.
For tb^ Student ■
The this your
updated text
as
and a
skills,
revised
no-cost
abilities,
Robbins
option.
and
IT
ScIf-AssesOTent
contains
interests.
Illis
50
is
exercises
available
Library
is
that
provide
in
both
avaikhle
with
insights
print
and
into
CD-ROM
formats as well as online. ■
Companion the
industT)'
professors ing
Wtb
standard
and
new-
site—The
their
Companion
for
companion
students,
conununication
Web
it
Web
one-click
'nrjfTS.prtnhallxam/robbms
sices.
a
provides
ttxils,
site
Designed
customized navigation
by
course of
professors
W’eb
chapter
site,
i.s for
indtid-
content,
and
other valuable resources. For the Pnfesstrr
■
Instnictor’i includes que^itions.
Manual learning and
with
lest
obfeenres,
skill
exercises;
Item
chapter the
File—The outlines,
Test
Item
instructor’s chapter
File
manual
summanes,
provides
portion discussion
truc/falsc,
muiuple-
cbcHce. and essay questions. •
<>>mpani<>n
Web
site—The
bimunthly
news
articles
qucsiions
and
group
integrated exercises,
Companion into oobne
site
the
text
deliver)-
provides with of
professors
accompanying PowerPoint
with
disi-ujision slides
and
mstructorV material, and sample 5)41 abi and teaching suggestions posted on a conununit)- chat nxwn. O insouctur's
CD-ROM—'Fhe Instructors Resource CD-ROM contBiBs the computerized Test Item File, PowerPr's nanual. A re\’iscd. eiwnprehcnsive package of text outlines
A
Preface .
PowerPoint Fkctronic Tranx^ in-class letturcA pjle. Test Manager » a -Us- M=‘n»g‘-T ^^cir c
and figures corresponding in the text, th p«n,nc-ies are designed to aid the Cnntainmgall ol the que^uons comprehenMve su.re «.f nols ing
and
disinbunng
through
traditional
methods
or
by
an
on
inc
tvcry
via
in
the
Local Area Network (l>AN) servers.
\1dc<»^important
topics
in
organizational
behavior
afc
illustrated
accompanvin? videos Real conip-auics are used to Inflight organizational avior pravriccs diat work!
ACKNOWI EDGAIENI S A
number
thanks
of
are
gestions: Foote,
people
pbyed
extended
Professor Middle
University:
Dr.
to
critical
the
Claudia
following Harris,
Tennessee Jenna
roles
State
in
reviewers
North
for
Carolina
University;
Lundberg,
helping
Ithaca
Jeffrey College;
Co
produce
their
this
helpful
Central J.
comments
Universit}*; Sheruood,
Dr.
revision.
Carol
f.
Special
and
Dr.
sug-
David
Washington Young.
A. State
Wittenberg
University; Dr. zXngeline W. .McArthur, Vnivcrsiw ofWsconsin-Parkside. At Olsen,
Prcnticc-Hall,
Kim
overseeing
Marsden. rhe
I
want
Shannon
production
and
to
thank
.Moore. marketing
Judy of
David
Shafer.
Leale,
Keri
this
book.
Jennifer
Jean, And,
and finally,
Glennon, Janet I
Slowhk
want
my wife, Laura, for her love and stif^ort
STEPHEN P. RORRISS
A
Melanie
to
for ihank
PART i: Prologue
CHAPTER I ________________________________
Introduction to Organizational Behavior After reading this chapter, you should be able to 1.
Define organizational behavior (OB)
2.
Identify the primary behavioral disciplines contributing to OB
3.
Describe tfie three goals of OB
4.
List the major challenges and opportunities for managers to use OB concepts
5.
Discuss why workforce diversity has became an importanl Issue in management
6.
Explain how managers and organizations are responding to the problem of employee ethical dilemmas
7.
Discuss how a knowledge of 03 can help managers stimulate organizational innovation and change
W
describe
hen I ask managers rn describe rheir most frequent ur troublesome problems, rhe answers I ger rend to exhibir a common thenw. The managers TTK«T often peofi/e
employees'
lack
problems. of
'Phey
moGvanon,
lalk
about
conflicts
their
bosses'
between
poor
team
rommumcadun
members,
overcoming
employee reswtance to a cnnipany reorganizanon. and similar concerns. Because a managers job is inherently one of working with and through other people—lios&es. peers, and employees—good “people skills” are a valuable, even neceamy; a»wt m solving these problems. ’ I’bis hook has been wrincn to help managers, Ik and ptxmoal managers, develop these people skills.
sUIU,
THE FIELD OF ORGANlZATIONzXL BEHAVIOR iTie shidv of’|>enptt' at work is gtncrally referred to as the study of or^nizatinnat behavior. Let’s begin, then, by defining the term
Mz/vmr and briefly
reviewing its origins. Definition OfganiMcional behavior (OB) is the systematic study of the actions and attitudes that people exhibit within organizations. L«t\ liwk ai die key parts of this defitiinon. Each phenomena. he
“didn’t
when
the
stop
us
us
For
instance,
take from
to
clusions-
tain
offering
with
uses
inrinnon.
friend
catches
ins/*
our
die
field
of
not
unuiuve
a
cold
really
OB—its
we’re
why
The the
he
quick that
of
scientific is
conclusions—is
remind
cold,
in
ro
happens
seeks
course,
trying
to
“it
caught
interpreted of
in
ol’OB
use
objective, and
or
licid
and
theories
feelings."
properly,”
is,
'I‘he
“gut and
sure
measured
effect.
our
dress
that
and
and
or
malysis.
study:
conrfilion.s cause
“doesn’t
W’eVe
systematic
attribute
So
vi
a
cLingc."
controlled
manner
regularly
his
seasons
eyplanadons under
<jf
bur
to
explain
him
that
every'
year
that
doesn’t
replace
intuitive
evidence
gathered
a
reasonably
rigorous
co
draw
based
on
accurate
a
large
con-
number
of systeinaticaliv designed research studies. What not
/ill
does
OB
actions
important
and
atritudes.
determinanTs
turnover.
The
with
quantity-
die
importance and
turnover—particularly terms In
systematically
oi
addition,
high
Three
employee
of
productiriry
quality
of
itk
hard
rates
of
for
high
of
(or
behaviors)
behavior
have
performance: i.<:
output
an
Actions
types
of
excessively^
absence,
study?
ohvious.
that
each
employee
turnover
a
fourth
to
be
pndui'tnuty, Managers
clearly
adversely
affect
increase
costs
if
and
proved
lie
are
But
tend
she
co
be and
concerned
absence
and
output.
Tn
this
or
But
to
nhenieehw,
generates.
productive
attitudes!
historically
employee
rates—can
employee
and
isn’t
place
at
work.
less
expe-
rienced people in jobs. More
recently,
found
hj
zenship
is
ments
butthat
Examples team,
be
imponain
discredonaty of
volunteering
employee for
determining
behavior
nevertheless good
in
extra
type
th
ar
is
employee not
pan
promotes
the
citizenship
behavior
job
activities,
of
performance.
of
an
effective
Organizational
employee’s
formal
fiincrioning
of
the
helping
others
on
include
avoiding
behavior—rif/zr?«A;p—has
unnecessary’
conflicts,
job
an attitude. Managers :^hfnild he concerned with their employees’ job .VAtisfaction for three reasons. First, there may Tie a link lierween satisfaction and productivity. Second, satisfaction appears to lie negatively related to absenteeism and nimover. Finally, it managers have a humjinistjc rciponsibility to provide their employees with jobs chat are challenging. inTrinsically rewarding, and satisfying. The last part of our definition of OB that needs elaboration is the term Psy chology’ and sociology arc wclt-knoun disciplines that study liehanor, ut they do not concentrate solely on work-related issues, in contrast. OB is spevifiy ccmcemed with work*-re fated behavior-—and that takes place in urganizations. An ^■^•wzatKMi is a consciously coordinated social unit, composed of two or mivc peo* relatively conunucHK basis to achieve a aiinnion gxMl or set of s. r s eharactetized by fi>nnal rol«» diar define and shape the liehavior of its menw
require-
organixatim. one’s and
constructive statements aNjut one’s work group and the overall organization. Organizational behavior is also concerned with employee job
citi-
xrhich is
work making
IntrotkM'rinn xo Organizational Behavior
ben. So OB t n«»m passes thv hciwvinr of people in such diverse organizations as man
IQ
nbeiuring and sen’ite finits; sehoeds; hospjuils; churches; militaiv uinw; chantabl orgamzjnnns; locdli suic. And fcdc’ral govcmn*i€iH ui^cncie*
Contributing Discipline's Orginizarionjil
behavior
contrihuQuns
from
social
sociolng\\
is
applied
several
behavioral
behavioral
psychology,
science
disciplines.
anthropology,
and,
The
and
as
a
result,
predominant
political
is
areas
science.
built
are
As
qon
psycho)-
you’ll
learn,
ps>’chob»g>'*s a mtn Ini hot IS have been mainly at the individual nr micro level of analysis whereas the latter disciplines have contributed to our unde J's landing of macro concepts—group
processes
contributions
made
PsychoJogv
change
selves
with
the
fienonalit)'
is
tlieoriscs,
1-1
provides
field
of
smdy:
iliat
humans
and
atrempring
continue
Exhibit
distinct science
of
anti
and
a the
behavior
studying
contributed
organization.
toward
Psychology
times have
and
to
counseling
to
add
seeks other
to
to
the
iwy
chologists,
psychologists
instance,
and,
of
of
OB
most
are
and
some-
concern
behavior.
them-
I'hosc
learning
important,
the
Iwhavior.
explain,
Psychologisls
hidivithial
knowledge
overview
orgaiiuaUoiul
measure,
animals.
understand
an
who
theorists^
industrial
and
oi^nizational psj'chologists. Early Ictns
could
industrial frtigue,
impede
iKjredoin.
efficient
and
any
work
other
concerned
factor
perfrirmancc.
relevant
/More
themselves
with
M'orking
condirions
to
recently,
their
probthat
contributions
have
been expanded to include learning, perception, personality; workforce diversity, emodoos, trail)mg. leadership effectiveness, needs and modvational forces, job sadsftctinn,
decision-making
processes,
perforrnance
appraisals,
attitude
nicasurcmcjit,
cmployee-seleeriun techniques, job design, and work stress. Socio
Jog)*
social
sv'stcni
relation
to
Whereas in
their
psychologists
which fellow
individuals human
focus fill
on
their
beings.
the
roles;
individual, that
Sociologisus
is,
have
sociologists
study
sociology studies made
their
the
people
greatest
in
comribn-
tioD to OB through their srudv of group behatnnr in organizations, {wr lieu lady formal and
complex
organizations.
stKiologists formal
include
Areas
group
organization
within
OB
dtnamics,
design
and
structure,
theory
that
have
of
received
work
teams,
bureaucracy;
valuable
input
from
organizational
culture,
communications,
status,
power, conflict, and work/life balance. Social txpes
Ps)ch<jlogv from
another.
psychology
One
chologists
Social
has
of
the
!>een
It
areas
dyaugr—how
measuring,
understanding, group
scxholog);
major
In
which
is
and
acceptance. in
psycholog)'
addinon,
social
aedvides
and can
an
focuses
receiving to
area
it have
changing.ittitudes, sadsfo
on
the
considerable
implement
psychologists
within
individual
and
pstxhology, influence
investigarion
how
made
to
and
jieople hy
reduce
significant
communicadon needs,
of
blending Micial
psyits
contributions
in
group
Aadwopulogy Anthropology' is the study of socieaes co lea m about human beings and char acovihe^. h includes their physical character, evuludonar)* history, geographic
ftu.
one
to
ptneesm.
.■H 16
on
barriers
patterns,
dtttrihucKin, gnxip rcladvtLvhipH, and cultural hisian* and practices. I’he work of whrnpologists on cultures and envinwunenC^ fir insunce, has helped us undentaod
con-
the
ways
decision-making
w
Chapter 1
Peril Pnilogve Toward an OB Discipline
EXHIBIT 1-1
Behavioral science
Output
Unit of analysis
Contribution Learning Motivation Personality Emotfons Training Individual decision maktng Leadership effecthrwiess job satisfaction Perfbrmarce appraisal Attitude measurement Job design Work stress
r
Indtvidutl
Group dynamics Work teams Communication Status Power Conflict
Study of Orgamzabona! Behavior
Formal organization theory OrganizacionaJ technology Organizational change Organizational culture
----- a
Behavioral change Attitude change Communication Group decision making Group processes Comparacive values Comparative atirtudes Cross-cultural analy»s
^Awhroptdoiy
Organizatio n system
Organizational culture Organizational environment -------------------- - ------------Conflict kitraorgamzational pofltics V Power
differences countries iHwal
in and
fundamental within
culture,
values,
organizations.
oi^anizarional
attitudes, Much
environments,
and of
behavior
our
and
current differences
between
people
understanding between
in of
national
differait organizaculwes
u the result of the work of anthropologists or those using their methocU. Pobrinl
Science
Although
frequentl)
overlooked,
die
vuntribuuons
soentHU arc ngnificani i<» the uiulerManding of behavior in upganujibore.. PvlitiMl
of
pulitml
Chapter t lniTixJacd<m u> Or^ntMttonal Pthjrhjt science i* the sciuiv of the behavior of inw people maiiipulau power for individual) selfinterest,
COALS Ol- ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR WTrn dues OB seek to do? We know it’s concenied with developing people skills, but Mdwt predscl) arc its goals? The goals ol t)B arc to help you to explain, fnrdicty and human liehavior.
Explanation When we
we
are
three are
seek
pursuing
goals, to
use
answers die
from
a
understand
this
a
we
something
that
could
to
wc
determine
have the
5
a
muse.
to
know
for
group
a
of
probably
I>egin
prevented.
explanation
a
because
must
want
been
or
It
perspective,
undoubtedly
if
individual
objective.
phenomenon,
resign,
but
an
explanation
understanding
reasons,
why
management
enipknres
many
to
it
by
w
occurs
least
after
to
in
Obviousiv,
if
die
a
order
to
employees
quit-rate
is
did
somednng,
important
explain
example,
hy.
high
the
trying
For
individuals
fact. it.
of
Yet,
We
can
number
of
determine
if
quit
inadequate
their pay
if
the we then
valued it
was
jobs
for
or
boring
jobs, managers often can take actions that will correct this situadun in the future. Prediction The
goal
will
result
how in
of
prediction
from
employees
a
predk'Qvc
certain
a
given
will
on
action.
respond
exercise.
behavioral
focuses
to
On
resjxjnscs
A
the to
future manager
the
of
of
a
change.
It
a
installanrm
basis
the
events.
seeks
small of
Of
couro,
determine
factory
new
knowledge
to
who
rolHidc
of
OB,
there
what
attempts
equipment the
arc
to
is
manager
various
outcomes
ways
assess
engaging
can
predict
to
imple-
ment a raakir change, so the manager is likely to assess employee responses to several change generate
inicrwnrions. the
least
In
this
degree
of
way,
the
cinplovee
manager
can
resistance
and
anticipate use
that
which
approaches
information
his or her decision.
Control ■nw nMM>t conuovcRijI gwl „ using OB knowledge to control bchuvior. When a ran I do to make Dave i>ur out more eflbn on his >ubr that manager is ecwtxmcd w ith cvnirol. is conirol eonuxn'ersial? Most of us Jive in democratic societies, which are upon the concept of personal freedom. Therefore, the idea that one person J
uthers to behave in a certain way, w hen the subject?* of that evn, unaware that their beha>ior is fteinft manipulated, has been viewed in
A7* J
J* wn*?dikal and repugnant. Thar OB offers technologies that hiciJjate
p<x>pJc IS a facx Uliether those technologies should be used in ui^anian ethkal question. >hu should he auw howvser, that the axttnd n frcyiendy icen h> inanagm a.> rhe mcm valuable contribution chat OB toward theif efl^tivvness on the job.
in
will
mahng
fUrt I Prdngue CI-IAIXKNGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR OB: A MANAGERIAL PERSPECTIVE
Tile
abilin'
ni^e
ir^^portant
ing
to
place
getting
expbin. tS
in
manager,.
^ere
competition
cope
with
A
organizations
older;
global
predict,
rapid
more
look
and
bchav.o.
a
few
of
claim.
For
instance,
more
women
employees
innovation,
orguni^^tion.l
at
this
and
requiring
change
control
quick
supports
are is
.nd
to
the
and
become
an.l
the
Ins
draniaac the
changes
typical
minorities
more
bonds
u.
flexible
of
never
loyalty
now
tak-
employee
die
and
that
been is
workplace; to
i«n,
histoncally
tc, held
many cnipJovee^? to their employers are being severed, ' use
In
OB
fronting
short
there
eontepu.
in
arc
a
this
managers
for
lot
of
section, which
challenges
we
ll
OB
and
rcvww
offers
oppommicies
some
of
the
solutions—or
ar
today
most
for
managers
critical
least
issues
some
to
con-
meaningful
insights toward solutions.
Improving Quality and Productivity Wood
Peter
manager plant
manages
at
rhe
makes
Oak
catalytic
recognized
that
weren’t
M’illing
wait
Creek
given
plant.'
total
the
to
Creek
has
for
S weeks
systein. by
for
than
40
more
for
delivery.
were
quality,
So
svith
led
a
team
of
overhaul
worked.
Within
more
than
percent,
quality
products
complete
work
wasteful 2
The
In
1997
and
tlicy
overhaul
cells,
of
cjnployccs
processes
years,
has
Syljtcinb.
manufacturers.
customized
The
25
manufacturing-systems
Automotive
automobile
Wocxl
hundreds
He’s
Delphi
wanted
replaced
and
business.
plant
increasingly
lines
for
coinpetitivc
Wisconsin,
customers
Assembly
increased
verj’
Creek,
resjmnsibility
production
a
converters
Wood
Oak
in
the were
were
cut
from
productivity
at
Oak
delivery
time
improved,
and
has been cut to 4 days. More
and
more
managers
are
confronting
the
challenges
that
Peter
Wood
is
fac-
ing. They are having to improve their nrgani 743 ri on's productivity^ and the quality of die
prtxiucTs
and
implementing
sennees
programs
they
such
offer.
as
'I'o
impnivc
quality*
quality
management
and
and
pnxluctivity, process
they
arc
reengineering—
programs that require extensive employee involvement. .\s
Exhibit
ment
of
tional
processes.’
1-2
customer
describes,
quality
satisfaction
It
has
management
through
implications
for
is
driven
by
the
the
continuous
iinprovcmeni
OB
because
requires
it
constant of
all
einplovees
attain-
organizaco
rethink
what the)* do and become more involved in workplace decisions. In
times
improving things would
of chat
neenng. ^aluated
Wootl rernn
Entire
new
from
we
starting
\\ood
reinvented
training
w
ere
ia
It
making the
plant’s
do
were
from
Oak
the
lotruduccd.
enrirch
new
to
“How in
they
were
Orcck
plant
illustrates
production plant’s .And
in
most Rather
approach
would
we
do
essence,
is
the
how
starring
the
svstem.
pak
to
reconsider
if
changes
jobs.
necessaiy
That,
managers
incremental to
of
scratch?"
structured
whole
sometimes
perspective
asks
Delphi's
contribution
sptems to
at
it’s
the
took
merely of
change,
productivity-
their
of
dramatic
reengineering.
and
Peter
in
undergoing
if
process
Instead
processes,
and
and
here
done
be
actions
rapid
quality
around
approach
ou(.
of
over*
process basic
Every
work I’hc
reengi-
production
process
was
Ineffiaeni
processes
were
emplovees
fr>und
them-
than
unpnrvnneois in a sysicni that was uxi rigid and inflexible tn meet changing
tn
t/j
make
snull
Chapter 1 Introduction lo Orgunimitml Bctorior CXMIVT1-2 What U Quahly Management? I firmer•>!> fM«*iiwrr, The customer irthdcs nor only oumiderr who buy the * <»njaniz-«6<»n\ prrducw w M‘mc'' th qiMhr^ffy'W'ibin^ the nr^anizarhn fA?w. Tlie tet in applies noconk ir> (be hnal produce but also to how the organization handles deliveries how rapidh it rr-HponJ> ui n»fnphHnls, how pnliitly ibv phono are aiisweretk and (he like. 4, .-frewntf.' jwr^wwrrwrw/. Quality minagerocnx uses natisncal tcchinques to measure even mttral pcrtoniiancc vuriabk in the organizmiuns Operations '11)6^6 performance VAriAbks arc then cum pared npinsi stand an Is or h»cnch marks to identity pivjhiems. the probktns arc traced to their roots, and rhe causes are eliminated. i. Empi^'d-erynnu ufftfiiJarfts. Quality* ntanagement invokrs the people on the line in the improv*eTnent process. Teams arc widely used as coipowement vehicles Cor finding and sokuig problems.
tamer of
needs,
Wood
individual
help
completely
employees.
cshibtish
For
productivity
rc^anqK'd
his
plant's
instance.
Oak
Creek
standards,
and
actively
production
einployecs
mtem
now
participate
and
check
in
die
for
|ab>
quality,
inmjducing
work-
flow innovations. Today’’s ruanagei^ understand that the succcs.s of any effort at improving qualiU' and
producdniy
mu^r
nupM
force in carrying
ning
those
changes.
include
their
our
changes
OB
offers
employees. hut
Tlxae
employees
increasinglv will
important
insights
into
will
not
<^y
actively participate helping
be
in
managers
a
pbnwork
thmugh these changes. Improving People Skills Ue this chapter by demonstrating how impiirtant people skills .»rc to managena cffertjveness. We said that “this lx>ok has lx*en written to help managers,
and
potential managers, develop these people skUk;’ yxiu proceed through this textiMxvk. we”!! present relevant concepts and thethat can help you etplain and predict the bchavnnr of people ar work. In addition, ymiTJ alw gam insights into specific people skills that you can use on the job. For instaot'e, ysm 11 ic.^m a variety of ways to tin mt ate people, how to be a better cuinmumator, »rul h<.u to create more eftectivc team.
Managing Workforc
Divers itv mip<»runi and bnud-hased dullenges currently facing organizahnm different. The term wc use RM* describing this challenge ,—diversity means that organizations are becoming more hetero* cTim o gender, race, and ethnicity. The term encompasses women.
proloFK African
. Hispanic
Ainencans.
» I .k I A bin Americans. It ;,ls<> includes the anc J 5 Mcireovef. workforce divenity
. Ameruans,
phyMcdly disuhlcd ^Tuys «n. lesh...
as well as the Unite
is an i«uc ,n Canada, Australia, South States. Managers .n
'*’ , ,r’increasingly characterized bv
itrhinrmportaa^..^
^nanagerial jobs. Women, long
h J-parins tcHipomrv jobs in Japan, are now moving into managerial r«siaons. dl^reaaJn of die European Union, which opened up horden, throughout much of western Europe, has increased workforce diversity m organizations that operate m countries such as Germany, Portugal. Italy, and IranceOrganizations that
people
want
to
used
from
when
make
thentsefves
ferent
iifesq-les,
take
different
assimilate.
fM-eferences
to
But
a
cultures
employees
they
come
more
“melting
to
and
don't
work.
accommodating
family
needs,
and
The
work
approach
nacionaliries set
to
pot"
aside
diverse
would
their
challenge
The
differences, somehow'
culTin-al
for
groups
styles.
to
of
people
melting
automatically
values
organizations,
pot
assuming
and
lifestyle
therefore,
hy
is
addressing
assumption
to dif-
is
being
hut
they-
replaced by one that recognizes and values differences.'^ Haven’t were
.such
them. llie
organizations a
small
Moreover, bulk
i)f
it
the
always
percentage was
ot
assumed
prtf'l9S(Is
included the
that
uicmbers
workforce
that
nunoridcs
workforce
were
of
diverse no
would
male
groups?
one
seek
paid
to
Caucasians
Yes,
much
blcnd-m
working
attention
and
to
assimilate,
frill-dme
to
sup-
port a nonenipioycd wife and school-aged children. 'I'hat’s IHJ longer true. Currently, 46
percent
of
the
U,h.
bbor
force
are
women.
And
minorities
and
immigrants
make
up 23 percent.^ Workforce Managers
need
differences
and
retention
and
Diversity,
it
rions
w
lems.
us
divers
WTicn
tn
it)'
shift
as
philosophy
to
those
managed,
improve
divcRity
important
is
can
decision
not
implications
for
(rearing
everyone
from
differences
productivit)’—while
positively ell
rheir
rcsfxinding greater
has
at
increase making
managed
by
projserly
in the
ways
providing ±ere
that
same
crcariviiy
management alike will
time and
jxnenrial
recognizing
ensure
not
in
perspectives for
employee
di<;criminaring.
innovation
different
is
to
practice.
organiza* un
higher
prob-
turnover,
more difficult conuinmication, and more interpersonal conflicts.
Responding to Globalization Managenicm IS no innger constrained by national borders. Four of the five highest ^■Kssing McDonalds restaurants are in lions- Kong, Prentice Hall, the largest seller 'ti k-'r""*
eenTSfT*^”'’-
publisher of this IxM.k, is oJned hy a
F-«onMob.I
a
so-called
k “’c""
.American
company,
receives
aim.«r
75
p^r-
"•’■ch ‘’wns Mdvo. croASSr'^'Smrer’
working with
-
two ways. Pint, if liVeJy t.. find yourself in a foreign ^gntnent. Onu there, ytm II have to manage a workfoae that .s hkdy n. he'very^SS
J
Chapter 1 incroduvtion u> Or^antzaiknut Bvhtvior
,n
neck,
Serwwi.
.spinuions, even
pe^rs.
ami
,H„I
vour you
jiraightlunviird rtork
h«s
effectively
shapeii
discuss
them,
OB
who
may
and
att,t.,.k.^
coiifiiTy,
eniployees
i..oriv;.tcs
To
;.nd
y„L
out
with
these how
may you
adapt
your
throughout
rhis
vou
were
Gjid
raised
them.
people,
ro
..nci to
and
ate
diey
rhe going
bon.
lootit
open,
corceprs
re
were
noi
ai.d
A,,,,,
yourself
in
Or
diftcren.
your
style
find
this
sndc
11
need
to
management
book,
wem
used
to
working cultures,
of
frequently
or
and
their
tlieir
culture,
hots-
p'ffc
op
popular
busincs.s
periodical
nuw-aday.s,
yo.ill
read
about
die
resliap-
ing ol rhe relationship between managers and thrase iJiey're supposedly responsible for managing.
You'll
tors.
In
ring
between
down diwces 15
many
to
find
managers
organizations, the
roJes
of
kvei,
about
schedules
and
decisions.
woA-rdated employees
managers
hill
control
and
where
were
now
work.
are
and arc
An
Decision
solve
get
going
increa.sing
spuiLsors,
associates.
being
to
to
advisers,
called
workers?
encouraged
managers
their
coacl.es,
workers
proceduxes
Now, of
arc
managers
operating
agti,
called
employees
rhe
years
being
And
making
given
the
work-related
their
is
number
of
a
being
blur-
pushed
to
problems. to
facilita-
there^
freedom
eraplovecb
considerably
or
make
Ten
or
participate
in
Rirther
bv’
allowing
organizations
are
using
self-nun aged teams, where work era opera I c largely widiout bosses. W'hat’s going on? VATiatS uoiriK on is that managers are eTttpmvering enipivyets. They are putting employees in charge of what they do. .And in so doing, managers are having to learn how’ to give up control, and emplov’ees are having to learn how to take responsibility show
how
for
Acir
work
empow*erment
and
iS
make
chiiuging
appropriate leadership
decisions.
styles,
In
power
later
chapters,
relationships,
the
w'ell "way
work is designed, and die w ay organizations are structured.
StimuhTing Innovation and Change W’hatevcr Montgiiinrn* giants,
such
happened Ward, as
and Scars
to
VV. J.
and
1.
Grant,
Peterman? Boeing
Al!
Gimbcl's. these
implemenred
Eastern
giants huge
went
Airlines, bust!
cost-cutting
VVI^y
iirograms
Mted thousands of jobs? To avoid going bust] Todavs successful organizations must foster innovation and master the arc of rVwgc or 'they’ll become candidates for extinction. V’icton* will go to organizanous that maintain their flexibility, continually impnive their quahn. and beat t en compe* Wwn to the marketplace v-ith a constant stream of innovauve produc^ and semccs. DotnincA sinclc-handedh brought on the demise of thotwands of STnull pizza parlors •hose managers thought they could continue doing •a but they ba
Siuith
how As
cultural
Empowering People you
may
be
dirvauning,
ferences might require managers to modily their practices.
If
instance,
differences.
address
home. bosses,
co.iimuiucacion
undersund to
with l
unenmfortabk
sn-le
back
Corona,
have
oAer
and
climi-
it we dif-
10
employee
crwrivhy
^ntl
tolemnce
ft>r
riic field of OB pn>vide5 a wealth of
change,
itkas and lechniqoes to aid in rtralizing these
Coping with ”Icinporariness" Manaeine
used
to
alh
bv
as
long
peiiods
of
iiv’
Tlic
work!
that
•
short
lie
characterized
period,
leinpomniicis/*
ot
change.
ongoing most
The
by
periods
.Managing
change, jobs
today
interrupted
managers
actual
long
and
that
of
stability,
would
be
occasionally
employees
workers
face
jx-rRirm
interrupted
occawon-
aaurately
described
more
by
short
today
is
are
in
periods one
a
o1
of
subil-
permanent
permanent
state
of
fliLK. So workers need to continually update their knowledge and skills to perform new jub
requirements.
Careipilbr, tion
Tor
example,
Ford,
and
Akxia
equipment.
Thai
not
now part
production need
ot
ro
Uicir
employees
know
job
how
at
tn
companies
operate
descriptions
15
department,
cific erable
amount
and
of
has
l»ers
different
increased Finally,
been
use
of
replaced
employee
by
sell
with
the
wlw>sc
roUDoii
to
are
off
relatively
temporary*
and
dicinsclves
divisions,
w’aA
working
depaitments
organizanons
dieir\'arious
assignment
secunry in
predictabilin from
that
in
poorly
wnrk
groups,
members
till a
peqdc
stale
of
performing
'I’licrc
was
and
teams
that
groups
all
a
day
the
out.
time,
They
continually
downsize
consid-
include
work
businesses,
produc-
Work
changing
flux.
as
assigned to a spe-
day in
change
consrantly
ago.
WTTC
pcrmanetiL
same
coniputcrized
years
arc also increasingly in a state of flux. In the past, employees
such
That mcm-
and
the
assignments. reorganize
uperatiuns,
and
replace peraianeni employees with temporaries. Today's have
to
OB
managers
learn
can
to
provide
overcome
and
live
with
important
resistance
to
employees
Tiiust
flexibility,
insights
change,
to
s|K)nuneily,
into
and
karn
a
how
work
best
copc
wd
temporariness.
unpredictability-
world
to
with
of
create
continual
an
The change,
organizanonal
I'hey
study
of
how
to
culture
that
dirives on change.
Helping Employees Balance Work/Life Conflicts Tlie
typical
through
Friday
workplace of
employee and
and
today’s
in
did
hours
the his
were
workforce.
lybOs or
her
clearly
Employees
or
1970s
job
in
spedfied. are
showed
eightI’hats
up
or no
increasingly
at
the
nine-hour longer
chunks
uue
complaining
workplace
for
that
of
Monday
rime.
The
a
large
segment
the
line
between
work and nonw'ork time has become blurred, cTcating personal conflicts and stress. number work
and
of
fortes
pers<mal
lives.
have First,
contributed the
to
creaQon
blurring
of
the
global
tines
Ivtwcen
organizatioas
means
employees’ their
world
never sleeps. At any time and on any iLiy, for insuncc. ihoasands < »f ^>almlcKJln^kr ynployees
are
working
sonwwhere.
The
need
lo
conMdt
with
colleagues
or
customers
« or 10 umc-zones away mean*, that many employees of global firms are ‘ on-cair 24 hours
a
day.
Tab
in.
proksswnal asking average
Sect.nd,
jobs
ampUnees wni^eek
a>inmunjcadon
This do U)
lee
then put
insTcased
work
any
in
longer
from
4.1
technology
allows
many
|)eoplc
rime
and
hours. to
47
firim
For houA;
employee,
do
in
any
place.
insunct, anti
to Third,
1977
number
of
and
at and
organizations 1997
people
50 or more hours a week jum,Kd fn»m 24 pcrcxml to J 7 percent Finally, lues have <mly a Mnglc breadwinner I< Jay’s iiiarned empbs^ is typc^ pan of a
work
technical
Ixrween
the
their
are the
working
fewer bm-
♦* ♦
J
Chapter dMtlH'irecp the
ctnipk
time
n»
Kmplnyecs Jh’es ees
ing
give
similar
concerns?^
A
halancc M'ell
will
Bnd
a
it
ic.
addition,
jobl
of
life
hard
and
generation
work that
to
ncn is
attract
primary
help
and
their
retain
the
they
students
personal
that
can
say
goal.
people
achieve
that
’J’hcy
axid
As you'll see in later chapters, the fiehl of OB offers a nuxnlier of suggestions to managers
in
designing
workplaces
and
jobs
that
can
help
employees
deal
with
work/life conflicts. Dec'lliHTig Employee Loyalt>’ Corporate and
employees
good
work
with
beginning
in
leveraged
buyouts,
jub
scvuriiy,
closing down
used
the
and
believe
security
mid-1980s,
in
the and
generous
like,
employers
benefits,
to
and
global
cotporanons
operations
with
their
response
businesses,
enployccs
that
compensation.
moving
lcs&-prodtabic
permanent
job
•iemoriiy,
fectorics,
to
began
lou’er-cost
eliminating
temporaries,
entire
and
reward
steady
pay
competition, to
’ITicy sought
lc>
would
discard
to levels
substituting
unfriendly “lean
selling
of
loyairy
incrcxbcs.
traditional
become
countries,
their
But
takeovers, policies
on
mean”
by
and oft
or
management,
closing replacing
performance-based
pay
sys-
tems for seniority-based programs. Tris iTnp
phenomenon.
Barclay's,
^e
German
big
ITTIILS
electronic
European
British
have
bank,
trimmed
engineering
companies recently
their
eongiomcrate.
cut
are
doing
staff
levels
workforce shed
and
more
the by
same. 20
management
than
.^,000
jobs
For
percent. ranks: tn
one
instance, And
some
Siemens, year
die
alone;
and srcelmakcr Knipp-IIoeseh cut its ^ntifijgprnrnt hierarchy' from five lei^els to three. These Employees
changes perceive
have
that
their
resulted employers
in are
a
sharp lew
decline
coniniittcd
to
in them,
employee
loyalty.^*
and,
as
a
result,
ways
to
motivaw:
emj^yees respond by- being less committed to their companies. .An wooers
important
who
feel
OR less
challenge
will
be
coimnitted
to
their
for
managers
employers,
to while
devise
maintaining
their
organ!-
zations' global compeotiveness. Improving Ethical Behavior In an organtj^tional w
orld characierirxd hy rime pressurcs. expectations of increasing
worker producrix ity’. and tough cumpctidon in the marketplace, it's not altogether surprising that many employees fed pressured ro cut corners, break rules, and engage in edicr forms of questionable practices. Members of organisations are increasingly finding themselves facing ethical situations in which they are required to define righl and wrong cunducT. eaamplc. should they “blow the whistle** if they uncow illegal activincs taking plitfc m ihar company' Shixild they follow orders with which they don't person* Do they give an inflated pcrfi>rmance evaluation to an employee whom
to
attain-
want
wtirk/life
capable
man-
likely
employees.
guide
einpkiy-
better is
care:er
find
fnends.
out
suggest
most
t<j
parents
employees
university
a
don’t
studies
of
Kehiivior
cinplrj>xes
squeezing
schedulcsso
and
Opnpix.ational
children,
recent
work
to
n^arried
i>
dieir
college
Organizations
increasingly
work
example,
the
majority
frjr
spouse,
thai For
Introduction
difficult
home,
HexibilitvHn
personal
between as
about
diem In
as
ance
that
to
recognizing
happy
eonrtktsJ-
a
life*
jobs
not
incixasingly
comniitnicnts
work/life
ha>'e
it
increasingly
thev're
want
inakc.*s
fuJrtd
arc
and
age
l*his
i
“a bal-
motivated
12 Pirt» Prob
1
:”;=ii?x;S'£::— f mpla -ees dal! are utives
«e
.ndicted use
people
for
dl
padding
insider
around their
infonnatwn
rhem
expense
for
engaging
accounts
personal
in
or
finaiicui
ur.eth.cal
.
pracdce^le^
taking
bnlres;
gam;
university
otfi-
succes-ihil
exec-
administrators
“look the other way' when a winning coach verixitly abuses his athletes; and even the President when
of
the
caught,
advantage
United
giving
States
excuses
nowadays,”
“1
distorts such
never
as
the
truth
under
“everyone
does
thought
I'd
get
organizations
are
responding
oath. it,”
caiighi,”
They
‘-you
or
“it
hear
have
these to
people,
seize
every
depiends
on
what
problem
from
a
rhe
meaning ol the word is.” Manager? ber
of
dinnigh
and
directions. ethical
pre^ams
to
their
I'hey’re
wiring
ddeininas.
m*
They’re
improve
TO
and
distributing
offering
ethical
codes
seminirs,
behaviors.
to
I
this
of
ethics
workshops,
he}’’re
to
guide
and
providing
num-
employees
similar
training
in-house
advisers
who can he contacted, tn many cases anonymously, For assistance in dealing with cthical
issues,
.^nd
they’re
creating
protection
mechanisms
for
employees
who
reveal
intemd unethical fKaoices. Ibday^ manager needs to create an etliieally healthy climate in which his or her employees ityregarding discuss
can
do
wliar
ths
kinds
their
work
constitutes of
actions
pnxliictivelyand
right
and
managers
wTong can
confront
a
behaviors.
take
to
create
minimal In an
degree
iipttoraing
of
ambigu-
chapters,
we’ll
ethically healthy climate
and to help employees s<.»n through ethically ambiguous situations.
THE PLAN OF THIS BOOK C>^r V ’’'S Our appp, ach us„ i bu.ldmg-bl.Mik process. ilbistruied in Exhibit 1-1 d.ure are
EXHIBIT 1-3
behavior?
r Chaptwl Introduction w (hwmiationaj Beh«,w leeming 1 ncn *e nwve tm w wnsidcr rhe rul<> e.f {)rhAv'U>r. Wc ^nclucle th.. «c6o„ {)tr mjMv c»t inibvidiial decision making. The behavior of nenple m ffronne k individual acting in his or her own wav. Pcontp’^ k.f Afir Ix-hat wr when they an- alone, Chap^ 7 tlin.uvtTn We inmxluee a gi-oup behavior model,
».
IKIIMI
*” of mouvaunn issues and
discuss
WJV<
total of each different from address gn.up beljavior.
£on«iler a.nunujiication issues and group dcdsi.n.^malHn
efitttive,
imptmant topics of leadenhip. trust, power the fontul organizauon sysretn to our knowledge of ind' Jim <s groups are more tl.aii die sum of their indiriduaf^i”^ l^^havior,
‘"vesrigate the "c «id
not necessarily merely the summation of die behavior .,f a lu Chapters I .t ti.rough 17. we. disc.u.s how an or^SonV Lm? «chfio(i)gv aficcr behavior; the effect that an «,p™£« l,»e „„ .r«»,
f*'1 •• L *
people,
du, „„„.,ge„ can « ,o .ffee, beh.eio, foe *.
h-eX^o^^o™”.
and oXb
PART II: The Individual in the Organization
HAPTER2
Foundations of Individual Behavior After reading this chapter, you should be able to 1. List the domirrart values in today's workforce 2. Describe the relationship between satisfactior and productivity 3. Explain the theory of cognitive dissonme 4. Summarize the relationship between atthudes ar>d b^wi^ 5. Explain how two people can see the same thing and interpret it differendy 6. Summarize attribution fteory 7. Outline the learning process
A n understanding .if indivi
VALUES
•
■''
Is capital pimishmeninght or wn.ng'- If a person likes jKiwer. is rliat good or bad’ The answers to these qu^nons are value-laden. Some might argue, for exan^Je, that «pipunishxiKnt ,s right became it's an appropriaw retributi.Hi for erimessueh as Values represent basic convictions that “a specillv mode of conduct or end-state ofe^tence is personally or socially preferable m an ..ppositc .< c«wl«ct or end-state of e«stem.-e." ■ They conca.n a imiStlav.< in^^ W «
" ...«r .
Chaptef 2 Eoundaiions oF Individual Behavior gI individual values. I hey're identified by the relative importance an iiulindual awiigns to vnlues such as freedom, pleasure, scIf-rcFpecT, hnnesfy', ohedience,
Types of Values Can wc cln*'Si1>’ values? 1 be answer is: Yes’ In this .section, we’ll review ru'O approaches to developing % aluc cypnl«gie.s. Rokeach
Value
Survey
iMihon
Kokeach
created
the
Rokeach
Value
Survey
<WS)?
The R^'S consists of two sets u I values, with each set con tail ling 18 individual value items.
One
set.
called
terminal
values,
refers
to
desirable
cad-scures
of
existence.
The^c are the goals that a person would like to achieve durnig his or her lifetime. The other means
set,
called
of
achieving
instrumental
values,
6c
terminal
values.
studies
confirm
6ac
refers
to
Exhibit
preferable
2-1
gives
modes
common
of
behavior,
examples
for
or each
of 6csc sets. Sc'•'er same
ill
occupations
students)
tend
executives,
or
to
catcgvrie^j
hold
members
similar
of
the
RVS
(e.g., values.
values
vary
corporate For
steelworkers’
among
managers,
instance, union,
one and
groups.^ union
study
People
members, comparing
members
of
a
in
6e
parents, O’jqioratc
community
activist group found a good deal ol overlap among rhe three groups,** but also some very
signifieani
differences.
I
he
activists
had
value
preferences
ferent from diose of the other
two groups. They ranked
tant
and
terminal
respectively.
value;
executives
Activists
ranked
union
“helpfur
as
iiienibcrs their
rhat
were
quite
dif-
equaiic) as 6eir most impor-
ranked
this
value
second-highest
12
and
instnunental
13,
value.
The other ru n groups bo6 ranked it 14. These differences arc important, since executives, union members, and aciivises all have a vested interest in what corporanons
EXHIBIT 2-1
Examples of Termiral and Insirumental Values in the Rokeach Value Survey
Tentuiu) Values
Instrumental Values _________________
A cwnfona^lp^life {a ^*pefous life)
Ambitious (hardworking, aspiring)
A senseenT fisuting
Capable (cOTipcTent. eliieedve)
cuntribudon)
Cheerful (Hgbdicartcd, fOyfui)
A world of peace (free of war and cwiflict)
<dean’)
A wofid of beaury (beauty of nature and the am)
CotiMgeous (standing up foi your belief)
(hriMherhood. equal opporTunity* Fiir all)
Help fill (woridng for the welfwe (4*
Fwuh security luhng care of loved ones) Frcrtlmn (uvle|iendeiice. tree chokv) Hipfutc^ (utfiientcilnev.) te*er hannoov (frvmlofn tfiwn inner coA^ct) (an entuvaUev kriurei\ lifiei ^^*•**<■1 (Mved. eternal li^e) ^'*■1 nx'u^pwuun impcct. adnuraoon) Ta* IncAaUup (cluw esitnptiiHjnahip.)
others) Honest (sinctrt, truthful) Imaginxrive (darings vreadvc) Logical (L'onsrsitnt, mdonal) l.oring(afFa:t]onacc, tender) Obedient (dniifuJ, respec tful) PoUte (ccHineous. wdl mannered) Re^Msibte (dependable, reliable)
ft
H 1^’ Individual in the Organixatiun d„, -AMien corjx.raliuns jn.l cridcal
f^Xr
come together m negouanons or ctm cm
in dirterences in (wfsonal value pref-
pohaes, they are likely to beg.n -th ’’X « e o. erenees. . . Reaching Agreement on any -qteciiie ««ue oi pmiQ . value, arx- importantly implicated might prove to be qu.ic difficult Contempomrv Work Cohotrs Your author h» integrated
pX
of
tm.que
work
values'inro
cohorts
or
most
groups
generations
framework
would
employees
fi.ur
can
people
in
the
un.versaUv
IK
segmented
start work
in
an
U.S.
between
aeros.s
the the
wcapntre
workforce.''
apply l.y
attempt
all
several
the
[No
assumption
cultures.)
era
in
which
ages
of
18
they
and
where
23,
values ..
the was
analyses
of
made 2-2
the
perttnal
recent
Exhibit
cntere.l
the« H
different that
this
prt.po^
that
workforce.
Because
also correlate
closely
with dw chronolugival nt employees. Workers Andrews and
who
Sisters,
earlv
1960s
them the
grew
and
up
die
believing
influenced
Berlin in
hy
the
blockade
hard
work,
Great
Depression,
entered
the
status
quo,
the
World
worktrirce and
War
dirough
authority
U,
the
figures.
the
1950s
We
call
Once hired. Veterans tended to he loyal to their employee. In terms of fenninai
values
on
the
RV^,
these
employees
are
likely
co
place
the
greatest
importance ou a coinluruble lite and funil)’ security'. Soi/WfT/ .Members Beatles,
enrered
of
this
the
cohort
V'iemam
large
measure
deal
of
of
that
merely
as
aids
“hippie
on can
vehicles
their
from
influenced
and
ethic"
and
means.
and
the
by
the
compctibon.
distrust
of
inarerial
Boomers
careers.
mid-1960s
heavily
baliy-boom
achievement justih’
for
workforce
were
war,
the
emphasis
believe
the
see
Terminal
through
civil They
audiority’. success. the
values
rights
But
a
with
they
They’re sense
mid-1980s.
movement,
brought
organizations like
the
them
a
a
^rcai
pragmatists
who
that of
place
the
employ
them
atcompli^inenr
and scxial recognition rank high with them. A fry' lives Have been shaped by glohalizatitm, tw^o-carcer parenb. xAflV. AIDS, a^ compuie^. They value flexibilitj; life uptioiis, and the achievement of job satisbcuon. Family and rchcionshjps are ver\ imporuni to this ixihon. Thev also eniov important is 4n indicator of career perfo^nance, but
cs. Xen are less w.llmg to make personal sacrifices for the .sake of their etnptowr
EXHIBIT 2 2
Donttnant Values in Today’s Workforce
lateral the
Cubort VeterMU
Appmxioutc Wortdwee _Curre7it Age i^SOs IX early 1960s 60
Boonien
1965-1905
•MMiO
Xo*
19«5.2aM)
25-W
Nuaan
2Wt»pfww
Under 25
Pominant Worfc Valuei H»cd -Orting, conservative. Luofonran« ‘‘’Pleywthe.ffgjniution
A
Chaptar 2 PuiinAtium of Individual Rehsvior chan pivnous generations were. On the RV'S. they rate high on true friendship, happine^. *n
most
recent
entrants
f<)
the
workforce,
the
.Vritm,
have
grown
up
during
prrKpt rous times, so they tend to he optimistic abour rhe economy, to believe in tbem^Iv'es,
and
dhxrsit) of
to
and
thetr
lx*
Ac
lives
vt»nfi
with
about
generation
CD
their
to
players.
ability
take
VCRs,
to
succeed.
technology
celhitar
for
phones,
Nexurs
granted.
and
the
arc
at
ease
ThcyXe
with
lived
Internet.
This
most genera-
tion is very money-oriented and desirous of the Aings diat money can buy. They seek financial
success.
They tend An
to
Like
Xers,
they
emphasirx terminal
understanding
that
enjoy
values
individuals’
teamwork
sudi
as
values
but
they’re
Freedom and
diller
but
also a
tend
highly
com to
self-reliant.
to nah
reflea
I
e life.
Ac
societal
values of iJic periixl A which they grew up can he a valuable aid in explaining and predktiiig
behavior.
Employ’ccs
in
Acir
60s,
for
instance,
are
more likely to
accept
author-
itv Aan arc Aeir tx>-workers who arc 10 or IS years winger. .And workers in Acir 3Os are more likely Aan Acir parents to balk at having to work weekends and more prone tu kn'e a job m mj
Aink
drt
ime
ediical in
cAicaJ
Exhibit
2*2)
acQun
of
bcharior upper
standards
for
in
erode
perhaps
possible
explanation.
bosses
Aeir
to
standards,
a
their
t>cgan
is
Ae
most
organizarions.^
management
Aould
wc
a
die
should
lock
.After
all,
important
Given
have
in
this
laic to
our
managers
factor
fact,
significant
1970s.If
there
work
cohorts
consistently
inilucncAg
Ac
values
bcatmg
on
has
Aose
the
model
repon
cAical
of
been
m
entire
(see
that
and
a
Ar
unethical
middle
rtliical
and
climate
wiAin an organ izatiorL 'Ihrough whose
Ae
loy*alties
mid-1970s,
were
to
in
terms
sions
were
made
mid-to
late
1970s.
Ac
Aeir of
Boomers
managerial
employer.
Hlien
what
best
began
was
to
rise
ranks
w
faced for
into
ere
wiA
Acir
Ac
dominated
ethical
organize
iipixr
levels
by^
dilemmas. lion.
of
Veterarw Aeir
deci-
Beginning
in
the
manageincrn.
Uy
Ae
early 1990si, a large portion ol iniddlc and top management positions in business organuations were held by* Bcx)mcn>. The mary he
loyaltv
concern
of
is
consistent
Boomers
uiA
wiA
ib
looking
a
to
out
dcdinc
in
Aeir
for
careers.
“Number
cthiad
Their
One.”
standards.
locus Such
Could
diis
is
inward
and
sell-centered help
Aeir
values
explain
Ae
pri-
would alleged
decline in business ethics bcchimng in Ae late 1970s? The potential good news in ihis analysis is that Xers are now in the process of mosAg Since
into Aeir
unpheanons ward
lu
an
middle-management loyalty' uf
is
their
uplifting
to
and
relationships,
actions of
slots
on
ethical
oAcrs
soon
Aey
arc
around
standards
in
will
he
more
Aem.
rising likely
Tlic
business
Ato to
the
management.
consider
resuh?
over
top
Wt next
Ae
might
ethical
look
for-
or
two
decade
merely as a result ofchanging values wiAin the cunagerial ranks, \'^ues Across Cultures In f Juptcr 1. we descrilwd Ac new g1<»ba] village and said “managers base to become t>p*b4e
of
working
wiA
pexipk
from
different
cultures.**
Because
«j»ure>, an undersundmg of Aese differences Aould he helpful in explaining and
s*aiues
differ
across
tt Pa rt H The I nd K'MIU al in t he t )i pa r iza tion predicting
beb.vinr
nfeviployees
fr„.n
^.ntrics-
Acomparison
ind lao'inese cidtvrc trail help illiiStraTc this prdrtT. Eic.in c,..,tr3.t kam
Janinesc
to
are
L.gin
children
think
rccoonnne not
children
are
analyze,
facts.
surprisingly,
result
different in
rhe
question.
value. co
,.f
be
inriivrd.wl.ty
‘team
and
players,
ro
Thdr
Japanese
countetpa^
s.x-ialization
pracoecs
reflect
differeiii
tjpes
American
.
indoctrinated
and
These
early
..f
nf
tniployees-
1
I umqueness.
work arc
different
he
average
In
with.n
the
rewarded
for
tmitures U.,S.
and.
woiker
is
more conipetiiii e and self-focuscd than the Japanese worker. The obviotrs o.nclu.s.on frotJi ±c<e r»bsei-vnt5(Ui5 js thi^c prdicJonsof employee behavior, based on U.S. worker?,
are
likdv
w
be
qft-wfget
when
the/re
applied
to
a
popuhnoii
of
cniplcyceb—
.suth as ihc Japane^{c^ who prefer iird perforin bener in stahtlardiicd casks, as part of u work CG5in, ivirii gnjup-basvd decisions and rewards. .A Framework for Assessing Cullui’es One of the most widely referenced approaches for analv'zing variations among cultures \vafij originated by Geerx llofetede.^^^ He surveyed more dwn 116,000 TBM enijjloyecs in 40 countries about their workrelaced values. .\nd what did he find? He found that managers juid employees vary on five value dimensions of national ml hire. They arc listed and defined as fbllovr's: Power distance—I he degree to which [>ei»ple in a countr)’ accept that power in institutions
and
orgajuxaticns
is
distributed
une
Ranges
from
degree
to
rehrivcly
equal
(low power distance) lu exircrncly unequal (high power distance). Individualism
v^.
tolleetWOT
Individualism
is
the
which
people
in
a CQuuuy prefer to aiT a.’i individuals rather than as members of groups, Collectivisra is the opposite or the equivalent of low individualism. Quantity of
life
\3.
quality of
life—Qnanrity of
life
is
the
degree
to which
val-
ues such as assertiveness, the acquisition of monev and material goods, aod competirion prevail. (Quality of life is the degree to wdlich |x:oplc value relationships, and show sensitivin' and concern for die welfhrc of (ithers.** Uncertainty tured
ostr
avoidance—The
unstructured
degree
situarioiis.
In
to
which
coumries
[xeciple
ihat
score
in
a
country'
liigh
on
prefer
struc-
uncertainty
avoid-
ance, people luve an increased level of atudety that manifests itself in greater iiervousne.ss, stress, and aggressivene'is. Long-term countries values
look
the
vs. to
past
the and
short-term future
and
present,
orientatioa—People
value
and
dirift
emphasizxs
and
in
persistence.
respect
for
long-tcnu-orientation
A
short-tenn
tradition
and
orienratiim
fulfilling
social
obligations. Exhibit 2-.^ provides a summary of how a number of countries rate on these five cUmensions. than
For
instance,
individualistic.
On
not
the
surprisingly,
odier
hand,
most
the
.Asian
United
countries
States
ranked
are
more
highest
collectivi^ among
ccxintnes sun’eyed on individualism. ImplicatJons
for
OB
Mf^r
^owkdge we call ^nen^
s^.iects
of
all
** the
concepts
that
currcntlv
make
up
the
body
of
b,h
doraesne
contexts.
A
comprehensive
study,
for
instance
of
more
than I I MO articles pubiLshed in 24 management and organizational behavioi^ journals mthe
”’7“^ P‘--n''d r^ eal^ that approximately 80 percent of the sn«li« were done Lmted Stat«and had l>een conducted by .Americans.'- Follow-up studies coo-
tiAue to oaifinn the laci of cToss-culniral considenttions in management and OB
- ItL
Chapter 2 Foundations of Individi eXMltlT 2-3
Examples of Cutwrak Dknensions
P
Coanvry
Uncertainty
Individualim*
Quantity ofLtfe*’
Avoidance
ly>ng-tcm OtientatMm*^
Own*
High
Low
Moderate
.Moderate
High
France
High Low*
High High
Moderate High
High
Low AAiKleratc
High
ixkW
High
Low
Low
Moderiu
Low
Higki Low
Moderate
Moderate
High
Modevic
Miideratu
High Mudcrate
Low I.IIW
High
High
Moderate High Low
Moderate Low
Uoited Starr*
Luv High Low
VWtst Atriv*
High
Low
Moderatt
.Moderate
Low
German)* KtMig bukmeMi NetheHanrb Rusiia
Moderate
Low
• A low «o*e K synonymous with collertrviwn ♦*A low score » synonymoui with high quality of life. «** A low score ts synonymous with a short-term oflentatiori. Adapted fiom G Kofst»de< "C^hmal CAuaems in WAMsanerx FIIOKM.* Academy of Managenenv BreortM. Fabwv research.^' VVlut thi^ means is that (1) not all sally
applicable
work
s-alues
are
considerably
different
cake
into
consideration
cultural
should
tu
managing
people
around from
OB theories and concepu are unhrer-
the
world,
especially
those
in
United
values
when
die
trying
to
in
countries
where
States,
and
(2)
you
understand
the
behavior
of people in different countries.
ATTITUDES Attitudes
are
__ evaluative
statements—either
favorable
or
unfavorable—concerning
objects, {leople, i>r events. They reflect how one feels about something. When 1 say ‘i like my job."* Tra expressing my atbtude about work. A penon can have thousands of attitudes, but OB focuses on a very hmited number
of
idb-related
attitudes.
These
include
job
satisfaction,
job
involvement
(the
degree to which a person identifies with his or her job and actively participates in it), and
organizational
organization).
commitment
Without
question,
(an
indicator
however,
of
job
loyalty
r<>.
satisfaciino
and has
identification received
the
with, bulk
the of
attention. Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction refers to an individuars genrrd attitude toward his or her job. A person with a high level of job satisfaction holds positive attitudes toward the job; a person who k dissatisfied w ith his or her i holds negative attitudes about rhe job. V\'hen people speak of emplovee attitudes, more often than not they mean iob satisfaction. In tact, the rww terms arc frequently used interchangeably
WIttt
Deumioet
Job
Satisfaction?
VMiat
work-related
variables
Mtiafxwm* ’Ibe evidence indkates that the most important factors conducive to lob
ileterminc
job
Individud in the Organix^rx..
supportive working
satisfaction are .uentally challenging wo.i. equ.ubk emtiitions, and supportive collea^es.
opportunities to u« their skilU j feedback on how well they’re
Kinplojeet rend to prefer frbs P and ahibties and offer a vanety ot tas ,
XiHenaing-Jobs that have too little
doing. These . ha. actensties ntake
and feelings of
challenge ™.» tacdom, bu. failure. Under conditions ot moderate chauenge, .UM K w!!,;™ °".x ’J’®"’ “"J p™”"-" unxnfeoo,. X line with
las,, on
job
likeh
demands,
to
result
indiwidnnl
Similarly,
.belt
still
employees will experience
expeetndons.
leeel.
indivi.luals
and
who
*'■ '’"“'7 “ S'"? pny » y., ns f.,t,
Wl-cn
eommumiy
pertxivc
pay
that
sUnJards.
pnunoucn
b.sed
satislaenon
decisions
are
is
made
in a fair and jus: manner are likely lo experience wrslacuon from i heir |ob$. Em ploy ee** are concerned with their work euvironment for both personal comfon and fadliuun^ doiii^ a good job. 1 hey prefer physical surroundings ihai arc sale, annforrahle, clean, and have a minimum degree of distractions. Finally, ments.
For
prisinffly»
people most
get
more
of
W'oil
chan
work
also
611s
the
friendly
and
employees,
therelorc,
luving
out
supportive
merely need
money
for
social
co-workers
or
tangible
achieve-
interaction.
leads
co
Nor
s«r-
increased
job
sadsfeoion. Satisfactioii students The
and
of
question
Prcwhicrtvity
Few
organi
rational
typicilly
ixwcd
is:
on
the
topics
behavior .‘Vc
have
as
the
satisfied
attracted
aS
much
interest
sadsfaetion/producoviry
workers
more
among
i-clationshipj'^
priiducdvc
than
dissatis-
fied workers? The
early
views
summarized
in
paternalism
shown
ing
company
sujwn'Lsors to
ny.">
TO
Ht^e
the
statemciii by
Uiwling
“a
managers teams
and
sacishctioii/productiviry happy in
the credit
worker I^JOs
is
a
relationship prmhicrive
rhroiigh
unions,
the
h.ilding
tan
be
worker.”
IQSOs—for
company
essentially
Much
of
e.sample,
pia.i«,
and
the fann-
training
be sciisinvc to the concerns of employees—wa> initiared with tlic intenr workei^ha^y.
Rtit
the
happy-wrker
thesis
wa.s
based
more
on
wishfol
thinking than on hard evidence. •A more careful analysis indicates that if satisfaction does have a oositive effect on productivity, that effect is fa^ly small The introduction of moderating vanabks, however, has improved the rcladonshio For incrun/> rk i L • stronger when employees' liehanor is not con.;L„ed o^S^ttn.He^ 00?^! f c' tors. An cmployxcV productivity on machine-paced jobs for eicani f ‘
way around. If you Jo a goml lob.y-o.i nitnnsicallv feel good about 7 assume that the organizati.m rcu-ards prcxlucmitv, y^uthfaher add.uon if we increase verbal retxignition. your pay level- and nro^Mbiliri^ 1^ rewards. turn. wil. increase yourleUl tnaior dctCRninant of an employ Satisfied emplmees would seem m.„.. bk'ely t- »lk pos,nvdy
should
**’'’“*J
*
Cha pte r 2 Founda n o nj o f Indi I'i d usi Behavuir help iichcrs. a»d go heyt^d chu normaJ expcciaaons in their job. Moreover, satisfied empkn’ees might he more prone to g<3 beyond the call of doty because they want to reeipnKatc
their
pKitive
experiences.
Consistent
with
this
thinking,
early
discussions
of <XJB issumed that it was closely linked widi satisfaction.^*^ More recent evidence, however,
suggests
that
satisfaction
influences
OCB,
but
through
perceptions
of
nwdese overall relationship between job satisfaction and QCBJ^ But sati.sfaction mcanr
unrelated
IN
Basically,
job
O('B when fairness is con rroiled forJ*^ What does this
TO
satisfaction
comes
down
to
conceptinns
of
fair
nutcomes,
treat-
Tncni. and pnicedurcs.^^^ If you don't feel like your supervisor, die orgaxti nation procedures or pyy policies are fair, your job satisfaction is likely lo suffer significantly. However
when
you
develop.
And
when
perceive you
organiMtional
trust
your
processes
employer,
and
outcomes
you’re
more
to
be
fair,
trust
willing
to
voluntarily
that
individuals
eng5ige in behaviors th ar go beyond x’our formal job re quire oieiits.
Reducing Dissonance One
of
the
seek
most
relevant
ron.q\tency.
findings
Cognitive
pertaining
dissonance
r«>
aninujes
occurs
is
when
the
fact
there
are
incynsistenvies
between two or more of a person’s actinides or between a persim’s Ixjbavior and amtudcs.
The
theory of
cognitive
dissonance
suggests
that
people
seek
to ntinimfae
dis-
sonance and ihc discomfort it ciuses.-’ Di the real world, no individual can avoid dissonance completely. You know tiiat “honesty is the best policy” but say nothing when fl store clerk gives you back too much
change.
how
do
Or
people
importance
of
you
cell A
COJK;?
rhe
your
children
person’s
elements
to
desire
creating
the
to
brush reduce
dissonance,
after
even'
dissonance the
degree
meal,
but
don’t
is
determined
of
influence
So
by
the
the
indi-
vidua! beliwcs he or she has over the elements, and the rewards chat may lx; involved in dissonance. If u»
the
correct
has
a
elements this
creating
imbalance
husband
and
will
setxral
the
dissonance
be
low.
But,
are
say a
children—believes
relatively
iinimportant,
factory’
manager—Mrs.
strongly that
no
the
pressure
Smith,
company should
w'ho
jM)llute
the air tir water. Unfortunately, because of the requirements of her job, Airs. Smith is placed in die |x»sinon of having to make decisions that would trade oft her company’s profitability
against
her
attitudes
on
pollution.
She
knows
thflt
clumping
the
coni-
pnys sewage mtn the local river (we’ll assume die praciict^ is legal) is in die best economic
interest
of
her
firm.
y\’hat will
she
do?
(IIearly,
iVlrs.
Smith
is
experiencing
a
high degree of cc^itivc dissonance. Because of rhe importance of rhe elements in diis exan^pie, wc cun’t expect Mrs. Smith to ignore the inconsistenev’. Besides quitting her job, there arc several paths that she can follow* to deal with her dilemma. She can reduce
dissonance
either
hy
changing
her
behavior
(stop
polluting
the
river)
or
by
CTjmIuding dut the dissonant behavior is not so iinponant after all ("Fve got to make a living and, in my role as a LXjrporaic decision maker, 1 often have to place the g<M)d of my company abtwe that of the enviromiient or society.”). A third ahernative w ould be .Mrs, nw.
Sitiiih I.
Sull
diss<*nanr
to
change
another txies
(“
her
choice I’he
attitude
would Ixncfiu
be to
fThere to
is
seek skKien*
nothing
out
more
fi\>m
•We dun offset the ci>st lu Mk.'iet)* of the resutrirw w*atcr pollution
wrong
with
consonant
polluting
elementx
manufacturing
our
lu
the out'
products
2t
•|W IndmJwl ii» iheOrfaftlKitiiMi c 4 u Udievt tbcv have over the cknunu will The dejrer of mftuciuv that mdtv.duah ^ive the disv,hAve an unpart <« how rh^ thinit alnnu which thev have IMJ choice— nance u. be an .mo^ntwllahk. -ulc-^-’h’nM a t d^son.ncc they're not likely to be reeept.ve to preswre tn reduce produdng behaviol is required as a result (»i UK n m^rilv Althniicrh di
also
I^e
iniluencc
tertsion
the
i.j
deercc
inherent
in
tn
which
high
individuals
diss-mance
may
are
be
nintnatcd
reduced
to
when
reduce ^oinpa-
nied by a high reward, l he reward acts tn reduce dissonance by increasing the consistency side some
of
fdnii
the
of
indnidual's
reward
or
balance
sheet
reniuneration
for
Because their
people
in
organiMiions
services,
employees
because
individual
often
are
gncn
can
deal
wich greater dissonaiKv on their jobs than off their jobs. These (lajice,
modemring
they
will
fflcrors
not
suggest
necessarily
diat
move
just
directly
toward
experience
consistency,
that
is,
dissotoward
reduction of this dissonance. If rhe issues uruicriy ing die dissonance are oi inininu! importance, if an individual perceives chat the dissonance is externally imposed and is subsundaily
uneontrolbbic.
or
if
rew
ards
arc
.significant
enough
to
effect
the
ol
cognitive
disso
nance, the indiindual will nor he under great tension to reduce the dissonance. H*hat nance?
It
are can
the help
ioral
change.
For
say
or
things
cheir say
do
anicude or
do.
importance,
in In
organizational to
predict
example, that
order addition,
choice,
and
if
implicanons
the
prupenUn*
individuals
contradict to
nuke
the
their
it
tu
the
the
personal with
dissonaiue
factors—the
theory
engage
required
compatible
greater
reward
are
of
in
b<xh
by the
attitude, ihe
demands they
the
ic
of
and their
will
lend
to
of
what
they
cognition
—after
greater
attitude
has
been
pressures
disso^ behavjob
to
mexlifr must
moderated to
by
reduce
IIK
dissonance. The Attitude/Bchavior Relationship Early research on (he relatiou-ship between attitiidcs and behavior assumed them to be causally related; (Jiat is. the ammdes people hold determine what thev do. Conmwn sense, tw. suggests a relationship. Isn't n logical itu.c people watch tclension programs .hey like or that employees tn- to avoid assignments they find discastefuP hehavSr?^ Ri‘"
relationship between attitudes and
ari^ X chall^ged by a review ol the research.-^ On the l«sis of an evaluI I .nvestigated rhe .\-B reiaiionship, rhe reviewer concluded that attitudes were unrelated to behavior or. at best, oniv sUghtly related More ^nt
research
has
demonstrated
that
there
is
indeed
a
measurable
r7h
J^W
modcMting contingency vanaNes are taken iim. consideration One A.ng that improves our chances of finding significant A-B relaoonshi« « the use of both specific attinidcs and specific liehaviors 1. i. .v
ywther moderator is social constraints on behavior r>i«cr««„,.;-. ««W1- beh„,„ .....
“
Chapter 2 hiundauons of Wividual Muvior K*ha**e in » vcrtain way hold cuxpunnal power. Gnxip pres^iurcs, fnr inaurKe. may explain why an cinpInyTC whn holds wmg anri-union attimdc!^ attends pnnunion oq^ni ring imn ings. Of tTmrsv. A and B may be at odds for other reasons, individtiak can and do hold amtradimory attitudes at a giv'cn time, though, toward
cxinsistcncy.
In
addition,
other
things
as we have noted, there are |>ressures besides
attitudes
influence
behavior.
But
ir is fair to say that, in spite of some arracks, most A-B studies yield positive resnJu— in other words attirudes
PERCEPTION P«rcq>lion
is
a
process
impressions
in
order
consistently
demonstrates
by
to
which
give
individuals
meaning
that
different
h)
organize
their
and
interpret
environment.
individuals
may
look
Research at
the
their on
sensory
perception
same
thing
yet
pen Give ir differently. 'I’he fact is dial none of us sees reility. Whai w-e do is inierprci what we see and call it reality. Factors InHuenung Perception How do wt explain rhe fact that people perceive the same thing differently? A number of fectors operate co shape and sometimes distort perceprion. These factors can reside ill the /irw/tvr. in the ubjeci or forger being pen:ei*ed, or m the context of the.t/nwnw in which the perception is made. W’hen 5e«,
that
an
individual
interpretation
indrviduai
perceiver.
looks
is
at
a
heavily
Personal
uiget
and
influenced
attempts
by
characteristics
the
ro
intcipret
personal
affecting
what
he
characteristics
pertc[Minn
include
tit
she
of
the
attitudes,
personality, motives, interesrs, past experiences, and expectations. Characteristics of rhe target being observ ed can affect what is perceived. T.xiud people
are
more
likely
citremely
attractive
or
isolatkm.
the
to
be
noticed
unattractive
relationship
uf
a
in
a
group
individuals.
target
to
than
Because
its
are
quiet
laigers
background
one*.
arc
inflornccs
not
So,
too,
looked
perception,
are
at
as
in
does
our tendency to group ckisc things and similar things together. I’he
context
in
which
we
see
objects
or
events
is
also
imponant.
The
time
al
which an oliject or event is seen can influence attention, as can location, light, heat, or any number of situational factors. Anribution Theory Mudi
of
cemed
the with
research human
on
pcrceptiiMi
beings,
so
is
our
directed
disnistion
at of
inanimate perception
objects. should
But
OB
fincus
is
on
cun-
person
pert eption. < fur
ix’rreptions of people differ from our pcrceptionv of inanimate obiecis such
as deUcs. machines, or buildings because we make inferences about rhe actions ol peo-
ple that wc don't nuke about inanimate objects. Nonliving objects are subject to rhe bws
that
when
we
obserse
people,
we
attempt
to
develop
explanations
of
why
they
behasc in certain wai^s, Our perception and judgmeni of a person s actions. therefiKe, «i8
hr
nal atau.
ugnifkandy
influenced
bv
the
assumptions
we
make
alxMit
the
person^
inter-
The Indieiduxl in d* . U k.u if-r-n i.rowKeJ VMleveh.pcxplnnatiotis ofhow we judge Attribution theoryrhiUKcn proppedu P |»ehavi<,r.2* people ddferen.ly Observe an individuS - behavior, we t
d
"tJS
Sdier
l«s
inb-lc
ii
internally or exten.aUy caused. That determn.a(p disb.ittivcness, (2) ronsens.is, and (3) CCMIdifference’ l>etween internal and external eausati-m,
attempt to
was
ihenebborateoiieachoftherhrcedeicnn.ningfactors.
,
eausetl behaviors are those believed to be under the personal control of the individual’-
eause.l behavior results from outside causes; that is, the per-
-sor is seen as forced into the behavior by die situation. If one of your employees was late tor work, you niitht attribute his l.itencss to his parrying into the wee hours ol the morning
and
then
oversleeping.
attribured
bk
road
regularly
he
arriving
laic
to
uses,
I'his a
thcu
wo.d.l
major yuu
he
an
internal
antvimuhilc
wuJd
be
interpretation.
.iccidcni
making
that
an
tied
Rut
up
external
if
you
traffic
on
artrilmtion.
As
obsen'ersv we have a i crulency to lu^ftunic dial others’ behavjiir is internally controlled, while we lend to exaegerate die degree to which our own behavior is cAtcrDaily determined, but Ais i$ a broad genera lira bon. There sbU exists a considerable amount of deviation in aiiribuiiun, depending on how wc interpret the distinctivem^ss, consen-
sus, and consisiency of the attic »ns. refers
tn
whether
an
individual
displays
different
behavaoi5
in
dif
ferent siruanons. Is the employee who arrives late today also (he source of complaints by co-workers few^ being a *gnof-off”? VVTiat we want to know is wheAcr Ais beiw'ior is unusual. If it is, ibe observa" is likely to give the behavior an external aiirihudun. If this action is not unwjiie, it will prolhibly be judged as internal. It even one why is faced with a similar situation responds in die same tray, we Our tardy cmjJtnxc’s l>chavior would meet
can say die behavior shows
this criterion if all employees who took the same route to work were also late. From an
attribution
pcr^^pective,
external
attrihiitioa
tt«k
same
ihc
to
route
if
consensus
the made
is
t.i
you
unliness;
employee’s ii
high
work
on
would
whereas
rime,
your
be if
expected uAer
conclusion
to
gis'c
employees
for
causadon
an who
would
be uitcrnal. Finally, an observer looks for awjiffoiry in a person’s acrioas. Does die person respond Ac same way over rime? Coming m 10 minutes late for stork is not perceived m Ac same way if tor one eniphn ee it represents an unusual case (she hasn't lieen late or several months) while for anodier ,t is part of a routine pAtten. (she is late tuo or consistent the behavior, the more the observer is inclined co attribute it to internal causes. I
he
behanors sinianonal course,
are
preceding not
amtett. the
It
explains
whar
,xr«.vedI
similarly.
you
a
instructor
have is
likely
you W’c
have look
reputation io
seen
is
al a
disregard
operaling
acnons good the
an,I
student poor
for
years
judge wt
exam
atinbute the cause <.f this unusual performance to external condiHnn ’ t
Aem
&il
one
M>hvS
AH
similar
uJthm
th^
test
in
a
IL
k
il
’u
your fault: (But the teacher is not likely to ignore rhe S '^rsl f has a cx.nMStent record of l«ing a |x»r performer.) Sinularlv. if eveTyX’iiTbTfT^) the test, the instructor might attribute the outuime to external causes under the students' own control He or she might coi.clude^r^" were p«.H, wr.nen, the n.mi was too warm, or that the students diS rtMiy prercqiuMtes.
'
Dcc«
Chapter 2 FoundaOons of Individual Behavior /\nt»thtr ittascs we
that
make
irnportanr
distort
iitrribuuons.
jtKlKiiinHs
esdntate
the
personal
factors?'^
finding
abmit
influence
of
from I’’or
the
is
instance,
bchfl^^o^
extern.11
This
attnbiirion
called
the
there
of
factors
theory is
people,
and
is
there
subsranttfll we
have
overestimate
fiioxiameatai
dial a
rhe
aic
or
evidence
that
when
tendency
ro
under-
influence
actritrution
errors
error
of
and
internal can
or
explain
uhV a sales manai^cr is prone to attribute poor pcrfoimancc of her sales agents to lazinew rather than to the in nova rive pr<xJact line introduced by a competitor. 'I'herc is also a rendenci’ for individuals to attribute their owrj successes to internal factors such as ahi I in' or effort while purring die blajxic for failure on external factors such as luck. This is c alled the self-serving bias and hugge?
performance
reviews
will
be
predicubly
distorted
by
recipients
depending
on
organizations.
For
M hether it is positive or negative.
Shortcuts to Judging Others Making
judgments
example, dves
managers
as<;e«
judennenes Some
about
nf
regubrlv
whether
about
others
these
done
ct’aluate
their
othen
is
the
co-workers
is
difficult
shurrcuis
are
all
the
performance
are
To
rime
jiurting
make
the
valuable—they
by
people
of
their
forth
task
allow
their
easier,
us
to
in
employees, fall
and
effort.
But
individuals cake make
ojiera* making
shortcuts.
accurate
perceptions
rapidly and provade valitl data foe making predictions. How'C\x*r, tiicy can also result in significant distortions. hl div i duals cannot assimilate all they observe, so they use selectivity. They take in data in bits and pieces. But these bits and pieces are not chosen randomly; rbey are selccovcly of
the
chosen
observer
depending
Selective
on
the
perception
interests,
allows
us
background, to
“speed
experience,
read’
others
and
but
aiiicudes
not
without
the risk of drawing an inaccurate picture. Its easy to judge others if we assume they are similar tx> us. Assumed similarity, or
the
“like
inc”
effect,
results
in
an
individual’s
perception
of
others
being
influented
more bj* what die observer i.s like dian by what the person being obscivcd is like. If you
want
challenge
the
same.
People
instances
when
and who
they
responsibility assume
iudge
that
in
your
others
someone
who
job,
arc
you
like
actually
maj’
assume
them
will
like
them.
is
be
rhar
right
The
others
only
rest
of
want
in
those
the
time,
they’ll be wrong. MTicn we judge someone on the ba.sis of our perception of the group to which he
or
more
she
belongs,
stable
wc
are
employees
using
than
the
singles”
shortcut or
called
“union
stereotyping.
people
expect
“Married
something
people for
are
nothing"
are examples of stereotypes, lb the degree that a stereotype is a factual geucralizarion, it
helps
in
making
accurate
judgmeiiis.
But
many
srcreotypcs
have
no
foundation
in
fact. In chest* latter cases, scereotypcs distort judgments. \N’hen we draw’ a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single duracteristic
such
ing,
unusual
ItX
hevcf an fact,
not
may
perceive
irrespunsihie the
happened
for a
pers«t
evulidatv n
intelligence,
that
may a
the
sociability, halo
sloppily whh be single
effect
dressed
an
or to
occur
candidate
unpnffesskinal
highl>*
appearance,
responsible,
for
a
arritude
halo
selection marketing
and
professional,
trait—appearance—has
the iuervicwer's general perception uf the individual.
during
a
effect interviews.
research
marginal and
overridden
is
other
An
inter-
position
abilities
competent.
operat-
when, VMiat
characteristics
as in has in
1
M
Part II
IV Inflividual >n the LEARNING _
..
,
The fin^l
.
If we .n explain, prj
= »™'S sin I
nV?^ew iat'its vs hal we
sSnuondv dehnX
>n.^r
of
IMXUTS
to
leaSai.
school." therefore,
Learning
is
.s
rekutely
any
going
on
helps
us
inodflte
.
do
wc
le^rn?
pAbihit
adjpt
ro.
nixsicry
chnneingcondidonSa
2-4
our we
,
siimmarixes
environment
become
the
permanent
as a ix'siilr (»f experience. How
all
A
change
m
more
that
, learningpnKess.
changing
responsible
acerate
l,ehav,or
. the
By
t.mc.
our
cai?.cns
hirsu
behavior
and
learning
to
accom-
prodnenvc
employ-
ees. But learning is built on ibc law of eftcct, which says that behavior is a fimciion of its
consequences.-^
Sclwtdor
that
is
followed
by
a
favorable
cunscqucncc
tends
to
EH;
re I >e a Led; behavior followed by an unfavorable consequence tends nor to be repeated. Consequence, (i.e.,
money,
approach,
in
this
praise,
you‘rt
temiincJogy,
promotions,
likely
to
a
refers
to
smile).
repeat
±ac
antihiiig
If your
boss
a
person
compliincurs
Conv’^rscly,
bchav-ior,
considers
if
you
you’re
on
rewarding your
sales
reprimanded
for
your sales approach, you’re less likely to repeat it. But the keys to the learning process arc the two theories, or explanations, of how we learn. One is shopsnjf and the other is WTien
learning
emfdoycc
takes
behavior
place
by
in
graduated
xweTnatically
steps,
reinforcing,
it
is
through
shaped. rewards,
Managers each
shape
successive
stepdiat moves the employee closer co the desired behavior. iMuch of our learning lias referring
to
’diaping- Wc try, wt fail, and wc irj- again. Through such series of uiaJ and error,
MX
been
done
master
by
skills
shaping.
such
as
M'hen
riding
we
a
speak
hicyxlc.
of‘"learning
plariug
a
by
mistakes,”
musical
w’c
instrument,
are
performing
basic
matheinadcal computations and answering multiple-choice qiiesmons on tests.' in addition to shaping, much of what we have learned is the rc:>ult of observing others process
and IS
modeling usually
our
behavior
after
slow,
modeling
can
them.
V^^ereas
produce
’""T
Xol nr?'
complex
the
trial-and-error
behavioral
learning
changes
quite
having aoubie in
doHTi pal. Then observe that person tn see what he nr she b doing that is diftrent from our ar^roach. If wc find some differences, wc incorporate S
EXHIBIT 2-4 The Leeming Process
.1
tha"
Chapte r 2 Vnun d atiens of Individual
Behavior
ior repcmiin*. If our perfonuanee impnives (a favorable t onseqiwnceh we’re likely to make » jK'niuntni change in our behavior tu reflect whnt we've seen w’ork for others. T he process i.9 tiie same at work as it i.s in school. A new employee who wants to IM? siiccesshil on her job Is likely to look for MJineone in the organization who is well respected and sijceesshjl and tlien try to imitate that persons hehavior. IMPltCATIONS FOR MANAGCRS
........ This ihein
chapter
together
;»n
introduced
several
dcinonscrate
their
psychological importance
for
concepts. die
Let’s
maniiger
now
who
is
put trying
to understand oF^aniz-aiis^nal behavior. Exhihir 2-5 suuun arizes our discussion of in dividual behavior. In verv siinplified
terms,
we
can
say
ih.li
an
individual
enters
an
organiz^uon
with
a
rela-
tive h' enu’cnchcd set of values and a tutu des, an
or
values,
she
attitudes,
enters
an
and
personality
organization.
I
low
arc
essentially
employees
ment (perception) will influence their level
“givens”
interpret
of mocivation (the
their
ai work
the
time
environ-
topic of Chapters 4
and 5). w hat they Icam on the job, and, evenmally, their iadiridual w ork beliavior. We’ve al«o added ahihry ni our model co acknowledge rhar sn in divid naPs behavior is influenced by die talents and skills that person holds when he or she joins the organization. Lcanting, of course, w ill alter this variable aver lirne.
Values Why
should
don’t
direcdv
So
know
a
manager
influence
ledge
of
seek
to
behavior,
an
individual^
know values
an
inditd
strongly
system
can
dual's
inllucncc piovide
values? a
insighr
Though
person’s into
his
they
atticudes. or
her
acQCudes. Given that people’s values differ, managers can use the Rokeach Value Sun-ey to evaluate job applicants anil tletemtinc if their values align with the
OCHIBIT 2-5 l^y Variables Affecting Individual Behavior
27
1
7fl Part II ITie todivirfual ir the OrparuMtinn * dominant values of the .tfgnnizanym.^ are likely m Iw higher XytL^^A^Xd and freedom is Iikeiy a S
m be
m
sive
satisfied dunng
4, ..mKirivet: s ncrfurm^Ticc and sanwction organization. For tance on imagination, independence,
with
an organization that seeks „ „„ ,nore likely to appreciate, evaluaie JKW-
if they perceive
the
selection
of
that they do
new
employees
fit. to
1 bs ar^cs for find
,ob
eon-
management
candidates
who
nor
only have rhe ability, expermnee, and mouvauor. (n perform, hut also J value system that is compaobk with rhe organization’s. In addition, while values are certainly not nnifnnn among individuals cl rhe same age the feet that people of toninion ages have similar experiences Translates into somewhat similar work values. This suggests tliat people of like gcneraiicms may find it easier to work together and help explain value conflicts among people different genera tii ms.
Attitudes Managers influence and
should
be
behavior.
absenteeism
resignations
interested
Satisfied tlian
and
hi
employees,
dissarisfiwl
alisences
their for
employees’ instance,
employees.
Given
down—especially
attitudes
have diar
among
lower
because
attitudes
rates
turnover
managers their
of
want
more
to
keep
productive
employees—they will want lo do diings that will generate positive job ararudes. Research on the sad section /productivity relationship has important ini plications for managers. It suggests that the god of making employees happy on the assumpaon that doing sc will lead to high productivit}' is probably misdirected. .WMgers would pel belter reMilts by directing rheir attention priinanlv to what help employees become more ptmlucrive. Suctebs-ful job perfonnancc shook! then lead ro feeling of accompJishmeni, increased pay, promotions, and other rewards— all desirable oi.tcoaies- -u^hicii then lead to satisfaction with the job, Atanagers should also be aw-are that employees will try to reduce cognitive dissonance,
More
required
engage
to
important, m
dissonance
activities
that
can
appear
be
inconsistent
odds with their attitudes, the pressures to reduce the lessened when the employee nemeive. ,k.. . beyond his or her control or if the rewards dissonance.
mana^l. to
If
employees
them
or^ibL
are
are
at
r resulting .l.ssonance are exremaliy imposed and sigruficani enough to offset the
Perception Managers need to recognize that reality. So whether a manager's appraisal of L, unbiased or whether the organization^ wa«e est in the industry is less relevant than what who perceive appraisals as biased or wage lev. k dmons acnially exist, regardless of reality mterprci what they see; inhereni in this proceJ dtsttirtion.
their
empt.„.c«
rear,
w. to
objective and ^t^tijally among the hifd»Individuals *'*^ ^**«'’«‘•’►if those cnorgumzc and '=* tl-e potential hw perceptual
Oiapter 2 Fnundarions of Individual Bchavi The message to mana^rs should be clear: They need t£> pay close attention to
hi***
emplovccs
perceive
both
their
jobs
and
managvment
practices.
Rememljcr,
Ac valuable employee who quits for an invalid reastjn is just as “gone” as one who quits r« a valid reason.
Learning The
issue
isn’t wheAer
employees
continually learn
on
the
job
or
not
They du!
The only issue is wdieAcr managers are going to let employee learning occur randomly
or
alkwate raises
whcAer
and and
Ae
they
arc
examples
pnunotions,
going
Aey
Acy
will
managers warn bchasnor
A,
but
find
to
employees
learning
to
set.
manage
If
learning—through
marginal
have
liede
employees
reason
reward behavior
engage
in
behavior
to
arc
die
rewarded
change
B, it sliouldn’t R.
rewards
Similarly,
rhcir
they
wiA
behavior.
sury>rue managers
Asm
pay If i«
should
expect that employees will look to them as models. Managers who are constantly late to w’ork, or take two hours for lunch, or help Aeinsch'cs to company office supplies
for
personal
use,
should
expect
sending and model Acir behavior accordingly.
employees
to
read
Ae
message
diey're
A a 4, * 1
CHAPTER 3 _________________________ _
Personality and Emotions After redding this chapter, you should be able to Descrioe inv eig^t cetegcnes m th? VBTl per$o
Orfferentlate from drsMyeO emotions
in
l^ttfy the six universal emotions Explain
differences
to
emotional
reactions
and
reacfing
otfien
Describe wys in which emotions influence work*related behavior
w
7.
gender
.npl..ye«
enter
the
orpnizadon
their personal,o« fave a
>tith
fairly
well-cstaWished
personalities.
.And
influence on their befavior « wort In this chap-
ter. wc mtrod^seAeral m^els for clasMhing p«^^sonaJiries <>t matching penonaijtv «ith |<>bs H) increase emnlnv^^ , to the topic of ent,U^.lc long
and
show
the -rc
importance **
behavior, we’ll show how etntfoons pit a I rrJe fo hl
*’! organizational “P*""
employee befavior.
PERSONALITY S,-ne
,w,.pk
are
quirt
and
passive;
others
are
loud
and
acBresatve
peciple in leni»> of chararteristitt such as quiet, passive Unal.,»
ouiaWc.
ue’re
categiHinng
them
»n.L
\
** d««ribe in
tern^rfL-^
’
ygieaMve.
uah p«>«.lity. ihercfurc. o the o^fanation yfy (hai twrvm
~
r’zwwigicU UWa wr lar tu d4»'
amhitMiin.
Chapt^ 3 PcrRonaliiy and K mo firms ITie Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
On thi; basis of’the aiisu^ers iiniivdduals give to the test, they arc clissified as extriH veruil or in cn> verted (K or I), sensing or intuitive (S or N), thinking or feding fl' or F), and perceiving or judging (P e»r J). These classifications arc then combined into 16 perwinalin* npes 7b illiHtrate, let’s take several examples. UsTJs arc risioouhes. They nsuallv have onginal mindK and great drive for rheir own ideasand purposes. They’re dnrartenzed
as
ricepucal,
critical
independent,
delerinined,
and
often
stubborn.
ESTIs
are organ iters. They’re praciieal. realistic, niaucr-of-f^r, wnrh a natural head for busincse- or mechanics, Thes* like ro organize and run acuviiies. 7'he F.NTP type is a conceptLializer. I le or she is quick, ingenious, and good Jt many things. 'This person lends tu be resource fid in salting challenging problems but may neglect murine assignments. A
snuf)-
MK’cesjsful
thai
finus
profiled
such
as
13
Apple
contemporary (Computer.
businesspeople
FedEx,
Hontla
who
.Morors,
created Abcrosoft,
superPrice
Club, and Sony found all I? to be intuitive diiiikers (NTs).“ I'his finding is particularly intcresoIig because rnniidvc thinkers represent only about 5 percent of ihc population. Wore than 3 million people a year take the AWTI in the United States alone. Organirdtions using die .MB71 include Apple Computer, AT&T, GE, Co., plus
The Big-Five Model
In recent years, an impressive bodv of research supjxircs that five basic personalin- dimensions underlie ail others. Fartr’in; in the Big Five Model are;
Cwfn«7rM/wB€.ty: This diniensiun is a measure olTdlability. highly consden-
Peoplc with peftitive emotional stabilit)* tend to be calm, self-confident, and secure. I hr we with highly negative scores tend tu be nervous, anxious, depressed, and insecure. Opmn^a tA exfffnenar. I'he final dimension addresses an individual’s range of inrerr
and
£ucinauon
with
noveln.
Ewemelv
open
people
are
ertadve.
curi-
ous. and artisdcally sensitive. Those at the other end «jf the openness categors’ are e<xivencKKial and find comftirt in the familiar.
iw Wkuto.1 in Ae <»rg»ni««.on
.
.
r^t Z nee^s architects, accountants, attorneys), pohce, managers, salesa„a s.,iea lr:S7>^xk
S
showed
Htat
ecnscenriousness
"'“"'iS otherp“?2.t'inv!L fomtance formance
occupations
involve
to
be
W^at
«asn
c
Intuitively, almost
and
managerial
found
it
all
occupational and
high
itnixiriant so
clear
tvould
jobs
job
perfor-
predictability^ depended on both the per-
criterion in
pre.hcted
in
whi'
Aat
people
people
who
who
arc
result
Similarly,
training
emotional
instance,
This
mteracuon.
predicting
was
For
positions.
social
seem
than
sales
group.
extrovcnion makes
sense
because
openness
to
experience
profiaency.
stalnlity are
anxious
which,
wasn’t
calm and
predKted
coo
related
and
to
secure
insecure.
seems job
would
I'hc
perthese was
logical.
perlomiancc.
do
belter
researchers
on
suggested
that rhe answer might be chat only people who score fairly high on emotional stability retain
their
whom
jobs.
If
that
were
is
true,
then
cmployeds
the
range
among
fcnil
to
would
chow
people
Iw
studied, ejuile
all
of
.^niall.
Other Kev Personalitv Attributes *• Six
addiuunal
penoiuUn
direct
relevance
locus
of
for
control,
axcributes
explaining
havY
and
.Macliiavcllianism,
been
predicting
idenrified behavior
self-esteem,
th^t in
appear
to
urganizadons.
self-monitnring,
risk
have I
nuire
hey
are
propensih;
and
*T>'pe A personalitv. Some
people believe they arc
masters of
their
own fate. Other
people see
them*
ticbes as pawns of fare, believing diar what happens to them is due to hick or chance, l/xnis of concrul in the first case is intcniab these people believe the>’ cx^trd their destiny.
Those
who
see
Hwir
life
as
being
conUoIltd
b\'
outsiders
are
externals.
The
cvi-
dence shows dur employees who rate higli in externality are !c« Mtisfied with their jobs, mure alienated from die work setting, and Ir-ss involverl in their jolis than are internals. I*
5
*J•
•
a pKjr pcrtbrrnance evahiution
on their bosss prejudice, their co-workers, or other events outside their control. Intern^ would probably explain the same evaluation in tenns of their own actions Machiavellianism (Mach) is named after N.ccolu Maduavelh who wTote m the sixteenth centun- on how to gam and u.sc power.
.nd>v.dualI cxhihicing strong .Machiavellian tendencies is manipulative
maintains emounnal dtstance, and believes that end.s cat, justify means Tf n worb use It is consistent with a high Mach pcispective. Not surnricT,„l. \ L t nii>re likely to engage in Iw-havi.ir that is cthicallv nu«M ^ki E Do Hgh Machs make good employees? That answX X^s on tJe n" f 1
1
whether you consider cihicai implications in evaluatinr^erfJin^ require bargaining skills (such as labor negotiator) or wL"^ " rewards for winning (as in commissioned sales), high Machs will “c the ends can't jusbf) the means nr if rhere are no ahsolum our ability to predict a high Mach^ perfoniiance wilt be i People difter ,n the degree to which they |,ke or di.slikTl* L'ullcd acK-e^teem. Resr-jnh finds dim
' ptoduccivc. But it performance. Tb«s trail i»
directly
chapter su
Pei»ple
with
sbiliA
rhn’
Aftxx
5Aisceptibilii5
external
need
in
from
and
are
arc
high
others
and,
terms
of
to
are
and
a
to
ai
therefore,
are
work.
with
SEs
result,
they
arc
low
likely
more
take
evidence
has
SK
arc
on
rhe
likely
will
tend
dwt
they also
ing
you
their
behavior
monitoring. enrh'm
High
dificrent
to
and
ever
They
nodec to
that
some
changing
situations?
.self-monitors
are
siniations.
hey're
1
people
Thu
sensitive
hide
rheir
true
selves.
On
display
their
true
dispositions
are
much
i-s
to
bciier
because
external
cues
chameleons—able
to
the
low’
other
and
hand,
actinides
in
score
and
can
change
co
of
those
they
respect
be
concerned than
arc
arc
more
at
adjust-
high
in
self-
behave
di
Her-
In
sclf-ninnirors
every
the are
hiniation.
'I
situation consistent.
hc
evidence
suggests that high self-monitors tend ro pay closer artendon to the behavior of others and
are
tend
to
more be
capable
better
at
of
conforming
playnng
than
low*
organizational
self-raonitors.
politics
because
High
self-monitors
thcy'ie
sensitive
also
to
cues
high
risk
and can put on different “faces” for different audiences. People propensity
differ
make
in
their
more
rapid
choices
than
individuals
tinn
align
employee
a
to
high
trader other
a
hand,
accountant
brokerage this who
with
risk
risk-taking firm.
personality jicrfonns
to
decisions low
propensity’
risk-taidng
in
willingne.ss
lake
and
This
lead
type
with
to
of
chaj-actcristic
auditing
use
less
propensity.
prnjiensiry
may
chances.
more
information
in
might
prove
rapid to
latter
might
be
job
use
a
making
their
this
infouna-
demands.
For
instance,
performance
for
a
job
effective
demands
This
with
specific
job
actirities.
Individuals
Alanaffers
decision
making.
a
obstacle
major
might
be
stock
On
better
the
for
an
filled
by
someone with a low risk-taking projjensjty Do you know people w'ho are excessively coinpennve and always seem ro be e.vperiencing a sense of time urgency ? If you do, ifs a good bet that those people have a
Type
A
personality.
Type
.As
are
characterized
by an
incessant
struggle
to
achieve
more and more in less and less tinte. They’re inipaiicnt. cope poorly with leisure time, and
create
a
life
of
self-imposed
deadlines.
Tn
North
AmcricaJi
culture,
such
charac-
teristics lend ro be Eighh’ prized and positively associated with anibition and the successful workers.
acquriiiion They
demonstrate
their
of
material
emphasize
goods.
quantity’
competitiveness
hy
In
terms
over
of
work
quality.
In
long
hours
working
beha^nor,
Type
managerial and.
not
2^
are
fast
positions,
Type
infrequently,
mak-
ing poor decision* because they' make them too last, lype .A^ are also rarely’ creative. Because of iheir concern with quantity and speed, they rely <jn past experiences when faced with problems. They will not allocate the time necessary n> develop unique srdutiuns to neu problems, li appears that the Type A personality* is more likely to lead to hi^
perfortoance
in
jobs
such
as
sales
than
it
docs
in
senior
executive
Personality and National Culture IXi personality* frameworks, like the Big Five model, transfer across cultures? Are dunensams such as focus of cuntrd and the Type A personality relevant in all culmres? I^i oy u> answer these que&uorw.
4
positive from
orhers
they
susceptible
approval
positions.
witli high
31 the
found
seek
SEs
than
Ix^en
of
their jobs than are low SEs. Did
Emoboru possess
more
receipt
stands
high
and
ti>
tn
unpopular
indicates
that
(SEj
behaviors
SEs
to
low
depend
torheheliefrand
positions,
the
People
Personality
believe
Self-esteeiTi
Low
less
sati^fjcrion,
instance*
SEs.
conform
managerial
for
influences.
high
In
job
Hutvecd
as
prone
SEs.
seif-esteem,
outside
than
more
others
order to
influences
uations
high
3
tn to eval-
others than pleasing
SEs.
sadsficil
In with
Ilic IndividuaJ in Gr^jniauor J . f J Hiff Five model appear in aJm*j« rhe five penonalir>'fACiors iden ic „( (.ulnire', --nuch as China. cToss-tulrural studies I his invutes a * Pakistan, and the United States. b,.d, Jup.n. Diflfinwccs rend tosurbte > t c tn p Ac c«ep.ry
Chine-M- fo. e»...plc, us. rateporv of agrccahlcntss h.gh amount of agreenwn,.
i^iiXSTirum dex^elopcxl countries. As □ «« m point a wrapre o%tudi« cmenng people from rhe l.-n.mn Etirope.n (^mun.ty found *« cmsc-ient.ousness was a vahd predictor of pcrfonnnnce across pbs and occutoriond eroups.^ Thts Ls exactly whar U.S. studies have found. There insanix.
are
find
infiuejiccs
nn
high
the
common
and
lou
dominant
pcrsonalit)’ in
n.k-takers
personal
ir>’
types
tar
almost
a
any
cbarattcristics
given
country.
cultufv.
Yet
a
You
can,
country’s
of
its
pnixilaaon.
we
can
terms
of
people’s
relationAip
Amenca,
people
for
culture
see
this
to
their
by looking at locus of control and the lype .A personaiity. There
B
environment/* they
can
Eastern to
evidence
that
some
cultures,
in
dominare
countries,
internal
portion
and
of
their
believe crtcmal
internals
cultures such
as
envirnnment. that
lite
IOCILS
in
differ
is
of
the
m
those
in
North
People
in
other
essentially
ixintrol.
American
We
preordained.
should
anil
societies,
Canadian
such
Notice
expect,
the
therefore,
workforce
believe
than
that
as
Middle
close
parallel
a
larger
in
the
proSaudi
Arabian or Iranian workforce. Tlie
prevalence
of
Type
A
personalities
will
be
somewdiai
influenced
by
the
cul-
ture in which a perMin grows up. There are Jypc As in every' country, but there v.'ill lie more
in
capitalistic
ued.
For
instance,
lation
Ls
(.anada stress as
Type
boih
countries, it
is
A<’
hai’e
a
and
estimated
pcrcenage
high
emphasis
and
France,
achievement
that
I’his
acaimplishfiKIlls
Sn-eden
where
about
acquisition
where
50
shouldn’t t>n
rime
of
and
percent
be
of
is
and
less
success the
surprising,
management
money
maierialism
inatehal
tvig+ily
American
United
efOdcncy.
material
revered,
North
The
and
are
goods.
In
wc would
popu-
States
Both
and
Cultures
cultures
predkr
val-
such
a
smaller
logic,
effriris
proportion of Type A personaJiiiei*. Matching Personalities and Jobs Obviously, have
been
personality «
individual made |ol>fit
employees
personalities ,o
match
Aeon,
,s
saosfeetion
with
Si:” Mx n
differ.
So,
personalities
too, with
do
the
the
mx-personality-types
and
propeasity
to
jobs.
leave
Following
proper model his
.<
this
jol«. This her
The
model job
Researched states
depend
on
that the
persondity matches his or her occupatio^l environ-
tarns
--
like or dislike, and their answers Ire used to fo^^ procedure. research suonglv supptnis the hesaXfd^Za lire shows that the doser L fieiX or trv highly dissiinihr Uliat does >11 ihw me*n? I he iheon argues nimover UiweM when fiersonaiity and iiccupatinn are in
‘"V'’ wxw rfiagonally ufip
Chapter 3 Pervonulity and F.mooona
EXMWf
Hofland's Typology of ^sonalily and Sample Occtnations
_______________ Rralbear: Pre fen phyticel iHriTies that require stcill. strength, ami c«H»rdjnaOoo Imxatifiim PrefiBn M*nM(»c> invoking thinking, onraniring. and umferstindjfig Social: Prrh pi acnriboihst mtTvkc helpiog and deteJopiiig others CnaventionaJ. Preten rule* re/ulaml, urderi); and nnambipHMK actirioes Enterprising'. Pre^n v’crhal aemme^ an which there «v oppcartii nines to influence others and anam pow er Arisbe Prefers ambiguous and unsy^matic activihcs diat allow creative evpression
Personality Charactcristk<
Sample Occuparioos
Shy. genuine, persistent, staWc.
Mechanic, drill press open ror, a«c(nb|y«1inc worker, fanner
CiiO6irming, practical i\fMl>*t)tal, originaL curious, independent
Djolfjgist, economist. fDJthenuQcUn, nei^'i r^orcer
Socialdc. friendly, erxiperaiivc, undemanding ^^vnfrjrmtng. efficient, practical, unimaginaiive. inflexible Self "Confident, amhiooua, energetic, domineering
Social work LT. tdcher. counselor, cbnical psych olcgist Accnuni am, rtr JH irai e mina^. b&nk celter, file dcrk Lavycr. real mare public rdaikfOa speualial. small business manager
I magi nah ve, Painter, musician, writer, interior liecnrarnr disorderly. idcalisQc. etnotionsl. imprachcaJ SMca BaM on J.t HoHan^. Uafcm^ UXMMMT Cnoees. A ^mry Qt incatroMi ^rsonMrMs and Ut* &?wlnxmePts. 2nd
M.
Saddle fine. NJ: P<Mce Hau. 19BSK
EXmiT 3-'2 Hexagonal Diagram tii the Relationship among Occupational
.5
(Q
ArtitPe (A)
Cemmionaf
Personality Types
-nKb„lkidu#llnthenrp»mr»t'.in In should
he
in
jobs,
jsric person in a realnn*.’
convmmn‘ ’
torth. A realsituation
J* . . •
an invfsripiivc job. A realistic pereon i ■. nonpr^sibk. The key points of tbs m.HJel
than
a
realiadc
person
ifi
^he most incimp-ucnt snua-
,j) there do appear to he intrinsic J,
personality di.ferences among .nd.«dna s. < J
,htmld be wore
”;S?."nlS:tardy -han pe.>plc in mcongmeo, io...
EMOTIONS (>n Dcceinlxr 26. 2(Klft, a 42-ycar-olil software tester al a Boston-are.i Internet ctinsulrinc firm walked into his place ,>f work. zVmed witli an AK-47 assatilr nfle, a sly.tgun, and a wmiatnomaue handfim, he killed seven of his co-workm. hor dus worker, anger had led to violence. Going on a shooting rampage ar work is in exirccnc example, but it does dramadmllv illusrraie rhe rheme nt this section: Emotions arc an important factor m « empJoyee behavior. Given rhe nbviwis role rfiat emotions play in our everyday life J t might surprise ^'ou tn learn that, until ver^* recently, the topic ol emotinns had been given little or no aucruion wirhin rhe field of OB J low couJd this!«? Wc can offer n**o possible e>pla[uuons. ITic fir-vt is the myth of rativfiulityy Since the late nineteenrh century, orgailira dons have been esscnnally designed with the objective nf trying to control
emo
tiOQS. It wax twlieved that a weU-rim organization was one thatsuccessfiillv elJniinavcd fruscradon. anger, love, hate, joy grief and similar feelings. Such emotions were seen as die antidwiis nf radonality. So alAough researchers and managers knew Aat emotions were an inseparaWe pan of everyday life, they’ tncil ro create organizadons that were emodnn free. That, of conrse.
not possible, llic second foelor that acted ro
WTIS
keep emntions nut of OR was the belief that rmoiionf of any kimi t’.vrr ihstuptiVf When
emotions
wure
considortd,
the
dix-u.'.sion
focused
on
strong
negative
eian-
ti.m.s- -«peaally anger-chat inierfertxl with m c..,p|oy-cc\ abilitv to do his .«■ her itJ, c^-nvely. Emonoas were rarely xiei^ed as hving conscnjoive or able ro stimulate penonnanr^-ejihancing behaviors. Certainly some enwuons.
partclariy
when
reduce employee pcrlormance. Rut this
exhibited
at
the
wning
time,
can
change the reality that^ mplovees
bnng an emoBona! component with them lu work ei-en- dav and rE« ,n IS complete without txmsidermg the role of eiuotioui in
wo^bce
J'n# Itehavior. ’
'
WTiat Are Emotions? Akhoi^h w donV want to obsess ^miit definiooiis he&w „ analysis, st need to clarifr three tern, and aniuiZt. Afffct b a generic terui that covers a broad ran«. f_« ence. Il’s an umbrella concept that erwompasses both PT * are intense feelings that are directed at .mXne ZT
that
are
. , clriLe^^le^“"t'"'T ,r^/, nwoMofl.'. people expen
fwlings that tend to be lea intense than ciiiotiorts, and th^U^jL^ ’ *^"**'>- •"ood* •'f' Emotioiisarereactiof»h>anobie«.niaatrai(
«‘">nlu'
ywir emotrnrs wlwn jtxi re “haRjy about wwnetbinif
. kbu sh. .u
S- ’WMsome.^c, .rfM.rot
Chapter 3 Persaiulity aad Kmotnu M<xMk on the other hand, aren’t directed Jt an obievt. Emotion!^ can him into moixK when \*t, you might become angn' at him. That is. you show cnuKicHi (anger) towi'anl u specific object (your colleague). But later in the day, you might find youmeit juAi generally dispirited. You can’t attribute this feeling to any single event; yvu're just not vuur nomiak upbeat self. I'his affect state describes a mood. A
related
affect-term
chat
is
gaining
increasing
importance
in
organ!
rarional
behanur is emotiunal labi^r, E\ en* emploj ee expends phx’sical and mental labor when they
put
their
jobs
also
nonally
require
desired
tional for
bodies
labor
are
ex
with
“charge
the
that
co-workers. troops,”
tive
job
the
to the
expected,
component
see
devcloj^d today,
capaliilities.
labor.
during
petted
But
You’re
actions donal
emotions
neutral. job.
every
cognitive
emotional
originally
instance,
tiunall)*
and
in
rclauon
be
chccrlu).
conc*epr leaders
great
stirs
feelings
in
performance
importance has
given
into
their
employee I’he
service
jVrlinc
be
jobs,
counselors labor
expected
speech,
to
for
/\s
emorinnal
of
not
as
a
doctoi^ co
a
this
emoalmost
in
emotional
in
emo-
attendants,
hostile
contains
proceed
of
relevant
on
uisunce.
labor
understanding
draw
wx-
and
most
organita-
Hight
sad.
and
But
concept
seeiiis
courteous
job.
expresses
transactionsJ^
einodonal
others,
of
an
funeral
to
arc
every
increasing
when to
of
example,
Almo-U
that
is
interpersonal
for
And
This
respectively,
inter-
labor
to
strong
cmo-
section,
you’ll
key
component
of
a
heightened
relevance
emotion
effec-
within the field of OB. Felt versus Displayed Emotions Emotional exhibit
labor
creates
emotions
that
dilemmas
are
for
incongruous
employees w
ith
their
when actual
their
job
feelings.
requires
Not
them
to
surprisingly,
tiiis
is a frequent occurrence. For instance, you may find it very
at
work.
someone
Mayl»e
has
said
yon
consider
ncfidve
things
someone’s alwtui
you
personality behind
abrasive.
your
back.
.Maybe
yoo
Reganlless,
your
job requires you to interact with these people on a regular basis. So you’re forced to feign friendliness. It can help vnu to berrer understand emotions if you separate them into fch versus
Felt cmocions arc an individual's acTual emotions. In contrast,
emodoos in
a
are
those
job.
nicj-’re
givxn
that not
arc
organizatiunally-requircd
innate;
they’re
learned.
‘’The
and
considered
ritual
look
of
delight on rhe free of the first nmncr-up as the rww' Aiiss .Americt is announced is a prcxluct of the display rule that losers should mask their sadnes.s with an cKprcsswn of fi*
the
Winner."*
bimilarlv.
tDost
of
us
know’
that
wc
are
expected
m
act
sad
al
funerah regardless of whether we consider the person’s death to be a loss and to pre-
KwJ to be happv at weddings even if wc don’t feel like celebrating?^ Effri*tive roan•ftn
h«T
naluatHm
learned and
to
to
lie
cover
up
serious their
when anger
gning when
an ^ev’ve
einplo\*ec bwn
a
passed
negathx over
fur
pcrfuniiancc promotion.
And the salesperson w ho hasn't learned to snuic and appear friendly, regardless of his «»r her true feelings at the momenu isn't giing to last long on most sales jobs. The kev* point here b that felt and displayed enuitions are often diftcrent- I» freu mans peo^e have problom w*orinng with others simph* bet'ause they naivdy ••me that the onoonm thes* see ochen display is what those others acniall}' fret
Th» w pmeuUrH* true in oqtaniaatKau, in which role denunds and sicuatiofu dUB pcxiple tai nhdMt eniou«ul behaviors that mask their true feelings.
Individual in Orgiwratinn The Six l^nivenal Emotions Hniii and define the fundamental
or
basic set of
.ni^rsal emt.™ ange. fo.n
happ).
'JS T-t Sri that these six emotions can be conc^ahz^ « existing .
^n.u.,o Tile closet any wo emotions are to each other on this contm-
uu"m
irmore
“r^-cntlv
people
nnsuken
are for
likely each
to
eonh.se
other,
them.
whde
For
happiness
fused. bl addition, as we'll elaborate on later m
instancy, and
ihese
disgust
,
six
basic
emotions
-surface
and
are
suriinse
rarely
con-
tbrs secUon, cultural factors can also
influence interpretations. Do
happiness
in
the
,
workplace:-
,
.
.absolutely.
I
get
after receiving a poor performance appraisal, l/ear that 1 could he laid olf as a resuh of a company cutback. I'm ritd about one of my coworkers leaving to take a new job in
another
city.
Fti.
h/pp}
after
being
selected
as
I’m
cmployee-of-thc-month.
disgusted with the way my supervisor Ueats women on our team. And I'm sirrprisetl to find
out
that
management
a
plans
complete
restructuring
of
the
company’s
retire-
raent progmin. Gender and Emotions It's
wddy
that
they
issumed react
that
more
women
are
emotionally
more
anil
arc
*in
touch**
l)erter
able
with to
their
read
feelings
emotions
than in
men—
others.
Is
there any truth to these assumptions? The to
evidence
emotional
expression quently men,
reactions
than
express
women
does
men*^; both
also
confirm
and
abilih'
they
experience
jxisitise
repon
differences
more
and
to
read
others.
emotions
negative
coinfofi
between
in
more
emotions, expressing
men
and
Women
women
show
intenscl>';
anil
except
anger/'
emotions.
Fin
when
greater they In ally,
itcumo
emotional more
fre-
contrast
to
women
are
better at reading nonverbal cues than are nien.-^ V^'hat explains these difference^? Three possible answers have been suggested, One explanation is the different waw men anil wwnen have been socialued.’^ Men arc taught to be tougii and brave; show nig emotion is inconsistent with this Women, on the other hand, are socialised to be Jiurwring. This mav account for die percepuon rh« women are gcuerally warmer and friendlier than men For instance, women arc expected to express more poaiove ennmons on the fob (lor example, l>\ smiling) Aan men, .nd ihe>- do,-’ A second explanation is that women mav have morv innate ab.bnjo read others and present ilieir emoiion, than do
Thirdlv,
uxmHm ouy have a greater need for social approval and, thus, a higher pro,wn.sitv to mow |xjsit I VC emotions such as happiness, o r- i
EXHIBIT 3*3
Emotion Continuum
Chapter 3 Pcrsi>nd»ty and EmoGcjm KoHUkMis and National Culture C^uJiunl n<M*iiis in the U nited Si»u*s dkiatc that cniph»yee^ in seivice organizanons sKudJ Miiilc and
an
friendly when interacting widi
cusunneniz
this norm doesn’t
But
epph* wnrIJu ide. In Israel, •amling by supennarkvl eu^iien* is seen as a >ign of inevperi* eftce. sn caJiiers are encouraged to look somlier.-^ In Moslem cultures, stiiilbg is frequently taken as a sign of sextial attraction, so women are socializetI not to sinile at nwn.^ I'he above examples ilhtstrate the need to consider cultural factors as influeacing what is or isn’t considered cinotionally appropriate. VVTiai's acceptable in one culture iiwv seem exircniclv unusual or even dysfunction a I in aniither. ,^d cultures differ in terms of the iiiicrpretaoo:i dwy gn e to emotions. Inhere lends to l»e high agreement on what cmnrions mean C’lffewt cultures bur not Ixwrrn. For instance, one study asked Americans to match f^ial expressions with the sir universal cmoboiis. I’he range of agreemenr was l)crwecn H6 and 98 percent. V^Tien a group of Japanese were given rhe same task, they correctly labeled cmly surprise (with 97 percent agrecTncni). On the other five emotions, their accuracy ranged from only •“ to 70 percent. Tn addition, studies indicate that some cultures lack words for such standard emotions o-s aHX'kly,
or gt/ih. I'ahidans, as a case in point,
don't have a word directly equivalent ro ?ia
inteliigence
intelligence}^
{FT)
refersi
to
an
assortment
of
nuncognitivc
skills,
ca pa bill tics, and competencies th ar influence a jxrson’s abibty' to succeed in coping with enrironmenul demands and pressures. It’s composed ol fitr dimensions: Se^'-aiTtfrene^. The ability* to he aware of what you’re feeling. The abilitv to manage ime’s own emorions and impulscs. Solf-memvrim. I'hc ability to persist in the ^cc of setbacks and failures. Empathy. The ability* to sense how others are feeling. Saaai rkilis. The ability to handle the emotions of others. Several studies suggest that El may play an ivn|>orunt role in job performance. For inMance. one stuily liMiked ar rhe characwmiics of Bell I,ah engineers who were rated as stars by their peers, I’he vienrisw concluded that stars were better at relating to i
vrudy
of
Air
MOS
KI. not jvadexiuc IQ, that characterized high performers. A
Force
recruiters
generated
similar
findings.
T»j>-performing
texTuters exhibited high levels of FI. Using these findings, die Air Force revamped its vrfceikm ***•*
enteria.
.A
follow-up
mvesnganon
found
that
future
hires
who
lud
high-KI
T.6 rimes more successful than those who didn't. The anplntHJosi from the initial evidence on El as that eni|)l(nvrs shrmld consider
«»a
m aekvodo, cspeciaJly in i<4w that demand a high
of auaal imeracriofi.
« Partll 1T«lnd.v,.W,n«hcOrK.ni«u..n
nal .ppn«ch« to the nndy of
Dcn«(>n Making As you’ll dedsMin making in <)rgar«MtKJn>h.n
hean"
1
well
as
Xsses
in
making
“the
hea^i-’
decisiotxs.
rationality They have Awnplayu.l, fr|,^cradon», <>uln», «n
People
Failure
use
to
emotions
incorporate
as
well
emooons
as
raUonal
into
the
wd
.nnnuve
study
of
deca-
point,
wc
want
Son processes will result in an incomplete (and ollen inaccurate) new of the process. Modvarion
We
ourdy
inrmducc
to
ll
discuss
uiutjvatlon
idea
that,
in
like
Chapter*^ deasion
4
and
inabng,
5.
the
At
this
dominant
approaches
to
the htwly of moavanon reflect an uverrationalized view of individuals. Moavation
Aeorics
basically
propose
that
individuals
“are
motivated
to
the
extent
diac their l>ehanor is expected to lead to desired outcomes. The image ts dial of rational exchange;
the
fordi/’^But of
cmphivee
people
situations
essentially
aren’t
are
cold,
lilled
with
trades
unfeeling emodonat
eftbri
for
m.ichines. content
pay,
security,
Their
(hat
promotions,
perceptions
significandy
and
and
so
cakulurinns
influences
h(M
much
effort they exert. Aloreover, people w ho are highly motivated in dieir jobs arc eniod<mally
committed.
People
who
ue
engaged
in
their
wtjrk
“fieoKne
physically',
cognidvel),
and cmobonalh' immersed in the expcnence of activity, in the pursuit of a goal.”’ ' Are all people cinodonally engaged in their wx>rk? Nn! But many are. And if we focus only on radonal calculations of inducements and cemtributions, we ftil co be able to
ejqjbin l)eha\iors
such
as the
individual
who
forgets to
have
dinner
and works late
into the night, lust in the thrill of her work?^ Leadership nons.
We’ll
The
ability
discuss
the
to
lead
ioi>ic
others of
is
a
leadership,
hindaniental in
deiwh,
in
quality
sought
Chapter
10,
b)-
organiza-
Here,
however,
we bnefly introduce how cmouons can be an integral pan of leadership Effr^e leaders aJtnust all rely on the expressiou of feelings to help convev their messages In fact the expression of emouons in speeches is often die mocal element rTT h
or «)«dng a leader’s message. “When leaders fed
’ active, they may be more likely to energize nates and convey a sense of ethcacy. competence, optimism, and enjoyment ”
(.orporate execuoves know that cmoiiiKial content is^i.i.Il i buy into their vision of their comnunyk h,t.,r,. are offered, especially w hen they cult to accept. So when effective leaders warn rely on “die evocation, framing, and mobdizatir, mms and linking them to an appealing vi«on lead managers and employees alike will accept change latctpersofiAl Conflict Kew tMues are mure * tuple of uiterpcr»onal conflict. KS'henevcr vonflicu emuaofts are also surfacing. A manajter’s sutress w ofcm lane^y due to his or her ability to idamA,
tlieir
subordi-
/ if employees arc to new visioitf '* significant changes, they " * ’’x arousing eiwmvreasc the likelihiMsd that emcxions dun rhe certain ihJt resrdve conflicts, in Uvx enumunal elements m the am-
Chapter 3 Per&ucaJity and Emotions flirt
and
n>
pvt
ager
who
and
taxk-hxuseil
Deviant
thv
ipiorvs
vonOieting
the
em
oh
concerns,
Workplace
parties
on
is
al
work
elements
unlikely
Behaviors
tn
to
Negative
through
in
be
conflicts,
very
emudons
their
focusing
effective
can
einadons
lead
And
singularly
in
resolving
to
a
on
those
number
of
workplace Ixhanon*. .An\*onc who has spent much time in an organization rcalizet^ that people often engage
in
voluntary
organization,
its
actions
members,
that
or
violate
both,
established
’fhese
norms
actions
are
aJld
called
that
threaten
employee
the
deviancc.^^
'I "hey fall into categories such as pnxIucKon (e.g., leaving early, in tc mi on ally working slowly);
property
workers):
and
these
deviant
For
(e-g
»
personal
wutance,
stealing,
aggression
behaviors
envy
sabotage);
is
an
(e.g.,
sexual
can
emotion
political
that
(e,g.,
harassment,
be
traced
txturs
when
gossiping verbal
to you
blaming
abuse).
resent
co-
Many
negative
of
emotions.
someone
for
hav-
ing sontething that you don’t, and which you strongly desire. It can lead to inalicicnis deviant
behaviors.
“backstabbing”
Envy,
and
for
other
example, forms
has
of
been
found
political
to
be
behavior,
associated
negatively
with
hostilitv,
distorting
others’
successes, and posirivelv distorting one’s own accomplishments.'^
IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS
Personality 1 he major value of a manager’s understanding person a lit)’ differences probably lies
in
selecdon.
You
are
emplw'ces
if
consideration
ble
In
additic^i,
jobs.
likely is
there
to
given may
have to
be
high
er-performing
matching
other
personality
benefits.
For
and ttpes
more-satisfied with
instance,
compati-
managers
can
expect that individuals with an external locus of control may be Jess satisfied with their jobs than internals and al«) chat they may be less willing ro accept responsibility for their actions.
Emotions Emotions
arc
cn
ignoring
the
individual
behavior
as
It,
“You
can’t
emotions
from
is
in
a
natural
part
of
emotional if
divorce
it
an
individual’s
elements
were
emotions
people.Managers
in
make-up.
V^Tiere
organizational
completely
rational.
As
from
the
workplace
who
understand
behanor
one
and
yon
role
aptly
can’t
of
often
assessing
consultant
because
die
managers
put
divorce
emotions
will
significantly improve their ability to explain and predit t individual behavior. Do emotions affect job fwrformance? Yes. I’hcy can «speaalJy part,
tn
negative to
perfonnance. Mng
as
keep
emotions. emotions
Hou.*
modvatoni
That’s
out
Two
way's.*-
to
higher
of
the
First,
probably
workplace. emotions
pcrfonnance.
performance,
why Bur can
Second,
organizations, emotions increase
for
can
also
arousal
emotional
the
labor
most
enhance
levels,
thus
recognizes
the
tnanrational
conflicts. deviant
•.1 > *•<
1
CHAPTER 4 ___________________________________
Basic Motivation Concepts After resding this chapter, you should be able to 1. Outline the basic motivation process
wN
Describe Maslow s hierarchy of needs theory Contrast Theory X end Theory Y
4. Differentiate motivators from hygiene factors 5. list The characteristics that high achievers prefer in a job 6. Surnmanw the types of goals that increase performance 7. Contrast reinforcement and goal-setting drearies i. Explain epurty theory 9. Clarify the key relationships In expectancy theory
eferring to their son or daughrer oarrnr^ k.„.,
R
■. • r “‘’”7years char tr has
achieved the sums of a cliche' "1lc/«Es k him^K-rself^ Few of us .orkro, or Xjhut jus, won’t apply
to dur. riiitrnas tdisoii underxx>red his K-l’i -f '
ol us will admit
achievij,g success when he said that “Ecnin. k r. persptration.” The fact is that some woX 'nJividuals of lesser abilkv c pfted counterpam. For this reason, an individual52rf depjmds not only on abdity but on mtmvacion as Lp explan^ons of why some penpk exert more clW, .2^ • neat
chapter,
non techniques.
we
II
budd
on
these
‘"'P-irtance of hard wort fi» “^P'ration and W percent "•“« than othtl.dr more -«herwnse fmsiden vanous expiana.ions
tTd^^i
’•*"
othc«.
In
a vark-ty of apidied nwmva-
the
rz
Chapter 4 nasic Moriration CoueepH O \5’HAT IS MOTIVATION ? We
nught
dcGne
inohvation
in
terms
uf
some
outward
behavuir.
People
who
are
mori\*atcd exert a greater effurt to perform than chose ^vho are nut motivated. Bur such a definition is relative and Iclls us little. A more descriptive but less su bate reive definition would say that motivation is the willingness to do something and is conditioned by this aeaonk ability* to satisfy some need for the individual. A need, in oui icnninology,
means
outcomes
appear
unsatisfied
need
a
phv'siological
attractive. creates
This
tension,
or
psychological
motivabon
process
wliidi
mu
sH
I
deficiency can
IK*
arcs
that seen
drives
makes in
certain
Exhibit
witliin
the
4-1.
iudivid’
lul. These drives generate a search co find parocular goals that, if anained, will satisfy the need and lead to the reduction of tension. .Motivated einployees are in a state ut tension. In order to relieve this tension, they engage in acoxity. The greater the tension, the more activity will be needed to bruig utout relief l'herefr>re, when we see employees working hard at some acrivdty, wc can conclude they are driv'en by a desire to achieve some goal they value.
* 3 A
EARIY THEORIES Oh MOTIVATION
The decade of the 1950s was a fruiTful period in the development ot motivation eon«pb
Three
specific
heanly attacked known
and
explanations
theorie.^ their lor
were
formulated
validity called
employee
into
morivanon:
during
diis
question, the
period,
are
which,
probably st
hierarchy
of
needs
chough JI
the
theory,
now best-
Theory
X and The Of)’ Y, and the two-ft ctor theory. VVe have aiitce developed more vah
diev repre.scnt
grown,
(2)
and
practicing
a foiin managers
clarion
from w’hich con
regularly
use
these
temporary theories hav’e
rheoiies
and
their
temiinolo’
gies in explaining employee motivation. Hierarchy of Needs Theory lt\
probably
Maslow's
safe
to
hierarchy
say of
that needs
the
be
theory.’
st-known He
apprcjach
hypothesized
to that
mouvacion
is
witliin
every
beii^ there oasis a hierarchy of five needs. 'I hese are:
1 .
rtfedi-. Inchide hunger, th5nt, «liekcr. sex. and other bodily needs nttdf'. Include sccuritv and procccnon frnni physacal aud emotional harm
2 .
SoW n/ftif; Include aftection, a sense of beionging. acceptance, and ^enddnp
1 .
cuent and external fatxurs ^ch a» vuru», recognitinn, and anentiau
nttdf. Include intenuJ betors such a:» self-rc-^pecq autonomy^ and achieve-
Abvahaoi hinnan
Ttw lndi»*>«
,^mc what une '« capaWc o* HciorninK;
incliMlr.' (ftowTh. ach'c' H .As
eM-h
of
the«
Satisfied, the west n««d
^;i"'X7n^iidual
dommaiK. In
moves
up
the
hierarchy.
Fnm
the
would say that, although no need .s ever JJ ]„j,„er motivates.
standpoint of motivation, fully Ki-flf fied, □
orders. Physiological and
.,ep«..cd .he five need, »«" 1’^' ..fe.,- need. .er. de^^beJ »
riMab, “d- «re different.,ed ,.„ ,he
“'" ""S'l^lii.SrZjT.''.e iriefied fi..en,.Uy. .h™, lo.er-,.rder „eej, e!™« =» pe™..,* ewluy^l -k.-'-bl >»e their lower* order needs subs tan n ally met. M«loWs
M.ed
theory
has
..i
tecaved
wide
rowgniuun,
paroc^ly
aiuuiig
practiv-
in. manaiters. This acceptance can hr nrrributed to the logic and ease with which the th^^n
IS
validate
intuilivelv
the
structures
rheon'
arc
understood. For
organized
inswnre, along
Unlominately,
however,
research
does
hnle
is
for
prcdiclion
the
support
diiiiensions
found
p^|XRcd
by
the
Misiow
or
not rhe
generally that
need
prediction
that the subsljiitiil satisfaction of a given need leads to the aedvadon of the next higher need. So. although the need hierai chy is wvli known and tindoubiedly used by many managers
JS
J
guide
toward
inotivaring
their
eiupioycc.s,
little
substantive
evidence
cxisB to indicate duit fiillowing the theory will lead tn a more motivated workforce.
EXHniT 4-2
r~
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
V 1♦ *4 r♦♦4
SOGHJ
I
I /
1
Chapter 4 Hasic Mntiv»tian Oxitepxs 45 niiciiry’ X and J hwiry Y Piiugbs .MK (regnr propivsed tw't> di.stitict views of human heings! one basically negative.
hlnled
viewing
Theory’
the
way
X,
and
managers
the dealt
other
basically
positive,
with
employees,
labeled
McGregtjr
Theory
wmeluded
Y.^
rbar
.After
a
man-
iqterk view of the nature of human beings is based on a certain grouping of assumptiuiis ami that he or she tcn
Employe us inherenlly ibsiikc work anc, whenever possible, will attempt ro avoid ii.
2.
Since employees dislike work, they must bu courcud, uontroUud, or threatened with punishnient to achieve desired gfwls. Employees will avoid rcsporivibihties and scuk iorinid direction whenever possible. Most workers place security above all ocher factors associated with work and will display little ambition.
Under Theory Y, four contrasting assumptions are held by die manager: as being as natural as rest or
2» People will exercise self-
dir ecu on and selhconcrol it they are committed co the
■ o
L Employees can view work obKCtivcs.
'fbe average person cm learn co accept, even seek, responsibility'. 4. The ability to make innovative decisions is widely dispersed chroughouT the population and IS not nccessArilv rhe sole province of those in management positions. What are the motivatiunul iin plica dons if you accept -McGregor's analysis? The answer is best eitpressed in the fraTnewurk presented by Alaslow. Theory' X assumes that lower-order needs dominate indindiials. Theory Y assumes that * higher-order nced.s dominate individuals. McGregor, himself, held that
Theory
posed
ideas
jobs,
and
Y
assumptions
such
good
as
were
more
piirticipation
group
relations
in
as
valid
than
decision
Theory'X.
making,
approaches
chat
to
Therefore,
responsible
would
the
maximize
belief
he
pro-
«nd
challenging
an
employee’s
job motivation. Unfortunately; there is no evidence to confirm that eitlier set of assumptions is valid will
or
that
increase
accepting workers’
Theory
Y
inorivaDon.
assumptions As
will
and
become
altering evident
ones
larer,
actions either
accordingly
Theory’
X
or
Theon V assumptions may be appropriate in a parbcular situation. Two-Factor Thwry I
he
two-factor
theory
(suinedmes
also
called
mofnation-hygiene
ikeoty)
wJiv
pro-
pj$ed by psychologisi Kredcrick Herxberg.^ In die belief that an i nd ivi duals relation lo work is basic and that one^ attitude toward work can verv well determine success or tailun.*.
Herzberg
investigated
the
question,
“What
d«>
pciiple
want
from
their
iobs?”
lie asked people todescril>€, in detail, situations in which they felt cxceprionally good «< had about their jobs. These responses were then tabulated and categorized. From gave
when
the they
c'acegonzed fck
gxx^d
responses, about
Herzberg
their
jobs
concluded were
that
significantly
the
replies
different
people
from
the
replies given when dicy felt bad. As seen in Exhibit 4-3. certain characceristivs tend to be comiatcfitly related to job satis faction and uthvrs to job dissatisfartiim.
4*
FBrtN The IwtmdMl in the OrpniMtion Herzberg's Two-Facior Theory
EXHIBIT 4-3
MottvaCor focton t/ha Job tttbbetton J :
effect job dbsatxbctjon •
• Promotional opporomicks • Opportuniiies for persorkal • Recognrtlon ■ Responsibility • Achievement
of Miptrvision
• Pay " Corrtp^^ poNcfO • Phytol working conditions • ft^tions with others
i High
lob Satisfaction
Z
o
High Job OissAtisfaction
' I'
Soarce. Based (« f Henber^. ‘Oe Mor^ True: Hoi» Do itej Voirssate FPployBSS’’' Maaortf ^ustfiess «*«». JSflya ry^Hbruaiy 196&. D. S 7. I Intrinsic
factors^
ment
seem
work
tended
fied
to
such
be
related
rended
advancentenr,
to
attribute
TO
rcsfxjndenu
3s
job
these
to
satisfaction. factors
cite
recognition,
to
extrinsic
responsibility,
Respondents
themselves.
factors^
M'ho
fell
and
good
On
the
as
supervision,
such
other
achieve-
about
their
hand,
djsxiuis-
pay,
company
policies, and working conditions. rhe data suggest, said Herzberg, that the opp<»site of sausfaction is not dis^atisfaction,
as
was
traditionally
hclies’ed.
Removing
dissatisfying
charactcrisdo.
from
job
J
Joes not necessarily make the job sansfynng. Herzberg proposed that his findings indicated
the
existence
of
a
duiil
continuum;
The
opposite
of
•‘Satisfaction”
is
‘’\'o
separate
and
Saiisfecrion," and the opposite of “Dissatisfaction” is “No Dtssausfactinn.’ According distinct
from
tn
Aosc
Herzberg,
the
that
to
lead
factors job
leading
lo
diKsatisfaction.
|ab I
satisfaction
hcrefore,
are
managers
who
seek
to
eliminate factors that ean create job dissadsfacdon may bring about peace but not neccsianly dwm.
motivadon.
will
ere
poLcio,
jAy^cal
charaewnted
by
working Herzberg
W.1I
noHK-dt«3^ficd;
neither
their
lobs.
supgeswd
^outcomes tor
be
placating
6cir
workforce
rather
than
motivating
As a result, conditions surrounding the job, such as quality of supervision,
company w
They
Herxberg directly
personal
derive.!
growth
«ilJ
conditions, as
they
hygiene be
emphasizing
fr.«n
rt^gmuon.
it.
such
relations
with
factors.
VVTien
satisfied. factors as
responsiWity.
If
we
and
and
they’re
want
associated
promoti.mal
others, to
with
securin
adequate,
,„nrh-ate the
work
t^iportunities.
achievement.
job
I-hcse
pav. peopk
pe.Jie
nn
itself
<,r
opptmun.rie-s ar^e
char-
acienst3c*s Out pec^le find invinMCAlly rewarding
rhe pnit«lure Out Hcrebcrg used is binited by iu
pl., «n.
..a „ „„
evtnnsc eiivminmenc. 1.
I
ixx
' ^wtne rauure un
The ichabihh of Herihergs mvthodofogv u Qu«tH>hiiW> Da— t. inrerpretanons. »o they may conumiime the finXm u diffcfenrfy mterpreirtK lirndv
fl
1.
Chapter 4 Bask Moth'
aonConcepCB
ovci-all measure of aiosfiicdon was uulised. A person may dislike part of his or bet job yer soil find the job acceptable. 4, The I heor> i.< inconsisw nt with previ ous research. ’ I'he two-tactor I h cn ry iHerzberg gnorn si assumed ta rehicioiwhip between baa^facrion and produciiviry» but tiaDonal variables. his research medsodobgs' looked only ui saiishciion, not at producdnry. To make such research rekvant, one must assume a strong relaconship between saGsfat;h«i Regardless cfcriticisms, Herzberg’s thcon has been widely popularized, and fpw and Hianegers arc u nth mi liar with his rccomnicndjtiims. As a case in point, much of rhe producaviiy. inicial
enthusiasm
for
vertically expanding
jobs
to
alUw
workers
greater
responsibility
in planning and conuoUbg their work (which wc discuss in ( bapter 14) can probably be attributed largely to I lerzhergV findings and recommuidatiuns.
QONTjE-MPORARY'niEQRIES OF MQTIVATIQN
,
The previous thei»ries are well known but, unlorliuiucelv, have not held up well under dos.* exainhuTion. -"Ml is not lost, however. Contemporary dicories have a reasonable degree of valid supporting diM urncnUition. 7'hc following Theories represent rhe current state of the an in explaining employee motivation.
McClelland s Theory of Needs David iVicClcllanct and others have proposed three major relev'ant motives or needs in the workplace. Wc call this McClelland’s Theory of Need.s^: 1.
The need for achievement (nAch)—The drive to excel, to acbiCT’e in relation tc a set of suudartU, to strive lo succeed
2.
The need for power (nPow’)—The need to make others behave in a way thdy would not have oehaved oclicrwbtf
3.
The need for affiliation (oAff)—desire for friendly and duse inicrpcrsonal rclariein^hips
Some |)eupk ha\'e a compeliuig drive to succeed, but the)’ are striving for personal achie^eiuent rather chan the rewards of success. They have a desire to do something better or mo re efficiently than it has been done before. This drive is the need for achievement.
From
research
into
the
need
for
achievement,
McClelland
found
tlia(
high achievers differenoacc themselves from others by their desire to do things better. They seek skuadons m which they can attain personal rv.sponsibiliiy tor finding solutions lu problems, receive rapid and unambiguous feedback uii their performance, and set
moderately
chalivngmg
goals.
Tlicy
prefer
working
at
a
challenging
problem
and
Mcqfong the iiersonal rcs(Kinsibility for succew or failure rather than lea\4ng rhe ouicixnc to chance or the actions of others. High
achievers
perform
best
when
they
perceive
their
prohabilicy
ot
5»c-
ccstf ax being 0.5, that is, when they estimate that they have a 50-50 chance ot succcas. 'I hey dislike gambling with high odds (high probability of lailure) because succew io such a situation would lie more a matter of luck than of ability, Jiul they get
no
acHievuitcnt
satisfaetion
from
happensrance
success.
Similarly,
low odds (high probability of 5uccs*ss) because there is no challenge to their ddlb-
they
dislike
MU ’ITielndividiBllin theOrganizalit’n •ITiey like lu sei realistic hui difficult
"
tic. When there is ar appruximatdy eq«9 optim.l opportunity to from chtir eHorts.
.
J,, sucees* or failure, there is the
ir. onipi'^hiiient and satisfaction experience feel.np of ncu>.
,.
.
.mr^L't hi be influential, and to c<jn-
The need for power is die re to have an, tml odiers. Indi^nJuaU liigh in z/PfiTr enpy eing e«, prefer unnpeotive ond status-oncnted1 s.mn. with gaining prestige and influence over others fc„
...e'ntT
,frcscrch.™.
““”«a,i...v
rarhe-
Individual
than
».tl,
influence.ivxrinhj concerned j has received the
a
l..(h
cn.pandva
,a4(/
and
s.nve
„r
das.re
fnendsb.p,
„la,„.„»h,pa
J hiirh de ercc of mutual understanding. Horde motives
vou
are
find
nTic^Hy
out
if
prafa
n.v.dv.ng
< ...
someone
-ncasured
P
tiirough
is.
a
tor
instance,
projective
test
a
in
.
highJich.evcrr
which
All
subjects
three
respond
to
a set of pictures. Each picture is briefly shown to the sub)cct and then he or she wntes a
story based
on
the
picture.
For
example,
the
picture may show
a
man
sitting
desk He is inoking pensively al a photograph of a woman and two children th ar
at
a
SITS
at
rhe corner of the desk. The subject will then be a.sked to write a ston' deMTihing what is going on, what preceded this situation, what will happen in the future, and the like. Ihe
stories
hecotne,
in
effect,
projective
tests
that
measure
unconscious
motives.
Each
sior}' is scored, and rhe subject is rated on each of the three motives. An
wtensive
predictions and
job
needs,
can
to be
high
are
made
strongly
managing
positions.
Second,
make
typically
havx
a a
risk.
research
has
hi
large need
diose
dons
VVlien
need
managers,
high
the
ma
The
these
to
consistently
achieve
to
the
good
achieve.
too.
personal
within
are
High
nAch
power
as lead
in
a
needs
for
large
to
their many
being not
and
an
a
that own sales good
nece&sanly
organization
affiliarion
high
and
imstance,
and
do
a
achiev’crs
ninning
organization,
salespeople
with
high
for
need
affiliation
feedback,
prevalent^
such
supported
and
individuals
necessarilv
manager
well
achievement
responsibility,
large
not
the
on
First,
acdricics a
herwecn
demonstrates,
Joes
Third,
reasonably
done
characteristics
orgaiiizanons. and
been
entrepreneurial unii
some
relationship
areas
with
evidence in
that
of
self-contained
high in
sales a
si
indicates
basis
less
suLx*cj.sful
especially
g<xKl
the
findings
motivated.
business, meager,
on
job
of
are
research
fhough
prefer
degree
achievers
of
uinsistent
achieve
intermediate will
Iw
pcrfoniiancc,
there
need
amount
does
power
not tend
to be closely related to managerial success. The best managers are high in the need for povser
and
trained
to
low
in
stimulate
their their
need
for
achicveracQt
affiliation. need.
If
Last, ihe
employees
job
calls
for
have a
been
high
succcssfullv
achiever,
man^
ageraent can select a person wSth a high nAch or develop their own candidate thmueh achievement traimug.
GoaUSeTting Theory .■iih . conaderjbk igree of ranfidc,™'",?™"'
'of -do
1
""I*
"» ™
oS"
•/J
•• fl9 Th. indi^dual in the O.rani«don ” *®
Thc»- hke t« «t realistic bin de. When there is an approximately eq nprimal opportunity «n e.x,M.nence teeimjp. ol fi-oni Their efforrs. The ne«l for power is the desire to mil ixbci-s. Iiidividuals Itigh in » ‘iw eri|
actoinplishniciit an.I saiisfactinn | ........ in.oai l, lo he inflncnrial, and to coninfluence over oth'j| 1,^ moi e cotuxmed ,x.Tron«anee. with . high «,4yj strive .„■ fnendshtp, prefer
n of raOKhm. XrX
sKurtionv
rather
th.,,
..„es,
eop.pet.tive
anti
desire
a hich decree of mutual nnderstanding. Ilow^fo motives
are
a
set
of
a
siorv
desk the is
npically
based is
wraer
on
predictions and
job
needs, need
preceded
lie
there to
are
high
achievers
business,
managing
positions.
Second,
manager,
especially
gpod
ty-prcally
have
closely
power
and
trained
to
a
low
,n
M.intJatc
projective is
findings
in
sima
dons
risk.
VVTien I’he
successful
need large
managers need to
their
unit achieve
TO
the
need
for
aehievciucnt
s'“x rnlxr™” "* ’
First,
not /rA
The
If
the
needs
best
for
job
calls
to
not
arc
in
for
a
high
sales i?(Mkl
need
not tend for
successRillv
achiever,
‘nonvation. IVe can say, g™ls lead to increased {terhirtepted, result in higher perfonnance than easy
1-1 of „UT„, ,h.„ . g.„y* ««sl. 1 he speciRcity of the goal icself acts as an iatc^
a
own
power the
l>ceii
that
docs
Goal-Setting Theory
If
an
necessarily
" ‘'"‘-'"I’ "™ “’“I"*’"
with a considerahle degree of^onfid^c^re nunce and that difficult goals when ar - ' pak’ '
and
their
bcin?
and
have
high
achievers
organization
high
need
a
nianv
affiliarion
employees
Each
instance,
and
do
large
managers
Last, the
a
high
running
lead
salespeople in
with
for
organization,
necessarily
like,
affiJiadon
feedback,
as
what
suppexted
and
prevalent,
such
at
motives.
well
power
deinunstratcs,
sits
die
three
individuals
are
a
acluevcment
resj-Xinsibilit)’,
large
manager
affiliation. need.
a
High
Third,
success.
on
activities
does
good
achieve.
been
at
inouves.
the
herween
charactcristies
and
to
writes
describing
reasonably
done
that
future,
of
she
sitting
children
rclatinnship
too.
nun
storj’
diree
respond
or
unconscious
personal
wiihin
die
each
consistently
orginiizations
managerial
their
with
in
he
a
two a
All
sub,eels
iJien
write
measure
areas
entrepreneurial
to
and
has
achieterr
show
and
lo
on
the
those
these
self-coutiuned
high
that
and
may
happen
that
of
evidence
in
will
high which
subject
asked
indk'atcs
a
woman
rated
research
job
a
,„volv,„g
.
in
picture
hat
tests
test
the
be
w
less
high
related
situation,
Though
in
.sale^>
then
basis
a a
of
subject
iiiocivared.
are
photograph
the
of
Sttongiy
i
on
prefer
degree
be
be
made
to riie
research
consistent
achieve
unll
to
of
hhown
will
instance,
proiective
example,
this
the
for
For
subject
effect,
and
perfbnnanee.
intermediate
make
in
is
a
briefly
at
'I*hc
amount
can
is
picture.
desk.
scored,
extensive
someone through
pensivelv
become,
is
if
pknirc
the
what
stones
An
Each
the
on,
out
rel.t.onsh.ps
.
measured
looking
of
going
story
find
picnircs.
He
The
WU
'
man-
Chapter stimulus.
Fur
Ixnwern ci
instance,
Haiti
tic
more
tihjcc
specitic
tn
c
goal
when
and
to
will
a
trucker
Wtuhiugton,
reach
for.
D.
We
outperform
eommirs
can
his
each
to
week,
say that,
counterpart
all
making
this
being
operates
Basic
IH
intention
things
who
4
ruund-tnp
gives
equal,
either
Motivation hauls
him
the
a
spe-
tracker with
with
no
goals
a or
widi the gcheraliice
fecTora
state owe
rinev
that
ver,
an
such
as
the
it’s
more
logioi
cinpioyec
abihry
and
diHlculc
to
assume
accepts
acceptance
a
the that
hard
goals,
easier
(ask.
of
he
the
the
goals
goals higher
arc
are
held
the
level
more
or
she
will
to
participate
is
mixed
likely
exert
a
constant of
tn
high
wc
can
performance.
IK;
accepted.
level
But
of
effort
until
of
their
own
the goal is achieved, lowered, or abandoned. If goals,
employees
will
i|>ation
(liey’
over
elicited
try
by
of is
are
likely
more
g<jal
greatest to
some
individuals
rhus,
although
participative taken
A as
when
accept
advantage
desirable
a
more
a
given,
to
parricipation
su|x;nority
been
set
one
docs
best
when
in
As
we
noted
earlier,
panicipate
in
goal
setting
is
arbitrarily
which
superiority
have
be
that in
partic-
participahvely
performed
ard.
who
of
may
tow
choices
no
the
have
work
than
to
setting
parttcipatinn
People
goal
have
have
of
one
committed
may
the
individuals
difficult.
difficult
in
regarding
that
mafor
arc
goals
goals
cases,
a
even
cases,
other
goals
are
as
evidence
in
itself
becau.se
is
In
boss.
them,
acceptance
Ihe
goals.
their
the
resistance
opportunity’
performance;
goals
accTjwancc
rhe
harder?
assigned
superior
assigned
have
they
over
increase
assigned
have
assigned
the
increasing
to
a
voice,
goals
when
that
more
probability
difficult goals will be agreed to and acted upon. Studies and
testing
challenging
goal-setting
goals
as
theory*
motivating
have
forces.
demonsi
rated
Although
we
preferable
As
overall
an
t
assignment
conclusion,
of
specific
conclude
that
hanng
desirable, participation is
when
therefore,
superiority
can't
employees parricipate in the gr>al-set(ing process is probably
(he
you
we
expect
have
resistance
significant
to
difficult
evidence
that
challenges. intentions—as
ardculaced in terms of goals—arc a potent motivating force. rhe between
the
tradiction w
hile
is
no.
for
tu'o
on
the
theory
So
goals.
than
10
selling’s
Difficult
to
arc
wiH
based
percent
arc
still apply
lead
to
appears
those
sliiiiulatcd
of
any
to
those
higher
who
workforce
accept,
performance
it
a
are
congoals,
answer
The
high
connAcb^
naturally
majority
of
and
are
if
they
are
is
only
a
The
general.
have
the
Is
challenging
in
who
for
contradiction
goals?
people
country's
a
setting.
difficult
people
recommended
be
moderately
with
on
to
goal
by
deals
only
on
by
maximized
theory
20
conclasions
what and
is
goal-setting
goals
goals
is
luotivarion
motivation
difficult
goal
First,
noted
moovation
niouvation says
reasons.
less
have
achievement
achievement
probably
Second,
on
may
achiev'ement
gtul-setong
achitvers.
reader
findings
that
clusions and
observant
high
workers.
committed
to,
accepted.
Reinforcement Theory A
crjunterpoint
tive
approach,
remfcircement ment Rd
lo
goal-setdng
proposing theory
condiiions II
v^enis
h) arc
sequences
arm not that,
we
w
hen
the hcbavior will Ixe rex^eaced.
reinforcement
an
indinduars
have
a
lichaviorisdc
The
theorisLs
matters
is
that
behavior. ent
theory'
for
two
sec
iminediateh
VVTiat following
I'hc
former
direct
his
or
approach,
w
are
clearly
theories
behavior
lunccm.
purposes
tlxeory.
xs
environmentally
conrrols a
hich
behavior
response,
at
argues odds
caused; arc
increase
her
a
cogni-
acdons.
that
In
reinforce-
philosophically. internal
cognitive
rcinforcers—any
con-
the
that
prohahdity
►
■n-
tndie OffaBh-t"’ J.
the inner Mate of «*»« indhidoal and oMKriiirMM or she takes -Bne actkrtt. Becatne n docart n-.t, strictly speaking, a therxy »f mm*-
Reinfimwnent «dely on »har ha^M n» a
„,„cem .tself-th -''‘■r'"'‘-rrJ±r^sofe.,n«r. »h lx*havK<^ and „d,„. Bm .. d.«- I-o'd' ’ l“" "XVd in ^-usM.,™ .d nK„,-,n™,, it^ for that fc-aMtn
j of effect (Iwhavior K a funtt>«>n »1 its ame-
Chapter 2
^onsequ condition Uhav.or and help
qoenccsl and 'Hie law of :;if«xt anti the concept of remfcMccmenr also eiplain how people , rescaixh inilicates that people will eaen '"ft-T 7tTst "thti are"^mf<-n:^d than on tasks that are not.'- Rcinf.-rement u an imp.run. -nflnenee on work behasi-r UW people
their
and the amount of effort they allocate to various Wsks are affewd by the awqoences of their behavior. Bin reinforcement is not the sin^e explamnon for drffer2nces in cmplovee motnarion. (ioals. for instance, have an impact on moovaoon; so, too. do levels of achievement motivaaon, jncquiUcs tn rewards, and exjiectanons.
Equity Theory Employees
don't
575,000
year
for
and
report
the
a
offer
would
you
work
react,
bk
as
it!),
terms,
that
wdiai
yon
compare
work if
is
a
hir.
|(>b
issue.
inputs
out
age.
a
of
There
and
found
your
lot
make
gradiutinn
enthused
vou
the
They
on
S80,0(W
is
isn't
own
jub
graduate,
575,000
believe
their
to
getting
suddenly
vacuum.
first
however,
recent
absolute
a
your
worker—anothtr cullege—w
in
If
from
you’d
money for
a
The
now
is
ample
and
so
probabb
new
fur
with
to
of
job
that a
Even
make
around
us
those
tu
flow a
co*
compara* dtough,
(and
relative
you
and
in
kiKTW
rewards
conclude
others
ac
jray.
from
upscti
yog
grab
your
die
grades
graduate
offered
probably
with
into
be
centers
evidence
outcomes
or
cotn|>arable
You'd
scmcooc
sausfied
month
with
issue
college,
certainly
a
year?
tT(xn|wrison
and
thai
empknees
that
inequities
can influence the degree of effort that employees exert." Equity (inpuO
theory
against
w
sa^^s hat
that
they’
get
ratio
with
the
inpurouTComc
equal
to
that
of
the
relevant
equity
is
said
to
exisL
They^
ratios
are
unequal,
underrewarded
or
inequity
employxcs from
ratio
of
it
weigh
with
put
and
then
compare
±eir
inpucoutcoine
If
they*
perceive
their
ratio
that
their
exists:
chat
is.
UTien
others.
whom
feel
overrew^rded
they
(outcome)
relevant
others
what
they
situation the
compare
is
fair,
employees
inequities
occur,
into
a
job
themselves,
that
rend
justice to
a
to
be
state
of
pre-ails.
view
employees
situation
If
the
themsefres
as
will
attempt
to
correct diem. The tant
refvrenr
t^riable
in
that
employees
c<|inry
theory
“odwr/
“syMcm/'
and
"si
sunuar
M>bs
in
the
same
associates.
On
die
swnal mouth,
newspui>ers.
and
lf
choose
The ”
three
'the
orgamzauun basis
of
magazines,
to
cotnpare
rekrent
-other" and
on
such
categories
eitegory
also
mformaiion
tlicmsek-cs
that i-ssues
other
an
impor-
classified
as
individiuls
neighbors
receive
executive
is
l>cen
friends,
employees is
have
inclu
includes
against
through
salaries
or
or
with prufes-
wixd a
recent
unit in central t, employees can coiuparc their pav w-ith that of others The “^ij-siem" aiegory consider, organizational pay jwl.cies and prtKxdttres » well as the adiiuDistratJon of this s\>rcm. Ii considers organization-wide nwv mJieies both implied and expliat. Precedents set hy the organization m terms of pay would l)e a major determinant in this category.
of
J
Chapter 4 Bailc Motivition Co
4
The ‘leir' category refers tu fn|iut;<,Htciirnc rnti(« thst are unique to die individual. This caregtiry is influenced by friteri.i such as
family commitments.
1319
Tile choic e of a panic ular sei of i cfcrenM is rchicil to the information available alioiit icierciits as well .is lo their perceived relevance, tk|iiity theory purports that, when ciii|>l..yccs cinisioo an iiie.|iiiiy, they may make one or more of five chincc.*$ :
Distort cither their own or orheis' in inns or ouiconu-s
L
in soiiu w«v as h> induce ndwr?, u» vhjtngc tbvir inputs or cnncomes
2.
Hdwvc in Munc w.iy so as in tiinngv thdr uwn inputs ar outcomes 4. .1 iliHcicni canipiirisiin rckTem Quit their iiil» Equii)
theory
retogiiir.CsS:
absolute
amount
of
rcwjinls
of
amount
Cu
what
that
and and
cimipt’tenie other
relative
to
are
others,
they
When
s
is
tor
|Krceive ‘ITiis
but
such
as
as
salary
such an
concerned
effnrt:;
Inputs
outcomes
created.
are
their
receive.
with
people
tension
individuals
receive
othei
coinpnrcd
fiKtors.
thur
also
provides
only
with
effort
imbalance
tension
not
with
tlie
relationship
expenenccy
levels,
the
educaiiony
raises,
recognition^
in
their
inpurouteome
die
basis
for
ratio
motivation,
as
people strive for what they perceive as equity’ and fairness. Specifically, the theory’ establishes four proposi duns relating to inequitable pay: L
puyf/ffTtf hy fimv,
ewpiijycei wiii produce wwre fhan cquifMy paid
rmpioyffw I lourJy nnd salaried employees will generate a high quantity or quality of production in order to increase the input side of the ratio ind brina alM>ut equity. 2.
/wywewz
by
/jriafniry
pf
pitifi/tetion,
ovtncuwkd
CMpbtyees
proihice
hut
bigher-^uah'Ty unify rha» equitably (hitd e^iplnyfc^. Indivriluals paid on a pieex-rate basis will increase their efforr to achieve equitv. which can cesuJi in greater quality or quantiIV. Increases in quantity however, will only increise inequity, since every unit produced
results
in
further
ovorpaymeni.
'I'hercfcre,
effort
is
directed
toward
increasing quality rather dun quanuty. 3.
Gizvn ptfyfirfff by timf, tMdfrrruHirM frvpiiiveas wiU produff /rtf nr a poorer guaiity of otit» put. EfR»rt will be decreased, and the result will be lower productivity or poorer quality of output than that produced by equitably paid einployees-
4.
Giri'W ^z/ywenf by
ofpivdncf/oa, ftndetTewarded ewphyees wiH produce a iargf
jniffibiT of
units tn iftwpntiscm with erjuttab/f pit id ewphyecf. Employees
on piece-rate pay plans can bring about equity l>ccause trading off quality of output for quantity will result in an increase in rewards with little or no increase in Contributions. A
review
Employee absolute acsyn.
of
niotivation rewards.
Hie
result
the
research
influenced
WTien
be
co
confirm
significantly
by
relative
perceive
inequity,
they
employees
might
tends
lower
or
higher
the
equity rewards
M
ill
prodncnvity,
thesis as
act
to
improved
or
consistently:
well
as
by
correct
the
sini-
reduced
quality'
of output, increased absenteeisjii. or voluntary resignation, ory’
he
leaves
included
in
preceding
does
some
Ley
the
“other”
not
issues
mean
that
equity
unclear.
F<5r
instance,
referent
category’?
How
tbeoiy do
is
without
how
do
they
define
problems.
employees inputs
select and
The who
theis
outtuines?
'Cl '.:
1
5' *
How
The WMdiul io the Orgwii«»»on
has
an
impressive
amnwe
or
rcswvii
UKK^
in co
Expectant-v Theory -lire
most
,c«
comprehensive
ITas
its
expectancy Sen*
theory
on
come
cridcs.
strength
and
on
explanarinn
most
of
motivation
is
of
the
research
evidence
argues
that
the
strength
r rel="nofollow">f
of
expectation
the
an
aiimcriveness
tlut
of
die
that
a
act
expectancy supports
the
tendency will
he
outcome
to
places
on
theory?
to
theory,
att
by
individual.
it,
b.ssenually.
ma
folloM-ed
the
Though
certain
way
given
out-
a T
herefore,
it
includes the<* three vai’iabks: 1.
llie
unporrante
die
indisidual
d»v
p.rteniial
ouwomc
or
rew-axd dial can be achieved on the job. wriabk vousidei-$ the unsausfied needs of the individual. 2.
Pfijw’mana/reTMrd The dc^^rec to which the indivuhi.d believes that performing al a particular le^'d will lead to the acuuuucnt of a desired outcome.
5.
Pff.n/fu'rfvnfMwe
'ITic probalnliu perceived by the individual that exerting
a given amount of effnrt will lead to pcriorniance. Although
this
theory
may
sound
prett}-
complex,
it
really
isn't
that
difficult
to
visuali7€. VVlieThcr one has the desire to produce at any given liiue depends un one’s pardcular goals and one’s pereepticin of the relative worth of pertbrmance as a path to tike artaimnent of those goals. Exhibit major on
is
concentioiks.
how
giKil
4-4
strongly
a The
she
(perfomkanceX
organiuiion,
will
considetsible srrength
believes
will
the
she
simplification
of
she be
reward
a
achieve
adc<|uarehher
cxpcctancj
niorivation
pci-son’s
can
satis^
ol what
she
rewarded
individual
theory*
to
perform
arteinpw.
and,
goals?
but
if
she
Let
us
describes
(effort)
depends
If
she
achieves
is
rewarded consider
its
by
thk the
the
four
Outcomes
mav
steps inherent in the theory’ Kirsi, be
posiCvc:
or
skills,
ewnes
what
perceived
ontcennes
pay.
.security,
coinjwnionship,
or
is
congenial
negative:
relationship.^.
fatigue,
does On
boredom,
the trust,
die
)ob
offer
fringe
other
frustration,
the
benefits,
euiolovce? a
chance
hand,
employees
aikxicty,
harsh
nkay
n>
use
view
su|)eivision,
talent
the or
outthreat
id dismissal. Imporiandy, reality is not relevant here: the critical i.ssue is what the individua!
employee
[Kreeives
the
oiiteome
to
be,
regardless
of
whether
her
perreptions
arc accurate. Second. positivtly,
IK^W
negativviy,
anraedve or
do
neutraJU?
employees Thk
is
consider
th
obviously
an
and consiikrs personal attitiuics, iJersDiialin; and iicei
EXHIBIT 4-4
Simplified Expectancy Model
cse
(Hircuinus?
Are
they
internal issue ta the mdixndual h. rhe individual nho finds
valued
BMIC Mrnivatirm Concept!
Chapter 4 pardoibr
outcome
anwrtwc-that
ntwining it, Others others may be neutral.
iiuy
I'hint,
kind
these
nutniincK?
employee's she
what
Tht
find
do
in
it
nf
behavior
to
not
the
valued-^will
and,
must
are
unless
order
positively negative
niiicoines
perfnmiance
must
is
therefore*
the
tn
them.
For
any
whal
to
in
and
is
!t
attain
order
effect
dearly
example,
not
exbihit
have
knows,
cittaining
prefer
emplnytc
likely
employee
achieve
prefer
on
to
not
it.
Still
tn
achieve
the
individual
unambiguously,
“doing
well"
in
what
terms
of
performance appraisal? (In what criteria will the employee's performance be judged? Fourth and last, how docs the employee view her chances of doing what is asked (if
her?
Alter
control
the
the
employee
variaWes
has
that
will
some
<'f
considered
determine
her
her
own
competencies
success,
what
and
her
proliability
abilin-
dots
she
to
place
on suvee^sfiil attsiininent? Let’s
highlight
the
issues
rhni
exjK-miicy
thw»ry’
has
bn>uglu
forward.
Fh*st, it emphiwi7.es payoffs, or rewards. As a result, we have t<> l>clieve chat the rewards the
organization
is
on
self-interest,
wherein
faction.
Wc
requires
an
zational
payoffs.
Second,
offering
have
align
each
hi
be
individual
and
want
expectancy
what
concerned
understanding Wc
with
theory
seeks with
knowledge
to
the
reward
employee
co
maximize
the
of
what
value with
cxjwted
ft
his
attractiveness
individuals
cinphasiz.es
wants,
the
or of
the
is her
behaviors.
theory
based
expecced
satis-
lewards;
individual
things
a
aspect
on
organi-
puts
they
Does
this
value
the
j^witivclv,
person
know
what is expected of her and kmnv htjw she will he appraised? Kina II y, the theory is concerned
with
employees
the
own
individual’s
expectations
expectations.
of
What
performance,
is
reward*
realistic
and
goal
is
irrelevant,
satisfaction
The
outcomes,
not the objective outcomes themselves, will determine her level f,f effort.
DON'T FORGET: MOTIVATION THEORIES ARE CULTURE-BOUND! Most and
current alxiut
based
ualism
theories
So
we
theories
characteristics
inherent
quantity-of-life
emphasize
take
a
look
goal at
how
were
need
motivation
and
theories Lets
.Americans.
on
American
motivation
to
developed
in
he
alxjut
transfer in
across
For
instance,
bias
as
ha.s
the
United
is
affected
the
as
a few-
of
reeoininendotions blatant
emphasis
on
and
the
Americans
most
goal-setting
rauonai
by
chat
Lhe
strong
both
well
States
ussuniing
cultures.*^
theories
accomplishment this
carchif
theset
factors.
.
and
indhnd-
expectancy
individual
inotivation
pro-
thought.
theories
intro-
duced in this chapter.
level
and
social,
then
move
esteem,
an<]
aligns
with
ferent.
In
American countries
characteristics Countries Sweden, woulJ
hierarchy
are
that
predict,
for
theojy up
culnirc.
In
as
str<4ig,
other
Japan,
security high
Netherlands,
instance,
that
argues
that
hierart
hy
in
hierarchy,
if
it
the
self-actualixatjon.
such
the
needs
progressively
sc<3rc
Norway
of
cultures, (Greece,
needs on
the or
would
group
this
order:
has
IK
will
on
any
of
Me.dco,
at
the
appbeariun
importance
where top
of
have
motivate
swal
physiological
physiological,
might
iincerTainty' the
needs
characteristics—such
Finland—would work
siari
order
qualiry-f>f-life
and
people
needs
employees
safety* at
all,
l>e
dif-
avoidance hierarchy.
as
Denmark,
un
top.
We
when
the
more
country^ culture scores high on the quality-of-life criterion. An<«her m<privation concept th jt clearly has a U.S. bias is the uchievciBem need. The View that a high achievement need acxs as an internal motivator jircsupjxisestwo
«
.Maslow's
I
$4
Part H iTie IndHduil in OrginiMOon cvhural
chi.«cteristic^-a
excludes with
countries
with
performance
of
life
as
the
willingness
(which
characteristics). United
States,
to
accept
str-ng
uncertainty
applies
almost
Tliis
and
moderate
awndance
singularly
combination
Canada,
a
is
Great
Britain.
of
characteristic)
to
found
de^ce
countries in
On
and
wnih
other
fwbid.
a
concern
str.ing
quantity,
Anglo-Anierican
the
nA
countnw
hand,
these
such
character-
istics are almost absent in countries such as Chile and Portugal. Goal-setring United
Sutes
assumes
because
that
distance),
tainty
avoidance),
in
is
its
Goal-setting
countries
will
managers and
in
also
key
employees
power
of-life).
theory
certainly
components be
and
which
align
reasonably
employees
performance
theory's
culture-bound.
is
will
opposite
seek
considered
well
well
(not
too
not
by
exist,
such
U.S.
high
goals lx>A
likely
adapted
wiA
challenging
important
are
conditions
is
reasonably
independent
recommendadons
Ac
It
to
as
It
score
on
(low
in in
increase
France,
Ae
culture.
a
(high
to
uncerquantity-
motivation
Portugal,
and
Chile.
IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS Many ably
of
strong
employees
xhe
predictive
^pply
application,
at
least
are
differences,
perceived
mance,
and
as (7)
How
theories?
for
are
presented
value.
these
recoinniendarions individual
rheories
consistent match
attainable, check
die
chapter
a
manager
in
general North
with
die
people
to
(5)
this
does
C'ertain
managers
(2)
in
findings
individualize
system
for
(3)
m use
rewards,
equity.
These
demonstrated
cuncemed
suggestions
^America.
jobs.
hav-e
can
with be
insrance,
the
this
chapter:
(1)
(6)
(4J
hnk
ensure rewards
suggestions,
of
motivating
e.Ktracred
For
goals,
reason-
for
following recugnixe diat to
course,
goals perforwould
need to be modified to reflect cultural differences outside of North America. The the
importance
concepts
pre^red
here,
.Ti p,’’ ’
and programs.
r
4.
we\'e
of just
providing
motivadng offered. a
employees
The
review
next of
the
today
chapter more
justifies builds popular
on
more the
specifics concepts
morivacion
than wc’vc
techniques
Motivation: From Concepts to Applications After reading this chapter, you should be able to A
Identify the four ingredients common to MBO progr^ims
Ui M » A
Oirtlir>e the five-step problem-soiving model in OB Mod Explain why managers might want to use employee involvement programs Contrast participative management with employee involvement
9> Ul A
Explain how ESOPs can increase employee motivation Describe file link between skill-based pay plans and motivation theories
I
ts one tiling to be able to recite the principles of motivation theories; it’s anodier to see how, as a manager, you could use them, la this chapter, we focus on how to
apply modvatinn concepts—that is, how to link theories to practice. In
the
following
pages,
we‘ll
review
mouvadon
techniitues
and
programs
that
have gained varying degrees of acceptance in practice. For each of die techniques and pnigranis we review, we’ll specjhcjlly iiddrcs*^ how the)’ build on one nr more of the oiodvadtm theories covered in Chapter 4.
MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES Cfoal-scni ng theory hasan iinpresMVc base of research supiwn But as a manager, how do you make goal setting operadtinal? The besr answer to that quesdfxn is: Install a rnanagemenr bv ohjmives (MBO) program.
The Individual in the
What I* MBO? Management by objectives (.MBO) emphasizes paracipam-ely set gods dtat are tar,S ferihahk and measurable. Ifs no, a new idea, In fact, .t was or.g.naUy i>ropo«d hv Peter Drucker nearly SO years ago as a means «.f us„,g goaLs tr. ,n.,Usate people rather than to control them.' 'Id.lay. n... introduction to baste management concepts wouldbecompkwwihouTadisoissionofMBO. MBOs zational
ob.ecrives
members. which 5-1.
appeal
MBO
tion.
But
MBO
works
from
of
Each
to
her
unit’s
goals
will
be
’there
are
four
divisional,
up”
as
attained
organizational by
As
participate
specific
objectives
The
re.siilt
one
level
to
down.” those
specific
has
an
identified
specific
all
the
individuals
achieve
overall
at
the
the
goals, is
a
level.
performance
contribution goals,
objectives
for
organiza-
next
personal their
by
E.vhihit
own
at
organizaition's
in
their
objectives
the
tlcpicicd
selling
“top
and
process
in
the
If
a
individual
in
from
provides
and
organi-
individual)
as
MBO
units
into
departmental,
overall
dcvo.sing
organtzUion. translated
jointly
converting
well
therebire,
performance.
on
objectives
arc
employee,
person,
of
objectives
links
individual
objectives. or
that
for
the
managers
’‘bottom
objectives
for’tbe
his
the
emphasis
ihrotigh
is.
lower-unit
its
concept
down
flliat
in
objectives
the
overall
level
because
hierarchy .And
cascade
organization’s
succeeding
lies
.specific
oficrarionalizes
each
unit’s
into
objectives the
undoubredlv
will
to
make
then
their
become
a
reality.
pative
ilceiibion
objectives not
in
enough,
increase
ingredients
tnaking,
MBO for
should
example,
quality.
Such
and
evaluated.
measured
an
cutiinum
explicit
he
desires Tb
to
have cut
time
concise
merely
co
in
state
departmental
objectives.
EXHIBIT 5^1 Cascading of Objectives ---------------------------------------------
>1 Dwrsiorui 1 __
f Depa>'unei>ul _ obiecdves C Individual A 4 I I ^eah«* f
a
prograins:
period,
desire
be converted
increase qualit)' by keeping returns to than ! percent
. OveraH ■ W^aniwioral -----------------------. ob)e«kes
B()
statements
ensuring that all telephone orders are pnx:e.ssed
z
.M
costs
and of
cut
into fry
specificity,
performance
expected
to
goal
7pfzrr???,
feedback.
accomplishments.
costs,
tangible
partici-
improve
objectives to
It
is
service,
or
that
improve
The
can
be
service
by
24 hours of^'eceipft or to examples of specific
IF
4«
Chapt«r5 Motivation: From Cwcep
*
W MHO 1 he nunuKer an.J measured. Each ohK-cuve b-p.«lh
tliat
have
not
period only
imposed |...nrly cho,«e
employee has is
a
i
specific
specific
months,
nme
6
obiccuves
die
gonb
and
agree
penod
in
».hich
it
monihs
but
or
ako
1
year.
stipulated
So
on
they
Jie
completed.
managers
and
employees
to
accomplish
in
which
them.
' The
seeks
tn
monitor
find give
and
fonnal
sales
sales
ingredicin
m
LOiHinLiuu.s correct
periodic
well as jr all
wK
to
periods
i,
how
the hortoni.
own
each
repirhs
to
determine
managers
of
progress
nr
rakes
her
jirogress
fccdUuk
toward
goals
place
as
feedback,
at
the
pnxlucts.
toward
die
does
on so
top
tic
sales each
or
performance that
of
the
ba^
she
by
divnsion’s
organization moniror
the
as
over-
ongoing
objectives. in
can more
objectives for udll
salesperson
MBO
individuals
supplemented
sales, lor instance,
major
objecovcs»
is
Continuous
president of
his
have
program
actions.
The vice
for
sales
on
evaluations,
and
district
MBO
feedhdck
their
iiunflgenal
an
Similarly,
licid
Feedback
in teniis of sales and pcrfonnancc is provided to let all these people know bow they’ are doing,
.^t
formal
appraisal
meetings,
managers
and
their
employees
can
review
progress toward gnals and hircher feedback can be pronded.
Linking MBO and Coal-Setting Theory Goal-sectiiig performance fonnance feet
theory chan
than
(back
un
demonstrates
do
do
easy
no
one's
that
goals,
goals
perfonn
at a
hard
that all
nee
goals
specific or
the
lead.s
result
hard
goals
generalized to
in
higher
a
higher
result
goal
in
higher
of'do
performance.
level
your
of
individual
levels best/'
Compare
of
per-
and
that
these
findings
with MBO. AWO explicidy MBO
direct]V
states,
would
be
advocates
that most
goals
specific
must
effective
be
when
goals
and
perceived the
goals
as are
feedback. feasible. difficult
MBO
implies,
Consisrenr enough
with
to
radier goal
require
setting. the
Min to do some stretching. The only area of possible disagreement between .MBO and goal-setting rhe<jr)' is rebted to the issue of partieipanon—MBO strongly advocates it. whereas goal-setting theory demon si rates that a»ignijig goals to individuals frequently works just as well. The major benefit to using parnciparion, howe\’er, is that it increases the likelihood that individuals will accept more difficult goals.
MBO in Prattle Vou’U find MBO proicraim in manv business, health care, educational, and ni.nprofit nrganizauons. Most organiziiiions. in foct, make some use nf MBC features because managers find that goals give people d.reeuon sense to establish goals and then fail to evaluate whether or not they re being MetMedmX • ease/however, indicaics that the Uathcr the culprits tend to he fac-
arc 3 number of d<xnjmenied cashes in managciueiits expcetarioiis. .A close luo protileins rarelv lie with
basic coinpone •
u« such as unrealisric ejcpectations regarding
dim
comniittnent by top
per-
I M' «wt
ZSX
AlSnScs
m.n.Bcrs
uirh"^
'
vehicle for implementing giml-sctong thcor>’-
BEHAVIOR MOPItlCATlON
..
A nm. -da«ic ‘=ni.lv took place ainn.Q JO years agi, with freight Packers at Emery .Air Freight
(now
pan’of
shipments
into
Mamgemeni
believed
FedFt).’
freight
Enierys
containers
that
..sing
management
rather
than
containers
wanted handling
w.mld
save
many
money.
asked what pcn cntaKc of shipments they put in containers, percent 45
An
analysis^
percent.
Icslicd
a
Enwrv
In
order
program
of
tn
found,
howo
encourage
teedback
and
er,
th.n
the
employees posirive
packers
to
rate use
aggregate
separate
WTien
.terns.
packers
were
the standard reply was 90
of
container
conrainers,
rcinforcciiienis.
to
Each
use
w
as
only
management
packer
w
xs
esub-
instructed
to keep a checklist of his or her daily packings, bo± in containers and nut. At the end of each day. the packer computed his or her rare of conrainer use. .Alinosr unbelievably, container held
use
to
that
(umped les
el.
to
more
Eraen-
than
W
reported
percent
on
this
simple
that
the
first
day
of
the
program
program
of
feedback
and
the
of
behavior
and
positive
reinforcements saved the company millions ol dollars. TTiis or
what
program
has
at
IKCOIUC
Emery
more
;\ir
Freight
jxtpiilarly
illusirates
called
OB
Mod.^
use
It
represents
the
modification, application
of
reinforcement theorv to indii iduaJs in rfie work setting.
What Is OB Mod? The
typical
solving (?)
OB
Mod
model:
identily
(1)
program,
as
shown
in
E.thibit
Identify-performance-related
behavioral
contingencies:
5-2,
behaviors;
(4)
develop
follows (2)
and
a
five-step
measure
the
implement
problembehaviors;
an
intervenuon
strategy; and (5) evaluate perfonnance improvement.' Everything an employ ee does on his or her ioh is not equally imponani in terms of
perbinnanqc
ical
behaviors
outcomes, that
lhe
have
a
first
step
in
OB
significant iiiqMCt
M.xl,
on
the
therefore,
is
employee’s
to
job
ideiiriR-
the
jierformance. I
crithcsc
arc tl«e< 5 K> lOiKixent of behaviors iluit may account fur up to 70 or 80 percent of each
employees
pctfonnaricc.
Frcighr
packer,
at
Emery
;\ir
Freight
u-.ing
container
whenever possible is an example of a crincal behavior. The
seconti
information; Resent
that
step is,
umdioons.
requires
the
In
the
number
our
of
manager nmes
(re.ght-packing
to
the
develop identified
example
at
some
baseline
behavior
Emerv;
this
is
performance
.xrtirnng
would
under
have
Ixen
behavioral
con-
mat 45 percent of all 4^iptncni.s were pm in containers. nic
thini
step
Dngcficies
«
e,mt
^havior
the
is
to
consequences and
the
[lerform of
a
fonctional
performance.
ct.nseque.tces
Ibk
that
anaivsis
to
step
tells
arc
currently
ideniifrd.r
the
manager
mainmmii.g
which it.
At
cues Emcrv
Air Freight. ^ial norms and the greater dirtkulty in packing contafoei, were the the
1 hose facing encoui aged the practice of packing items se,«ra,elv Moreover, consequences for continuing this Iwhaviot, before rhe OB Mod inu-n’endon were
socui aoxpuncc and escaping more demanding work Once the functional analysis is complete,
rhe
manager
is
implement an intervention strategy to strengthen desirable ,wrfoniun« beSioTS
readv
to
develop
and
Chapter S Motirwoao: PnaConoepB EXHIBIT S-2
Steps in OB Mod
n.lmeJ ' ’a^JS /r V* I
s*«mi
z
2 Heasire: BMeAne the fr^tncy of retixMve
3
t
MMHX ensong behavioral eorttngendes * thrau^ functional analysis
|
L ----------------------------------------------------------4b Apply appropriate strete^
>
4c ' Mfluure Oarc the frequency of response after intervention * JiflwZ
J
MapM oy aermttuee of wt MH«h« Hw* flwcwi Juty-Aupet Red bCm AfagihM tiasi^n* Me. ««»■ WK. AD »0m leMTWO
’J
lu Indirido*! in the Organiesdon ,
.
behaviors. HIK appropriate strategy «4t1 entail changing »»«
*"^„7thXrforwance/rcward linkage struenKC. processes, technology, clement pwl oftnak.ng high-lcnd pcrh.mwnce ...orc rewarding. ™mplc, the wo'rk icchnnlogy >vas ahcred to require keepmg a checklist. ^l,c
plus cunpiranon at the end oHhc day oi the. rate ot container use
artol to reinforce the dearetl behavior of usuig containers. The final step in OB Mod is to evaluate perfonnance iinprovemciiT. In the Enierv inten-enrion, the immchate bnptovenient in the rate of container use demonstmteil Uiat behanoral change took place. That it rose to 90 percent and he >1 at that level further indicatv.s that learning nnik place, 'i-hat is, the employees uiulcrwent a relaQvcIy penn.incnr change in bclianor.
Linking OB Mod and Reinforcement Theory Remfi>n-emcnr impact
of
cepts
TO
rheon*
(lifferenr provide
relies
on
schedules managers
of with
}x>sii3vc
ranforccmcnt,
rcinforcxnicnr a
powerful
on
shaping,
behavior.
and
proven
OB
and
rca»gnizing:
JMCMI
uses
fur
changing
means
thc^e
the con-
employee
behavior.
OB Mod in Praetke OB
JMOII
has
absenteeism, Electric, OB
been
tardiness,
Cjeneral
Ahxi.
used
And
and
Alills, a
lo
improve accident
Weyerhauscr,
general
employee
review
of
rates.^
and
Aiajur
Xerox
numeruus
product
have
OB
iviry
and
cunipanies ha
Mod
to
reduce
such
as
considerable
progranw
hwnd
errors General
success chat,
using
on
aver-
age, the}’produced a 17 pcrccnl improvement in employee performance.'
EMFLOYi: E RECOGNITION PROGRAMS I .aura Schendcll nukes only 47.2 > an hour working at her fast-food job in Pensacob, tiorid.-i.
And
the
iob,
itself,
isn’t
veiy challenging
or
inKrcsimg.
Yet
Laura
talks
endiusi-
astically alwut her job, her boss, and die company that employs her. “WTiai 1 like is die fact that Guy Pier supervisor] appreciates die effort f make. I Ic cumpiiment.s me regularly in front ol die other people on my .shift. And I've Iwen chosen “Employee erf the iVlonth twice in the past 6 mondis. Did yon sec my picture on that plaque on the wall?” Organiraiions
aie
increa.singly
recognizing
whar
Laura
Schcndell
is
acknowl-
edging: Recognition can he a potent motivator.
What Are Employee Ristognition Programs? Employee
recognition
programs
can
take
nnmcroiis
forms.
The
best
ones
use
multi-
ple sources and recogniz* both indnidual and group aefomplishmenrs. Exaiuplcs in
pnvate
ing or
for
something formal
of a
recognition good
positive
award
ph. the
ceremonies
might
sendmg employee at
which
o’.'L-’lT*'"’ BMf.
Software,
include a
personally
handwiiiren
has
done;
rmphk-s
note
congratulatingor
e-mail
a
write-up
in
and
plaques
are
the
an
nussaK company
handed
mit
emplovee acknowledginaunzine; to
indhid-
m
wtdelv
-'deluding NASA. Wait Disnev Imagineenng. and
Nissan-acrivcly
use
their
public
relations
pubhcMe the outstanding aehievemcnts of their technical and design teams.
capabilities
Chapter 5 M.Mivatiwi:Froni<:oncen,«f>App|je»6o«, Liiikin}? Rewgnitiott Programs and Reinforcement Theory A few jrars; havfc, 1,500 emphw'res were survewd in a variety- »f work settings to find out what they considered to be the most powerful response? Rccognidcm, recognition, and more recogniuim!^ Cnnsisient immediately
fbllowing
previously
that
don
potential
ents
arc
the
of
and
behavior can
and
m
likdy
take
many
rewarding to
best
recognized.
program.^
Prmlential
to
their
reward
process
in
t:ompany
detailed
to
to
motiva-
who
recipihas an
to
care-
promote
and
winner'*'
noted
the
encouraged
c-mails,
of
as
ix»r instance,
obiccovesi
nrwslcitcrs,
explanations
And,
coinmunicate arc
Their
recognition
inaxiinizc
Insurance.
departmental
w‘ith
repetition.
managers
rewards pwdr
its
publicly
Pnidemial
motivator.
behavior
However, to
and
publicly
a
encourage
forms.
probably
being
reeogintion
theory, is
it's
dicy are
recognition
nomination
sites;
that
recognition,
fiirmal
tailor
rcinforcemem
rccognirion
and wh)’
evrensive fijUy
with
workplace
on
both
Intranet
accomplishments.
Employee Recognition PrograrnH in Practice In
today's
cost
pressures.
most little
highly
other or
competitive
That
makes
motivators,
no
money.
^obai
economy,
rccogmtion
recognizing
Maylie
that's
programs
an why
most
organizauons
particularly
employee's a
ol
under
attractive,
superior
survey
are in
performance
3,000
employers
severe
contrast rdten
found
to
costs
that
two-
thirds u?e or plan to use .special recognition awards '® One of the in cm I well-known si nd widely used recognition devices is the use of .sijfffesiion
systems.
costs
are
and
effective
at
Japanese
Employees
recognized
making
plant
with
offer
siittgcstions
small
cash
suggestion
in
the
employee
a
year
and
contrast,
a
comparable
systems
auto
pays
awards.
work.
components
approximately
Western
factory
for
inipniving
Tlie
For
the
have
a
of
about
U
47
S.
one
$35
or
been
typical
generates
equivalent
generates
Japanese
instance,
business
priKVsscs
cutting especially
high-performing
suggestions per
per
suggestion.
suggesuon
per
In
cmplf>)*ee
per year, but pays out $90 per suggestion. *’
EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT PROGRAMS WTiat
do
the
assembly
following
plant
in
Durhani,
nine
self-directed
teams.
what
work:
to
make
the
slack
Phoenix, out
any
Sweden, employee these
how’
all
made
salespeojilc approval and
arc from
4iKTri^
groups examples
as
have
Nortli
They
balance
manufacturing are
examples
training,
within
the co
of
that
they
is
negotiate Finally,
companies
members
At
their all
a
Ciencral
Electric
170
employees
are
no
bn«.
Decisions
such
and
efficient;
ream.
management.
require
have
At
the
vacations,
more
allow^ed
common?
Carolina,
basically
process
In
overtime
and
how
Childress and the
of
to
have
elected
board
of
directors.
illustrate
to
Buick,
finalize
law’s
against
organized as
with
Ckrmany,
employee
he
how
dealer
France,
involvement
in
with-
Denmark,
from
common
co who
customers
reprcscniatives I
does
teammates
automobile
dcaU
into
who
workflow:
handle an
aircraft
r
element
eir in
programs.
^Miat Is Employee Involvement? Emplffygf mqutt.'-
has become a convenient catchall rerm to cover a varietyof tech For
instance,
it
encompasses
popular
ideas
or participative management, workplace democracy, empowennent, an empoyc
such
as
employee
1116 irdividwl In the Organiiation h™ un.,ue cha
o^tnership. Our portion is that,
* 1
Fart H
meTi.y employee involvement? We define it « . capacity of rn.ptoyees and is designed to e^uraTinf^ased commitment to the organizations success." The underlj^g
Sn hat speai >
loeiH that involving workers in .kosions that will affect them and increasing their rjsmv and coiuroi over their work lives will make employees more motivated, or^nmizahon, m.we productive, and more satisfied with their
Does that mean that paTt>al>^ti«» and empl
Examples of Employee Involvement Programs In
This
section,
we’E
describe
diree
forms
of
employee
involvement;
pdrtidpative
manapetnenr, repixscntativc participation, and employee stock ownership plans. Paiticipalive dvc
Management
Rianagemeat
actually
The
programs
share
a
distinct
is
the
significani
characteristic
use
degree
of
of
joint
common
decision
decision-making
to
making. power
all
'Ihat widt
participa*
is,
employees
their
immediate
superiors. Parriciparive morale
and
is
ethical
an
low
organization Qcipate, ees
management productivity.
imperative.’■*
or
the
every’
issues
must
has,
have
times,
been
audior
even
panici|iative
unit.
For
promoted argued
ii»
work,
there
which
eiuployces
get
involved
ability
(intelligence,
a
panacea
participative
is
not
must
be
imust
technical
xs
that
management
it
in die
One But
work
at
be
adequate to
poor
management
appropriate
rek^^nt
knowledge,
for for
lime
every to
then,
coiumunicarion
par-
cmploj'-
skills)
m
participate, and rhe organizadoa’s culture must support employee involvement.*' Dozens
o1
tionship.
The
folly,
ir
appears
such
as
clusion
findings that
employee doesne
under
Miidies
the
been
however,
that
conditions.
cuaducied
arc
participation
prt^uciivity.
mean
right
have
on
the
mixed.VV^cn
the
typically
mons'auoii,
the WTiat
use it
hxs and
of
says
only
is
modest
the
in
VVesrem
looked
Of
maiugemenc
that
forma
influence
satisfaction.
participative is
research a
job
however,
jiarricipationZpcr
use
of
rela-
at
care-
on
course, can’t
nee
be
variables that
con-
l>eneficial
participation
is
no
sure means for impmving employee pcrftjrmaiice. Rcpresentaiivr of That
Participation
legislaimn IS,
requiring
rather
OTall
g-^up
iKten
«
led
tlun
of
parti,
en.ployces
the
.nosr
.^moxt
everjr
country
companies .pare who w.ddy
.l.rectiv
to in
actually leg.slatcd
practice decisions,
panneipnte. fonn
of
Europe
represeniarive workers
are
Representative employee
has
narricipatiuo.
represented participation
involvement
some
a^unJ
by
a has the
world. ‘' 'Hie
goal
ofI
representative
parucipai.on
is *
I'hc TWO most common fonns of representative „p_. Wofks
.
to
redistribute
power
within
management >
an
orga-
Chapter 5 Monvauon: Froni Concq grout®
of
ncHiiinated
incnl
makes
Dutch
c(Hn>any
c.r
deewmns
elected
involving
personnel.
over
unoriuT
taken
K
employees
by
who For
n.ust
l«
e.^mplc.
Rrm.
die
consulted
in
the
finmeri
Hs to Apphcai
when
.nana«-
Netherlands,
works*
councii
if
a
must
he
mfonned at an early stage, and if the council objects, it has ^0 dat^ tn seek a court mMicUoa
to
board
componys some
:>top
die
of
countries,
takeover.
directors
large
Board
and
companies
representatives
represent
m.^y
be
are
the
interests
legally
required
emplovees of to
who
the
firm’s
make
sure
sir
on
employees that
a In
employee
represencaiives have the same nuniUr of board seats as shx-kholder representatives The
overall
influence
seems
co
bemmimat.
mated
by
managciTient
although hicliou
rhis of
ertecl
“die
peatest
changing
iekles value
employee
evidence
little
impact
invuivcment
who
are
doing
to
the
operating
down of
the
have
employee
xndivjduals
ti
representarive
insnim-e.
and
of
ft»rm
die
this
For
of
representative
altitudes
or
participation suggests
or
might
inci’case
the
representing, employees is
roving
w'orking
works
employees
die
imp
that
on
parucipatioo
in
on
whom
couiicik
the
there
is
If
organizational
are
doni-
organization.
And,
motivation linle
iJiey
symbolic.
cmplnvees
and
evidence
represent.
one
saris-
is
that
Overall,
interesicd
pcrfonnance,
in
representa-
ovc partiapiition would be a poorclioice.*’’'^ Employee
Stock
well
discuts
ship
plans
pan
of
window
Ownership
is arc
employee
Plans stock
benefits.
manufacturer
United
.^Indcrscn
11
ownership
company-csiablished
their
The
benefit
plans
plans
.’\jrlints, Corp,
mil
arc
(ESOPs).
in
Puliliv ft>ur
employee
which
involvement Employee
enipluyees
Supermarkets, examples
of
approach
stock
ac^^uirc
(.iraybar
companies
owner-
stock
Riecrric, that
arc
a^ and
more
than 50 percent owned by their employees th rough ESOPs.’*'^ In contribute
rhe
typical
either
empJojn^es,
ESOP,
sU^ck
Allbough
or
an
employee
cash
to
employees
hold
buy
stock stock
stock
ownership for
in
die
their
erase
trust
company,
and
is
created.
allncate
they*
Oimpanies
rhe
usually
stock
cannot
physical possession of their shares or sell them as long as they’re still employed at
to take the
company. 1
he
addition, instance,
research
they one
on
ESOPs
frequently snuly
indicates
result
found
that
in
that
they
improved
ES(*)Ps
averaged
increase
employee
organizational nearly
7
percent
satisfaction,
perfonnancc. higher
fn For
shareholder
returns over rhe 4 ve a rs after rhe ESOP was estab I Uh td than market rctiuns of similar companies without an ESOP.’*^
Unking Employee Involvement Programs and Motivation Theories Employee For
involvement
instance,
aligns
with
two-factor intrinsic
Tlieory the
more
theory, motivation
draws
on
Y
cx^nsistent
is
traditional
employee by
several
motivation with
autocratic
involvement
increasing
theories
psirticipativc
style
ol
programs
opporruniries
discussed
Tnanagenieni,
managing
people.
could
provide
for
in
growth,
involvement in the work itself.
Employee Involvement Programs in Practice ffcmwny, France, the Netherlands, and the 5k:andinanan countries have firmly established the principle of indastnal democracy in Europe, and other nations, including Japan and Israel, have traditionally pnitiiccd some form of represeuwove participation for decades. Participative management and representative participation were
and In
Chapter
4.
Theory
X
terms
of
the
employees
with
responsibility,
and
Tl«e Imftvkhal in the t*g4niMHnn much slower to «in tfn,und in North .Xmcrican organiMtions. But nwatfey,. employee invoivemcot proprums that str«s partidpauon have heeonw the norm. Some maniitfCR cnnlinuc m resist sharing dcviMon-niakm^ power. Init the pressure ts managers ui give up their riutocratit decision-inakrng style in bvor of a more parliciparhe. supportive, coaching-like rule. Uhai ment
al>out
ESOPs?
Ihey’ve
pnjgrain
I
grown
.
hey
are
Iwcoiiung
fnnn
just
a
a
handful
popular 50
years
turm
oJ
ago
to
einpkjyec over
involve-
10,000
now,
cuvenng jnt>re than 10 iniiliun cmplnyrcs.-^
VARIABLt-PAY PROGRAMS For
more
than
30
years,
Nveur
Steel
has
had
an
incentive
compensation
that pays Iximises of as much as 150 jKreent of base to employees. lated
on
the
with
Merrill
How
did
Lynch,
he
iwbilin-of his
not
so
company’s
$1.4
much
nxincy-
(k
prnfuabilily.
drop
his
pav
package
is
—
He
gets
performance
gixnl
yciir
for
AT&T
more
.Armstrong.
2’^ c
percent
losely
The
Benson,
2fl01
Michael
bonus
Rick
in
million
and
salar\'
a
the
department,
because
was
of
earned
nuke
his
annual
2000
basis
common
bonuses
to
$4.5’^
his
thread
in
on
of
to
$5.26
these
salary.
the
pinf-
AT&T
saw
million)
performance
of
banker
base
CEO
million
each
his
based
company’s
place
investment
times
and
in
Bonuses arc calcu-
an
six
Chairman
(from
Tied
than
plni
and
examples
in
2000
is
diat
are
all
they all illustj*atc variable-pay programs.
\Vliat Arc Variable-Pay Programs? Piece-rate forms
phns.
of
wage
inccniives,
profit
variable-pay
programs.
WTiat
sharing,
bonuses,
differential's
and
these
gainsharing
forms
of
conipensaiit^
from more iTiulirional programs is that a person is pn irl not only for dme on the job or seniority;
a
measure
ol
pay is year,
portion
of
an
iwrftirmancc
not
an
you’ll
or
annuity.
make
employee's
4
the
l-*odi.
here
same
is
pay
is
Unlike no
amount
based
more
some
tnKlitional
guarantee this
on
individual
basc-|>ay
that just Ixeause
year.
Wth
variable
or
urganiz.atinnal
programs,
you
made
pay,
earnings
has
made
variable
S60.0(X) last fluctuate
with
rhe measure of performance. It
is
precisely
atmeuve
to
management.
variable
cost,
when
pay
form
of
is
fluctuadon It
diercby tied
end
the
turns
Low'
of
an
expenses
performance,
dement.
variable
part
reducing
to
in
d^at
organizations
when
caniings
performers
pay
perfonnance
recognize
find,
fixed
over
labor
that
into
In
rndier
their
programs
costs
declines.
conirihiition
time,
these
addifinn,
than
pay
a
being
stagnates,
a and
high perfonners enjoy pay increases cunnnensuraie with their contributions. Four wages, for
production
and
of
workers.
paid
for
200
bags
T
In
what
he
have
a
to
the
van
gain'sharing. long
pay
been
plans,
sy^uiii
or
she
keep
game,
of
A
peanuts
get
used and
piece-rate
selling during
hey
complered.
only for
instance,
widely
sharing,
century-
ballparks
might, sell
a
more
proIn
production
IS
work
rhe
bonuses.
nearly
unit
ol
able-pav
Piece-rate popular
workers
in
which
an
produc
es
a
and
soda
pop
50
cents
(or
they make
$100.
is
If
a
paid
a
pure
bag
they sell
gets
of
paid pcanub
only 4(1
a mere $20 I he harder they work and die more peanuts they sell the more they
piece-rate
been
for
fixed
piece-rate
are
arc
have
means
employee
frequently every
wages
as
are
programs
compensating
sum nu
plan.
around
for
each
base
salaiy
People
who
this
way.
I
hey
they
sell.
If
they
bags’
their
»kc
u»
Chapters Mirtivation: From
Tti?
earn. Many organizations use a modified piece-rate nlm i„ -
,
a base hourly wage plus a piccc-raie diffcremi,). s>. a’zipper iJsuTkr'TT 1^ Strauss plant might be pai.l $S’ a,, hour plus $.10 per zippeTsuch n odifi d JSTa provide a floor under an employee’s earnings while still offering a pnXS incentive. * Brmnses
can
bonuses
lo
annual lions.
Steve
his
JOIK,
success
plan-s ees.
are At
paid at
on
Ea-snnan
of
the
a
net
Co.,
exeaitixes
or
are
uncommon
fkimputcr.
coinjunys
larger
Chemical
to
dollars
.Apple
ninnng
taking
exclusiyelt
millions
C.FO
in
nity to cam a
be
received
fuiimi.it
within
(or
not
a
all
SM)
all
emploxees. in
million
fortunes
onranization-s
e.-campie.
to
include
IH.OOO
American
corpora-
in
>000
Increasindv have
ba.s«l
for
bonus
lower-ranking
employees
bonus eipial to 10 percent of their .annual pay,
instance,
kmus
an.und.
to
For
employ-
the
opportu-
on bow
mu^ the
distribute
cumpen-
company earn> on its cosi of iinrsiA'd capiul. Profit-sharing sation
based
on
plans sonic
are
organizution-widc
csublisbed
tbrmula
programs
designed
that
around
a
company’s
profitability.
Thes»e can be direci cash outlaw’s or, parLieularly in the case of top managers, allocated as
stfxk
can
options.
cam
over
For
S200
example, million
in
eveciiavcs
such
one
Almost
year.
as
Michael
all
of
Eisner,
it
woultl
rhe
CEO
at
Disnev.
wmc
from
cashing
in
.stock oprinns previously granted on die basis of company profit pcrfiirmanccTTie variable-pay program that has gotten the iiuisr anention in recent years is undoubtedly gainsharing. This is a fornnda-based group incentive plan. Improvements in group productiviry—from one period to ainitbcr—detemune the total amount of inonej’ to be allocated. .And the division uf productivity savings can be split bctw’een rhe company and employees in an\’ number of wa)% but 50-50 is prettj’ typical. Isn’t same
gainsharing
thing.
rewards
By
specific
Fzmpkyees
in
the
same
focusing liehaviors
a
gain
on
as
profit
productivity'
that
sharing
thing
are plan
ICKS can
sharing?
gains
rather
influenred receive
by
They're than
external
incendve
similar
on
but
profits,
not
the
gainsharing
factors
than
even
when
the
and
productirin*?
aw*ards
profits
are.
organ!-
zaiion isn't pnifitable. Do The
variable-)>ay
answer
is
producavin* exjx^rr
found,
in
says
.American
a
qualified
nitrst
gainsharing
average,
work?
“yes.*’
cases
Management
on
prograncs
and
boosts
that
has
employee
grievances
they
intTcasc
for
example,
(lainsharing,
often
j\ss<x:iauon
Do
study
a
positive
pmdticrivity’ of
dropped
83 83
morivarinn has
impact
on
between
eoropames percent^
been
.5 that
found
employee and used
absences
fell
26
to
irapnwc
attitudes.
One
pen-ent.**
^\n
gainsharing 84
percent^
also and
lost-time accidents decreased by 69 percent.*^
Linking \ariable
Variable-Hay pav
is
shtjuk!
perceive
receive
if
compatible a
strong
motivation
is
Programs widi
expectancy
relaaonship to
be
and dieon
benveen
maximized.
their If
Expectancy
prclirtions. ^«rfo^nancc
rewards
are
Theory
Specifically, and
allocated
the
uidmauals
rewards
they
^.fdetdy^on
non-
performance factors such as seniority or job title, employees ate- l.tely to red..« their A strong case nowadays can be made for mcenoves-The)'reinforce and encourage emp oye *r hea inte.^ of their work unit or the orgamranon. (.ro«FHb«ied pe
goals ftw r^roup-bise** performance
irKvnnve. strong
dsn
MV
ream
a
ethic.
namral
extension
Linking
re«"jr.ls
for lo
nrganiz^rinns
team
that
performance
are
trying
enwunges
«
btriM
employees
. to
make extra effoi-ts to help their team succeed.
Variable-Pay Programs in Practice pav
\’ariahle
ts
rcawin,
as
rfons.
Bonuses,
a
rired
concept
alxive,
that
is
is
its
rapidly
replacing
motivari.itia!
gainsharing,
and
the
ptiwcr—but
other
annual
don
I
variable-reward
rtwc-of-ln-mg ignore
the
programs
raise,
cost
avoid
(inc
implica-
the
fixed
expense yJ periuaneni sabr>* honors. Pay-f«r-pciformance has been ’’in” for compensating managers for seven) decades. The new trend has been expanding diis pracUce to nnnmanagcrbl employ, ccs IRM, VVal-xVbn. Pi?Z9 Hut, Cigna Corp., nnd John Dccix arc just a lew examples ot comiKmics itsing v.nrhbk }wy with rank-anJ-flic employees In the Vnitetl Sutes, for cxainplv, 72 pcnx'nr of all companies ha
popularity
companies.-’
finxis
such
as
seems
to
It's
Iwng
&
Howell,
Bell
be
narrowly
used
in
focused
about
American
among
2,000
Safen*
Razor,
large,
unionised
companies,
including
Champion
Spark
Plug,
Cincinnati Alilacroii, Eaton, Firestone Tire, HtX)kcr CJicmical, and Mead Paper.
SKILL-BASED PAY PLANS Organizadens
hue
|x?ople
fortheir
skills,
then
n-pitally
put
them
in
jobs
and
pay
them
on the ba.sis of their job tide or rank. So the director of corporate sales cams S150,000 a
v^ear,
$70,000.
the
regional
But
it
sales
managers
nrganizatioiis
make
hire
$90,000,
and
because
of
people
the
discrict
their
sales
managers
competencies,
why
get don't
they pay them for those same cuinperendes? Some organiaarions do.
What Are Skill-Rased Pay Plans? Skill-based job
title
pay
is
define
an
his
alternative
or
her
to
pay
lob-bascd
caiegon^.
pay.
Rather
sldll-basecl
pay
titan
having
(soiiieciines
an
called
individual's iMnpttaicy^^
busedpuy} sets pay levels
they
annual its
iwn
do.-^
salaries
by
up
ctMnpCMsarion
for
For to
instance, $12,480
managers
workers
at
W
acquiring
to
their
xburriean
as
many
progress
Steel
as
in
10
Wire skills,
develop!Tig
can and
skills
boost
their
Frico-Lay
nes
in
leadership,
grfjup pnK-ess facili ration, and coirmunicaifons. Hhais flexibility. 'this
is
force.
a|i{>eal
of
Filling
staffing
needs
i$
easier
today;
as
many
pariieubrly Downsizing
encourages fits
the
to
liecause
requires
employees ski
people
‘•pfoieciion
of
less
to
likely
true
to
11-based gam the
more
acquire pay.
a
territory’* hear
sldJI-based
better
“It
s
not
of
instance, iny
where
job!’’
the
are
Rut
perspective:
interehangeable.
size
of
specialists.
skills.
cithers’
skills
cut
fewer
cumnmnicauon of
management's
employee
and
range
understanding For
From
organisations
facilitates
behavior. phrase.
broad
plans?
when
generalists a
It
pay
their
work-
Skill-based
there
are
throughout
the
oreanizadon
lessens
dvsfuneduaal
jtibs.
k
skill-hascd
Skilhbased
[wy
needs of ambitious employees who confront minimal advancement upportumOA
pav also
other
pav
exists, helps
bene-
you’re
meet
the
Chapter 5 Modv&don:
FWRI Concepts tu AppiicaoM
These people can increase their caruings and knowledge without a promotion in job title. WTiafs skills
the
the
downside
of
calls
them
program
tor
skdl-hascd to
pay?
learn.
People
Topping
can
out
"top
can
out*—learning
all
the
Frustrate cnipk»yees
after
th^v’ve beconie challenged by an environment of I canon g, growth, and continual pay raises. SLlIs can also become obsolete. Finally, skill-based plans don’t address level nf performance,
only
checking
qualin^
.Although
it’s
whcdier or
someone
leading
possible
co
can
a
perftrrm
rhe
team—level
assess
how
w«I)
of
skill.
For
some
performance
may
employees
perform
each
.skills—such he
of
as
equivocal.
the
skills
and
combine that assessitient wick a skill-based plan, doing so is not an inherent part of skill bjsed pay.
Linking Skill-Based Pay Plans to Motivation Theories Skill-based
pay
encourage
plans
employees
Maslow’s
hierarchy
are
to of
I
consistent earn,
needs
with
expand
rheont
several
their
motivation
skills,
.Vtiong
and
employees
theories.
Because
they
consistent
with
grow;
they
arc
whose
low
er-order
needs
are
substantially satisfied, the opportunity to experience growth can be a motivator. Paying achievement efficiently.
people need.
By
to
expand
High
learning
their
achievers new
skill
have
skills
levels
a
nr
is
also
compelling
itu
consistent with
drive
proving
the
to
do
skills
research
things
they
better
already
on
the
or
more
hold,
high
pay.
Skill-
achievers will find tbcir jobs more challenging. There based
pay
is
a
encourages
cross-rrain,
to
others
the
in
also
be
link
between
employees
generalists
reinforcement
to
develop
rather
organization.
To
than
the
theory’
their
flexibility;
specialists,
detrree
and
that
and
to
to
skill-based continue
work
management
to
leant,
cr»f)jjeratively
wants
to with
employees
CO
demons trace such behaviors, skril-hased pay should act as a rciaforcer. Skill-based in
put:
pay
outcome
may
also
comparisons,
have
skills
equity may
implications.
provide
a
When
fairer
employees
input
make
criterion
for
their
detennin-
ing pay than factors such as senior it)’ or education. To the degree that employees perceive
skills
as
the
critical
variable
in
job
performance,
the
use
of
skill-based
pay
may
skill-based
pay.
increase the perception of equity and help uptiinize employee motivation.
Skill-Based Pay in Praclict* .4
number
The
of
overall
expanding
studies
have
conclusion, and
that
investigated
based
it
on
generally
the
these leads
use
and
studies, to
higher
is
effectiveness that
employee
tion. hor instance, approximately 60 percent of fonn
of
skill-based
learning
exua
product
quality,
And
pay.-”
skills or
found
a
that
productivity;
to
Some
of
skill-based
performance
and
pay
is
satisfac-
1000 firms arc using some
survey 70
use
of
of
27
88
companies
percent
70
to
75
an
idea
that
reported
percent
pay
higher
employees job
for
sadsfacriun,
cited
lower
operating
has
conic.
As
costs
or low er Turnover.’* Skilled-based noted,
“Slowly;
pay
but
appears
surely,
to
we're
be
becoming
a
whose
time
skill-based
society
where
one your
expert market
value is tied tt) what you can do and w hat your skill set is. In this new world where skills
and
knowledge
are
what
really
counts,
it
doesn’t
make
sense
co
treat
people
as
lobhoMcn. 1( makes sense to treat them as people with s|*ciGc skills and co pay them for cboae skills."-'’^
The Individual in die Orgajiizfltion
Organizations employee
havr
moevanon.
imroduct^il
piXKluebvity;
a
number
anci
of
programs
Siuisfacdun.
designed
Impnrrantly.
tu
rh«c
increase programs
arc grounded on basic mad van on Theories. It’s easy h) criticize e< lues ton, nnd researcher’^ for tlieir focus on bid Id in g theories. or
Students
urelevanr
those
critics.
managers
in
ro It
and solving
practitioners real-life
iHustrates
countries
how
around
often
think
probletn.s. tens the
of
This
that
chapter
thousands
globe
are
these
of
using
dteones
makes
a
rebuttal
in
and
millions
of
theories
to
practical incentive programs. 'I be six mmivalion programs we discussed in this diaptcr arc nor applicable to every organization or every tnanager's needs. Bur an understanding of these pnj^iuns u-ill help you design internal systems tliat can increxse ernploj-ec producti'iCy and satisfaction.
unrealLstie
gfwid
organizations rnorivarion
are
build
CHAPTER 6 ___________________
____ ____
_________________________________________
Individual Decision Making After reading this chapter, you should be able to Explain the six-step rational decision-making model and its dssumptions
2.
Identify the key components in the three*component model of creativity
Vs --
1.
J. Describe actions of the boundedly rational decision maker 4< Define heuristics and explain how they bias decisions 5.
Explain escalation of commitment
6.
fderhfy (our decision-making styles
7.
Explain the implications of stages of moral development to decision making
Individuals X
their
in
organ
izu!
ions
organization’s
goals,
headquarters,
or
coqxirate
make
what
where
decisions.
products
or
locate
new
to
a
lower-level
managers
determine
production
decide
pay raises
are
allocated.
how
sole
province
their
jobs
of
and
to
be
managers.
rhe
they
managers,
sendees m
a
to
The
making
employees
work
for,
'The
for
offer,
nu
schedules,
Nonroanagcrial
organizations
Top
fa
cm
seleci
inswnue,
dctenninc
how
best
ru
ring
plant.
Middie-
new
of
decisions,
also
make
more
obvious
orgjinizxj and
cmploye€S» however,
decisions of
is
not
that
these
and the
affect
decisions
might include w-hcdier to come lo w ork on any given day, how much effort to put forward once at work, and whether to comply with a request mAde by the boss. So that of
all
is,
individuals
they
these
make
choices
in
choices arc
every
urganizatiun
from
almost
among
reflex
rcgniarly
two
actions
or
more
engage
in
decision
making;
altci-nadvcs.
Undoubtedly,
with
conscious
undertaken
little
many
thought.
For example, the boss xsks you in complete a certain report by the end of rhe day and you
a
imply;
being
made
liront
new
Wly.
assuming even
or
AJtemaaves
though
important will
be
the
request
they
is
don’t
decisions, developed.
reasonable.
require
they Pros
can and
much be
In
such
thought.
expected
cons
instances,
will
be
what |>eo|*ilc do on their jobs is influenced hy their decision proces.ses.
But
to
choices
when
reason
weighed.
individuals
them 'J’he
are
out result
still con-
thoughtis
that
I ♦file liaMdwI in the Orgmi^tio" In this chapter, we SKUS on two different approaches to understanding decirio#^ mating First^Xcrihe how decisions >haM be made, l-hen, we review a la^ body ' f Snee to show p.u how decisions dude
by
offering
are made m organizations. VVe con-
some
specific
suggesrions
on
how
n.aiiiigeis
can
improve
their
dccision-makiiig elfettivcness-
Let’s
bcKin
bv
describing
how
individuals
should
I
HOW SHOVW DECISIONS BE MADE. behave
in
ortkr
to
inariniixe
a
cer-
tain outcome’ W’c call this the rational dccision-nwking process.
The Rational Decision-Making Process optimizing
inxximizinc
decision
choices
maker
within
is
ratioaid.
specified
I
hat
constraints.
is,
he
or
I
hese
she
makes
choices
vonsistent.
value
rn
The
are
made
tcllowing
decision-making
model
are
six-step mtKk'l. Specific assumptions underlie this model. The
Rational
Model
J’he
six
steps
in
the
rational
in Exhibit 6-1J 'I he model begins by is
a
distTppanej’
innnrhly get,
between
expenses
you
have
and
defined
theprffbIrM, \ problem e-tists when there
an
find
existing you're
a
listed
and
a
spending
problem.
Many
desired $50
poor
state
more
of
affairs.
than
decisions
you
can
If
you
allocated
be
traced
calculate
your
in
bud-
to
your
rhe
decision
maker’s overlooking a problem or incorrectly defining the problem. Once dteisioTi
a
enreria
sion
maker
the
decision
Idenrifidng may
decision that
is
will
has
be
maker’s
Also
what’s
interests,
is
keep
defined
important
determining
criteria
not.
maker
important in
mind
the
in
problem,
sohhng
relevant
in
values,
and
because
what
that
any
the
making personal
factors
one not
he
or
she
problem. the
needs
to
identify
this
step,
the
In
decision.
I'his
preferences
person identified
into
thinks in
step
is
this
the
arc
decibrings
process.
relevant,
step
the
another
considered
as irrelevant to the decision maker. The requires
criteria the
identified
ducisiun-makee
are to
rarely weight
all the
equal pmifwffy
in
importance.
kkntified
So
criteria
the
in
third
order
step
to
give
a/ternain'es
that
them correct priority m the decision. TTie could
fourdi
succeed
in
step
rcquiics
resolving
die
the
decision
problem,
\o
maker attempt
to is
generattt made
passible in
this
step
to
appraise
must
critically
these alternatives, only to list diem. Once
the
alternatives
have
been
generated,
die
decision
maker
analyze and evaluate each one. 1 his is done by rating each ahernaiii^ on eiteb critfrian.
1.
Dcime rhe probkni
2.
Ideniifi* decision criteria
3.
Wei g ht ch c cn tcria
4.
Generate akerniuivcs
5.
Rate each alternatixT on each crirgtion
6.
<xjnqHiig the optimal decisiun
I
EXHIBIT 6-1 The Six-Step Rational Decision-Making Model
chafrteri ImU^du*! Decisis. MsWng
Lf in tai IIS J number of iiKSumpcinns.
briefly nutluie them
rhe possible con seep lenres of each alcernaijve. i. C7e/ir prefoiffices. RationaJin- a«unws chat the eritcria and alternatives ran be ranked and weighted co ccHecr their imporrance. 4.
h’s assumed that the specific decision criteria arc constant and
C«x<M«z
that the weights assigned to them are stable over rime. 5.
.Vo CMic or eorr eort^traiitfr. Tlie rational decision maker can obtain hill information about criteria and alternatives because it^ assumed that there are no lime orcostennstraifics.
6.
fia-voff.
'I’hc
rational
deddon
maker
will
choose
rhe
alternative
that
yields
the highest perceived value.
Improving Creativity in Decision Making The
rational
decision
maker
needs
crearivity:
that
is,
the
abilit>’
to
produce
novel
and
usehji ideas. These are ideas that are different from what’s been done before but that arc also appropriate to the problem or opportunity presented. Why is creativity
ahenutim. Creative Potential Most people have cread vc potential that they n use when confronted
with
a
decis
ion-ma^ng
problem.
But
to
unleash
that
potential,
they
have
to
get out of the psychological ruts most of us ger into and learn how tn tliink about a problem in divergent w’a^'s. Wc can start with the obvious. People differ in their inherent creativity.
ThreeXComponent
Model
of
Creativity
Given
that
most
people
ity t<j lx; ar least mcKieratclv creative, what can individuals and or^nizations o ro _____ I ............... - ...... T"k« iwv« -mcwiT rn this (luestion ties in the three*
have
the
capac-
,kitb
and
the
k^
intrinsic
el
of
each
FMertiit
IS
EinsteinX
knowledge
creative
usk
the
knowledge
UflI
for
of
these
foundarion of
contributions
mal
m.rtivation
of
to is
all
were to
enhanced
Exhibit
cT«dve .^n.l
i.e
u
conditions
indhnduals
«mfirm
higher
the
rtm
undcrsia^mgof
for
to
them
eM>e«
as
a
have
the
creativity
P.«ssr»s
w
creative
Studies
the
work.
you
vers'
hui
r»-2).
components,
necessary
fields,
their
programming
creatiWty-
three
of
phvsiw
(«e
».
artand
be
able
lo
make
someone
w,^
a
mini-
I
he
^ten-
so^are
enpneer.
abibaeSt
know
ledge,
profiaen-
cics, and similar eiipenise in dieir fields of endeavor. J'he
second
component
characterisrics
associated
ratenrni
the
traits
see
have
Itgcni-e,
for
of
through
steel.
a
I Our
the
bicker
a
be
assix
and
stronger
piece the
that
analogj*,
have
developed
their
skill
make
the
strange
hens
laying
eggs,
familiar hut
how
at and
in
and
being the
many of
the
the
which
apply by
of
them
a
tclephririe able
to
familiar us
have
sec
the
individual intel-
internal
locus
of
contrnh
tol-
he
effective
use
of
frustraiion?
chat to
from it
his
might ‘"talking
thin
be
problems
considered
context in
a
able Of new'
instance,
that
a
hen
a
be
to
He
to
wondered
course,
most
break-
a
some
us
only an
that why,
piece
They’re of
take
noticed
move
way
another.
creative
He
is
to
possible
IKIK.”
memlirane.
conceived.
For
1
one
resulted
shouldn't
strange.^
following
as
ideas:
analogy
was
die
well
creative
delicate,
membrane
as
of
idea
observation
analogies,
personality
development
an
an
encompasses
instance,
fate
apply
Bell’s
operated
of
in
to
are
with
This
use
For
risk-uking,
examples ear
to
light.
iaied
makers
the
sktUf.
ability
dift.rent
perseverance
Graham
in
ear
and
the
self-confidcnce.
famous
operate
in
in
to
j\Je.tander
that
craahe-fhfnkin^
creauvitj;
decision
most
was
bones
then,
allows
the
concepts the
found
ambiguity,
analogies
One
familiar
independence,
erance of
been
with
is
of
people able
to
think
of
egg’s way
of making another egg? 1 he final component in oiir model is intrinsk ffwtivation. This is the desire to work on .something because it's interesting, involving, excidng, satisR-ing, or per-
EXHIBIT 6-2 The Three Components of Creativrty
f
'\
S*wr TM AmaMta.-Ua»Mi« Cmnvitr tn &Bs<«jauoni.-
y
Chapters snnallv
Chdkngiiig
mto
aeafve
du-.t
vxperu^
This
Kle:ts. and
effect
on
that
can
found work
ks
(?)
external
facing
It
.ietc.'nnnes
creeuve
of.scennng<4wessed. i«nr
.nobvarional sldHs.
I.nporUntlv, mirii.Me
g.ung
co
the
So
an
your
be
individuars
work
Specifically,
ereatmn-:
evaluated,
(1)
(2)
situations
widi
is to
peopk
often
peers,
k.ve
can
ftiliy
en^
totht
noim
a
sLif-
have
been
have
factors
watched
on
while
rewards:
constrained
crearivity
work,
evaluaHon—tocuhing
tangible (5)
their
organiiadonil
expected
and
njt-ns
individuals
environment
five
external,
what
which
.simveillanco—being
mouvators—eii.phas.zjng
wm-lose
extent
creative
monvation.
.iiipwk
component
IndWchulDecisionM»k)r.
how
you’re
(4)
working
competition—
choice-being
given
on bow yon cjn do j’oui' w'ork?
HOW DECISIONS ARE ACTUALLY MADE
IN ORGANIZATIONS ,Ve
derision
idcnab’
alJ
painstakingly chev’ dve
do.
the
process. follow able
evaluate
ever>'
of
But
or
borhood
of
with
model.”’ a
more
when
soln makers to
the
current following
aaurate
to
find
to
their
nei^borh(x>d
alternative.
As
arc
by
section
des^ption
of
having
dcdsioiw
expert large
most
of
derision chan
l»y
and
situations
few
alxerna*
akemntives
is
decision-making
dxe
real
world
to
find
an
the
their
symptom
in
rather
in
the
chan
use
problem
of
content
rather
some
evaluating
description
Imiited
a
and
usually
judgment,
how
probleTii
Most
one
reviews
simple out
problems,
akemadves,
Ln
a
d^e
viable
c:hoice?
problem
of
all
assess
optiinal
arc
make
carefully
identify
accurate
people
generally
they
searching
exception.
instance,
made
the
of
fairly
rhe
to
with
cost
a
non
Do
creanvirv’
faced
rhe
arc
For
decLsions
The
are
provides
model.
confined
significant
and
rational?
their
alternative
situarions
decision
the
use
makers
model
reasonable
be
tive
i^ction,
rational
to
“Most
derision
such
Consequently, tend
organizations
criTens,
rational
the
in
relevant
When
courses
low,
makers
accept-
creativity, to
("hoices
of
evidence
to
derisions
in
organizaiions
neigh-
concluded:
defined
body
one.
the
making a
don\
optimal
and
prescrip-
provide are
you
actually
made.
Bounded Rationahty WTien
}-ou
Did
you
vou
es
considered
carefully aluate
each
which
identify
all
alcemarivc
college ihe
to
attend,
criteria
against
the
did
that criteria
were in
you
look
important order
to
at
evtty in
find
viable
your the
alternative.
decision? optimal
vour
Did
coUege-
1 expect the answer to all tlicsc questions is zfo. Well, don’t feel bad. Few people ma e their college choice this wav. Instead of optimizing, you probably “satisficed. UTten fiiccd w ith a complex problem, most people respond by reducing the pniblcm to a level at which it can l>e readily understood. The liniiw in ormaaon pnxessing capabilih of human beings makes it impossible ^aand all the information necessary’ to optimize. So people
tax
solutions that are satisfactory and suffiaent
, enkine complex
limits
1 TIK IndivKhuJ in the tXsaoinoon eomplexiv* IwdMdiwH can then behave ntionally within the limits of the «mp|.
"“‘’llow does lM>undcd rat.onalitv work for the typ.wl irniividuul? O.iec a pnWem
1
,s identified, the sear, h for eritena a.al ahemat.vcs begins. But the W of criicm «
1
iikeJv to l=e far from exhaustive. The decision maker will idennly a limited list made up J of
the
wnd
more to
ousk-
conspiininus
be
highly
mecUinl-true
decision
maker
choices.
nsiMe.
hi
4<jbdons.
l>egnn
These
are
ciscs,
thev
Once
rcviexving
the
choices
will
dik
liuiilcd
them.
But
that
are
represent set
of
the
easy
familhr
to
criteria
akernabves
re%new
will
tmd
is
and and
that prni-
identified,
not
he
the
c<wiprehen-
,ivj< ._n(,T all of the al rem a lives will he carefully evaluated. Instead, titc ikciAion maker will
hcinn
with
alicrnabvts
rhat
differ
only
tn
a
relatively
small
degree
from
the
choice
currently in effect. Following along familiar and well-worn paths, the deciMun maker 1^1 “g<MHl tive
review*
cniniu'h’^one
that
meets
alremartves that
the
only
meets
‘'good
an
until
he
or
accepuhk
enough”
criterion
sdic
level
ends
idcutiltcs
of
the
an
performance,
search.
So
the
akerwative
that
is
The
first
alterna-
final
solution
rep-
resents a sansficing choice rather than an "primal one. One which
of
inure
intere.«!ring
arc
considered
alternatives
selected. nially
Remcmher,
listed
the
initial
gets
a
we
Ulf
in
a
assume
the
in
rhat
a
problem
and
limited
ones
Solutions
that
sdutiun
to
he
to
will
critical
preferred
they
are But
has
bounded in
optimixing order
more
i.sn'r
than
one
is the
is
that
the
derermining
which
model,
altcrnaiives
Because
evaluated this
rationality
all
all
w
potential
are
are
Every
potential
ith
Ixmnded
solution,
the
in
alternative
alrematives
irrelevant. case
order
is ctxn-
consitlered, solution
I'stionalicy*.
satisficing
If
choice
one the decision maker encounters. Decision makers use
obvious,
likely
of
ratioiud
enluanun.
will be the first simple
of
which
andojinplete
is
fully
hierarchv
order
full
in
aspects
with
models, which
depart
rhe
be identified Intuition
they are
Irom
A
the
typically
begin
familiar,
and
those
status
quo
and
unique
and
but
it’s
unlikely
before
the
decision
problem, well
they
least
selected.
so
creative to
be
maker
by
identifying
not
t(x>
far
meet
the
decision
alternative chosen is
alternatives
may
to
an search
the status quo. “Sometimes TOU ve just got lo go with your gut feeling,” the manager said a^ he triey potidon. ()n average, the grand master could put 2 J or 24 pictrs in rheir cxirrcct squsres, but the noriee was able to replace only 6. ITien the exercise was changed.
the
status
criteria
present
bei?ause
required
from
that
are
an
quo. most
optimizing
acceptable very
are
far
stJiiriun hevond
Chapters -n.,.
time
the
ahou.
6
tyrret,.
fm,
u.
d.d
the
grand
ma.uer!
'I
gntn.
m.i.ier
d,dn
t
have
any
better
memory.
d,an
the
abilit)’,
k-tsed
pHterns
and
C.ster.
of
farther
sheov
due
rhe u
a«
n-«.gT,.ze games. more a
Studies game.s,
in
mt^crarcly
dtnons.
Ill
exjxrt with
p.««
were■
on
which
lower
the
of
ill
often
to
recognize
□
siruaoon
that
situation
n.
arrive
decision
maker
can
decide
and
quietly
be
on
playing
in
or
on
previously
decision.
the
longer.
he
course’
of
5<>
is
tournament
con-
allows
that
very
or only
infornution
result
to
to
exhibit
F.xpenenee
Icametl
haX
rained
play
and
under
«,|-
did
ehesb
seconds,
game
The
appears
he
simultaneously
one
draw
whar
chcsshoanls onlv
hour
widi
of
«r
dc.,vn»rraK«
What
ihowtands.
in
noviee
exercrise
novice.
can
made
rhe
setv,.ul
played
.in
a
Apin,
the
half af
vapidly
he
occur
when
take
hoard.
professionals
must
than
the
having
that
chess
often
on
of
pieces
sic
decisions
r,nd«.mly
exjx-neiKe
decisions
level
which
pbce.l
the
associated
the
limited
intuitive
information.
Identify ing Problems ProWems
don’t
bon’s
come
wrh
flashing
neon
lighc
to
ideiitift
tfwmselvcs.
.And
one
,>cr-
i.s another persons aatptabk staonquo. So how do decision makers iden-
ofo and select probiems? Problems that are
visible
tend
tn
have
a
higher
prciliability
<me5 that are impoitanL* ’ WTi)’? We can offer ar least tw recognize
visible
problems.
Second,
remember
Decision
makers
They
rhai
want
are
we’ru
to
mure
likely
concerned
upjxrsu
tu
with
cunipctciU
and
of
being
o reasons.
cacch
a
uiakii^g
“on
of
top
than
First, it’s easier to
det-aon
decision
selected
niakcrt in
attenbon.
organtications.
problems.”
This
desire
mebvates them to f(KUS on problems char arc visible ru others. And
(lon’x
ignore
conflict
between
that
is
importani
also
is related to
attack
selecting to
more
when
likely
to
decision
a
the
the
decision
issue of
the give
Tt
high
thni
maker,
\’isibility-
decision a
makers
problem
problems.
high-profile
Moreover,
the
rating
is
ter
k’s
to
someone
to
a
others
w
If
is ho
a
decision
the
tends
usually in
performance
to
cai.
important
self-interest
convev’s
maker's
self-in
to
det
organ win
ibon
maker^
things
later
reviewed,
been
itabcxi
out.^*’
that
has
maker
faves and
This
one
tendency
best interest
arc
under
die
ro
conmd.
evaluator
nggressively
a
attacking
is vwi-
ble problems than to someone whose actions have been le^s obvious.
Developing Alternatives Since
decision
should
expect
makers to
rarely
find
a
seek
minimal
an
optimal
use
of
solurion,
creanvny
in
but
rather
a
ibe
search
satislicing
fur
one,
we
altemaLi\*es.
.And
that expectation is generally on target. Efforts confined ior,
to
which
will the
be
made
to
neighborhood
includes
the
tn
lo
of
development
keep the of
rhe
search
current
process
altemaiivc.
creative
simple.
More
alTernatives,
IT
complex
will
IK
will
tend
to
search
rc'^orrcd
behavto
when a simple search foils to uncover j satisfactory alteriiabve. Evidence indicates that derision niiikiiig is incremental ratlier than compfc en sive; that is, decision makers rarely formulate new and unique problem dumatives and rareh- explore unfomiliar territory?' 1 hey avoid the considering all the imporwnt factors, weighing their relative loerits an raw ac , and calculating the value for each alternanve. Instead, they make (incremental) oxn^arisons. ITiis branch approach simplifies decision paring only alternatives that differ in relatively small degree from tec nice
be
I
o
}
The Indmdual in dw Orpru««ion in
effect
This
nuirlilv
ewinine
a^et-ts
in
an
which
Wliat
emerges
stfiJS
toward
Other
words,
never
approach
al5<^
alternaiivc
the
die
decision
It
its
unncecssar>'
and
m.ike in
its
is
acknowledges
wririen
for
ronsequenccs,
description
makers
and
»t
altenmtive
above
olijecuve.
forever
and
pro|»o«.-d
from an
made
make*
hut
decision
netd
ilccision
diffi
comparisons they
r
maker
noneoiiiprehcnsive
rather
tnakcr
investigate
cuMrijueiues
suece.wive
stone,
nne
a
the
the
who
those
the
stat«
takes
nanire
made
tho^
only
from
of
because
are
to
unal!
choice:
in
decisions
arc
remade
end-
and
lessly in small comparisons Iretweeii narrow dioites.
Making Choices In
order
mental
to
avoid
sliom'tit.s,
li*;s
inforaiation
in
availaliilitj
derision
anil
overload, making.'
decision
'
There
representativeness.
makers
are
Each
rely
two
on
heuristics,
coiitmoii
crcatc.s
biase.s
or
categories
in
judg.
ul
hcuris.
jinlgment.
.Another
bias that dcci.sion makers offen make is the lendcncy tt« escalate cotninirmeni to .1 failing tdiirsc uf action. Availabiliiy drivings of
Heuristic
car.
course.
mcrcidl
fhe
Wtli
airline
z\
lot
reason
is
apnlogies was
as
more
pec^jk
rhai
many
ahead
of
dangerous
Miffer
from
fear
people
diink
flying
uiiie
as
for
tliis
drinng,
of
graphic
ihe
flynng
is
more
example,
cxiuhalcnr
than
ol
tear
dangerous.
il
two
irom
flying
747*.
It
on
isn't,
a
filled
of
comw
to
capac-
ity, would have to CM^h e^’eiy week, killing all aboard, to match the risk of being killed in a car accident. But the uiedia give a lot more ahcntioii to air accidents titan co car accidenn;,
so
wc
winl
hi
oversale
’1'hi.s
illusrraiion
is
an
dency
for
to
base
them.
Events
people that
recently tend
to
cyaraple etctr
evoke
he
overestiinanng
tic
caJi
also
explain
to
give
more
weight
events
sucli
understarc
particularly
memory.
as
an
when
heuristic,
information
are
behatnois
anti
availability on
our
nmnagers,
recent
flying
the
thAt in
why
in
judgments
available
unlikely n>
risk
of
emotions,
mosi
to
the
A.b
of
a
an
result,
Mtiniial
we
driving.
the
to
be
prone heuris-
appraisal*,
those
to
occurred
availability
to
ten-
available
have
tend
The
than
is
that
pcrtonnancc
cmphiyee
in
readily
or
crash.
nsk
which is
nvid,
airplane
doine
that
rhe
of
rend
6
or
9
months ago.
Repi’csentativc in
the
they
Heuristic
United
have
a
States
talk
better
But
these
kid*
assess
Uie
likelihood
of
I
hear
about
some
ptofessional playm
are
basketball. like
them.
an
We
all
odui
success.
nut
lu
l>e
from
they
nous lumed
occurrence
poor
the Or
fioin
by
watdi
pcrfiimure,
inner-cit)’,
playing
to
j^ilty hired .so
of of they
do
NBA. of
a
wring
10
vears
on this
new
pre
ago
hcurtstii product
that
from a
ex
who
television
graduates
predict
with
went
rtn
by
relating .same
current
job
in
the
tend
to
rate
gon*.
to
]>Ly
that
the
on
think
times.
die
reality,
playing
m.nch
it
boys
In
They
using
three
they
the
heuristic.
games a
than
in
.American
representative
neighborhood NBA
African
baskcthall
d
a
ciy’ing
p
of
medical
their
are
cl
goal
becoming
Or
predict
the
suffering
boy
Irrqucntly rV
of
arc
exajujdc, pi
millions
about
chance
NBA. hey
Literally
Managers, il
lo
for
a
pre-
imiversiiy
who
applic.inr
from
that uni ver sky WODT be a grxxl etnplo^xc. Escalation
ol
Conunitment
jKuother
bia.s
that
creeps
into
deci-sions
in
practice
is
a
tendenp lo escalate euinmitment when a decision sn eain represents a scries of decisions. ' Escalation of comniitnient is an iiUTcased coninritmenc to a prcviowi decisiMi in sjritc ol negjove mhinihirion. for cxauipk, a friend of mine had been dating
Cl»frt«r6 tadkiJMl Drt*, /vukin, i»*uiiian fur about 4 yeai^. Although he admitted that things weren’t going too well in (he lebtionsbip, he informed me that he was going lo marry the woman. A hit surb>’ his decision, 1 asked him why. He responded. “I have n kn invested in the relauonship.'” Simibriy. another friend was explaining why she was working on a docrorate in education, aldiough a he di diked leaching and didn't want ri» continue her career in education She lold me she
wanted to he a software prngramnier. But
tlien she hit me with her esraliihon-of-conunitnient explajiaiion; “I dreadv have a master's in cdocarion and I'd have w go hack aud complete some dcfidencie^ if I changed tn w ork oji a degree in sottware prograinmiiignow'.’ Il has been weh
an
ban
of
conunicmcin
organization
prove
rhar
his
hxs or
has
saffered
her
large
original
resources to what was a lost
CJUM:
characterisne
with
often
appear
effective,
course
of
asstK’iatcd
may
action
may
ofnhous
iiupiicanons
losses
decision
because was
for a
right
manage
manager by
rial was
decisions. dcicrauned
continuing
to
commit
from the beginning. Li addition, consistency is a effective
be
rnorivaced
to
be
prefcrnhle.
In
leaders.
be
So
cotj?.istcnt
actualiky,
managers, when
effecrive
in
an
switching
managers
effort
to
are
to
Another
those
who
arc able to difFercndate between situations in which pvn;istciu’e will pay off and situatioiih where ir won't.
Individual Differences the same decision situation and Chad ahnerst alw’ays seems to
Pur (2had and Scan
take longer m come to a solution. Ch in Is final choices aren’t necessarily always better than Sejn’s, he’s just slower in processing information. In addition, if there’s an obvious risk dimension in the decision, Scan sccius consisieiidy to prefer a riskier oplioA than docs Cliad. WTiar thit illustrates i^ dial all of us bring iwTsunjility and other individual differences to the decisiexis we make. Iwo of these indixidual differences seem partimlarly
relevant
ro
decision
making
in
organizations—decision-making
styles
and
lend ol moral developmciH. Decjsjon*.VfakiQg
Styles
I’he
decision-sty
les
model
idcmiEcs
four
differenr
indi-
vidual approaches to makiiig dcci.skms.^^ k wuh designed lo be used by managers and aspiring
managers,
hunts general
framework ciin
he used with
any individual
decision
maker. I
hv
dinieiisioas.
foundarion The
first
of is
the their
nxidel way
is
the
Qithinl'ffig.
recognition Some
that
people
people are
differ
l«g«’al
along
and
two
rarional.
Thcy process infun I uri< in serially, tn ennfrasr. some jicoplf arc inniitivv arnl creative. The) perceive things as a w hole, Note that these dillerentes are above and beyond the general
human
charaercrisnes—specifically,
bounded
rauunahey—discussed
earlier.
d*hc other dimension aiklrcsses s |•^crson^ tnlerana’ ftn'n^/tbiguity. Some |»ccjple have a high need to structure infonnadun in way^ that minimve anibiguit)’; others are able to pAKcss grammed,
many they
thoughts fiunn
at
four
rhe
same
time.
stsles
of
decision
Ihrtw tive, AnalMical. Conccpwal. and Behavioral.
WTien
these
making
(see
nvo
dimcnsioiu
Exhibit
6-3).
arc
dia-
these
arc:
♦ t
<. S. 5 >* BXHrWT fr-3 Oeciswo-Styte Model
►
Htfh
<
Tolerance for Ambiguity
Amlyiicsi^
I
Rational
«
Intuiuv*
Way of Thinking SOSNK AJ. RM aao la aoui^ndes.
P«^lc ricmalicy. making
using
They
the
are
dccisioiib
dtreanv
efficient \mth
MrSIOft Mdfcnf lUwr RM<. Mt PienOce W. 19d2), p. 29.
styie
and
have
logical.
mininval
low
tolerance
for
ambiguit)'
fur
efficiency'results
B»r
their
concern
information
and
assessing
tew
and
sect in
altcmathes.
ntheir
Directive
types mate decisions fest, and they focus on rhe short run. rhe decision do
/ma/yncai makers.
directives.
type
They
has
a
desire
Analyut*al
much more
managers
greater
tolerance
infonnaiiun
would
be
lor
and
ambiguity
consider
l>est
than
more
characterized
do
directive
alternatives
as
(.*arefu!
than
decision
maters with the ability to adapt or cope with new- situations. Individuals with a eweeprua/ style tend to be very broad in tiieir uudook and consider many alternatives. Ilieir focus is long range, and they are very good at finding
355
creative solutions to problems. ITie
final
ers
who
and
subordinates.
meetings
work for
witii
category—those well
with
others.
I*hey*’re
They're
receptive
communicating,
a
'TJiis
to
/’r^/tvwryr/scyk’-^'haractcrizcs concerned
suggestions
type
of
with from
manager
the
achiescmenls
others
trieji
to
decision
and
avoid
of
nwk' peers
rely
heavily
conflict
and
on seeb
acceptance. categories mat
fall
into
more
dormnant
sty
le
on
eir
dominant
dian
and
his
style;
one. or more
So her
arc
it’s
probably
backup
flexible
distinct,
most
best
styles. managers
to
Some can
managers think
in
managers nuke
have terms
rely
shife
situauon. L
characteristics of
a
abnost depending
manager^ exclusively on
the
re students, lower-level managers, and top executives tend to score igncM in the analytical style. ’I hat’s not surprising, given the emphasis that formal education, particularly business education, gives to developing rational think-
Chapter 6 Individual r>«:uion Maldog ing.
For
instance,
courses
in
accounting,
statistics,
and
finance
for
looking
at
helping
ymi
ah
stress
rational
analysis. Ill
addition
focating
on
intelligent
to
decision
people,
providing styles
with
a
can
ncccs.'.
framework
be lo
useful the
tor
same
information,
individual
understand
can
differ
differences,
how
in
two
the
equally
ways
they
approach decisions and die final choices diey make. of
because
jMorJ many
Development
decisions
Moral
have
an
development
ethical
dimension.
is
relevant
in
decision
An
understanding
of
this
making
. 'U" r; r«
Level
concept
can help you see how different people impose different ethical standards on their
V♦
deci‘5100 s. A
substantial
dev^ebpment, moral
each
jiidginetn
body
nf
research
coinprising
gixw's
less
rwo
and
confirms
sfageH.’’
less
the
Ac
depenrienr
existence
each on
of
three
successive
oncside
levels
stage,
influences.
an The
of
moral
individuePs three
levels
and six stages arc described in Exhibit 6-4. The
first
notions
of
right
physical
punish
level or men
is
lal>eled
wrong i,
piecvfjvcnfiona/.
only
reward,
or
when
personal
exchange
of
At
this
level,
consequences favors.
individuals are
Reasoning
respond
involved, at
the
such
to as
ogwrf’nricJM/
level indicates that moral value resides in maintaining the conventional order and the
A
EXHIBIT 6-4 Levels and Stages of Moral Development
Level
S tage/Descr iption
Principled
6. Following self-chosen echlcai principles even if they violate the hw
A 4*
5. Valuing rights ol others; and upholding nonrelatrve values and rights regardless of the majoric/s opinion Conventional
4. Maintaining conventional order by fulfilling obligations to which you have agreed 3. living up to what is expected by people close to you
Pr«corwentional
2. Following rules only when iVs In your immediate interest I. Stkkinf to rules to avoid physical punlihinenc
I
■
MA*M h«n L KatHbeff. 'Moral Stages end Mouii/tfijon: the Ccgnitive-OMOpnienta]
AnxoacAZ in t Utivne MK OgMfepmgnt Mtwr; Tbeoo. WMAon. 1979).
w Sooa/ ijtues (Me Ifork Hott. Amolua ft
4■I ,
lie fndi«du.lin .he Org.niaoon
.1
Part II
. U r„ dw i,nm ipleJ Ic'd. itnlid
people pr<’K=>--ed thr.iugb .he six stages in a l.Kk-ste|. fashion. They
,
SuaHy ntovc ladder, stage by stage. They .iont ,t.n,p steps. Seu.n.l, there «no Sra, i oFconrinued developmen.. Development can terminate a. .any stage. Third, giunintec limited to oljeying the rules and laws ot M««y. jSh the stage a manager reaches, the more he or she will In- predLs^.sed ,o
mi
ethical
decisions,
bur instance,
a stage
.1 manager
,s likely Io
make
dccismns
,)n.t udl receive approval by h» or her |Ken.; a stage 4 manager w’lli -^ek tr. he a' g.xxS cornorale citizen” Iw
making decisions that respect the
orgam/at.on s rules anti pruee-
tlur'e-s; and a stage s'manager is likely to challenge organixauonal practices that he nr sbt believer tr? he wrong.
Orgadixatjonal Constraints The
orgjauation
cheir
(lecisjons
and
it^ulf ro
conitraiii?.
reflect
organizationally
the
imposed
decision
makers.
organi/ation’s time
Managers,
pcrfornuiive
consimints.
fur
evaluation
Prevdous
insunce,
and
shape
reward
organizadonal
.system
decisions
also
decision
mak-
art as precedenls to ton.strain current decisions. Performance
Evaluarion
Managen^
are
strongly
influenced
in
ihcir
ing by the criteria by which they arc evaluated. If a division manager believes that the inanufaciunng
plants
ing
we
negative,
part
of
Similarly,
under
shouldn’t
their
time
if
college
a
(wreent
of
her
should
vvpeci
his be
ensuring dean
snidenU—to diac
new
responsibility surprised
that
negative
heticves tail
to
in^cruclors,
operating
find
ihat
his
information
chai
more
are
an
reflects who
instructor on
want
the to
l>cst
w'hen
plant
managers
doesn’t
reach
should
never
instructors
receive
he
hears
spend
the
a
division
fhil
more
ability
in
favorable
nothgwd bow.
than
10
teach—we
evaluations,
will
decide not to fjil too many students. Reward
Systems
'fhe
organization’s
reward
system
influences
decision
makers
by
suggesting to them whai choices are preferable in tenns of personal payoff. For e.xanu ple»
if
the
decisions. out
organization From
the
promotions and
rewards
1930s bonuses
risk
through
aversion, the
managers
mid-19fi0s,
to managers who kept
arc
likely
(ieneral a low’
to
Moiopi profile,
make
exjnsemrive
cxmsistcntly
avoideil
gave
c’ontrovcrsy,
and were good team players. The result was rhat (LM managers became very adept at dodging lough issues and pKissing controversial decision.s <m to coininittccs. System-Imposed rime CoiiKrraints Organiiauons impose deadlines on decisions, or instante, dejvaruncnt budgets need h) lie coinplcied by next Friday. Or the report prrjduc'i development has to l)c ready for the executive conun it tee tn review by le
die munilb host ol decisions havx ro he made quickly in order to stay
ahead of the cx>mpeution and keep customers satisfied. And almo.st all important
come
WIT
explicit
mak^s
and
ohen
make
(leadlines. itdiflk-uk,
These if
not
might like iiefore having to make a final
conditions impossible, choice. 'I
ity' that, in oiyanizadons, decisions wme with cinic constraints.
create to
time
gather
alt
pressures the
on
decision
infonnation
they
he rational model ignores the real-
MMIMI OccWoa
Histoneal Precedents Rational detiMon making takes an unrealrsuc and inrabted pirspctiJve, It views decisions os independent and discrete events. But that isn’t the wav it is »n the real world! Decisiohs aren’t made in a vacuum. They have a context in hc(, tndtvidttdl decisions are more iueumvly characterized as points in a nrem Deewrons made in the past aic ghosts that continually haunt current choices. For insftmet’, commirrnents mode in the past constrain current options. Tij use a srxdal Mtuarnm as an example, the decision you might make after meeting “.Mr. (or Ms.) Right* IS more ctvmpbcarcd if you're married titan if you’re single. Prior ctHumit—in this case, having gotten iiwrrlcd-^onstrflin yowr options. In a business cttntcxu Kastman Kodak ii a guk>d uxainple of a firiii that has had hi live with its past ini^itakes.’^
Starting
of
silver
as
clectTonic
problem
halide
in
the
early
photography
photograjjhy,
deliberately,
M>7ds,
were
numbered.
woidd
K
Kodak’s
soon
management
They
replace
tiunagement
concluded
predicted
it.
But
panicked.
other
inste.ad
They
t(M>k
the
days
technologies,
such
of
that
approaching
off
in
all
the
directions.
Aiul tt>dav» viiTiially ail of Kodak’s problems can lie traced to the decisions made and nut
made
point.
since
It’s
then.
common
(Government
knowledge
budget
that
ihe
decisions
largest
also
offer
deiennining
an
factor
illustrabon
of
rhe
size
of
our
of
any
given vears budget is last years budget.'" Choices made today, ihercfure. are largely a resuk of cbnices made over tlic years.
Cultural Differences The
nitiunul
model
instance,
dorvi
rherefore,
wr
maker
can
docs
necessarily need
have
analysis,
the
decisions
should
to
acknowledge
make
decisions
recognize
significant
importance be
not
that
influence placed
made
rhe
the
on
on
cultural
his
Ingic
uiitocraiically
differences.
same
cultural or
her
and
by
an
terms
of
way
But
that
background selection
rationality, individual
for
Canadians
do.
of
of
or
Arabs, the
decision
problems, whether
manager
depth
of
organizational
or
wdlcctively
in
imporiar^ce
of
preference
for
groups.-^ Culnires, rationality',
for
their
belief
collective
decision
managers
in
than
in
countries
will
i
si
a
such
on
nectsjjan'.
Some
ing
situations
as
Thailand believe
and that
agers
might
would
chouse
much
more
mity cxdlcxt
and a
to
grtMip decisions.
at
a
problems,
orientation
help
us
undersund
why
and
more
deliberate
pace
much
slower
he
or
knows
that
i*^
highly
bui
fashion
because
where
rationaliry
a
atwHint
rationality is
emphasize
Vmtrd
fall
into
the
should it
as
such.
than
in
the
licforc of
nited
Japanese
infornution,
rheir
Decision L
I
make is
then
an
tn
appear
to
in
the
West.
In
appear
others
focus
into
the
rational on
furnier
benefit,
or by
Japanese
The an
Japanese important
used
in
acceptmanagers
American
Indonesian
arc
category;
problem-solving
hai
States.
make
to
their
making
CEOs
which
valued
Bccau'^c to
noghi
important
efforts
talk
^;ituations
l>efore
its
problems;
States
and
manager
deified,
latter.
change
long
not
solving
The
problem
So
she
ure.
and
gruup-oriented brge
decisions
rime
the
solve
intuitively,
recognize
Cooperation.
in
to
American
they
identity*
people
orientnnnn,
North
cultures
t*an
of
Differences
Indonesia they
ability
time
A
Iran,
noi
in
countetparts.
rational as
ihe make
American
dec
poK’eed
in
differ
making.
Egypt
their
important
example,
man-
coumerparts manager? value
decision,
is
conforthey
consensus-forming
The iadivWuel in the
«
— -- ----------
ETHICS IN DECISION MAKING xr .V enmhasirt vuou-h the im|M.rwnce today of consKkring vthifs in dedsinn L-HL' UVVC airtadv addressed individual differ in our discusmn of morel
XSnienr Wt c<>nclu
cnnnM. in which decisions are made solely on the basis of thei^
entenmes
or
for
ereatesi
the
consistent
omsequvnex.^s.
u
jnimkx
idi
soak
1
he
nis
goal
new
such
as
of
utilitarianism
tends
to
efficiency,
is
to
dominate
prcxlutiiviiy,
provide
business and
the
greatest
deaston
high
profm.
g^xxJ
making.
B>
In
maximizing
ptofits fi«r I usance, a business evenitivc can argue he is sccunng the grvatesi good for the
greaicsc
Another
ethind
decisions ments
such
he
criterion
consisted
respecting free
number-^s
as
is
with
the
employees
and
Bill
who
to
to
of
dismissal
fuctes
on
ngArr.
.An
process.
For
or
I
to
IS
his
and
calk
on
on
instance,
use
practices
by
his
set
in
of
of
to
make
in
d<x^-
making
meam
forth
decision
as
the right
this
criterion
their
employee,.
individuak
as
rights
individuals, such
illegal
ixtrcenr
privileges
emphasis
the Iwsic rights of
unethical
notices
libcnics
Rights.
due
report
out
ftmdamcntal
and prowcring
speech,
hands
to
privacy,
would
organization
to
to
protect
the
press
or govenuiient ageiides on the grounds of (heir right to tree speech. A
Uiird
enforce
criterion
rules
costs.
fairly
Union
is
and
to
focus
imparti/illy
members
typically
on so
there
favor
J’his
Jiutne. is
this
an
view.
respiiri's
individuals
equitable It
to
distribution
justifies
pay'ing
of
impose
and
benefits
and
people
the
same
w'age for a ^ven |ob. resaxdicss ot jxrrfrirniance differences, and it uses seniority as the primary determinant in making lay ofl decisions. Each ism
these
pniniotcs
some The
of
efficiency
individuals, use
uf
freedom ductivtity sented
and
and
as
a
privacy’,
and
criteria
tliosc
criterion
but
efficiency.
less
has
it A
powcriot,
advantages
pitHhictivicy;
particularly
rights
and
three
with
create
focu-s it
on
can
it
result
overly
justice
from
a
in
focus
the
sense
in and
is
workplace
rights
of
organization.
consistent
that
of
cnntlernent
utilitarian*
the
the
interests
of
on
ignoring
injury
legalistic
protects
encourage
A
representation
indhndiiais an
liabiliucs.
can
minority
protects
can
but
but
and
with
hinders
the that
pro
underreprereduces
ri^k
taking, innovation, and productivity. Decision
makers,
particularly
comfortable
when
they
use
fied
when
framed
as
being
ers.
But
many
change.
Increased
gesr
the
teria.
This
using
criteria
ties
critics
than
explain
need
for
why
the
in
sol
hl
as
individual
develop
criteria
managers
are
rights such
lot
of
to
as
arnue
that righis
effects
on
efficiency
involves and
themselves
be
and
on
and jusfi-
sKXzkholdneeds
justice
making far
criticized
cri-
decisions
mure
profits.
to
sug*
nunutilitarian
liccause
justice
can
social
based
ial
safe
perspective
and
managers
finding
feel
actions
this
soc
increasingly
to
organization''
standards
today’s
and
“^c
individual
ethical
tend
questionable of
makers
about
challenge
organizations,
interests
decision
to
a
A
best
society
utiliunan
I
ambipii'
This
helps
for
their
pnees. selling products with questionable effects on consumer
heaidi.
closing
moving
production
UQiitanan
in
managers
such
for-profit
utilitarianism.
business
exmeems
presents
uung
of
in
Umis.
down <
But
stofls Miould he judged.
manufacturing overseas that
may
to no
plants, cut
lay
costs,
longer
bv
ing
and the
off
siiniiar stnek
large
numbers
decisions criterion
can liy
of lie
which
emplovecS. pisrificd good
in
deci-
K* • Chapter 6 Individual Otci^iun .Making 91
IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS bhiivjJuak bow
people
thiak
make
and
decisions
rtdson can
k-ffirt
be
they
helpful
if
act
wc
Thus,
are
an
understanding
tn
explain
the
rauonal
and
predict
of their
behavior. Under nicest than the
people, the
some
dteision
si
most
rule.
rational
satisfice
nd Few
nonnuirinc
iiiip<»rrant
models
rather
siluaticms,
opti/niiC,
to
follow
decisions,
decisions
assumptions
than
people arc
upply.
inject
this
is
simple
So
probably oj-
and
more
look
for
prejudices
But
the
unambiguous
individuals
biases
in<xJel.
for
exception
enough
for
solutions
into
the
that
decision
process, and rely on intuition. Given
die
organizations,
evidence
what
can
wc’vc
desenhed
managers
do
on
co
how
decisions
improve
their
are
actually
decision
made
making?
in
We
offer
to
the
five suggestions. First, national uates
analyze
culture
and
ity,
don’t
try
to
in
situation.
which
rew'ards. feel
the For
your
to
if
you're
folfow
decisions
v^our
operating
instance,
compelled
make
you’re
Adjust
the
appear
and in
decision-making
to
a
rational
criteria
txiuntry
your
diat
Similarly,
organization
doesn’t
decision-making
rational.
style value
model
or
eval-
rationaleven
organizations
differ
to in
tenns of the iiuportance they place on risk, rhe use of gr^ mps, and the like. Adjust youi- decision .style to ensure it’s compatible w’ith the organization's culture. Second, he aware of biases. We all bring biases to the decisions we make. Tf you understand the biases inlluencing your judgment, you can begin to change the way you make decisions to reduce those biases. Third, approaches deewion ingly
combine to
rational
decision
effectiveness.
confident
in
As
analysis
making. you
imposing
By
with
using
intuition. both,
gnin
inanagerial
your
intuitive
pm
TTicse can
exj’ierience, processes
are
nut
actuaJly you
on
should
top
of
conflictmg
improve
your
feel
increas-
your
rational
anah'sis. Fourth, don’t assume that your specific decision style is appropriate for every job. Just as organizations differ, so too do jobs within organizations. And your effectiveness as a decision maker will increase if you match your decision sej'le to the requirements of the job. For instance, if you have a directive style of decision making, you’ll be more effective working with people whose jobs require quick action. This style, for example, would match up well widi managing stockbrokers. An analytical style, on the ocher hand, would work well managing accountants, market researchers, nr financial analysts. Fmallv, problems,
try
attempt
to to
enhance see
your
problems
creative in
new
tv.
Overilv
ways,
and
look use
for
novel
analogies.
uy to remove work and organizzatinnal harriers that might impede your creativity.
solutions In
CO
addition,
PART III: Groups in the Organization
CHAPTER 7 ___________________________________
Foundations of Group Behavior
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
M
Differentidie between formal arid informal groups Explain why people join groups
3.
Describe how lole requirements change in different situations
4.
Explain the impoitance of the Hawthorne studies
9 VI A
Describe the importance of the Asch studies
•
Identify the implications of sod a I loafing
CP P
Outline the benefits and disadvantages of cohesive groups
•
Explain the effect of diversity on group performarKe
*
Contrast groupihink and groupshitt
T
he behavior erf individuals in grou|is is .s
fcrendy
from
when
diey
are
alone.
This
chapter
intToduces
bask
concepts
about
groups and demonstrates how an understanding of groups can help explain the
huger
phenomenon of organizatiunal behavior.
DEI'ININC AND CLASSIFYING GROUPS A
groi^)
come
is
defined
togeJict
to
as
two
achieve
or
nioi’e
particular
iruhv-iduaJs,
nhjecrives.
intcraciing
(iroups
can
l>e
and
interdependent,
cither
formal
or
who infor-
mal. By ibrmal, we mean defined by the organixa lions struemre^ with desisfn^ted wcH'k assignments
establishing
tasks
one
engage
are
should
in
and
work
stipulated
by
groups. and
In
formal
dirwled
groups,
toward
the
behaviors
organizadunal
gitals.
that In
Contrast, informal groups arc all rances that arc neither smictured noi orgunizadonaliy
1
Chapter 7 Fnembtfooi of^oopBehtrior defermmed. In the work environment these groups form naniraHy as respomei to the need for social conracr. hV
possible
to
fortJier
sulK-h^ifo
groups
inioajmmand,
ship tategones. Command and cask groups are dkmced whereas interest and Iriendshtp groups are informal alliances. rhe the
cdftffihTftd
suhordinaces
is
who
determined
report
by
directly to
the a
by
organisational
given
task.
manager,
intercM,
the
fonnal
chart, ,’kn
h
is
or
friend-
organirjitjun, composed
elementary’
school
of
prin*
dpal and her 12 teachers form a coininami group, as Ho the director of postal audits and his 5 inspectors. Tafk together
groups,
to
intmediare
also
tompkee
a
hierarchical
(»rgarriracionally
lob.
Iloutver.
Miperior.
colkgc student is accused of di
nation
among
the
dean
h
a
caa
determined,
task
groups
crfxw
represent
boundaries
command
persons
are
rclabonships.
working
not
limited
to
For
instance,
its
if
a
a cunpiis crime, it may require cominunicadon and coor*
ol
academic
a^irs.
the
clean
of
students,
the
registrar,
the
director of .security, and the student^ adviser. Such a formaiiun would consutute a task P'oup. IT should be noted that all command groups aiu also cask groups, hut because task griHi(K can cut acniss tlic organization, the reverse need not he true. Pcojde w ho may or may not be aligned inu> common command nr task groqis may affiliate to an a in a specific objective with which each is concerned. This is an immft
grt/up.
F.mployres
who
band
togctlier
lu
have
their
vacation
scbeilule
altered,
to support a peer who ha> been lireil, nrn> seek increased fringe benefits represent the fiirrnation of a united body to fujxhcr ihcir cxnTimon interest, (iroups mon
often
develop
characteristics.
We
heenxse
call
the
these
individual
formnnons
members
fhcntisbrp
have
nnr
grotipi^
or
more
Social
com-
allegiances,
which frequently e.xtciid outside the work situation, can be bxsed on, for ex ample, similar
age
or
ethnic
heribigu.
support
for
Notre
Dame
football,
or
holding
similar
polit-
ical view s, to name jnst a few such characteristics. Iniomial
groups
protnde
a
very
important
luncuou
hv
sacislytng
their
niuiubers*
social needs. Because of inicractifwis thar result from the proriniity of work stations or tasks, ing
w’e
find workers
together,
recognize
and
that
playing
sperxling
these
types
golf
their of
lugctlicr,
breaks
riding
around
imcractions
to
the
among
and water
from
work
cooler
individuals,
together,
together.
even
lunch-
VVt
though
must
inibnnal,
deeply affccv dicir behavior and pcrfoiinajicc. I'here
Is
no
single
ixnsori
why
individuals
join
groups.
Because
most
people
belong to a number of groxijw, it s obvious that different groups provide differenr benefits to tlicir iuemhci*s- Fxlbbii 7-1 sunnuan/es ibe most popular reasons people have pining gnmps.
BASIC CROUP CONCEPTS .1 • The following review of IMSIC group conixpts builds on the lecognition that groups arc not unorganised molw. They have a structure that shapes the bchavitn- ol diefr ’•
members.
Roles bun CampbeU
ts
a
buyer
with
Marks
Spencer,
the
large
British
retailer.
Iler
job
requires her to play a mimher of roles: that is, tn engage in a bci of expected behavior panerm that are attributed to occupsnng a given piwiticai in a social unit. For
.
:Q,W«B io Ae Why Do People Join Groups?
EXHIBIT 7-1
Security lrd,«iun in . p.wp ri,a«.. .kwrM; ciU^wie cM membership can d^i giec iftcre»ca feeing uf wfw^ to dn* Affibadon pimp member* rhemsebxs. <4roHM cm hilfin s..dal need#. PctipU enpy die regular jmrracQon AMOHIH-; with gr.mp nKinbcnhip For .nary pevpk. these on-thc-Mh mreractions arc their ponian* Power source fir fiiirxlling Their D4cds li* affiliation OoaJ achivvcrRcniWhat cannot hr achieved uidividQ^lly ofren become* posMbU thrnugh gmupacnon, There is power in Tuxmhers. There arc nnics when il taL» more than one person w k accomplish a particular task—rherr is a need lo p«x^ talcfWS. kni>wlc»tpe, or power in order to g« a job corapktesd. b such insujice, I.sura plays the role of a Marks & Spcacer employee, a member of the instances, manapemrnr will rck on the use of a fonnal headquarters buying group. group, a member of the eost-iniprovemeiit task force, and an adviser still ai
to
more her
the
committee
roles:
daughter's
Surrey
conflicts. from
die
For
(.an
to the
a
Manchester role
in
league.
recent
demands
Off
Aieth<xlist.
singer
soccer
instanre,
diversity.
mother,
schcx)l,
womens
London
Ixjndon.
vife,
on
the Many
offer yet of
of
the
job,
member St. of a
Laura
of
rhe
;\ndrew’s these
her
husband
her
job
be
and
T.aix>r
Chapel
roles
promotion
(Lampbell
would
Party,
choir,
are
and
require
a
with
the
to
to
roles as wife and modi er? Like Laura Campbell, we all are required to play a nuinl>er of roles, and our behavior varies with the role we're playing, The concept of roles can help us behavior at her soccer league match on .Saturday, for instance, IS irfereni from her behavior when participating in a meeting of her cost-iinprovemenc task force al w'ork—the groups impose different identities and expectations on Laura. T he undefiunding «jt role behavior would lx; dramaticallv simplified if each of i» Chose one role and pla.vcd i( out regularly and consistendv. Unfortunately, we are required in play diverse roles, both on and off n»r jobs. Different groups impose difterent role requirements on ^K•op^c. And we can better understand an mdividuafs ‘J**
person is plannp. the following conclusions’: 'he sdmul. around while ml.., ,.f
of
cTeate relocate
remain
demands
in
memlicr
lucinber some
Laura
want
herself
board
compatible;
daughter
reconciled
finds
of
in her
chapter? row’s or
lawyers
Thr
that
Pi-ame.
ihv
be
influenced
People
have
situation
experience another. that
will
n.le An
arid
its
conflkl
w
increasing
Laura
Campbell
by
the
ability
demands
hen
the
u,
of
with
as
a
result
atlwmew
rapidly
major
one
for
of
roles
require
people,
experiencing
actions
nhift
clearly
compliance
number
is
watching
Foundations
role
in
when
changes. arc
of
to
trying
tl.ey
MrBral
recogniM
People
is
at
often
odds
experiencing reconcile
Crroup
.d/Zy
(4)
requirement
instance,
of
the
work
with stress
and
ftiin-
you’re
deal-
ilv roles. So ing
it
with
you’re
employees,
idcntifinng
with
This
role.
a manager,
behavior
at
ii
helps
die
perspective
titne
guide
you
ever
notice
that
knowledge of
lo
of
d^ink
and
can
and
of what value is a what
often in
in
terms
l>ehaviori
allow
you
determining
wbat
would
roles’
group
be
Wien
thcv’re
expected
uj
more
accurately
how
best
to
predominantly
them
predict
the
hantUc
situations
partners
arc
in
that
employee’s with
that
employee.
Norms Did
you
green
or
norms.
that
That
golfers
employees
is,
there
don’t
are
don't
speak
while
their
their
bosses
in
eritidze
acceptable
standards
of
public?
behavior
putting
This
within
is
a
on
the
because
emup
of
that
are
shared by the group’s members.^ Each
group
will
establish
itv
dctcimine
appropriate
dress,
bers
lunch,
friendships
cat
spread
norms—and
with
the
explicit
ol
cues
output,
extremely
on
accepted
gi’oup
nicmbeTs
cases
in
forms
al
off
should
work,
thev an
nonns
with
a
minimum
employee
of
external
with
level
because
tend
might
whom
group
mem-
most
wide-
be
tlie
most
ger
the
the
their
job
like.
Tliese
influencing
of
and
fret,
it’s
high
overriding
level
norms
are
When
agreed
behanor
unusual
personal of
their
the
not
influence
members
done,
means Tn
concerned—deal
provide
performance.
a
the
norms
emploj'ee’s
abilities
of
group
probably
to
to
and
conrrols.
strong
with
typically
channels,
as
ofL
However,
how
individual
instance,
goof
managers
act
For
iob.
groups
affecting
modest
the
Work
group,
very-
and
to
processes.
the
an
norin*j.
acceptable
communication
in
of
which
hy
which a
on
hard
appropiriatc
it’s
sei
-with
how
pow’erftil
and
when
ones
performance-related
with
to
and
own
of
to
find
motivation
per-
group
norms
diat
discourage members from pro
key
bring
point
to
members’
remember
behavior
about
into
norms
is
conformin’
dial
with
groups
the
exen
groups
pres.sure
standards.
on If
members people
in
die group violate its norms, expect gi’oup members to act to correct or even pnni.sh the violation.
This
is
just
one
conclusion
directly
attributable
to
findings
in
the
that
full-
Haw-rhomc studies. The
Hauthume
scale not
Studies
apprecianon
uniil
the
undertaken
at
1924
1932.^
by
and Harvard
l*havior afiveting ing
and
of
die early
VVtsrem
generally iinportiuicc 19305.
Electric
Originally
professor
Elton
sentimenis
individual
individual
Its
worker
were
behavior, output,
by the
closely
pby
Western Hawthorne that
standards
money
w
as
bch^ivioral
in
scientists
influencing
grew
Hawthorne
related,
group that
among
enlighiciimciit
Company’s
Alayo,
and
norms
This
initiated
that
agreed
out
of
Work.s
in
Fleciric
Chicago and
influences highly a
factor
than were group standards, sentiments, and security. Ixri us briefly review the
behavior
senes
concluded
were less
a
officiaL
studies group
worker
were
eflcctive in
of
??rjdies
1
between
later that
overseen
a
worker^-
sigruficant in
did
in
establish-
deiermining
worker
Groups
m
the
Qrjaniiaaoo '1
1 I huth^rnc invx.ng.rio»s ...d d.mu»stn.u the tmpon-nce of these finding i, 4 beg.n hy ctaTiiining the relation I^W'een the phy^ iej envdronment and prrxinrtiviLy. Uhnnination and od.c^-orhng condinons were
beg.in
researchers the
same
In
no
case
unit
bewildering
the
was
been
nnit.
tlic
the
rose
tor
researchers,
continued
to
its
the
to
that
of
iiuHHiKgln.
intensity
was
onk
a
productivity,
but
they
to
the
the (he
in
in
could
illumination
dropped
groups.
In
only
Hawthorne
Hue not
when
the
among
the
eon-
results
were
explain
the
behavior
in
the
group.
But
expcriinenul
a
produccivix)intensity
concluded
many
that
they
researchers
or
rhe
(he
light
researchers
die
in
dw:
experi-
increased
fact,
nee
experiments,
An
experimental
was
at
increase
the
was
the
±e
while
^VgaiUi
ITie
while
group:
lIlumTnatum,
level
wotken.
thing was
to
control
and
both
group
Khc
a
light
level
one
propewtirm
of
control
experimental
minor
in
of
dnwward,
but
ilbininaunii.
the
light
and
vaned,
intrikhiced
-'\s
increase
in
follnw-np
output
of
groups
upward
Resiiltn
intensity
both
ri
varioiii
intensity
researchers.
obscivcd
employee's
in
waiving
constant
with
output.
researchers
with
a
output of
reduced
Asa
decrcaM.
Haw-thomc
was
niination
or
ui
productivity
dccrcasc
increase So
.
ilhuiunadon
group
presented
ihc
of
in
under
surprise
group,
intensity
worked
experimental to
rhe
cxpcnnients
ch.>ngcs
illuiniiiarion
group
trolled
the
nounc
was
in
mental
illumimrion
nunipukted time
detrease
mth
.
had
that
illu*
affected
had
an
witnessed.
began
a
second
set of experiments in the rrlav assembl)* test room at VVc.siern F.kctric. A small group of women was isolated from the main work group so that their lieha\ior could be more caixfuUy
obscrv’cd.
They
a
laid
similarly
room
out
went
about
to
their
their
job
normal
of
assembling
department-
The
small
telephone
rcl3)*s
in
only
significant
difference
was the placement In the room of a research assistant w ho acted as an obsenxr—keeping
records
of
cvcrt’thing small due
that
gryup^ to
ular
output,
rejeits,
happened.
ouipirr
sickness
production
working
Observations
increasud
were
conditions^
sieadily.
approximately
department.
What
nwering 'Hie
a
of
of
those
evident
a
daily
multiyear
number
one-third became
and
log
perirx!
jxrrsonal
recorded
was
that
sheet
describing
found
that
ab.scnces
by ibis
women
this
and in
group’s
those
the
reg-
perfomiiiiice
was significantly influenced liy its status of being a “special’’ group. The women in the rest room thought that being in the experimentd group was fun, diar they w^ere in sort of an elite gn>up, and thiU imnagemcni was concerneil with their in (crest bv engaging in such experimentation. the
.A
third
cftect
of
workers relate^ was
study a
would to
that
maximize
Output
was
hank
hy
not
did a
only
group
ohsen'ation
incentive
produccivny
T
not
bring
wiring
wage
their
rew’ards.
employees
controlled
rhe
sophisticated
economic
^camc
in
he
most
plan.
room The
when
imporrnnt
individually
maximize
norm
dciennincd
Unit
restricted,
hut
W’X$
assumption
they
saw
fuuling their what
individual
introduced that
coming
outputs. was
workers
was
that
it out
of
proper
were
ascertain individual
was
Rather, a
to
directly
this their dav’s
gii-ing
study output work-
enoneo«>
reports. 7 he total for a week would check with the total week’s output, but the daily reports
showed
was going on?
a
^teady
level
of
output
regardless
of
actual
daily
production.
What
* In^meus determined that the gn.up was operating well below its capabilitv *nd w« leveling output .n order to pn,te« icsell. Memhers were afraid that if the>- siifnifi-
Chapter 7 Founrtatiorw ofGremp Beha carri, incrca^ their -xitput thc^.t incentive rate would be cut, the expected d.Uy output would he ...creascl byo^ ,n,ght occur, or sk.wcr worker, would be repri^ 'f’ ■J'’* fair outpnt-neidwr too much nor too i.rtle, I hey helped each other .n.t to ensure rheir rcpr.re were .tearlv level I he nonns rhe group established included a number of “don'K/ IM= a rater, turning tmi loo little work Oari r [>f a squealer on any of your peers, bow did rhe group enforce these nonns? Their methods were neitlter gentle nor subtle. They included sai-casm, name-calling, ridicule, and even physical punches TO the upper arm ol mcniber.s who violated the groupk nnrnw. Members would also ostracize individuals whose Iwhavtor was against the group’s interest. I'he Hawthorne .snidies made an important contribution to our understanding of ^oup bchavior—panicularly rhe significant place tliat norms have in ilctermining individual work liehivior. Conformity
«md
acceptance
by
There
is
the the
Asch
group,
considerable
Studies so
you
evidence
As
a
arc
that
member
susceptible
groups
can
of to
a
group,
conforming
place
you co
snong
desire
the
continued
group’s
pressure.^
on
norms.
individual
members to change their a Lti tildes and behavioi3 to con form to the group’s standard. Group
influence
was
demonstrated
in
the
now-classk
Studies
undertaken
by
Solomon
Asch.** Asch made «p groups of seven or eight people who snr i n to
compare
other
had
three
two
lines
cards of
held
varying
by
the
length.
expcriirienrcr.
;\s
shown
in
One (*flrd
bit
tions,
/-2,
subjects
the
difference
made
errors
aloud
which
of
members
in
announce all
the
conform
result
in
the
the
in
line
less
the
than
three
group
length
lines
begin
unsuspecting
subject
quite
percent
matched
to
give
one
line,
the
card. Also. as sliow'n
was
one
had
Exhibit 7-2, nne of the lines on
die three-line card u-as identical to the line on die one-Iinc ExIn
chsaroom and wcw
« 9
asked
a
obvious;
of
the
the
single
incorrect
(LISS)
under
time.
The
ordinary object
line.
But
what
answers?
Wil
the
altering
his
or
her
condiwas
to
bapj^ens pressures
answer
to
if to
align
with rhe others? I har was what zKsch wanted to know. He arranged the gi’oup so that only
the
USS
was
unaware
that
the
experiment
“fixed/*
The
seating
was
pre-
arranged so that the USS was the last to announce his or her decision. The experiment began several sets of matching exercises. All the subjw^ts gave die right answers. On the third set, however, die fij5t subject gave an obviously
u
>
EXHIBIT 7-2 Examples of Cards Used in Asch Study
g5«*‘ _ iA Part HI
.is W
Grvuj* in the OrgtBioiOnn I jna “r" in Exhibit 7-2. The next subien gave until it got to the unsuspecting subject. He 1 evcreorie had said “C ’ The decision confrjmQng ,„hlicly that differs Irom the pteOr d„ .-.m give an answer that vou stn.ngly believe « group members? d„iUstrated that over many experiments and
wrong answer-fhr same wrong answer. an< knew “B" -Jv sme « ,he I’SS «as n > annonnved pos.non
^.nvSs'ubiccts cwtormed in about .» percent of the trials d.at is, the ..hvxts mZe;t. tho blew w ere w rong but that were consistent with rhe replies ol can wc cnnck.de Irom this snuly? The results suggest that .here ate group «m that pn.s us toward cnnformiry. We desire to be one of ±e group, a.ul avoid Iwuie visibiv different. We can generalize ftntl.rr to say ihal when an mdividual’s opinion of obfeciivc data differs sigiiifKanily from Utat ol others ui the gr.n.p, he or .die feels e.viensive pressure lo align his or her opinion to conform with those of ihc
olhers.
Cohesiveness Groups
differ
attracted
tn
work
in each
groups
togetiier,
and
ctihcMve
rhe
external
cohesiveness;
ixber
arc
nr
rienced
their
groups threats
ihal
are
mniiwed
heranse
the
sue that
the
tn
siaj
members
facilitaics have
is,
ro
which
the
group,
For
in have
higher
brought
degree
spent
interaction,
members
a
or
closer
members histance.
great the
deal
group
together.
are some
of
time
has
expe-
Cohesiveness
is
ini|)orant because it’s been found to be related to the group’s productinn'.Snidies depends sive
on
the
norms
consistrnth-
group.
But
low.
If
but
less
the
high
the
iiKire
(for
group), if
a
cnhcsivcncis in
pcrformancL'-relaterl
its
the norms
relationship
of
norms
established
by
lugh
c
is
the
meinliers
example,
cohesiveness
than
that
performance-related
group,
arc
outside
the
show'
w
ill
output,
group
quality
will
lie
is
high
and
low
and
performance
Idgh are
low,
there
more
its
norms
norms
group. goals.
arc
low.
high,
situation. he
If
than
arc
no
and The
cooperauon
productive
norias
will
rhe
work,
performance
cohesiveriess-higli both
follow
cohesiveness
productivity more
pertbmiancc-rckccd w'ith a
individual.*
less
cohesive
productivity
produerhntv
W^cre
cohe-
will
increases,
cohesiveness
significant
be
effect
on
and pro-
duerivin. These eonclusioas are summarized in Exhibit 7-?. As a manager, w hat can you do to encoui age pxmp cohesiveness? You might try one or more of die folknving (1) make the group smaller. (2) envxjuragc agreement wirh gi-nup goals. (3) increase the time members spend together. (4) increase tile status and tlw perceived difliculry of attaining membership in the group, other groups, (6) give rewards to the group rather chan to individual members, nr (7) physically isolate the group.
Size Dws
the
site
of
tasks er«UDse..t,sk?T,t”"'^’'
gh.up
affect
the
group^
overall
behanor?
The
anst»-cr
is
’ndicates, for instance, that smaller groups are faster at completing engaged in problem solving, however, large j
resuluinn ' ' tlieir smaller couiHerparts. Translating these J -Wilts mto specific nonilicrs is a bit bazardotrs, hut we can offer «>me parameWfi. J
a
definite
EXHIBIT 7-^3 Relationship of Cohesiveness to Productivity
Alignment ef group and organizational goals
CohosiveneM
LtJ^e
Hfgb
High
Low
Strong incrMse in produceHty
Moderate increase in producttvf^
Oocrease in produccMcy
Low
groups—with
a
dozai
or
more
'
No stgnifiant effect on productivity
members—are
good
for
gainmg
diverse
inpot.
So if 6c goal of dw group is fecr-finding. larger groups should be more efVecrive. On die
other
input.
lumi
Groups
smaller
of
groups
approximately
arc
better
seven
at
doing
members
tend
sumcduiig to
he
produenve
more
eftecrive
with
6at
for
taking
has
i>een
action. One labeled effort
of
the
social
most
important
losding.
when
Social
working
fuidiiigs
loafing
collectively
is
6an
related 6c
to
6e
tendency
when
size
for
working
of
a
group
individuals
individually.
to It
expend directly
less chal-
lenges 6c logic 6at the pn>diicti\'iry of 6e gr<xip as a whole .should ar least wpial 6e sum of the productivity of all 6e indinduals ui 6at group. A ommon stercoty|K! ual
effort
and
psychologist
enhances
Max
JIKHII
the
groups is that 6c sense of team spirit spurs individ-
groups
Ringclinnnn
overall
compared
piixluctivity.
the
results
of
In
6e
Lire
individual
and
1920s,
German
group
perfor-
mance on a rope-pdling rask.^ He expected that the gi-oup's effort would be equal co 6c
.sum
of
6c
efforts
of
individuals
within
the
group.
That
is,
three
people
pulling
together should exert three rimes as much pull on the rope as one person, and eight people
should
confirm dines
his 6c
exen
eight
cxpectadons. average
tinws
as
(Groups
individual
much
ot
pull.
three
jxrrfiinnance.
Riiigcbnann's
people
exerted
Group*
of
a
eight
re:»6tb. force
however,
onlv
cuUeviivcIy
two
did
not
an4-a-half
achieved
less
generally
sup-
6tn four times 6e solo rate. Replications
of
Rmgclmann’s
research
with
similar
ra.sks
have
poned his findings,'^ Increases in group size are inversely related to individual performance. More may be better in the sense that the total productivity of a group of four is
greater
than
6ar
of
two
or
three
people,
but
die
individual
productivity*
of
each
group member declines. Wliat causes 6is social loafing effect? It may be due to a belief 6ai o6crs in 6e grrw^
are
recMablnh
not
carrying
cquit)*
b)
6cir
fair
reducing
share. pmr
If
effort.
you
sec
Ano6er
others as explananon
lazy or is
Rspomibiiic>. Because 6c results of 6e group cannot be attributed to any single
6c
6cpc,
you
dispersion
can of
Gnwp'inff’eOrgani^tion . person, rhe
i,i« between an individuab input and the ^«ups output *^indtviduak mav be tempted to become •'free rider," effort.Lk ihar *d, « be ,„e..u.ed.
X
' ,
Composition .. KX . ,^.u.n acnviries require a variety of skills and knowle.lge Given this reqnirewent il wJul.l be reasonable ro conclude «ba. hcrcn.geneuus group^th.^e c«n. ; ^z^i«,n.iIar individuals--would be more likely to have diverse abilities and Ermation and should be more elfective than homogeneous gn.i.ps. Research studies generally substantiate this conclusion, especially on cognitive, creatnuy. demanding tasks."' WTien lional
a
group
specialiMtinn,
will
possess
may
l»e
assimilated, groups
rhe
promotes
and
of
personalities,
there
is
an
than
which
gender,
increased
complete
expedient
generally
effectively
conflict,
to
less
evitience
more
tcmis
characteristics
coiiHict-ladcn
but
in
experience,
nec.led
perform
diversity
dnxrsc
and
the
more
is
its
as
positions
rhe
condiision
those
that
are
stimulates
creativity,
tlut
effectively.
supports do
education,
probability
tasks
varied
age,
that
leads
group
he
group
intnxlucctt
a,Kl
heterogeneous
homogeneous.
which
Ae I
are
hint-
to
Ksbentially,
improved
deci-
sifffi making. Uui indicates short
uhiii
that
termJ^
viewpoints.
abuin
ihcsc
elements
Cultural But
divenicj'
diversity'
culturally
seem
to
dissipate
with
time.
fnrm
as
compared
wiih
newly
to
leam
about
how
and
tJiree
to
diversity
interfere
to
work
solving
racial
he
heterogeneous
wiili
after
other
by
seems
work
disappear
each
of
created
an
groups
fonned
on
culturally
months.
The
reason
through
disagreements
1
he
processes,
at
least
tasks
good
formed
differences?
group
have
The
newly
th
MT
asset
problems.
While
ornarional
(hat
for
a
in
variety
of
difficult
in
news
is
these
difficulties
groups
underper-
ciilturaliy
chat
diverse
chat
it
and
different
groups,
lakes
diverse
karning
dK
more
hcMUogcneovs
is
call
endence
the
differences
groups
approaches
to
a
to
while sohing
problems. An group
researchers.
demographic the
offslujot
oi 1
attribute,
organiiarinn,
and
the his
composition is
such the
the as
issue
degree age,
impact
to
sex, of
this
has which
race,
received
a
members
of
educational
attribute
on
great a
level,
deal
group or
turnover.
of share
length
\Vc
attention
call
a
of
ctwnmon senicc
this
group demography. r organizations are composed of cohorts, w^hich wc define as a group <jf indiv iduals who hold a contmon attribute. For uwtance, everyone bom in is of nieans they also have shared roniriion experiences. People bom in experienced the iuforinatjon revolution, but noi the Korean conflict. People l>om m 1945 shared the Viernam War, bin not ibe Great Depression. Women in U.S. organizations toiiay who were born before 1945 matured prior to the womcnV •‘'ubslantiaily different experiences from women bom after th nr nirn.*M
<’'tHOgraphy, therefore, suggests that attributes such a.s ace or the date ® ‘’pecific wxirk group or organization should help us to pmlie't
with dkiimir""’ *>H I’e greater among those ni.wer«ri..«,r liecaiise cuiniiiiinicaiion « more difficult. Ci>nHjci and I* ggles are more likely, and are more severe w hen thev occur, nie inereasd 9
,)
by* in
variable
Chapter 7 FoundauMs of Grnup Bebavi.w mal« group numl«rship less artracm-e, so employees B« more likely to nui, .Aoutnumber cnmirspng,' IKuTion
1-or
ot
among
members
is
the
other
,n
this
hand,
at
People
on
to
the
test
or
same
.AJso,
tune,
where
enter
a
are
more
likelv
group
or
discnntimiines
bulges
work
there
group
in
is
arc
or
to
is
qnite
groups
a
larec
large
an
and
in
which
consideraWv gaps
more
turnover
between
cohorts,
organization
associate
the
voluntarily or ,oX and the evidence
thesis,
there
organization,
or
di.s
separate
who
time, the
sought
depxn.nencs
cohort.
same
perspccuve
have
entered
higher.
jpptowmarely similar
sn.d.es
e.xaniple
th.,seoij«.dc
turnover
the
of
wiffi
thus
be
group's
together
one
more
another
likely
date-of-einrv
co
or
at
have
a
stay
On
distribution
are
likely to result in a higher nirnnver rate widiin chnr gruup.
Stiitus Status
IS
a
prestige
that
orgaiiizarionally
by
as
heavt-weight
champion
trappings
associated
with
the
carpeting, and
so
group;
position,
imposed “the
a
grading,
impressive on.
titles,
Whether
organizations
are
is,
of
tlie
high
pay
management
filled
with
rank or
a
‘‘most
fringe
aekiuiwlcdges tliat
group.
through
are
may
”
or
formally
are
ail
offices
such lamiliar
with
thick
preferred
work
schedules,
of
status
hierarchy,
existence
not
lie
ameniues
VVe
staras—large
benefits,
rhe
It
titles
congenial
organizational
and
mrienities
witliiii
imposeil,
world”
with
high
or
uniformly
a
available
to
eveiyone
be
informallv
and, hcncc, carry status v ilue. .More acquired
often,
bv
we
deal
with
characteristics
stiinrs
such
in
as
an
infonivdi
education,
seme.
age,
Status
gender,
imv
skilly
or
experience.
Any tiling can have status value if others in the group see ir as status-c on feiTing. Keep in mind that informal .sranis is not necessarily less imponant rh;in the formal variety. Status and
hxs
pressures
been to
shown
conlbnii.
given
more
status
people
peers.
An
individual
who
about
social
rewards
care
freedom also
to are
to
have
For
deviate better is
instance, from
able
no
to
highly the
some
eilecls
high-status mis
resist
valued
group
interesting
than
members are
conformity
by
provides
a
die of
other
power
group
but
doesn’t
particular!cable
to
norms
often
are
inenihcrs?**
than
who
of
groups
pre.ssurcs
group is
on
their
pay
High-
low'er-scatus
tniich
need
minima!
or
atten-
tion to confonnitv norms.* The perfonninff to
the
a
wider
prencus
findings
salespeople,
social
norms
range
of
and that
explain
outstanding
eonsu-ain
discretion.
why
But
star
academics
their
this
many
is
achkres,
seem
peers.
As
true
only
actors,
to
appearance
oblivious
high-scams as
famous
long
individuals, as
the
thet'
high-status
top-
re
or
given
persons
activities aren’r severely derrirnental to the achievement of rhe group’s Its cquitabk-
also V\Tien
important incquiti'
lor is
group
members
perceived,
it
to
creates
believe
ilint
the
disequilibrimn
types of corrective behavior. •
that
status results
hierarchy in
JS
various
i> i
The concept of equity presented in Chapter 4 applies also to status. People expect rewards co be proportionate tn costs incurred. If Dana and AJUIC arc e wo finalists for rhe head nurse position in a hospiral, and it is clear that Dana as more senioritv and better preparation for assuming the promotion, Anne u dl view ^he tion <4 Dana co he equitable. However, if Anne is chosen because she is e
t
tfHlaw of the hospiul director, Dana will believe an inpisrice has been cvmnutted.
* 1
fiml thcmselvvs in a critena
arc
different
backgrounds.
For
growth
of
may
<5»r«.Kion when They move between groups whose Matrix
rate
or
instance, their
use
the
size
automiinv
that
comes
seniority’.
In
gniups
are
group 8,
forced
this
can
their
reconcile
a
particular
be
us
whose may
tleterniinants
assignment.
of
heterogeneous
and
stilus
align
problem
the
differences
income
use
workers
may
we’ll
creates
the
degree
of
years
of
use
when
initiate
or
bureaucrats
the
may
or
hierarchies,
inanagcincni
hcierogenenus
(lovemment
may
individuals
differing
when
status,
Blue-colbr
have
personal
employees
job
up
members
use
of
Professirmal
interdependent,
to
groups
executives
budgets.
their
made be
join
business
with
to
ilwy
companies
of
groups
accempLs
when
heterogeneous conllict
as
sec
Chapter
teams
in
made
the
up
of
employe e A freim across varied tun chons wnthin the organization.
GROUP DECISION MAKING The belief —as embodied by juries—that two heads arc hertcr than one has long been accepted as a bask ixmiponent of North American and many other countries’ legal systems. This belief has expanded to the point that, today, many decisions in organ ira-
The Individual versus the Group
accountabiiity. the stren^
You
outcome. of
know
.Xccountahility’
individual
deciskins
can
decisions
of
who
suffer the
V.S.
decisions from
made b
more
is
chat
incragi-oup
Congress.
the
decision
and,
ambiguous they
jiower
Decisions
tend
with to
struggles.
can
therefore, group
convey This
vary by
as
who's
responsible
decisions.
cunmyent
effect
is
best
much
as
IHO
values. degrees
Now compare the above with rhe strengths of group
third Group
illustrated
one session to the next, reflecting the make-up of mcnilwrs and their ahilik* ro influ-
generau wore ampiftf
A
for
By aggregating the resources oJ «*•
by tnxn
Chapter? J-oundaaansorOnroj.BehavHw enl mdividuak. groups bmg njore input mro the decision pro«s,. In addition to ’'cwrogeneity to the decision process. They offS r.rrr so more approaches and alrematives «„ he eon^detvd ’’Jmost always ontperfornt even the l«t ,n.hv,dual. So groups genernte
de.;.io,., Einally. groups lead to
of,, sol„„^„ .Many decK.ons foil after the final choice is ma.Ic Itecanse people don r accept the solution. <,rot.,. members, who particpatesl in makine a dedsum. arc mote likely to enihusiastically support the decision and e«toura« others to accept It. So MhJeh IS Ixuer—indindxMls or groups? The nhnvus cr is. “It depends " l-here arc Uiiid M hen decisions ai-e best handled bv mdividnds. For exampk’ evidence indicares tbai tudividualA are preferred M-hen the decision is rclutivelv unimporcinx and doesn’t require suhorduutc commirmcnc TO its >ucre«. Siinilarly Jndividuak should make the decision when they have suHkient infonnadon and wkn subordinates u-ill be committed i<> the ouiCfitne even if they arrn’t consulted?’’ (X’erall. M-herhermdh’iduals i>r groups should make a decision essentially comes down TO weighing cflecdvencss against e£6ciciiiT. tn xcniis of effectiveness, gnnips arc superior. They generate more alternatives, arc more creative, more accurate, and produce higher-quality tlevisions ±aiilution.
Grnupthink and Groupshifr Two
byproducts
attention
by
of
groiq)
researchers
Gruupchink
Have
mal
but
decided
may
have
group,
hand,
you
group
members
sensus
you
in
OB.
ever
like
against a
$o
mating
These
felt
been
Ix-come
(werridcs
decision
ii?
arc
enamored appraisal
expression uf deviant,
minority,
or
mental
efficiency,
ctjtu up
in
may
seeking of
a
epes a
the
c*onsi of
been
table and
shyness.
the
of
action
or
infor-
the
other
occur.s
when
norm
for
and
testing,
and
moral
judgment
as
a
result
con-
the
unpopular views. It describes a tie ten oration
reality
of
groupshift.
On
that
chat
courses
amount
classroom,
phenomenon
concurrence
akcnuitive
de
groupthink
meeting,
have
gmupthink,
of
realistic
received
reason
of
the
individual’s
the
speaking
One
victim
have
foil
in an
of
group
pressures?*^ How exhibit
do
four
y<}U
if a
characteristics:
assumptions
they’ve
tivp
h)’
favored
know’ made,
the
group
(1) (2)
iiiaiorit}',
is
Ciroup
members
members (3)
tt)
show’ing symptoms pressure
give
the
of
rationalize any
groupthink? any
doubters
appearance
of
to
It
tends
to
to
the
resistance support
group
the
consensus,
aliernadoubters
keqi silent alx Hit misgivings and even minim ire co themselves the inijxir rance of their doubts. (4) the group interprets members* silence as a “yes” \’orc for the inaioriry. The groupthink the
above
sun|Homs
occurs,
you’ll
problem,
dev’clopmeni
poor of
lead
find
infonnanon
alternatives,
one
to
a
or
more
search, incomplete
number of
selective
of
the
dccision-maknig following:
bias
assewnent
of
in
deficicnaes.
incomplete
processing alternatives,
assessment
infonnadon, hiilure
risks in preferred choice, anil failure tn reappraise initially rejected alternatives. Studies of deciM(.« making »n C-S. government agencies have found outcomes frequently preceded bv svinpioms of gn.»tiprhink. These outcomes inclutW unpreparedness at Pearl Harbor in l<41, the invasion of Nonh Korea in the 195(k the Bay of Pigs fiasco in the early I MWJs, the escalation of the Vietnam \\ ar. the failed
Ulien
to
of
timired examine
. .,„i,esiv«K-a. '« Jeader^. behavu.r, its insulauon ftn.^ j;,[|^„. pierhodical deoMon-nvaking pmecJeeision-nwking group, want to mmimize th« J ft p;,,, cohesiveness
Rwcairhen haw likely n. yi.rttw- the gf cMitsider^ nme pr«^ • dores. Managers ujto JhTdo ±Xs Zu
should
lie
smxc
for
d
^ur Lhesiveness can also discourage dissent, so vigihn.'whcn an
open
Zon
refraining
from
iing
dn-ergent
Opinions
reaching itself
a
from
Fourth,
external
time
false
pnx-ess
from
need to
Third,
in
style.
This at
should
avoid
time
derision,
to
they
resort
to
promote
constructive
group
group that
of
detach
ohiectivin.
mcmliers
feel
inevitably
kad
the
rational critirism
tn
and
encourage
the
c-ncour.
iinporunee
perspecQve
should
Eollnwng
lhe
shortcuts
pamci-
meenng,
the
WTien
managers
,ncn.lK-r
the
allowing lose
managers
procedures.
nt
emphasizing
constraints.
Finally,
will
tend
Second
enc.umging
hepnn.np
managers
a
6
the
groups
group.
includes
and
consensus
Clhapter
cohesive
members,
downplay
reach
a
group
Insulated
.lecisioo-inaking
descrilwd
with
opinion
aU
to
superficial
methodical
ones
sources.
pressure
or
leadenihip
slating
derision.
managers
severe to
wise
working
use
of
decision-making
and
a
full
analysis
of decision oprinns. Groupsbift
Comparisons
of
group
decisions
with
the
individual
decisions
uf
mem-
bers within the group siis^est that there arc difTerenccs. In some cxscs, the group deciricttis
arc
more
caudous
than
rhe
indindual
decisions.
More
often,
the
shift
is
toward
tu
significant
greater risk.-^ XVhat shift
in
appears
the
to
pHirions
coward
which
become
more
diev
happen of
were
cautious
in
groups
jnernbers alrejidy
and
the
is
coward
leaning more
that a
ihc
more
l>efore
discussion extreme
die
aggressive
position
discussion.
tvpc.s
leads
rake
on
So
in
a the
direction
consenarive
more
risL
The
npeS group
discussion tends TO exaggerate the initial position of die group. Groopshift of
the
group
can
be
reflects
viewed die
as
actually
dominant
a
sj^rcial
decision-making
case
of
groupthiuL
norm
that
The
deveJops
decision
during
the
groups discussion, XATiethcr the shift in the groupV decision is toward greater cauQi»n or more risk depends on the dominant prediscussion norm. The
greater
occurrence
of
the
shift
row'ard
risk
has
generated
scv’cral
cxpbna-
uons tor ibe phenomenon, b'or instance, ii’^y been suggested that the dtscussinn creates T’
members. As thev become more comfortable w’irh each
other,
they
nauon
of
also rhe
h«o,ne
^hift
cS
bolder
toward
risk
'"k
and
more
seems
to
daring. be
that
Arguably, rhe
rhe
group
must diffuse.^
pbuMhIc
expb-
rcspcmsibiliQ.
’•vcoonwbilitv for the moiips ti.ui
SX Md findings bers that the shift has whedwr a group will shifZrow^^^^^ prediscusaon inclinations.
on
groupshift?
You
initial position of the indhidiul men^^‘aution is a tunermn oi the members
Ui-wild
X Chapter 7 FnmMab ofCStciap ftnlBiru Selecting the Best Group Decision-Maki ng Technique rhe jiMJ'ii cVimmon form of group dcci^ior making lakes place m face-ui-fec< interxiing groups. But as our dtu ussbjn of groupihink defnnnsiraicd, interacting gruupv often censor chcinscKe' and pressure individual nxinbcrs towani conformity (»f opininn. B rd n si o ruling. the nominal group technique, and ck-ctrunic meetings have been proph cd as w’ays co reduce many of the prohlcius inherent in the iradiuonal interacting groupBrainstorming Brainstorming is meant to OVCIXHUTH? pressures for conformity in the interacnng group dial retard die develupaient of creative altcnutivc^. It does so b\*uuliring an idc.vgincruuon process chai s|xcific.jlly encourages any and all aliernatives, while withholding any eriucisin of those alteniati\*es. In a typical hrainsiorming session, a hah-dozen lu a duicn people sit around a table. The group leader suies ihe problem in a clear manner so it is undcrsuxhl by all l»rricipajiK.
.Memhers
then
‘'freewheel”
as
many
nlrernarives
as
they
can
in
a
given
length of time. No cririciMii is allowed, ami ill rhe iilfernatives are recorded for later dbcus^ton
and
the
biz-'irre
most
analysis.
‘Ihat
one
suggestions
idea
are
stimulaTcs
withheld
others
until
later
and
that
encourage
judgments group
of
even
nieinlx’rs
to
*ihjnk the iiniLsual." hoxveirr.
is mrrclv
process for generating ideas. The follow-
A
Brainsiomung,
ing tw’Q techniques go further by offering
methods of jctiully arriving at a preferred
sulurion. Nominal
Group
Technique
sonal
cominiinicaunn
group
tedmique.
mittee
nweting,
during
Group but
The
nuTiunal
the
decision-ma
members
the
are
nietiibers
all
are
group
restricts
king
process,
hence
the
present,
as
a
physically required
to
discussion
operate
in
or
interper-
lenu
nonunal
traditional
independently,
com-
Spcciftcally,
die follow ing steps take place: Members meet as a group, bur. before any dt^nusion wkes place, each meinlwr independently writes down his nr her i
2,
'rhis silent periext is tbllnwed hv each xneinbei *s preferring one idea to rh« group. Each member lakes his or her Uirn, E?ning round die table, preserring a single idea until ah ideas have liven presented and reconkd (ty pica Uy on a flip chan or chalkboard). No discussion takes pbr.e until all ideas have been recorded.
3.
The group then disaisscs tfie ideas for thinty and evaluates them.
4.
Each group nicmlicr sikndv and independencK* ranks the ideas. 1 he final decision is (ieternuned by the uka ujUilbe highest aggregate ranking
The
chief
advantage
of
llxii
technique
is
chai
it
permits
the
group
h>
meet
for-
mally hut does not restrict independent thinking, a.s so often happens in the rradiiioiul interacting group. Electronic the
Meetings
nominal
group
The
most
ctx'hnique
recent with
approach
sophisticated
to
grrnip
computer
decision technology'.
making Its
blends
called
the
cicctrofuc meeting Once
the
technology
is
in
place,
the
concept
is
simple.
I
p
to
50
people
sit
und a horse shoe-sh a f)ed tahic. empty except tor a series of computer terminal^ Issues are presentcil oi p.irticipants, and they type their responses onto their
»—■ ->' - •••^ ''““■" ■” ‘ '^- ,,,etr,.nic mcetin-’s are ononymit>-. honesty,
rion «rcen in Ju ;
th/push
the screen for all W » nrtcj'toioi; .font diL-ress,
of
and
.1
kev
.^any
on
a
participunfs keyboar.l. It also allow, because chitchat is dinii. participants can ‘•talk" at once without
Stepping on one jiiothcrs rtx”^.
In
order
9Uidi>n
are
of
an
wort
inal
to
behavior
/ups
b
ha
look is
accomplish
npinHy
gnrt^ps
flgers
m
at
not
work
uniled
inh>
addition
to
nn
merely
rhe
as sum
the
individiKHs
departments, thebr
comnion
employees
tasks,
formal
wuub, groups
who
cr.niminees individuals
interests
or
friendships,
members
of
a
of
the
group
individual
make
h’s
or also
an
in
of
its
organi-
other t
fomis
reatc
infer
for
man-
imporUnt
because,
behaviors
up
reality,
group
members.
I'he
group Itself adds an adcliliimal dimension to its members’ Tichavior. How Maryland
b
it
woman,
Democrat,
relevant for
to
example,
councilwoman,
understanding has
and
tn
police
group
reconcile officer
heha\nor
her
roles
with
the
to
of
know
ntoiher.
cin^
of
that
a
.Methodbt. Baltimore?
Knowledge of the role that a person is attempting tn enact can make it easier for us
to
deal
with
the
person,
fcir
we
have
insight
into
her
expected
behavior
pat-
terns. Also, knowledge of a job incumbents role makes it easier for otliers to work with her, for she should behave in wavs consistent wnth others’ evpeciations. In other words, when a person plays out her role as expected, the abiitcy' of others to predict her behavior imftroves. Norms control group member behavior by establishing standards of right or wrong. Knowing the norms of a given group can help us explain the attitudes and be ha nor s of its members, (km managci^ conrrol group norms? Not conipletely, bur they can influence them. By making explicit statements about desirable behaviors, by regularly reinforcing these preferred behaviors, and by linking rewards to the aceepiancc of [xeferred norms, maxiagers can exert some degree of indue nee over grcxip norms. Should managers seek cohesive gi*ou|Wr The answer is a tpialiRed Jit The quailficabou lies in the degree of alignmtnx between the group and the organization s goals. M.uugers should attempt ro create work groups v\ hose goals are consistent with those of the organization. If this is achieved, then high gniup uxJicsivencss will make a positive txiniribudan ro the gt i>Np\ perloniiaiue. rhe impbeacions for managers of the social loafing effect on work aroups are signiheant. When managers usecolleciivc work situations to enhance inoraic provide means bv which individual efforts cm be identihcd. h ihry don't, management must weigh the potenrial fosses in producnvit) Irnm using groups against any possible i?ains in weaker .sadsthetioa.-- This conclusion, however, has a Western bias, h’s consisteni with individualistic cub res, sue as le ’ni^d States aiwl Canada, that are dominated hv self-interest. cwIJecdve societies in which individuil, arc i.u.avated b> gm p goals, her instance, in studies. otnparing eniphn-ees fn.ni rhe United
I
Chapter 7 Founditions of Group Swws employees lectivise snriecies),
from the Peopled Rcpuhlk of China and Israel the OiineF*.* and Israelis slujwcd no propensity to
social loafing. In fact, the Chinese and Israelis acnially group chan when working alone?’ J he managerial iroplicarions for group composition formal
gn*>ups
and
using
groups
to
make
decisions,
lb
purfonned are
increase
the
99
(both colengage in
better
related
BcH:ivi0r
to
in
a
staffing
pcrfonnance
of workgroups, yon •ihould try to choose is members individuals who can bring a dive Hie pcispective co problems and issues. But don’t be surprised if these difference
ncgarivciy
members
learn
affect rn
the
group’s
work
with
performance their
in
the
differences,
short
the
term.
group’s
Be
patient.
performance
As
I
will
iinprmx. Slams
ineqilines
witliin
a
group
divert
acrivity
nienr .ind direct it row a rd resolving the mei| agers
may
find
that
mine
die
activities
group of
dyshuictional
behaviors.
trements,
or
tendy
he
with
she
status
members
the To
should
equity.
reduce
members the
degree
ensure Inequities
that are
from
goal
accomplisJt-
4
ties. When inequities cast, man-
HI
their
work
with
higher
that
a
they
are
likely
away
I
status,
manager to
effort,
or
controls
distributed have
attempt
a
to
under-
pursue
similar
status
accou-
carefully
and
tonsis-
negative
niotivadonal
impact on the group. Finally, if managers use group decision making, they should particularly ot
-1
to minimi la groupthink. They <5hould encourage member input, especially from those who are less active m the discassion, and avoid expressing their preferred
4 " V >j .
solution eariv in the group’s discussion. Managers might also want to consider one or more of the techniques presentee), such as bi'ainstorming or electronic meetings, as a means to lessen pressures to conform.
•I*
Understanding Work Teams AftP*- reading this chapter, you should be able to
HN-
Explain the growing popularity of teams in organizations Contrast teams with groups Identity four types of teams
4. Describe riie role of work design in making effective teams 5. Explain composition variables that determine team effectiveness 6. Identify resources and other contextual influences that make teams effective 7. Describe process variables that affect team performance 8. Explain how organizations can create team players
heavy equipment, fn N94 tn ’iiimr ,v>. management ampkmented teams ro ^enl sometiuielbi-eTitpJoyeestoadn.sf-mxrfc’ are organized into more than SO team nr participau i„ decisions dut were once m rhf warns set iheir own scheduks spUre „. calls on customers and dis^ipiinc member team approach lu.s also hdped Beween IWt and 199V, resnonsp ti.„ produCTivitj- and manufacn.ring outpuXwl?^’*'”" accident rates dropped by mor^ih,,,, b.,|f
's U'ed m trucks, tranors, and other produetivitjz, E.ifnn-Aeroquip's assembly line, While ii took kl "’‘’'‘-’gPr'icnt—fur inscaixc. suppliers, make problems. .And the move to a achieve important conipain goals. Iftprote.l W pcrtx.-M; ’Hort; dun 50 (XMCVHI; anJ
Chapter 8 L nderBcanrling* Woti "Ifea WHY HAVE TEAMS BECOME SO POPULAR? 1 hin>’ >^4rs ago, die dccisicm of companies such «s \ blw, Tovota, an4 C^eneral FOCMIS roinrrociucc teams into their prodactnm procewes maik news because no one eke was doing It. roday, just the op^K>ske the oi^aniz^cicn that use teams diat has become new sworthy. Pick up almost -^ny business peri
such
xs
Cymputer, .Ijrlines,
Genend
Shiseido,
Johnson
IJeccric.
PtdEx,
&
AT&T,
Hoebg,
OaimlerGhn’sler
Johnson.
Shenandoah
I
lewktt-Packard,
EM
Life
Co.,
Insiuance
Motorola,
John C>>.,
Deere,
and
z^pple
Ausirahan
KlonJa
Power
&
Light. Evi.’n the world-famous Sail Diego Zoo has restructured its nudve habitat zoncis aroond
tearas.
cross-tleparcmeuwl
Tlic
Center
for
the
Stud>
of
Work'learns
say’s
that
Wfi companies now have half of their’ employees on leaiuk-
tiO percent of
jfew do we e.xpbin die current popnlajnty of teams? 1 he evidence suggests dwt [earns Q-pically outpertonn individuals when die tasks being done require multiple skills, judgment, more
and
e.’cperience.’
effectively
and
org'anj7.ations
efficiently,
they’
have
have
resn-uctuicd
turned
to
teams
ihcmsclves
as
a
co
way to
com|>ete
better
utilize
einployre talents. Management has found diat teams are more llexiblc and responsive to changing
events
ings.
'icams
Bur
don’t
have
are
the
overlook
discussion faci]irate
than
in
capability rhe
Chapter
employee
tnidiiional
5
departments
to
(juiekly
moTivationyl of
die
participatioQ
rf»lc io
or
assemble,
properties of
odier of
employee
Operating
forms
permaneiu
dejilny,
refocus,
teams.
Consistent
invuivcjiitiu
dccksion^.
of
For
as
a
and
groupdisband.
w'ith
motivator,
insrance,
some
our teams
assembly-
line workers ar John Deere are pair of safes teams that call on customers. These workers
know
Speaking
the with
products
berrer
iarmers,
than
these
any
hourly
traditional
w’orkers
salesperson,
develop
new’
and
skills
by
traveling
and
become
and more
involved in rfieir jobs. So another cxplajiaiion for the popularity of teams is chat they* arc
an
effective
means
for
management
to
democratize
their
organizations
and
iniTcase employee modvaiion.
TEAMS WRSUS GROUPS: WTiAT'S THE DIFFERENCE? Groups and teams are not the same thing. In this section, ivc dclnie and clarify the difference betwLx-n a work group and a work team. In Chapter 7, we defined a gfvitp as two
or
more
achieve
individuals,
particular
informabon
and
interacting
objectives. lo
make
A
woA
and
interdependent,
group
decisions
co
is
help
a
who
group
one
who
another
have
come
interact
perform
together
primarily to
within
each
to
share
member^
area of rcsponsibilin^ M’ork require bers*
groups
joint
have
effon.
indindual
So
no
need
their
contributions.
or
opjjonuniiy
perfonnance There
is
no
is
to
merely
positive
engage
the
sum
sjmergy
that
in
coliccbve
of
all
die
would
work
group
tTcate
that mem-
an
over-
Their
iudi-
all level of performance that is greater than tlic sum of the inputs. A '•idual
work
team
efforts result
individual
inputs.
generates in
a level
Exhibn
8-1
positive of
synergy
performance
highlights
the
through that
is
coordinateil greater
differences
chan
between
effort. the
sum
work
of
groups
those and
wurk teajus. These *4jric
defininons
help
chrifo
why
so
many
organizations
have
around teams. .Management is looking for that posibve stmergy dwt
restructured
fWt M G^w^ImheOrpnlttdwi
EXHIBIT t-1
Comparing Woric Groups and Wvk Teams
Work CMfiM
Work flroup>
► Collective perforrnerKe
Gaal
*
Share inforrnaCon
- _ ___
Neutral (sofYiednes negauvej
» Individual and muual Individual
AccounwOHiiy
Random and varied \ _______ will
allow
their
orgaruzadons
aiw die Notice,
cTcadon
calling larer
a in
of
however, of
gnatp this
acicrisncs. use
ro
increase
performance.
The
extensive
use
of
teams
ere-
for aa orgaaiiauon LO generale greater outputs with no increase in
inputs. the
—
_______ ______________
teams 2
it
must
“potendaL”
ensures
doesn’t
suAxessfu)
manageiucnt
teams,
siiid
diat
frrf/v
cliupler,
If
we
the
'I’here
achievcnienr
automatically or
hojics ensure
inerejse
high-pei
to
TYPES QFTEAMS .
forming
increase
that
is
their
nodiing
of
this
its
pertonuance.
teams
organizational teams
iniicrcnriy
posiuve
have
magical
synergs’ As
certain
well
possess
these
Merely explain
common
{.lerforruance
through
chai
in
chaithe
acLerisrits.
_
Teams can be classified on the basis of dicir objective. The four most common fiirms of teams you're likely to find in an organizadfin are pr(?Z*&W“r6i/i’/rtg itfttrk tfitw, iTvfs-fttncihrtal reatn^, a/tii vittaal teams (see Exhibit 8-2). Problem-Solving Teams If
wc
look
back
hi
the
early
IQSOs,
teams
were
just
beginning
to
grow
in
popularity.
And the form most of these teams t<x>k was simiUr. They typically w'ere composed of five to twelve hourly employees from the same department who met far a few hours
EXHIBIT
Frobkoi* solving
Types of Teams
S«lf-rTuna^4
Cross 4unc6onal
Virtual
Chapters
•»*
each week t- -'iscuss wjj-s oHn.pr..Mngqu.liry. cffidenq.. ami the nurk eiwiramrwnt. \Vc caH (hc^ pi*obleni*$ohdiig teams, ft, pn)hkrn^hf,Kj»tf renim. metnlxjts shiir,. ideas nr oHer Migg^tums on how ^ork
pnx'cwcs
an.l
nwihixls
cun
lx
improved.
Rarclv.
however,
w
these
teams
Si
pven
One
of
die f OHO*
the
most
widely
practiced
appliraaons
of
prohlem-solving
wains
* •
lhe juchonn* ec» imil.jirnilU nnjUfiiKnt any of their Miggexled actions. during
quahty circles. I besc are work teams of eight to wn employees and
supcHTMirs uho have a sharetl area of rcsptmMbility and meet regularly to discuss their qvabty
problems.
Afanagement,
Investigate
however,
tmpleiiicmatlon
of
ranges
npicaily
the
qua
of
retains
lit)-
the
problems.,
control
over
recouimcndcd
drdcs’
and
the
recoinniend
final
solutions.
soludnns.
decision
Ibday.
regarding
many
organiza-
tions use problcjn-sulving reams, es^wcially a.s .a means for wking oui wajs t«j improve qualin. deliveries, eliminate scrap, reduce accident rales, and ccnctalU cut costs.
Self’Managed W’ork Teams Problem-solving ting to
teams
employees
were
involved
eMperimenution
on
in
with
rhe
right
track.
decisions
work-related
truly
Inn
autonomous
they and
reams
duln't
go
far
processes.
diat
could
enough
I’hi.s
not
only
in
get-
deficiency’
led
solve
pnihlems
blit could also implement solutions and take lull responsihility for outcomes. Self-managed on
the
include
teams
responsibilities collective
orgonizarion managed each
work
breaks,
wrirk
lanceand
cono-nl
of
other’s
of
teams even
their
over
even
be
generally foniicr
die
anil
perfonnanee.
may
sire
sdect
-As
a
work,
own
re.siilT,
eliminated.
of
choice
their
1(1
of
al
inspection
die
IS
and
people
diesc
detenninanon
of
work
the
lake
uhe
assignments, Fully
members
on
Eacon-Aeroquip
who
rcsponsibditicH
procedures.
have
isory poaoems
teams
to
"lypjcaily.
members
supen
The
of
snpcTviMu^.
pace
collecuvc
composed
evaluate
decreased
plant
in
selfimpor-
Arkansas,
described ar the opening of this chapter, are examples of .self-managed work teams. Honeywell,
General Al&M/Mars,
implemented U.S.
VIutors. and
self-managed
cmpbycrs
now
use
Goors
Aetna work
this
Life
arc
teams, form
Brewing, iust
Esiimates
of
team;
a
PepsiCo.
few
fimiiliar
suggest
and
Hewlett-Packard,
among
names
that
have
that
about
30
percent
of
large
firing,
the
number
is
prolwbly doser to 50 percent? Recent applications
business of
manufacturer siblc lars
for in
For
high-qualifV
power
tools,
improvements
sarings?
Light
l>cen
teams.
significant
Industrial
haw
self-managed
of
cost
periodicals
&
in
Self-manatred
.Magic
has
had
diock-fuU
instance, say
jinKlnct teams
in
are
of
artides
executives
at
sdf-nunagcil qualirv’
and
given
credit
dominating
the
describing Power-Cable
leains
are
generating for
business
successful
much of
Corp.,
largely
rtsjxjn-
millions of
of
the
visual
a
dol-
success
digitalization.^
And W'L. (.iore & .Assex idtes. the people who make Gore- lex, attributes its continued tm»wth,
inno\*ution,
and
high
pridiubihcy
to
oiyatiizing
its
murr
than
6,200
employe-
ee* around selt-managed teams. In spite of these impressive stories, a word of caution needs to l>c offered herefX’irrall
research
witormly Inch
of
managed ^’•'phiyces
pKitive.^ iub Work
on
the
For
example,
saris^ciitin. ceaiits
working
in
effectiveness
But,
seem
to
traditional
of
individuals
self-managed on
counter
to
have
higher
w’ori:
determine the s|*xific reasons for these findings.
these
teams
conventional aliscniecism
smictures.
work
tcaiib
do
tend
wiMlom, and
Additional
has to
not
report
employees
tumnver re?»earch
higher
on
rates is
been
self-
than
tlo
needed
to
. w
Xerox.
YM Part HI Cross-Functional Teams
a
Rc««.rh I.Ha .Minneajw.hs-b».sea .narkct-rtsvarch firm, had h«n hi«ort-1 ;X r«,.iyx-d .n>und functional dcparu.w..«H but ^•mor managcnient cond„4ed thct functional .lepartmunB weren’t mevunf the ch^g-ng necd^ of the firn,^ X« So managentert reorganized fiusto.n Research s 100 miployeys into r.,, s ’ The idea Ixthin.l the teams was to haw every aspect of a cLents work handled Jit bin Otte tea.n rather tl.an by separate departments The goal was to .mprove com, municaiion and tracking of work, which would lead to mtreased producuv.ty and more saMsfte
are
teams
reorgflnuation
made
up
of
illustrates
cniplowes
the.
from
use
alwucthe
ot
same
cross-function^ hierarchical
level,
but from diffcreni work areas, who cornc together to accomplish a cask. Many decades.
For
empicjyees System
have
example,
cixi^icd
from
360.
ream.
organiz-niions across
?\nd
Sundarly.
another teams
IBM
a
taskforce
of
exploded
is
die
erj^—including
'Ibyota,
currcnrly
this
Honda. of
of
ocher
members
For
But
the
than
a
all
cotirdinatc
highly
up
of
succea-ful
departmenrai of
major
GM,
its
fot
temporary cross-fiioctidnal
aenws
the
groups
1960s—made
develop
popularity
B.VIW,
to
in
from
the
instance,
Nissan. tram
force
company—to
teams.
1980s.
form
the
boundary-spanning
task
really nothing
composed
htc
horizontal
large
in
cross-functional
in
use
a
deparcmenb
zottf/nitim
example
uj»ed
arc
cross-discipline
nutOTiiohilc
Ford,
and
complex
lines
work
manufacnir-
DaimlerChryslcr*-
projects.
Harley-Davidson
relics on specific cross-frnctional teams to manage each line of its motorcj'cles. 'I best reams as
include
Harley
representatives
cion
from
teams.
cross-functional senior
management technology
speed
up
selected
emp]oyce.s
pulled to
projects
outside
Between
sulf
because
kev
from
and
they
up
bring bad
21
1999
IBM and
employees
with
recorn
products
one
irnntifacturing,
suppliers.And
November
together
aunt
design,
to
common
still
use
2000.
for
among
dations
market
purchasing,
makes
June
from
men
and
on
its
The
characteristic—they
instance,
the
all
IBM’s
informa-
company
21
had
well
ten)|x>rary
100,000
how
fa.srer?^
oi
as
can
members
were
succcssfrilly
led
fast-moving projects. ’I*he Speed Team, as they came to be known, spent eight months sharing
experiences,
moving
ones,
and
examining
eventually
differences
generated
between
recoin
me
fast-moving
ndations
on
projects
how
hi
and
speed
slow-
up
IBM
projects. Cross-functional areas
within
tion,
develop
course, meiK
an
teams
organization
new
ideas
cross-fiuumonal arc
complexity
often It
arc
very
takes
(or
and
teams
an
effective even
solve
are
to
no
build
between
problems, picnic
unie-consuming
time
means
as
ti-usi
tn
allowing
organizations) and
people to
coordinate
manage.
members and
for
Their
learn
teamwork,
to
from
exchange
complex
e.specially
informa-
projects.
early stages work
diverse
of
Of
dcvekip-
widi
diversity
and
among
people
froni
dirtcrcnr backgrounds, with different experiences and perspectives.
Virtual Teams rhe
previous
ttchnolo^ mon
goal.
t<> •
types Ge I
of
teams
together hey
allow
do
their
physically pc’uple
work
dispersed to
facc-io-frce. memhers
collaborafe.
online,
Virtual
in
teams
order
regardless
co of
use
achieve whether
only a rrxiin apart or separated hy condnents. nwla? things that other teams do—share informauoit, J nuke dtciMons. complete ca.Hks. .W tho vun include member, all from the se« .J
Li'
computer a
cointhey’re
Chairter I l^pcknundiutf "Uaim «r link an orj^nizutionk mcmbeni w.th u,.,,k,)ves fwm other or«naamms (c.go suppliers ninl p^nt partners).
n ,h (5) the
.nd
ahtl.n
tioo.
,Kopk-
(eye
.nove.nent
These
help
teams
..hen
They
aren
Especially
O.U.
«
oricntnl
f.u.al
so
inernlK-rs
tn-frix
teams,
thousands
k>s
h.
menilx.rs rejx.n
less
miles
apart
aren’t
n.ppori
and
the
nor.nal
give
pers..nally
separau-d
of
teams
a
do
tend Not
dozen
or
to
memt.en diseussion
be
..Hire
surprisingly even
more
Virtual
among
pneess
uork
cueK
ittieraciioni.
laee-to-free
inu-raci.m their
nonverbal
langoatte)
intencuu.
t.tke
o.nverH?-
and
iMuly
online
direct
and
group
tn
by
in
inFoniution.
the
able
vnlome)
other
virtual
stKul/enioiional are
and k-.ss
,net.
u.,h
vt.ue
ovaiLhle
I
tc.ims
and
inflection,
gestnrv.,
ho,
satisfaction
virtual
a„d
voitv,
Jun.l
htiven’t
less
finally,
of
o
sou;,
dnpheate
exchange
team
(tone
vxpre.sston.
from
able
and
rime
c...nnn,n.eat,.^n.
er
hen
.Avretunv
^raverlMl
ebnfy r
,o
<-’’ '■■"'« J --text, „,nstn,int^. 1„ face.to.f.ce
time
than
if
taskvirtual
do
face
members
zones.
They
are allow
people to svork together who might otherwise never lie able to c
such
have
Califiimiii-lwstd
become
maker
mation.
Yet
the
around
the
globe,
sales
reiiuircincni.s
on
virtual
work Says
peojiie.
of
If
teams
a
virtual
on
person
tcairw,
its
S,tiIW
design has
VeriFone enjoys
Ford,
machines
allows
VeriFone a
Boeing,
.swijic
together
.Moreover,
iiidiicemenis.
users
aimpuienzcd
of
to
llewletl-PiKk.vrd,
heavy
of
use
prcseiitatitins.
recniiting
as
Verilhine, that
for
read
vice
president,
living
in
teams
“We
don't
(Colorado
and
arc
a
infor-
located
all
and
making
pnivide
s-mmg
pul
can
is
card
plans,
virtual
Royal
instance,
who
inarkcling
that
and
credit
employees,
pn.jects.
found
VeriFone,
do
relocation the
job
in
virtual space, we'iv not intimidated by tliat.
CREATING EFFECTrVT TEAMS Recent
studies
organized cunvnily
have
Utein kn.iw
taken
into alxiut
what
a
was
relatively
what
makes
once
a
venrabic
focused
teams
laundry
model.Exhibit
effective,
list
K-.l
.As
you’ll
can
he
ofcharactcrisrics
summarizes
see,
it
builds
what on
the group concepts intntduced in ( Jiaptcr 1. The eral
key
toinponciiLs
c.itegnrics.
(wnpfh-itioii. effective-
The
Third
Finally,
first
arc
making category
the
pivceis
up is
resources
variables
clfcciive v^-ork and
reflect
the
teams
tiesign. other
The
second
ioiirexttu/l
things
that
siilisiiined rclatc.s
influences
go
into
in
to
that
the
four
gen-
the
team’s
make
tetinw
team
that
inHu-
cnce effeclivcness, What objective
does measures
effMizenrsi of
the
mean
ttam’i
in
this
prodiicUvity,
model? managers’
lypically ratings
this of
mance, an.l ac^regate measures of member satisfaction.
Work Design The work-design category includes variables sucli as freedom and autonomy, the opportunity to utilize different skills and talents, the ability to eoinpleie a whole and 'dennfiabk task or product, and working on a task or project that has a subsiannd impact ,« others. The evidence indicates that these charade, .sues enhance men^ motivation and increase team effectiveness.'’ These '^te U«use they increase members’ sense of res,x,ns.bility and ownership over the *«rt and het-a«; thev make the work more interesting to pcrt«.nii. 4
tite
has teamV
included perfor-
many
and we of
M PWrtttI Gruune in the OrgeflizetMn eXHierr
c
B-3 A Team EffectiwneM Model VVoHc dewgn
r t•
• Aucenofnx • Tok identjcx • Tok slffWicance Compose don »AbJkty * Pertorulity * Roles and diversity * Size
I
I ♦ RexibiMty • Preference for teamwork ____________ _Z_ ___________ / Context « Adequate resources »Leadership • Performance evaJuadon
Process • Common purpose " Specific goaJs I * Team etfieaQ ■ Conflict < loa/jnf
Composition I
his
oou,
category includes 've’ll
address
diversity,
SIM
AbiUries
of
of
the the
variables
that
relate
ability
and
personality
team,
Members
To
member perform
to
flexibility, effectively,
and
dedshn-makinf^
tcants
of
team
and a
should
members,
members’ team
be
staffed. allocating
preference
requires
sktfb
to
be
able
ahematives, evaluate chose alternatives, and make need people with good listening, feedback, conflict
diree
to
identify’
this
sec-
roles
and
for
teamwork.
different
tjpes
problems,
generate
competent choices. Finally, teams re solution, and other ruterytTj^*^
skills. No team can achieve its j^erfonnance potcndal without developing all thr<* types of skills. Fhe right mix is crucial. Too tnuch of one at the expen.se ol od>er^ result in lower team performance. But teams don't need to have nil the cuinplemen* ury ^ills m place at th«r beginning. Ifs nut uniominon for one or more member to take respjn$ihi)it>' to I cam the skills in which the group is defleient, xherebt* alh’**’tng the team to reach its full potential.
In
€.s/)ert«e. Second, it needs people with the
of skills. First, it needs people with prebUffi-solving
how
Chapter I Vnderm^ng Worit Term in Ch.p«r 5 that pervvn.lit, Jus a Mgtnfeant mfluA,a,.Jbe
of
the
.vle^ant
d.men«on,
to
re«m
e^cnvene«.
ettro.crs.on.
aerreeablencss.
hi^h^r
manager
(ntcx-esongly.
the
uknnfied
m
tl.e
B.g-Fiv^
Spvat.eally.
tea,..,
consc.vnnousncss, J
aJ
evidence
and
pe.^onaUtj ,1.,^
that
the
„.e
stahil.n
fur
warn
vanat.t*
h.n.
higher
e.nodrmal
ratings
.ndiv-ates
nu^id
in
in
proved
.nvan
tend
to
kvek”
to
recenx
peiforjnajicc?*
personaliu
characteris-
tics ...ay he more unpomnr that, the mean. So, fi.r example, wldJe a higher mean level of
consaenuousness
«»«KiiB0M5 who
are
on
mcmUo.
h.ghly
a
team
ren.E
to
tonsc.ennous
.s
desirable,
lower
not
only
tuixinp
b,«h
conscientious
performance.
This
mat
be
.nust
d.eir
o«-n'
usla
perform
and
hewuse hut
not-somembers
abo
,KTform
or re«io the tasks of tess-conscienijous members. It mat also be because these differences
lead
to
feel.ngs
rs
peiMMMlin-
diac
of
“one
contr.buiion
had
apple
lacks a iniiunnl level of. say. fomuuicv.
So
ness,
cxtro.crs.on
or
including
just can
iftequity.
can
spoil
Another
the
interesting
barrel."
A
finding
single
team
related tnanlwr
to who
agreeablenea, can ticgaTivcIv affect the whole team^ per-
o.,e
person
result
in
who
is
strained
tow
internal
on
agreeablcness.
processes
and
conscietidoos-
decreased
otxraD
perfom>ancc. Allocating
Roles
and
Diversity
leaiiis
have
diffrreni
needs,
and
people
shtmid
be
selected tor a tcani lo ensure that there is diversin^ and that all various roles are filled, We
can
idcncify
nine
ix>tcndal
team
roles
(see
F.xhibit
K-4).
Successhil
work
teams have people ro fill all diese roles and have selected people to play these roles based
on
roles.l
.Managers
bring
to
their a
assignments ences
with
skills
and
need
to
select
team, that
fit
with
team
role
preferences,^* uiidtrstand members members'
demands,
(On
many
teams,
the
indiv
idual
w’ich
their
strengths
preferred
managers
strengths
styles.
increase
individuals in
By
die
will
that
mind,
each and
matching
likelihood
play
that
multiple
person allocate
individual the
team
can work
prefermem-
bers will work well together. Sire
uf
Teams
lite
most
effective
teams
are
neither
ven*
small
(under
4
or
S)
or
very large (over 12). Very small teams are likely to lack a diversity’ of views. Rut when tcanb have mt ire than atxmt 10 to 12 members, it beexjmes difficult to get much done. Group members have trouble interacting constructively and agreeing on much; and EXHIBIT S-4 Nine Team Roles
< ------------------------------------ Creator*Innovators: liiiudte itejuve ujeis Explorer* Procnoteru Chunpkm idvas alter they're inidatetl AsiCMor*Developers: .\nal>*zedeaiiian optiims Thrusier^Orgaftiiers; Priwirfc ’itfmmrt (Omtnaicr-ltupcctunu oodudcr-Producers:(‘hevk Provide direvti<wi and ftkrikiaiU Mliv**Khrough LphoUcr'.Mainuiaers: external betrles B^poeter-Advisers: Seek fell uifeniutkm tjikefs; Coord mate and iotegnir Sow. C M—BM» ma 0 MeCww. WWWSCB-lftCifl/i ton MfhWMn RHIMOMIV. 2001. WMW* WBWBpn P*«* "* «»•’«*
D| bndpenn««iOA
1 Qruops in dK Orgamraiioo . Urge
k.... ..f neoule usually can't develop the cohesiveness, tirniniitment, |,i^ necessorv to achieve high pertbniiance. So in designing efU^. ^h..uhl Kem dK-m in the of J to 12 people. If. iLiig unit is l.irger and you want a team efton, consider breaking die g,o„p
subtetms. Member Flexibilin Teams nude up of flexibk individuals have memhen who
QQ
Lximpletc e;K-h othe. \ tasks. This is an ohv.nvs phis ro a uaiu bccau« it imnwvcs it< ncUpwhility and makes i( less relianr on any single member. So scltscting menibgrs who rhem^lves value flexibility, then cTcwsarammg them to dr. each aihcft jobs shuUd lead to higher team perfomwiicc over umc.
Member Preferences Kot e\cr>’ employee is a team player Given the nptuRt many employees will sckci themsebes cwz of team pAW ci pation. VMwn |>euple who WQUIJ prefer\n work alone are mpired to team up, there b a direct threat to the team’s morale. This .suggests that, when selecting team members, individual preferences should IK: considered as well as abililics. personalioes, and skills. Iligh-jicrforTnmg teams are likely to be composed of jwopfe who prefer working as part of
A
group.
Context The three ixmiexiual factors that appear to be most significantly related to team perlonnance
are
the
presence
of
adeijuate
rcM.urces,
effective
leadership,
and
a
perfor-
mance evaJuadoo and reward system that reflects team contributions.
Adequate
Resources
Work
groups
arc
part
of
a
larger
orgamy.ation
system.
such, all work teams relv on resources outside the group co sustain it. And
A®
scarcih’of
H
resources directly red nix’s the a hilit\' of the team to perfonii its job effectively. ;\s one $ei
nf
r^earchers
concluded,
affcr
looking
at
13
factors
potentiallv
related
to
group
performance, “perhaps «vnc of the most imporunr vharactensnes of an effective w ork group is the suppirr rhe group receives irom the organize non.’'*** This includes support
such
;^s
administrative
timely
inform
jssiswnce.
anon,
'Icanis
technology,
must
receive
adequate the
staffing,
necessary
encourageineni,
support
frttm
and
nuna^v-
menr and die Int^er organization if tliey are going to succeed in achieving their goals.
Leadership and Structure Team members must agree on who is to do what anJ ensure that all mem tiers contribute equal I v in sharing the workload. In addition, the team needs to dcirrnxinc how schedules will he set, what skills need to be developed.
t
luAv the group will resolve conflicts, and huw die group will make and niodife decisions. Agreeing on the specifier of work and how they fit touvther to integrate individual
skills
requires
team
leadership
and
structure.
This,
incidentnllv.can
bepnAided
directly by manngemenr or by die ream meinl»ers themselves as they fulfill ]>n>inurcr. sirganizer, prcxlucer, nuiiuuaincr, and linker roles (refer hack to Exhibit 8-4 >, I leadership, of course, iui’i always needed. dut
sell-man
appointed ui
aged
leader^?*’
self-mamginp
work
reams
And
teams.
leaders On
often can
perform
obstruct
vlf-nunatred
I'or instance, the evidence irtliv^t^^ better
higli
teams,
team
titan
rcam.s
performance
wheji
members
absorb
with they nuns
furiuaHy inicrfe** afdi<^
dunes Upically assumed by managers. Perf«»iTOance l»e
both
EvaJuation
indo,dually
anti
and
Reward
jointty
Systems
atxountabk?
I
Tow I
hc
do
you
^ct
traditional,
evaluation and reward system must he modified to reflect team performance.
tcatn
nicmhers
mdinduailv
ro
orivnuJ
Chapters Understanding Work Team Individual l«rform»«ce evaluations, fixed hourly wages, individual incentives, and rhe like are nw consistent with the development of high-performance wams. iCj in addinnn ro evaluating and rewarding employees fcir dicir individual contributions, management .should consider group-based appraisals, profit sharing, gaii.sharina siiiall-gn>up metnuves and other system modifications tharwiU reinforce Kam effort nrid coimnitmenT.
Process The final category related to Kam effectiveness is process variables. Process variables include memlier coiTiiniTrnent co a common piiqjosc, establishment of specific- team goals, Kam efficacy, a iiiaiiagcd level ofconflicr, and the redtieuon of social loafing. A Common Purpose Effceiivc teams have a common and inctLningfiil purpose that provides direennn, momentum, and ciimmitmciii for mejiibcrs. This purpose i$ a Vision, h’s broader chan specific guab. Members of successful teams put a cremendous amount of tiiiie and effort inixi discussing, shaping, and agreeing on a purpose that belongs to diem both rollectivefy and
individually.
equivalent
of
TIiJs
what
coniinon
celestial
purpose,
ni^vigadon
is
when
accepted
to
ship
a
by
die
captain—it
team,
becomes
the
provides
direction
and
guidantte under any and all conditions. Spedfic
Goals
surable,
arul
Successful rcalistTc
ceanu
inuisiate
pcrfiirmance
goals,
their Just
common
as
we
purpose
into
demonstrated
in
specific, Chapter
mea4
how
goals lead individuals to higher performance, goals also energize teams. 'I Lesc specific goab
facilitate
clear
coniiminitration
In
addition,
they
help
leanis
maintain
dieir
focus
on results. Also, cousbtent witli tfie research on individual goals, team goals should he challenging.
Difficult
goals
hare
been
found
to
raise
team
pcrfoiinaiicc
on
tltose
criteria
for which they re set. So, for instance, goals fnr quantity tend to raise quantity; goals for speed tend to raise speed, goals for accuracy raise accuraev, and so on. Team
Efficacy
Effective
teams
have
confidence
in
themselves.
They
believe
they
can succeed, Wu call this tcaw ef^cacy. Succe^?. breeds success. Icams that have been suewssful raise their beliefs about future success. This, in turn, motivates them to work harder. What,
if
anyThing.
can
management
do
to
increase
team
cfFicacy?
Iwo
possible
options are helping die team co achieve small successes and .skill training. Small successes
build
team
confidence.
As
n
team
develops
an
increasingly
stronger
perfor-
mance record, ir also increases the collective belief chat future vlforrs will lend to success.
In
addition,
technical greater
and the
managers
should
interpersonal
likelihood
that
skills.
con^dcr The
providing
greater
the
team
vnll
a
team
isn’t
the
n*ainkig
jbilirie'i
to
of
confidentx
improve
team and
mcnibers'
menibers,
the
the
capability
to
we’ll
elahorace
in
deliver on that confidcn«. Conflict
Levels
Chapter
12,
flonflicr
teams
that
on
are completely void
necessarily of
conflict
bad.
.As
are likely to
become
apathetic
and stagnant. So ccmflici can acnially improve team effectiveness—but rot all types of conflict. won.
and
Relationship animosity
oinflicts—those tuward
based
others—are
on
almost
interpersonal always
incompatibNities.
dy'sfunctional.
team* perfiifming non routine activities, disagreements among members about task
However,
tenon
■w
1
G(WiHinthcOrf[>n.Mlion , I,rd rask ennflicu) is detrimental. In fart, it^: often t>eneficial beawe*-■ J , «roupthink. Task tonfticts suiiwlate divu«ion, pro.nott
wnteni
,
iZXns will IK charartcrized by an appn,prnKe level of eonflia. loafine We learned in Chapter 7 that individuals can hide imide a gnMip. can cnX in s«K.-ial loafing and coast on the group, etfort bemuse their individual o,nmbutions can’t be identified. Effeedve reams underm,ne this tendency by Sing dicmselves accountable al both the mdiv.dual and team levels. Succcsshd team’s
purpose,
teams
make
goals,
an.l
members
anu-oach.
individudly
They
arc
and
clear
|ointiy on
accouiuahlc
what
tlicy
for
arc
the
,ndivicb,li,
rcs|wnsihlc for and what they are joinrly rcsponsd.le fur.
WRNING INDIVIDUALS INTO TEAM PLAYERS To this point, we’ve made a strong case for rhe v^lue and growing popularity of teains. Bur
many
want
to
people lie
oTganizaiitw created
sue
not
inherently
receptized
for
their
that
have
competitive
organi/jjnuns
adopt
countries
differ
that
ux
what
they’ve
urms
of
do they
they
du
.And on
loners
or
people
who
arc
also
great
many
accomplishments.
They
hate
There
individual
w’hich
rate
They’re
achic\*emcnts.
in
created?
how
players.’'
nurtured
environments
teams,
employees
lor-nic”
indhidual
historically
work
“team
only
the
strong
about
the
selfish,
finally,
as
wc
individualism
survive.
these
“I-havc-to-louk-out-
discussed
and
If
in
C-haptcrl,
collectirism.
Teams
fit
* well co
with
countries
intrmhice
dut
teams
score
into
a
high
work
on
colkcrivism.
popuhtion
that
is
But
what
made
up
if
an
largely
orgaruzadon of
individtiab
wants bora
and raised in a highly individualistic socicT}-? .As one waiter so aptly put it, in describing
the
rok
of
teams
in
the
United
Slates'
“Americans
don’t
grow
up
learning
how'
tu
function in teams. In schuol we never receive a team report card or learn the names of the be
team just
of as
sailors
true
of
who
traveled
Canadians,
with
British,
Columbus
Australians,
to
and
America.This udiers
from
limitation highly
would
individualis-
The Chulicng
I T
tic societies.
1 he previuiLs points are meant to dramatize that one substantial barrier co using work teams
is
individual
resistance.
An
employee’s
siicces.s
is
no
longer
defined
in
terms
of
indindual performance. In perform well as team members, individuals must be honesdy. con front differences and resolve conflicts, and subhrnatc personal guals for rhe g«x>d of the leain. For many employees, this is a diffi’ cu t —sometimes impossible -tat>k. The challenge of creaiing ream players will be ^atest where (1) the national cultuiv is highly individualistic and (2) the leanu arc ing inircxluced into an established organization that has historically valued indi^’id" ua at lewment These condirions descril'w. for instance, the siniatiun that faced managtrs at AT&T, turd, Motorola, and odier large U.S.-based companies. These irnis pr<^|)ered by hiring and rewarding corporate stars, and they bred a compedd'’e
*
encouraged individual achievemein and recognition. Employ ees in ihe» <5 nns can be jolted by this sudden shift 10 the importantly of ream pla^. .A W eran employee of a large company, who had done very well by working abi*.
Chapter 8 Undenshinding Work Teams desenbed the experience of joining a team: “I’m
1r.
negative jjcrfoniunce appiaisal in 20 vears.”*^ * On the ^ler hand, the challenge teams
arem
Japan
or
trod
need
Mex:co^r
structuring
work.
.^nazon.com.
eBay
they
re
tion^
m
new
ergan.^tions
For
m.taiiee.
new
m
compares
d»«e
that
were
v^ere
strong
use
as
designed
hired
use
reams
with
iniiril
asl"
form
for
e-husiaesses^h
effective
around
when
values^uch
their
doc-com
rds-make
irunally
collectMst
teams
U.S.
bigw’o
and
companies
have
most
and
ni
.
«5Oii. |uac had my first management is kss demanding
for
employees
travdocity.com
rchovely
Even-one
where
.
the
of
as
teams.
from
their
buwvledge
But
incep-
that
th«
would be worfong m teams, and the uhilicy to be a good team player was « basic hiring qualincatmn insit an new employees had to meet.
®
Shaping Team Players The
swinraartees
following
the
primary’
options
already
possess
the
raaruguTs
ha\x
fo
^iduals into ream pfevers. Sekction
Some
jienpic
pla>^rs.
VVTien
hiring
team
members,
interpersonal
managers
should
skills
take
mnng to mm indi-
co
tare
he
to
effective
ensure
team
that
candi-
dates can folfill their team roles as well as having die technical skills required to fill the job?Many tions,
don’t
have
three
players." place
or
have this
team
approach
don’t
in
hire
teams,
and
may
isn’t
be
bleed can
possible
unit
widiin
candidate.
should
those
W’hcn
candidates
a
the it
especially
skills.
The
candidate
around
players
candidates,
options.
If
rhe
exists) jobs
job
be
untrainable.
with
the
doesn’t
work,
organizacon
to
the
other
organizanons
some
Unfortunately,
such
people
them
basically into
two
options
have
teams
that
employees
contribu-
managers
“niakc
doesn’t
that
that
individual
candidates,
training
established
expected
around
such
undergo
or
In
socialized
decide
will
to
resist
typically
team are
(if
to one
redesign
being
become
team
casual-
lies of the team approach. I'rainuig
On
imporlance Training tion
3 of
more
individual
specialists
that
oprindsiic
can
exercises
prosdde.
improve
their
pr(jblem-solving,
coaching,
and
group-development
in
Missouri,
workforce
for
not
instance, only
to
a
accoTTiplishtnenT
conduct
teamwork
note,
hxs
proportion he
allow
trained
employees
typically
offer
of
people
ro
become
to
experience
wwkshops
communication,
negouation.
skills.
Electric’s
achieved
accept,
can
that
'ITicy
large
but
Emerson remarkable
tn
siKx
welcome,
ess
team
to
raised
on
learn
players.
rhe
satisfac-
help
employees
conflict-managem Specialty
in
getting
uaining.
the
Motor
ent, Dirision
its
650-mefnl^er
Outside
consuhants
were brought in to give workers practical skills for wTjrking in teams. After less than a year, employees t:nAusiasnc:flly accepted the value of teamw’nrk. Rewards The reward sy'stem needs to be reworked to encourage cooperarivc efforts rather than competitive ones, hot instance, Lockhced-Alarrin’s Space Launch Sy^tetns Ojmpany ha.s organized its 1,400 employees into teams. Rewards arc structured tu to the team members a percentage increase in the bottom line” based 00 the M'hievemcnt of the team’s jjerfbmunce goals. Prejmimons, for
how
raises,
effetrive
they
and
other
ftirms
are
as
c^illaborativc
a
of
recognition team
should
member.
be
gix*en
m
indi-
Ihis
doesn
t
mean
r
^iduak
pay
dwt individual umiribution is ignored: rather, it is balanced with selfles.s contributiurw
i '.
Mt IN
/* Gpoopitn theOrginiMti”'’ to
Ae
tcm
Ua«er:h™
a
F.M»n,ple.^
ring
of
infnrmn.
behaviors
ion
-iA
A.t
shotild
reammates,
be
rcward«l
hdpmg
resolve
mebde
training
team
cnnflKi,.
newer*. ami
teAi new skills dull >-mir team needs bur in which ITS . ctiaentLastly don't foqjet the intrinsic tewanis dut employees tan receive fnwn tan,. 3
1 f
work Teaim prondc «wn«raderie. Its «c.tine and satisfymg to he an integral part of 7 a succes-stbi team. The opportunity to engage in jK-rsonai (ie.velopment and to hdp ceanunares crow can be a very satisfying and rewarding expenente for employees.
IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS Few duce
trvjut$
h^ve
influenced
into
d»c
workplace.
teams
teams
require
employees
to
jobs
as
The
intivh
shift
co<)pcrate
as
the
from
with
massive
working
others,
raovciiiunt
alone
share
to
to
intro,
working
infunnation,
on
confront
diffcreoees, and sublimate personal interests tor die greater good of the team. Effective that
teams
members
do
different
skills
task
product,
or
leains
ble,
Effective from
and
$
who
effective
to
12
prefer
team
common
are
to
be
and
purpose,
sjiecific
a
and
They’ parr
large
have
of
a
substantial
impact
high
Rnally, team
goals,
on
as
scores
too who
Ihcy
teams
members
fill
to
uti-
others,
The
prohicm-solving,
on
the
personality
and
emotional they
range
role
demands,
are
have
adequate
resources,
and have
who
work
identifiaMe
small—ty'pically
als
evaluation
effective
well
and
tvnscicntiousness,
members
performance
as
The
opportunity*
w-hole
nor
group.
the
a
expertise,
too
characteristics.
autonomy,
agrccahleness,
a
contributions.
common
complete
has
skills,
neither
people.
and to
that
interpersonal
teams
have
technical
extroversion,
leadership,
reflects a
of
ability
work
with
ro
freednin
the
doing
and
found
provide
individuals
characrerisrics size
been
talents,
and
deci
in
should
and
require
stability.
have
reward
system
members
believe
in
committed
the
flexi-
that to
team's
capa-
reward
indi-
these
envi-
bilities, a manageable level of conflict, and a minimal degree of social loafing. Because vidual
accomplishment,
ronments ^ouid players,
individualistic
to
than select provide
in
ii
is
organizations more
collectivistic individual
training
to
with
and
difficult ones. the
develop
ro '16
socicdc.s
and
create
team
plavcrs
make
the
conversion,
interpersonal teamwork
attract
skilE,
skills and
to
be
reward
in
management
effeenve individuals
ream for
cooperative efffuis.
I ** f
•{ f r < I.
4^^
* * * I* IJ
CHAPTER 9
Communication 1.
Define communication and list iu four functions
I
2.
Describe the communication process
1
m lA W
Contrast the three common types of small-group networks identify factors affecting the use of the grapevine Describe common barrien to effective communication List four rules for improving cross-cultural communication
90 M <•
Outline behaviors associated with providing effective feedback
Identify the behaviors related to effective active listening
probably rhe most frequently ciu-U source r rucation? Because we spend nearly 70 ing-reatling, writing, speaking, listening it st^' " of cKe most inliihidng forces to surcessttiJ gr p p coiTununicatioa, Xn gtor^r can exist without its members. It is only through transmitting mformatioft und idca?i can be conveyed. merely imparting meaning. U uwsi instance, that many of the worsi aviation dis rnisuBdersunding of insC-ucdoiiS between iiir-
thar one ]acfc (*f effective .
•
t,-nnsference nF mtaninga»nong from one person to another that -. however, is mure than documented, tor historv were directly due to the yjigrs and pilots.- Keep m transference and
niind» therefore, that communicarion mu»i uftdrmanJiiig of meaning. An idea, no matter how great, is useless unn others. Perfect communication, if rhereweresuci or idea was transnutted so char the mcnwl P’ceure pexC
. - j transmitted and understood by , thought ,,erccived by the receiver was
i7 .'
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
Groupsia th* OtganiMOon
elementary in theory, p^J
exactly the s.me »s that
tor reasons we will expand on 1
‘'seeming cornmutix-anon and problem, '*
feet comnnmicanon i. never
Before making ux. many generalize aminwnieating effectively tion perfonns and describe the emunumicatmn p
the foncaons that cmnumnic^ need m
we
rev.e
FUNCTIONS OF COMMtSNICA'nON ( , n.,i.,r functions mtliin a group or organization: conpo,, Comnumicition serves four maj< r
Communicauon acts lu rontrW
motivation eniotfona! „,™b„
Khazar"JXo
ee ..,
X h-e authority hierarchies andT^
.4f,.lltl.e,,
performing
fc.Uow.
rKreleud ph
a
^rieeapee
deseriprion.» tx.ntrul
'1
«>
foncnon.
comply But
b.
».>l>
informal
employees.
f„r l,„„.ed„.eb»,
-heir
company
polices.
comnaunicanoii
communKanoa
also
controls
n
behavior.
When work urroups tease or harass a member who produces nxi much (and makes dw rest
of
the
group
IcHjk
bad),
they
are
infonnally
communicating
with,
and
conrroUing,
the memlxrs behavior Communicarion done,
how
subpar. and
W'e
well
dicy
saw
this
reinforceineni
progress
toward
fosters are
doing,
aspect
theories the
m«lfvariM
goals,
in
of
and
what
clarifpiig can
he
communication
Chapxr
and
by
4.
The
reinforcement
tor done
to
improve
operating
in
our
formation of
employees
of
desired
is
to
performance
review
specific behavior
what
goals, all
of
if
be itk
goal-setting feedback
stimulate
on
nimiva-
liou and requite communk arion. For many employees, their work group is a priinarj'^ source for social inceractioiL 'I'he com m I tn i cation chat takes place within die group is a fundamental iiiechanism by which members show their fmstrarions and leelings of sadsfaccion. Coiniuiinication, therefore, provides an avenue for exptrs^on c/'emotiw t and fulfxllinent of social reedj^. The final funedon that cot nni uni cation i>crform5 is related to its role in facilitating decision making. It provides rhe iftfemnaiffn that individuals and E?*oups need to make decisions lv>’ transmitting the d;ita to idvinify and evaluate choic<^. No one ul these four ftincrions should lx: seen as being more important than die others, for groups to pcriorm effectively, they need to maintain snine fiirni of coniroJ over members, stitntilaic members to perform, provide a means for cinoUonal exprcjision. aiul make choices. You can assume that almost even* coinniuni«interaction that takes fdacc in a group or organization performs one or more erf these tour tuncnons.
*
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS .» »♦ « Before communieaTion can take nluce
a purpose, expressed as si message to be cun»
ycvcii IQ np^/U/1 T.. ru. K P purpose, expressed as si message to be con-•r' nel) to the receiver whn r •• i zj pj’ssed by way of sonic medium (dianT’-“'
IK
Exhibit 9-1 depicts rhiQ rnmm.L- " , seven
parts:
(1)
iinother. the
rfunnd, (5) decoding. (6) the receiver, and (7) kedS*’*
communication
s(.u^-rpl’’"^u*' <* **“
Oiaptart Cowmotuadt EXHIBIT H
The Communication Process
Feedback
The toitm laitiarcs a message by encoding a thiwght- I'be mfssag^ b the utual phy^l
prixiuct
from
the
source
miuiitig.
UTicn
we
speak
the
speech
is
the
mcaagc-
VShen we wrius the writing is the message. WTten we gesture, tlic inuvements »f our enns and the exprexAions on our facts are the message. The »AiWz/if/ is the medhim rfirough
which
whether
to
use
oc^aniz^noii members.
the
message
a
sind
formal u
They
travek.
or
ansmit
It
intormal
messages
traditionally
is
selected
by the
channel.
Formal
chat
relareil
follow
arc
the
authorin'
source,
channels chain
organization.
'The
m-eiver
is
tlte
ohicct
to
whom
the
must
determine
established
professional within
Other forms of messages, such its personal or social, follow the
are
the
TO
who
by the
activities
the
of
organization.
the informal channels in message
is
directed.
But
before the tn ess age can be received, the synibob ui it must be translated into a form that can he nndetstcHKl by the receiver. This step is the
the message. The
final lint' in the communication process is a feedback loop. Feedtank is the check cm hew suecessfiil we have been in transferring our messages as originally inrendcxl. It detennines whether understanding has been achieved.
DIRECTION OF COMMUNICATION Conununicaiion
ran
How
vertically
or
laterally,
'flic
vertical
dimension
can
be
ftirthcr
divided in IO downward and upward dircetiiiris.
Downward Communication that Hows from one level of a group or org'djxiiation to a lower level is
a
downward
communicarion.
WTicn
we
chink
<.if
managers
contmunieating
widt
employees, the downward partem is the one we are ii.AuaJly thinking of. Its used by group
leaders
and
managers
lo
assign
goals,
provide
job
jnstruexions,
inform
employ-
ees ol polieio and protredures. point out problems that need attention, and offer feedback
about
fece-iu-faee them
of
Bin
performancecontact.
the
V\*hen
org-anization’s
downward
inaiugemenr new
sick
communication sends
leave
letter.s
policy,
it’s
doesn’t to
have
employees
using
to
be
homes
downward
oral to
or
advise
communication.
So is an c-m.til from a team leader f<j the members ot her team, reminding them of an upcoming deadline,
Vpuard Vpuard communication flo*^ to a higher level in the group or organizaoon Jts us«l to pnnide R-cdhacl: to higher-ups, ro inform them of progress toward goals, to current ,.roblei,is. Vpu-ard communication keeps managers aware ot how nnpkntw feel about their jobs, co-»orkcrs, and the orgamaaoon in general.
I Part HI Croups in tl« Organiratioa pward communication for .deas on how things cm bj =1 Managers also rely on ,„niratior.al examples improved. SomeorganiMDon
u
of
opuani
communication
are
performance
rep,,„
management, sugeeshun . grievance procedures, superior/sohor.linate discu*. • .. sessionsb?wh)ch e.nplovces have die opjx.Ttumty- toidendfc ' I’” ” "Pre,=™,iv„ of higher „™ge,„e„,. gj ;
prqwred by boxes, ”'7^” ;'X» ImplTredEx
pndcs
it.-clf
on
its
cinnputerized
upu-ard
commumcaPon
i,rogran,.
A]| ■
its employees annually complete climate surveys and reviews ot managemem. I h.s ^tmLs
cited
as
a
kev
human
resources
screngtli
by
incmhcrs
of
the
Malcolm
Baldnge
Nationd
-
^lity Award examinci^ when FedEx won die htnior.
Lateral When
(ximmuricition
members
of
work
takes
place
groups
at
among
the
same
level,
the
among
same
managers
work
at
group,
the
same
amrnig level,
or
group
or
among any horizonoUy e<;uivalent personnel, we describe it as lateral communication. W'Tiy
would
organizations
vertical
commnriTtations some
cases,
informally eral
there
be
a
need
comniuTiications
are
arc
often
necessary
these
lateral
relationships
created
to
shoit-circuit
conuminications
can.
horizontal
communications
effective?
to
the
from
for
save
art
time
fonnalJy
vertical
The and
and
viewpoint,
h
More
good
horizontal
coordination. often,
expedite
he
a that
facilitate
sanctioned.
hierarchy
managements
answer
if
the)*
arc
So
lat-
action. or
Li
bad.
Since
srricL adherence to rhe formal vertical structure for all coiinnunieations can impede accurate transfer of information, lateral communications can be
me eilicieni an beneficial. But
they
breached, when
In
such
can when
bosses
cases,
creaie memhers
find
out
they
occur
dysfunctional go that
above actions
•with
conflicts or
the when
around
have
knowledge
their
been
taken
the
and
support
formal
superiors
vertical
to
get
or
decisions
and
among
of
channels
things
made
superiors. are
done,
withouf
or their
knowledge.
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION How i’re
do three
gi'oup
members
transfer
basic
methods.
People
meaning essentially
between rely
on
oral,
each
written,
other? and
TTicre
nonverbal
communication.
Oral Communication rhe chief means of conveying messages is oral coinniuni earion. Speeches, formal o^cW discussions, and the informal rumor mill or mpevine arc popular tonns of oral communication. satTi*
comnwiueation are speed and feedback. z\ verbal ines-
receiver i«
response received in a minimal amount of tune. If die
render
.nd,
hZ
for'Xly
' whcnevertl^^m'^ ’
‘I'^advanugc
of
oral
communication
surfaces
in
organizalkMiS
t*
^1- nmnt peop^ A P ugh, the greater rhe pniendal Jistortion. If you ever pbjT^ J|
CcamuiguiMj^ , ,«n>- > „U know .hr pn,l4cni,
rtK- p,nH-
imernrrt (IM
.n h'» ..u r wu>. IIK. enu-.u. when i« rSTit. riSi^ ..he. .-enr J.ft<-rc.u that ,4 ,hv ..rigin«|, ,« when.'ls Why would a x’Jukr choose lo use wriitenniinnmnkarinns’ and
verifiaJile.
Typically.
IHJIK
'Ihe
rnrss;ige
cun
stored
tton.s
evnexming
ence.
11ns
be
the
the for
content
feature
is
sender
of
an
the
panicidarly
and
receiver
indefinite
iiwssage.
import.un
have
period
it
is
for
a
ni
rectml
time.
physicalh
vxmiplcx
niey’rc of
If
cfMnmuni-
there
are
uucs’
for
later
refer-
available
and
rhe
tangible
lengthy
ctxnmunicariunK
The marketing plan for a new product is likely to contain a iiuiulKr of tasks spread out over
several
readily
months.
refer
to
it
By
putting
over
the
it
lite
in
of
writing,
the
those
plan.
A
who
final
have
Iwnefit
to
initiait
of
the
written
plan
can
eommunicarion
cxMiics from the puKcss itself You re usuidly more careful w ith the written word than the in
oral a
word.
written
You’re
forced
to
think
than
in
a
mc^Ksagv
more
thownighly alxnit
spoken
one,
ITiws
what
wriocn
vou
want
to
anninunications
convey
are
more
likely in l>c w ell thought out. i(»gieal, and clear. Of Yni
cxmr>c,
could
writrcji
convey far
more
messages
have
informarion
to
their
a
drawhacLs.
college
insmictor
niey're in
a
linie-consuining.
one-hour
oral
exam
than in a one-hour w ritten exam. In fact, you owld probably say the same thir^ in ten to fifteen minutes that it would take vou an hour to write. So, although wTinng may he nxire
precise,
feedback;, what
he
feedback been the
or
it
alst»
Lick
chinLs
of
he
mechanism,
received, sender
consumes
and,
intended.
it.
<.)nd
a
W’l
itten
I'he
result
is
received,
The
latter
deal
communication
hears.
if
great
of
lime,
allows
n»rntnunication, that
mailing
there
is
no
|X>ini
is
also
a
llie
the how
receiver ever,
memo
guarantee relevant
other
the in
is
maior to
does no
respond not
wSIl
rapidly
have
assunnee
recipient oral
dbadvaniagc
a
that
lo
buili-iii it
interpret
conununiques,
is
has it
except
as it’s
easy in such cases merely to ask the receiver to summarize what you've said. j\n accurate
summan
presents
feedback
evidence
that
the
message
has
been
received
understood.
Nonverbal Communication H en* rime wv svrhnHy trivc a message to sonuume, we also impart a nonverbal niesMge. in some instances, the nonveriial o*npineiu may stand alone, l or example, in a angles har. a glaiiix. a staix*. a smile, a frown, and a prosxxarive hoily inovcinent a convey meaning. .’Xs such, no dixussion of commiiniearion would be ajrnpletc wimout consitivrariim of wnvaM
w hich includes Ixxh niovenKntsc the
innmarions emphasis we gix e tn wtrt-ds. facial expressions, and the physical disrance het ween the seiulcr and receh er. The M'ademic study of body morions has been labeled kincsies. It refers tn gestures, facwl cxmliguratiiHis. and other inovcnunis of the Ixxiy. But h is a V’Hiftg field, and it has been suNect m far more txmjeccure ami popuhnwng mn
and
f Hei.ee while we acknowledge that bcnly in.wenient , Jennimunicarior and bch;.vior, o.nd..«on.
„;«rch fuidrngs
•r
body m<«iyns
7»«i ef«r»r has a meaning and Uiai no mw-ement X thn,OKh bodv bnguagc we say. -Help me. I’m lonely-; is accidentd- for 5.,,, aepressed.” :Knd rarely d<. we send ouj ‘■Rke me, I of being wirh t.onvcrbal Ixidy langnage. mess^^cs ’ , 2 for disbeUvt We reb <Mjr noses lor puzilemem. We clasp oy, VVe lift one onnidves. VVe shnjg our shoulder, for mdifferwilJk ..ne q-e for intimacy, tap our fingers for impatience, slap m.r forehead for
uJ may dhagrcc **th the s|x:cifiu ..leanings of the nioveiiienis ,»st described, but we can’t deny that body language adds w., and olun complicates verbal com.nu.ucatioii A budv’position or movement does not by itself have a precise or universal meaning, but when it is linked with sixiken language, ii gives fuller meaning tn a sender’^ ine.«iii
you
words
UTiy* or
message, tor
the
in
way
you
of
of
is
mKsing.
'lb
iJIusuate
du
studenr
in
class
du tone
from
an
you
mean
of
the
inion
by
that
meeting,
if
pu
nonverbal huw
who
you
had
c
grasp
there
or
saw
been
baonntiftns
asks
die
'The
’I*he
can
a
Student’s A
abrasive
with
soft, sin
the
impact
of
meeting
on
given
tn
the
meaning
question.
The
instruc-
be
different
reaction smooth mg
the
emphasis
change
instructor
response.
is
wuuldn
rommunkation.
thtfit?**
inscrucn^r's
ation
a
would
recoid
the
meaning
jninutes
no
’What
on
tun
same
is
phrasc^t
replies,
verba
the
'fhcrc
consider
depending ferent
sard
w-a’s
video.
read
will
of
a
tone
creates
a
dif-
emphasK
placed
wi
the
last word. The meaning. along
yifw/ zV
widi
duracTci'ishcs
exprmtan
snarling
of
face
the
says
intonations,
can
dm
never
would
instructor sorncdiing
in
the
different
show
airugtncc,
be
commnnicared
previous
from
a
illustrarion smile.
Facial
fear,
shyness,
aggressiveness, if
you
rend
a
transcript
been said. The way individuals space themselves in terms physicaldbtanct ulso hits meaning. WTiat is considered proper spacing b largely dependent on cultural noims. Fur example, what is considered a businesslike distance in some European et>untries would he viewed us intimate in many parts of North America. If someone stands closer to than is considered ap|>ropriate, it may wdicatc iiggressiveness or se.xua] interest; if fertlier away than usual, it may mean disinterest or displeasure widi what is being said us wportant tor rhe receiver to be akn to these nonverbal aspects ofcotumumcaiiun. oy shouM look for nonverbal cues as w'efl as listen to the literal meaning a sen words. You should parncularly he aware of contradkrions between rhe ojessage.s. Your bans may My she is free lu talk to you about a pressing budget prubkni. nonverbal signals suggesting that this is nut tin tune to discuss d* wrkht
^’hai is being .said, an individual w'ho frcquenrlv glances at her ’’he message that she would prefer to tcrminuie rhe conv'ersarion.
verbalk < HW.” ratcly) than words ”
e.’cprcss one message verbal I v, such as trust, but nunthat reads, “I don’t have confidci« i« char “actions speak louder (and more accu-
abo
coiivuv*s
express and of
what
ions, odicr had
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION In chix MHlion „,we h en ...lerpersonul .■..uimunicatiDn to orpnizitional ,.i«uon. ()«.r focus here will lx; on turm.l nctu-orks, the grapevine, and aided nif chnmans used by organuaiions co facilitate tnmmunicadon.
cooum*. comtwr-
Foniwl Sinall’Gmiip Netu'orks Fonnal
orgnni«don
indudv
hundreds
our
discuNsion,
fi\x
people
diannel
J
of
networks
jx^uple
we’ve
can
and
a
t\»ndcnscd
each
(see
h
Although
these
very
hdf-dozen
thi?sv
xhibii
thixx-
he
9^2).
complicaud, or
more
nerw'orks
T1K*SC
nerwr^-ks
have
'they
can,
hierarckical
into
three
three
nctworb
been
extremely
for
levels.
eonunnn are
in<jtance,
Tn
simplify
small-groups
the
whecL
simplified,
they
and do
of all-
alltw
us to describe the unique tjiialiries of each. ‘I’he mau^s 1
he
cbatn
die
follows
coiiunuiucation
relies
on
cation.
k
strong
leader,
nicate
rigidly a
with
rhe
d’hc
each
channels
central
simulates
the
figure
act
communication ’The
chain
might
\’ou tn
/?//-
other.
fonnal as
find
the
all-chajmel
rominand.
in
wu
all
a
conduit
network
i>crniits
of
for
is
network
chree-level
group\
find
on
a
members
to
actively
most
all
often
approsi-
organiiation.
the
would
group
network
rigid
This
coramuiii-
ream
with
a
commu-
chanicterized
in
prac-
tice by self-managed teams, in which all group members iirc free to eoutributc and no one person takes on a leadership role. As criteria the
Exhibit you’re
emergence
9-5
demonstrates,
concerned ol
about.
a leader, the
the
For
effecriveness instance,
of
the
all-channel netu'ork
each
striuTurc is
best
if
network
depends
of
wheel
die
you
on
die
facilitates
arc concerned with
haring high member satis fa cd on, and the chain is best if accuracy is most imporant. Exhibit
9-3
leads
us
co
is
not
the
conclusion
lhac
no
single
network
will
be
best
for
all
occasions.
The Grapevine The There
formal is
syuem also
an
uiformal
the
only conirnuiiicatinn
one—the
grapenne.
network
While
die
in
a
group
grapevine
or
may
tliis doesn't mean it’s not an imjKjrtant .snurxx of informariun. For instanee, a leccot
EXHIBIT 9*2 Three Common Small-Group Networks
Chain
A .1
Wheel
All-Channel
organizjition. be
informal,
MR
OottfB in the OntenlMtiaf
small-croup Networts and Effectiveness Criteria
EXHIBITS-^ Networks All Channel
WTiccI Ftft High
Chain M<*krsce AitHlerece Moderate
Emerc^rtKe of a lc*
Kime
Higb Low
Hijh
son vy found that 75 percent <.(employees bear about matters lirsi through rumors on ^Thc grapemc has three main charaweristks. h inl, it is not controlled by management Secoful, it is perceived by >nost employees as being more lielievable and reliable than foniiil communiques issued by top management. .And third, it is largely used to the inrercbts nl the people within it. One
of
the
most
famous
studies
of
the
grapevine
invesdgated
the
communica-
tion pattern among 67 managerial personnel in a small manufacturing bask first
approach
used
was
given
pietx
received
a
found
that,
while
centof
the
more
(han
enter
the
the
executives one
learn
of
acted
was
as
each
For 81
and
an
liaison
jxTson.
business,
from
information
grapevine
other
insurance
fn
comminicarion then
trace
important
individuals,
example,
percent
that
the
it
source
when
of
"The
is,
one
recipient back
of
tn
its
the
executive
only
or
she
It
was
10
information
decided
knew
he
source.
information,
passed
executives
how
about
co
it,
jseron
to
resign
to
but
OoH*
II
percent transnutted this intormarion to others. 'Iwo events
of
duction, one
other
conclusions
general
sales)
group
interest
rather
this
tended
than
consistently
from
within
acted
to
swtly
fiuw'
diem.
liaisons;
this
stud\'
also
worth
noting.
the
major
functional
benveen
.Mso,
as
are
no
evidence
rather,
surfaced
different
types
to
Infomiatiiin groups
suggest
of
(pro-
that
infonnarion
on
any
passed
through different liaisons. An office
attempt
also
esting,
mat a
sure
to
replicate
that
only
the
well took
as
consistent
informed contrast
gi^up
of
radicr
be
to
workers.
and m
due
than
the
thus
spectrum
individuals
the
niltivaie
acted
as
catcschat
the
outside
original
liaisons
This
of
study,
hv
government
finding
information groups.
in
It
was
their
feel
gmcni-
proposed
against
one
greater
inunediate replication
traasmirting
inter-
indudii^
the
sample
might
the
is
einplovees,
executive-only example,
state
pres-
ftincbonal found
information
that
in
the
'
infomiadon
about
an
others ihe
of
functional
for
government office. Is
flow
between,
Managers,
of
small
wider
comparing
findings
a
individuals.^
Kut
within,
in
liaison
personnel.
place
employees
as
managerial
operative
in
act
a
included
Also,
percent
contained
might
suy
10
among
replication
(hscrepancy
so
group. a
as
office tffis
at
found
because
operative ment
to
;5
that
(wreenr
of
flows what
along is
the
carriul
grapevine is
accurate?
accurate.^
But
The
what
evidence conditions
mdifoster
in active grapevine? What gets die rumor mill rolling^
•’t
Thk i. " ’ha. rumors surt because they make titiUaling gossip. Xre cxse. Rumors emerge as a response ,o situations that are os. where there is an.l under conditions that arouse
»
Chapt^ 9 CotnmunxaQcn -^rk situations freqiicntlv contain these rhre^ /
».
<,rgunu.Hon5. s«r«y and ro.njxdbon gruunri such issues JU the apiwinirncnt of d”;,»u,g .i».„„, „d d,e rf„renenumgc and
p«vaihn large orfaniza*
rumors die grapevine, A^or will peSteX^S -mor
WTuc
can
we
i,
nnpornnt
,dl
wrxh
insider
parr and
inechanism.
employees, into
rhe them
frnn,
of
nnde^ndm^I
important
feedback rions
conclude
the
g-up
or
.denafies that
grapenne groups
.s
the
It
communicaden issues
thon=fnre,
-as
that
cmplovecs
valuable
Maj-be
for
more
Ceminlv
confusing
acts,
issues
particularly ,argon.
OUT
managers
anx-etve
up
discussion?
organ.«tions
for
cearr.
picking
preceding
fulfilled
the
K««vine
nedvS^^ that
both
fdter
aS
relevant
formal
again
is
employees
a
consider
translating
important,
ne
a
For
eommunica-
from
a
managerial
petspreuve, It seems possible to analyze graiKnlne informanon and to predict its flow given that only a small set ot individuals (around 10 percent) actively pass on ir.forman-H. to more than one other person. By assessing which liaison individuals will consider a given pietx of informaoon to be relevant, we can improve our ability to explain afld predict die pattern of the grapevine.
Cornputer-Aided Coitutiunication Comtniinicadon
in
today’s
technologies.
These
conferenong.
Electronic
memos,
lecicrs,
org-anizadons
is
clcccrnnic
mail,
include
and
mail,
for
phone
instance,
calls
chat
enhanced
and
enriched
by
intranet
and
extranet
links,
has
dramatically
employees
reduced
hisrorically
computer-aided and
the
used
video-
number
to
of
communicate
among themselves and with suppliers, customers, or other outside stakeholders. E-xVlail
Electronic
puter-generated
mail
text
(or
and
c-mail)
uses
(Ifxmments.
Its
the
Internet
growth
to
has
transmit
been
and
receive
spectacular.
Most
comwdiite-
cdlar employees now regularly use e-majl. In fact, a recent study found that the average U.S.
employee
receives
31
c-inail
messages
a
day.'
.^id
organizations
are
recognizing
the value of e-mail for all workers. Ford Motor Co., for instance, recently made a eompurer, modem, printer, and e-mail account avaliable for S5 a month to all of its more than 300.000 employees worldwide.^ As a commujiication tool, e-inaiJ has a long list of benefits. E-mail messages tan be quickly written, edited, and stored. 'I’hcy can be distributed to one person or thousands with the click of a mouse. They’ can be read, in their entiren* at the convenience the recipient. And the cost of sending fonnal e-mail messages to employees is a fraction of what it W’Ould cost to print, duplicate, and disndbute a comparable letter or brochure. E-inail, of course, is nor without its drawbacks. Al the top of the list is inforroabon werload. It’s not unusual for employees to get a hundred or more e-mails a .lay. Reading,
absorbing,
and
responding
to
such
an
inflow
can
literally
consume
an
emplovee’s entire dav. In essence, e-mail's ease of use lias become its biggest negative. E«nployees
are
finding
jwk mail and irrelevant
it
increasmglv
messages.
difficult
.Another
to
distinguish
drawback of
imponant
e-.nails
from
e-mails is that they lack
emo-
ttOMl content. The nonvcihal cues in a face-io-foce message or the tone ot voice from * phone call
im|>ortant information that doesn’t come across in e-mail. Finally,
1
122
con,e»^
part nt Groups in the Orf»ni«oon e.mail tend, m be
or oAer messages that might evoke em^ l
O'diAil .1 inks /n^nro arc private. organ.z-au...vwide mfunnatioft Intranet and Extranet l-.nks r „„1, p^^pk- m an org.uuxation networks that look and ac t i KC preferred means for employees within have access. Intranets an. o’) cnnipanics to comrnun..m A^corw
-
organixanons .ire cre.
nm ,
„p|
sirarepe it, «ccl and rubber suppliers as well as coumv.mitronic mes'sages and d ,.c„d..rs arc linked into us cxlr.inet syscaw wid. '.vbri iHU-CTt; to easily commun.cate with its suppliers and for .he mvcHtory s.an.s of its products at Wal-Mart stores. Mdctx.'onfercneing r7^<sh<;»AcrttdZ«g is an extension of inaanet or extranet sysutm. It permits employees in an organization to have meetmgs wi A peep e at different loa tion.s Live audio and v.lco intages of members allow Acm to see, hear, and talk u irh each oAcr \-idcocontercncing technology, in effect, allows employees to conduct interaenve meetings wnthout Ac necessity of all phy.sically being m Ae same IncaAin. In the late IWOs, videoconferencing was l»asically «>nductc6 from special rooms equipped with trlevisioo cameras, locared at company facilioes. More recently, cameras anti microphones arc being attached to individual eomputers, allowing people to paAcipate in sidcoconfcrcnccs without leaving their desks. As Ae cost of Ais technoli4
Summary*
Computer-aided
commurucahnns
are
reshaping
the
way
we
communicate
in orgaiiizanons. 5pcvifi«lly, it no longer necessary' for employees to lie at their work station or desk co be “availahle? Pagers, cellular phones, and personal communicators allow employees to bu reached when they’ix in a mccdng» during n lunch break, while visiting a cusumer across town, or during n golf game on Saturday morning. The line betwtxn an employees work and non work life is no longer dlsrincL In the clcclronic age, all employees cun dicorrcically l)c ‘‘on call* 24 hours a day, 7 (bys a week. Organizational communications. Widilt,
Ac
ofKrated other tice
boundaries
Networked
organization, by
an
Resident
j^.p e
of
m iKtv-een
coiiipucers
work
full-rune
orgaruzati..n.
organizations.
The
iieXcd Or iS woA^l i C^iu«^ot
and
market
markenng and
become
less allow ar
send an
is e-mail
as
nr
who
message
.hu n»d.d. d„,d,„g 6. d„d„™
to
up
directly.
jump
vertical
other
dian
discuss
in
die
And
computer-aided
an
with issue
hierarchy), in
so
doing,
a
levels facility
nei.ple
in
with
the
can
htT**
Ac
tradi-
deteriTunwi by level and acccM, heeomes essentially ’? researcher may choose to bve m d,e Caymtan IslanA than do his or her job in the company^
tmerreom^ rh As a «se
to
of
cominunicmons
wants
levels
result
someplace
ongoing
three
a
employees
home
condua
researcher
(who
relevajit
to suppliers' and cus"nfanuanons become ArAer blurred, :“■>-» - '."‘ed, r™. aX™
“
Chapter)
BARRIhRS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION n
A numlxr of harriers can rcurd or dKhjrt effectrv
coTaniunication In this scetioiL we
highlight the more imporunt of chese liarricni.
filtering Filtering refers to a sen.kr’s purposely manipulatiiig jnftwubon so it will be seen more hv-rahly by tb- receiver, i or example, when a manager tells his boss what be feels his boss wants to hear, he is filtering information. The MTULiuru. njties are
nujor J
he
there
arc
scants
please
detenrunant more for
vertical
filtering.
differences.
one's
uf
boss
levtE
But
Factors
ofren
filtering
lead
in
you
such
is the
can as
the
number
levels
organixationk
CX|H:CT
fear
employees
of
of
co
some
conveying
rell
hierarchy,
filtering
their
to
bad
an
Ln
die
occur
news what
btjofc.
appears
more
oppom-
wherever
and
superiors
organization’s
the
they
there
desire
ihmk
to
those
scperiiirs want w hear, thus distorting upward communicaoons.
Selective Perception We
hatx
the
roenrioned
receiver,
based tens
in
selective
ihe
communication
an
bis
needs,
tics.
*ihc
receiver
as
he
decode.s
to
put
family before
perception
motivations, also
thciu.
riie
before
process,
his
eniployment
caj'cer
is
this
sees
experience,
projects
in
and
hears
background,
It
things
and
other
interests
and
expectations
intervicw^cr
who
expects
likely tu
sec chat priority in
in
a
again
a
selective
j>ersonal into
because
ch
way, ante-
communications
female
job
candidate
female candidates,
regardless
of whetlier div candidates feci that way or nor. As we said in Chapter 2, we don’t sec reality; wc interpret w'hac we see and call it reality.
Information Overload Individuals sion
have
of
a
e-mail,
finite
when
capacity;
the
result
meetings,
anti
the
capacity
the is
for
infomiadon information
need
processing
to
kcej)
we
data.
have
overload.
current
in
.As
to
w^ork
/And
with
one’s
field,
noted
tn
with
previous
exceeds
e-mails, more
our
and
our
discus-
processing
phone
calls,
faxes,
more
managers
and
professionals are complaining that they ’re suffering from information overload. VVhat use? off
happens
They tend further
when
to weed
proccs.sing
individuals
out,
until
ignore,
the
have pass
overload
more over,
information
than
they
can
sort
and
or
forger
information.
Or
they may put
is
over.
Regardless,
the
result
situation
is
lost
information and less effective communication,
Gender Styles .Men
and
women
use
oral
communication
for
different
reasons.
Consequently,
gender
bcajmes a barrier co effective communication betw*een the sexes. Research
evidence
indicates
that
men
use
talk
to
emphasize
status,
whereas
women use it to create connection.’^ That is, men speak and hear a language of status and
independence,
So,
for
many
and
men.
women
speak
conversations
arc
and
hear
primarily
a a
language means
to
of
connection
preserve
maiAUin status in a hierarchical social order. For many women, conv'ersations are
and
intimacy
independence
and
Part 1(1 Groups ift the Organizenon k-k «..onle m-to seek and give ennfinnation and sup. '' neguriatjons for<'ln.«nes^in w i ■• women talk on and im about rheir port. For example, X^'hat's happening is that when men problems. Women ennozx men indepe-ndeoce and c.mtrol 1^ hear a problem, they want to th >
geuhe mens adx^ce.
Emotions now Sec
receiver
Che tow
i>e
distrauehc
or
is
feek
She
often
such
xs^ubibtion
such
instances,
at
the
interprets
it.
interjneted
or we
time
receiving
a
anunmnication
The
same
message
differently
from
when
depression arc
of
most
received
you
are
most
likely
to
prone
ro
disregard
our
people.
Age.
re
.t>e«age
when
happy.
hinder
ww
1
re
in£l„.
angry
.xrreme
efleenve
rational
will
or
emotions
cnm.n.mifanon
and
ob,ective
1„
thinking
processes and sukstiluxe emotional judgments.
Language Words
mean
ground
are
differcni three
of
things the
to
more
different
obvious
variables
that
eduouion.
influence
and
the
cultural
language
a
backperson
uses and the deliniliuns he or she gives W wordsIn die
an
organizanon,
grouping
of
(arffon
or
widely
dispersed
employees
employees
technical
into
language.
usually
departments In
large
geographically—even
come
from
creates
diverse
specialists
organizations^
operating
in
backgrounds.
who
members different
develop
are
Furlher,
Aeir
also
own
frequently
countries—and
individ-
uals in each locale wIl use terras and phrases that arc unique to their area. The existence
of
vertical
levels
can
also
cause
language
meaning with regard to words such as
problems.
For
instance,
differences
in
and have been found at differ-
ent levels in in anagen lein. Top managers often speak ah out the need for incen fives and
quotas,
yet
these
terras
imply
manipulation
and
create
resentment
among
many
lower managers. The
point
is
that,
although
you
and
T
probably
speak
a
common
English—our usage of that language is fiir from uniform. If w'e knew modified is
that
the
language,
members
in
com
an
HI
unication
organization
difficulties
usually
don’t
would know
Ite how
how each of us
minimized. those
language—
with
Lhe
problem
w'hom
they
interact have modified the language. Senders tend to assume dial the w’ords and terms Aey use mean the same to the receiver as they do to them. T his assumption is often incorrecT,
OROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION Effective
commuiiicarion
is
difficult
under
rhe
best
of
cundirions.
Ooss-culniral
ftc-
.
process of tneoding and decoding messages into symbols is based on m
individu^s
cultural
^wer
the
backgrountl
differences
tn
and,
«
backgrounds
a
result,
between
is
not
the
sender
and
same
for
rece.ver,
OJtterenccs in meanings attached to particular « onls or bchasiors. People fnim differ-
aU
people.
The
the
greater
the
Btl* ,•
tors clearly create the potential for increabed coinmunication problems.
culnifes wc> interpret, and evaluate thinv, them differently
*-Wwr> ‘I'ffwwidy, nd cnnnqoently act on
Cuftural C^oiitexl Abenerunden.andmgofcuhwalbaprieriandth across cJnires can be achieved by considering cdmr«‘ Culnirc^ and n, differ
fommunicating ‘^"*'^®'‘^high-and1ow-contci the importance m whJ.k OQS for communicating
in
ing that individuals ukc fran what IJS actuallv said
influences the mean-
other person IS. Oiuntrrcs such a$ China V’?«i
whom the
‘‘*8^-
cultures. They n=Jy hens ily on conynuTurating u jth others, What
-id may
said. In these cultures, a person’s ofiicial status olac
s’ffi'ificam than u-hat k
considerable weight m communk-aticns. In America
relfeci
their
low-context
cultures
'^P«taiion earn Th
•
*
P^>plc
in/m
Eurupe
and
North
meaning. Body language or formal titles are secondan^™u'’ spoken and ’^Tiiten words
(«c FjchibitM—^). W'hat do these contexnial differenccis Actually,
quite
a
lot!
.
Cfommunieation
in
high-cntextluh™*
more trust by parties, What may .appear to an outsider fnh
communiwtinnWQ-siderably
eonversarioii is imporiaiii because it reflects the desire to bn1ld?’’''l a«
n..,.
±r
,.ra]
agreements
r“-nrgani«itionL.,e
^tX t concc.«
imply
s.ong
hi.hlv
eomnS
Xd
wd
«n^g. precisely worded, and highly Jcgalisiie. Similarly, lowcultures
convemgintcndyl
value
directness.
meaning.
It’s
Managers quite
arc
expected
different
to
in
he
explicit
high-contX
and
precise
culfrX
m
where
m tend to make suggestions” rather than give orders.
EXHIBIT 9-4 Hi^- vs. Low Context Cultures
Chinese Korean Vietnamese Arab Greek Spanish lulian English North Ameriaff ScandinavUn Swiss German
•••« Oft «it Wk «r 11HW »om R1 We*. J99I. p. 21
•M J.& M. • wnslwiW CenwWMCton *• &eoM*
k RlrtHl Groups in Orf*"*"**^
A Cultural Guide
jifferent culture, what can yoii do |^! -** .nisevaluauons? Mlowrog th«e (b« 1
S::
rules
can
he
helphil”:
• Mi«t of us assume that nihcrs are more ’ JiFcrtut countnus <Jten are vm to u. th.n
1.
,r, it >
d,u-npti«" r.„btr rhax
Interpreting or evaluatnig S .onu^nc L. said or done, in entrust to deuT.puon, is hated more on 2. oiliure .iml luckgroi.n.l dtan on the observed siniaiion. So -Way ,«dgn,en, until you've had sufficien. time to observe and interpret the stlnation from the per. spwtivci ol all cultures invokeil. /v«nzr Before sending a tnessage, put ymirtelf in rhe receiver's shoes, WI''''
HK 3.
4.
arc his or her v.ilucs, experiences, and frames of reference,' What do you knoiv ahem his or her educatic.it. uphringine, and Itttkground chal can give p.u a«idcd insight? rr> to see the other person as he or she really is. Treat y^urmtcrfnxfati^ii a wot hug krpaMs. Once you’ve developed aii explaiwtion for a iww situalion i»r ihink ymi cniptht?c with sometine fmin a foreign culrwe, treat >‘our inKfpretation a^ a hypoThesis dut needs hinhcr testing rather th,w as a certainty. Carefully assess ±c feedback provided by reed ven to w if it confirms your hypothesis. i or inipoTTflnr decisions or comm uniques, you can HIW.I check widi other foreign and home'COuntn' colleaoio
ETHICS IN COMMUNICATION: IS 11’ WRONG TOTELLALIE? W'Tien
we
were
children,
nrr
parents
told
‘‘h’s
wTong
cn
tell
a
lie.”
Yet
we
all
have
told lies at oiic time or another, li most of us agree that telling lies is w rong, how do we
justify
continuing
lies*
and
*liuk
swal
interaction.
tion,
lets
look
to
while Since at
an
do
it?
lies”—the
The
answer
latter
lying
is
so
issue
many
being closely
managers
is: an
Most
of
us
acceptable,
intertwined confront:
with Docs
differentiate even
necessary,
interpersonal a
sound
intenoonally distorting information? Consider the following sinianon. An emplcnee who works for you asks you about a nimor she’s heard rfint vour department and all its employees will lx transferred from New York City^ to Dallas*’ Vbu know the rumor i.s true, bur you would ratlier not let the information out just yet OU re ear IT cu urt deiurtmcnral morale and lead to premature resignadon^ ±er or'.;; s
probkmrr„d'L!X’^ ^on.,nun.cati,.n, whac «n manager, .Io ro nnn.o.izxpxupiems anci attempt to overcome th<«c hirrin^t -ru r n ,hoUJ be helpful i„ ea„„,u„.eub„„
between
“real
part
of
coinmunica-
purpose
josrify
o»p«»9
L’se Multiple Channels U-hoi J-ou use mulnple channels lo convey a n>e«a.« hfKxl <)l clarity fi.r tux. reasons, kirst, von srini,.i,. seiises. An e-inaiJ and a phone call, for eii.nnl
the hkeli-
Repeaang a message hy using a different eha^nnel’*'^'^'^'^^ and .sound, aecreases the I.kelihc«>d o. distortions. Sec^^i ^k ’‘’’i?!* ‘®
absorb mlomaaon. Some understand hesi when a however, prefer oral ..'onimunications. The latter tend T *" » ........................ ........... . “-i -iph-
““
Use Feedback Al^y and
communicai^n inaaaracics-
feedback
loop
probli^s
Fhese is
are
uobzed
c^,
less in
he
likely the
attributed to
occur
if
corrununicadon
directly the
to
manager
proews
(see
misunderstandings ensures Exhibit
tiiat
the
9-5)
lliis
said^”
the
can
defi-
feedback can IK* verbal, wnnen, or Qonverbat. h response nitely
be
message
a
manager
represents improved in
order
asb
a
feedback. ujMtn. to
The
receiver,
‘'Did
you
But
"yes”
or
can
ask
the
manager
determine
whether
the
understand “no” a
set
message
type of was
what of
1
feedback
questions receivwl
relating as
to
a
intended.
Better yet, the manager can ask the receiver to restate the message, in his or her own
words.
If
the
manager
then
hears
what
was
intended,
understanding
and
accuracy should be enhanced Feedback tan also be more subtle than the direct
EXHIBIT fi-5 Improving Performance Feedback Skills The foUvwing spcvific siigge^rions can help managers co be m<*re cHccnvc io proviJuig performance fetdheck to others /tfs'itf 9n fptafif MiTCKtri Feedback «hnnUl U: specific raiher than general. For example, instead of saying:. “You have a bad aiiifniie," a itidnager nu^i «yi ‘’Bob, Xm concerned with your attitude u»ward )Xkur work. Von were a half-hour lais’ ro yesterday’* staff meeting, and then you cold rnc vou hadn't read the preliminary report *c *ere dhc.issing. Today jwtdl roc you’re ukmg off lliree houn rarly for a dental appwmtracnt.* This tells Bob why he is being vritivi/erl. iwper^nai. Kxtiback should IK’ iob related. S’ever critidte *mncot»e 2. henwK- of an .nappropriaw action. Telling people thej.’rc ‘•incompuent, ..r the like u almost always coimtcrprf’diicHvc. uMb Uftf fnJhti ffial antnud If a manager hts tn say something negaU'S. J, wre direct^ toward the rs, ipie«-s gnals. .\ manager shouldask pused tr, help If the answer is essentially that Tve g.U srm.eth.ng I jmt want to get □« «»» chm,” then he or she should not speak. , 4. n,^. feedhaek is most inu.nmgfnt n> , n-«>ient who. intend between hrs or her bchanor and ,he n ceipr of feedback J. hmm uHJtntMiag. Is the teedbaA cunew and rhe redpicni replw 1.
the cnotTni tif die feedback ui sec *hethur it 1 u> *■ Dma nrgtmr frfdhutl'/vtnl
'nwrtk little «l<* n^^trol. .Srpave fcadhKk.
•r rt ««I« of *
rviuii-«n m 4 nusssgc, bi t
hiTs’nlf^irdnnga^ monthk Failure- of some of the sale-s|H-oplc f
fkXk'
It
should
directive Simil.nh. their
vtinr .m
ines.sagc.
smianon
audience-
to
« hen you
nx-’mmvments
tmg ers
suggest
Immesliatc
that
she
nenh
h.
clarity
tunher
gixe a sj^ccch to a group ol ix-ople,
.md
other
I'his
Ix-iu-fit
ixnncdx
her
"‘'i vwni ui the new rqmd ,s . ty,,.
nonverhal of
shows
laughter
fec.ihack
prefer
and
clues
to
whether
may
explain
ininM
y.xi can tell hy
gn.up
meinlx-rsan-
w
television
|wihnn.
trom
a
live
the
ptr-
hy
rape
their
pnigrams
or
their
alwence.
applause,
her
m
convey
of to
gut-
tiirmers whether they are getting their mes-sagc acros.s.
Simplify Language Bcvau'*’ Mjvs
can U' a harrier, a manager should seek to strucnire messagoi in
ihiU
will
rarehdlv.
Ilie
audieiHv
to
with
the
sage
is
the
a
them
manager
neeiU
whom
both
used
gii*al
shtxild
admissions
is
in
and
IK*
Jargon
nKmlKTS
that
to
who
the
s^xak
or
her
lanpiage
and
directed,
so
that
(he
language
will
communicuion
is
Vndersianding
audience tn
language
that
should
his
always
is
tor
conveying
(hat
understanding but
This
it
used
he
it
can
cause
a
for
example,
and to
used
easily
the
snr-
in
the
employees
is
mes-
siinpldying
dear
with
the
coinpahble
In
menus, in
chosen
when
messages
when
he
consider
improved
eommunicale
trom
language,
achieved
intciuktl.
n*
used
differv‘nt
faeilivate
Words
simpht}*
the
puq^isvly
can
undershimbhle.
M/j^/rrrrcrxA
relation
and
and
clKvnve
administnnorshoukl
tenns
start
to
message
receivexl
hospital
dear
Remember,
undersbMKl
group
a
rewver.
bnphigx*
that
make
with
innnmerahk*
other
pn4>leins
when used ounsidc that group.
Listen Actively When
someone
aetive
search
talks,
for
we
heir.
meaning,
But,
whereas
tixj
ohen,
hearing
is
we
[wssi'
don't e
listen.
(see
Listening
Exhibit
9-6),
is
an
When
yfxi
listen, two people, the meiver and the sen.ler, arc thinking. Many of us are [uxir listeners. V\ hy? Bceausc itk difficult and liec.nise it’s usually
more
denunds
saus-ijnng mtdieenial
to
talk,
eftorr.
l.isteiiing,
Unlike
in
fact,
hearing,
is
often
aenve
more
listening
tiring
than
denwnds
talking-
toral
ft
etuieen-
traaoii. 1 nc average person .speaks at a rate of alx)UT I SO wonis |icr minute. >vhcn?«» we have the t^^cin listen at the rate of over I .(XX) words ix r minute. I he dirtvrence t^Muudy leases idle hrain time and oppuminities l<.r the mind m wander. Acns-c «ndcr.
that
Beewuse ^es
It
listening is.
when
senders easier
to
is
enhanced
the
difter
receiver in
undersund
w
tnes
attitudes, the
hen
actual
to
the
letriver
place
interests, cnnient
hinwelf
needs, ot
develo|e.
a
in
and
empathy
the
sender's
expectauon.s.
,nes.sage.
tener reserves (udgment
.\n
with
the
ixwlion. emp-thy
empatheoe
lis-
Chapter 9 EXHIBIT
ri h.
Cottumaiindoii
9-6 Improving Active Listening Skills
<««xe»uon.v.n hdp f. Wc Jiwun »ich our but .nxr eye ., zM^kiiig eye er.nuct xiih the x,>ciker dtsiNiiions. 4hil rfiiMui nifus the ^|x .iker.
tn b. nxre effetnve Imenrr,. iudffc uSnrSz.. i « L . ’
“ reduces rh< pounu^l ter
’
eM m * h.a .. Ixing suU tKm^nonverk.l vpuk Aftirn^uvr head nods .ui 3pp.o1X‘ 4epnss..xis. when u. good cy. ornPH. ^-onrej. tn the jp«kcr tlu,r one .r 11K .«hcr s.de of showing interest ,s th,it su^gcM inwagers mind ts somewhere eJse, Acncn, ruch as linking ai one’, watdi. shLifning jHpr.x .ir pUying w.th a |xncil make die speakvt Ud Ac is l.ired or uniiinTcsicil. ri .co,liL.l listener ^.i.k-zeSHlni. he or shtbwr, .nd isk.,,uR,Q<>,.-’vpu’>!{
A
Dwf > ffVfrtalk. Alos: ot us U’ouM raAer 1,-0our own Mets than bscen tn srhat somwme e. sjy%. Ton msny oriv< b*Tcn only because i|> Ac price vre Iwve to pay to get people to let us talk. Talking may be nxire fun and silvnte may he nnnRnfbrtable, hut itV impossible Io nik and IM7. un at the samv lime. IK good IwtciKr m ugni«s Uw. fact .ird doesn’t oscrtalL
being said. The goal is to improve ones abilin^ to receive the full meaning of a communicauon, without havnng it distorted by premature indgments or interpreudons. I . I
Constrain Emotions It
utjuld
tional
be
naive
manner.
Yet
rrjnsterence
of
misconstrue
incoming
our
outgoing
tu
assume
wc
know
meaning.
If
that that
we’re
messages,
messages.
What
a
emeu
we
the
always
ions
crnotionjilly
and can
manager
can
severely
upsci
may
fail
manager
communicates
over to
do?
an
a
cloud
and
issue,
we’re
express The
in
clearly
best
ra-
distort
rhe
likely
and
approach
fully
TO
accurately
is
to
defer
further communication until composure is regained.
Use the Grapevine You
can’t
eliminate
the
and
make
it
for
d<wi
rapidly,
□on,
and
work to
as
a
test
grajKvinc, them,
the
valuable
What
Managers
reaction source
to of
managers an
various feedback
use
should the
therefore,
grapevine
decisions when
do.
hcftirc
the
is
lo
h^nsinit
their
final
managers
t
emse
use i
ic
urma-
consumma ^es
are
grapevine mcmbcn.. Of course, the grapevine can cam reduce the effectiveness of formal communicarion. To lessen t doarucrivc
force,
managers
should
make
good
/ use
dut they reguiariv carry the relevant and accurate information t at emp ,
of
fonnal
channe
s
J • it
/•
4
6»
CHAPTER 10 __________________________________
Leadership and Creating Trust After reading this chapter, you should be able to 1. Summarize the conclusions of trait theories 2. Identify die limitations of behavioral theories 3. Describe fiedter's corrtingency model 4. Summarize the path-goal theory 5. List the contingency variables ir^ the leader-partidpation model S. Explain gender differences in leadership styles 7. Differentiate rransformahona/ from fzansacf/ona/ leadership 8. Identify the skills that visionary leaders exhibit 9. Describe the four specific roles of effective team leaders TO. Summarize how leaders can build trust
I
t has been accepted as a truism that good lcaden,hip is essential to business, to gt*eminent, and co the countless groups and organixadons thai shape the way w^ Itve,
work, and play. If leadership Is s\n:h an important factor, the critical issue is: 'A’hat makes a great leader? h s templing to answer: Great followers! Although there is truth to this response, the issue is far more complex.
WHAT IS LEADERSHIP? . Leadership
is
source
this
of
managerial degree
of
the
rant
abilit)'
influence in
foniially
an
to may
influence be
formal,
organization.
designated
a
group such
Because
audioricy,
an
toward as
the
that
provided
management individual
achievement
nuv
by
positions assume
of the
c
goals.
Th*^_
possess^'" with leadership
o*
som^ n't
as a result of the |x»sitmn he or she holds in the organization. But n
•4
Qiapter 10 Lud«nhjp and CmnafcTniR manigers: nor, for that nutter, arc all managers leaders. Jusi because an organizarion prov-idc-s irs maiugers with cc^m nghts is no assuranex they «tU be able t« lead effevovefy. xVonsancnoned lcader?h}p-ihat is, foe ability tn influence that arises outside of formal structure of the organizatio.,-is as im(K.rtant a.s or more important than fopnal influence. Tn other words, leaders can emerge from within a groun as well as hein4( ff^niiallv nppoinred.
*
■ Ihe leadership literature is i ..lnniinou.s, atid much of it is confosing and contradicton- In the folJoumg pages, n^c attempt t«i pro^-idL• you with some insights into jar m a an effecdve J ea der.
JRAIT THEORIES If (Uie were to tlcscribe j ieaifer ox> the basis of die general connotations presented in today's
media,
cnth'tsiasni, the
streiigdi,
conclusion
Chrwt.
one
The
that
search
mighr
list
brai
cry.
effective for
qualitic.s inregrity,
leaderti
as
iindJigwice,
self-confidence,
must
characteristics,
such
he
one
such
as
part
and Boy
those
charisma,
so
on—possibly
Scout
listed,
Jeeisiventss,
and
that
two
eliciting
pans
would
Jesus
differentiate
leaders from nonleaders otcupieiT the early p.sychologists who stuiiicd leadership. Is
it
possible
acknowledge John
f.
Wemay
as
individuals
isolate
one
leaders—VVmston
Kennedy, agree
co
that
with
Nelson these
utreriy
or
personality
CHirchill,
IVlandcla, indinduah
differenr
more
Mother
(lolin meet
traits
Teresit,
Powell—diat onr
characteristics.
individuals
Martin
chc
of«leader, concept
of
wc
Luther
nonleaders
definition If
in
generally king.
Jr\
do
not
possess?
but
they
represent
traits
wa.s
to
be
proved valid, sped fie characteristics had to he found that all leaders possess. Research efforts at isolating these traits resulted in a number of dead ends. If the search was to identify a set of traits that would always differentiate leaders fmni followers and effective from ineffective leaders, the search failed. Perhaps it w'as a bit optiniisric to believe that a set of consistent and unique traits could apply across the board to all effective leaders, whether they were in charge of the iMonnon a be macle Choir, f4enerdJ Electric, Ted’s Malibu Surf Shop, the Brazilian national soccer team, or Oxford University. f attempts
However, been (I)
more
drive
mtegriry,
successful.
to Six
and
ambition,
(2)
(4)
self-confidcncc,
identify traits the
traits on
desire
(5)
consistently
w’hicb to
lead
intelligence,
associated
leaders and and
differ influence
(6)
with
from
nonleaders
others
in-depth
Vet traits alone are not sufficient forexplaining leadership. Their primary failing IS dut they igiKjrc situational factors. Possessing the appropriate traits only makes it Ji’urc likely that an indiridual will }>e an effective leader, lie or she still has to cake the ght actions m one wtuatiun nre not necessarily rignc right actions. And “the ri differcni situation.
BEHAVIORAL THEORIES •■he inability to strike gold in the •‘trail mines" led researt^hers to look at the behanore
*»> effective leaders behave. For example, do tiiey tend to be more democratic dun *W(HTatic?
(3)
have include
honesty
technical
related to their area of responsibility.*
specific leaders exhibited, nte)’ wondered if there was .somethtng uruque in the
leadership
and
knowledge
RirtRI
Groiipiin tbeOrpininOon
apprMch provide more
Nor only, it was hoped. ^h.\, if successful- it would have rive ansM-cn. »b«’ot t*"" , .h«..e of the trait approach. If trait reseat^: cal implk-.tiof^ quite differcnt f„r selecting the nghr pemnto had been *“tcessft.l..t woul«l have P that required leadership. |, 1 assume a formal turn'up critical behavioral determinants of ; contract, if behavioral studies ue j^ajers. The difference between trait and leadership, «c could tram J , • |jes jn dieir underlying assumption,. If behavioral theories, in " X"" re'l^ hom: You either had or yo« trail theories uere valid. behaviors th.it ide.iufied leaders, didn’t. On the other hand. P programs that implanted these then we could teach leadership-^^-hrdesked to be effective leaders. This behavioral
w?,
it would mean that the supply of leaders could be
Z-nded.“'f
n-„ninB
.orkid.
we
n.uld
have
.n
infinite
supply
nf
effective
kflderfj.
Ohio State Studies The
most
research to
wmprehensive
that
idendfr
began
at
Ohio
independent
sand
dimensions,
tially
accounted
and
.State
eventually
most
of
of
the
University
diiuciu>ioiu>
they for
replicated
of
leader
narrowed the
in
behavioral
the
late
behavior.
the
leadership
list
theories
1940s.-
These
Beginning
into
behavior
two
resulted studies
with
over
categories
described
by
from sought
a
that
thou-
substan-
subordinates.
They
cnilcd these two dime ns ions inifiarif/g structure and cemi'idiTathn. Initiating
stnicfurc
structure
hi:s
includes
(behavior
that
characterized
as
group
niembcn
leader ‘‘assigns
or
her
refer> role
tu
and
the
those
attempts high
tu
in to
extent of
to
^’hich
subordinates
organize
initiating
work,
tasks,"
in
leader the
work
structure
particular
a
could
is
search
likely fur
relationships, be
“e-vpects
described workers
to
goal and in
define attainment goals.
terms
to
and II
I
he
such
as
maintain
definite
standards of performance,” and “eniphasixcs die meeting of deadlines." Consideration relationships for
their
being, one
desenhed
characterized feelings.
status, who
is
he
treats
This
by
as mutual
type
of
and
satisfaction.
p-s
subordinates
extent trust,
leader A. with
all
ariiu,
the
to
respect
shows
leader
which
personal
tor
concern
high
in
person
is
subordinates’ for
his
is
likely
could
friendlv
and
comfort, be
and
job
regard M
ell-
described
as
approachable,
as
and
equals,
leader) tended to achieve high sefn
Xr o, inS
fr^^Aucntlv than those who rated
Xyv?^rin
I'oth. Bur the high-high sty le did not I’t^havior characterized »
high on inibatiug strucmr7*lcd"w^hiJh and
lower
levels
Other studies found that high considfradon "" ratings of the leader bv his superior In cond
of
ioh
satisfifgrievances,
absenieeisni,
Performing roudne tasbrelated to perfonnance
that the high-high style geneS resX^^^•' WMis were found to indicate that siruadonal outcome.s, but etUMigh etceF i theory. Mtuat.onal fan.H, needed to be integrated into d* J
hl >
have
based on these definition^ found that leaders hieh in ima-
ordmau
lumnver
to
ideas,
followers'
consideration
problems,
siilxirdinares
a
and
• *■ s Chapter 10 Leadenhip tod Ociihng: lhi«
Cniversitj'of Micliifian Studi<»s I,„d.r5h.p
undertaken at the LTniversny of Michigan’s Suney Research
Center, at about the same tone as Aose be,ng done ar Ohip Suce. had simiL research nb,cct,ve.:
To
locate
measures
of
pc^,-manc-e
two
dunensions
behavjorat
oi
productjon-oriented. iHg.ntcrpersonal
characterisrics
clTcYveness.S
leaderdup
Leaders
relafions;
they
The
i>ehav,t,r.
who
were
took
of
leaders
Michigan
which
they
that
appeared
«,
group
also
came
labeled
rv«y,/c7rr-0Fjc«Zr,/were
a
personal
interest
in
be up
with
cmplowe-oricnieJ
and
described
as
needs
of-Jieir
the
related
emphasitsubt.rdi-
Mies and accepteti indrculuaJ deferences among u,embers. The
Vi •••
lea.Iers. m coiicrast, rendwi to emphasise the technical or task aspects of rhe job—tfidr main concern u-as accomplishing tlicir group’s casks, and the group members were a jncans to th IT end. The conclusions anived at by the Michigan researchers strongly favored the leaders who were cmpJoycc-orieiite.l tn their behavior. Employee-oriented leaders were associated with higher group productiviry and higher job'satisfaction. ProducrionorienTed leaders tended to be associated witlt low giiiup produenrity and low worker sacisfacnon.
The Managerial Grid A graph ic portray al c?f a nvo’dimensiorwl Robert
Bbkc
Styles sent
ot
iuid
Jane
“concern
the
Ohio
Mouton.
for
'
people”
State
They
and
dimension.'^
\new
proposed
“concern of
nf leiidership styles was dcvclqicd by
for
managerial
production,”
consideration
and
grid
l>ased
which
ini
on
essendally
dating
strucnuc
the
repreor
the
Michigan dimensions of employee-oriented and production-oriented. The
grid,
each
axis,
does
not
depicted
creating show
81
in
Exhibit
different
results
10-1
on
page
I?4.
positions
in
which
die
produced
but
radiet
die
has
9
possible
leader’s
dominating
style
(actors
positions
may in
fall.
a
along
The
leader’s
md
think-
ing in regard to getting result. On that
the
basis
managers
(task-oriented) better
die
perform or
best
the
framework
new
of
1,9
for
information
findings
from
under
9,9
a
in
clarifying
the
research,
style,
as
ty’pe)
(country-club
conceptualizing
their
leadership
contrasced.
leader.
leadership
Blake
style
and for
cAampk,
Lnlbrtunately, than
quandary;
for
since
Mouton the
is
with
grid
prc-j>cnring there
concluded a
9,1
offers
any
little
a
tangible
substantiye
evidence to support the conclusion that a 9,9 sty le is most effective in all situations.'
Summary of Behavioral llieories We
have
described
ship
in
tle
success
terms
behavior
of
the the
in
and
group
factors
that
Martin
Luther
King,
die
group
19S0s had
<^nncctKui?
popular
behavior
identifying
tional
in
most
and
exhibited
Jr,
success
would
1960s.
Uliat
have
Would
been
born
in
1854
It
seems
quite
unlikely,
rhe
w'as
Nader
rather the
Tor
great
to
Unforninately there
was
1934.
consideration
of
behavioral
to or
was of
cx-imple,
risen
explain
patterns
dvd-nghts
have
than
attempts
between
missing
a
the
leader.
failure.
been
yet
of
relationships
or
Ralph
he
impurtanl
by
consistent
performance, influence
and
it
seems
leader lead in
in a
approaches
very litleadership
die
wc
situa-
unlikely 1<>00,
yet
consumer
(k»ta
leader-
Rica
he
activist
rather
have
chat
ilun
desenbed
w>uld ntrt clarify these situational factors.
I
hut Hl
Tbe Managerial Grid EXHI8IT 10-1
r
M»dcJ4o-oF-tKe-roa
&A Y m
Concern Ker people
1 I
Concern for production riMpovertebed fWmgernen^
maawcemcot J
Based w ai-nersinns tfesomed k R ft. B akeand J.S. MowWrt.Su-Wi"gfl OWnlcCwp^^ fttf Pe-v/wneji' (Head ng. W. AcM«on W^sir; 1SC9)
CONTINGENCY THEORIES it
became
that
increasingly
predicting
clear
leadership
to
riiose
!5uccess
who
was
were
more
suidying
complex
the
than
leadership
isolating
a
{d>eiwmcQ0<» lew
traits
or
preferable behaviors. The failure to ohmin consistent results led co a new focus on ’flt uationa! gested mtffc
influences, dur
siyk
suiuldc
for
I
x
he
rebdonship
would
im-nlinon
be
herween
appropriate
ant,
st\4c
i
leadership
under
for
style
condition
condirioi'i
c.
and
whereas But
what
effectivene^"' style
y
were
the
sti^
would
be
condioo*^
n, h, (, and so forth? Ir was one thing to say dial leadership effectiveness w-as dtpendett^ on the Mcuadon and another to be able to isolate those siniatiunal condi lions. Three goal,
and
gender that
contingency
theories
leadcr-pamciparinn.
as
directly
a
ccmtingcncy addresses
female leadership styles.
Wc
have review
variable.
gender,
an
received
the
bulk
each
this
settion.
Although expanding
in
tlicce body
Is of
no
of
arteation: We
also
sjKcific
research
Fiedler,
rake
a
ctmtuigency compares
path-
look
at
thc<>0
male
and
C’wpfw 10 Lewknlilp tnd O«Min, Thw
0^
The Fiedler Model
«.tx.r
bcl.evcd
riut
s..cc«s.
So
began
enh.p ated
an
instnunent,
rionnaire,
tor
rh.s
unplca^nt.
s^hcdier
ask<
docribe
Ae
the 1
what
respondents
the
to
the
rdamch*
a
one
of
ested
purpose,
S
Inr
pers<jns
poitive in
good
|»erson
tw
abonr
unfavorable
terms
(a
duebvin-and
thus
individnars
leadership we
situabon
requires
rebb(mshi|wirienred.
she the
16
others
high
LPC
work
contrast,
if
die
LPC be
laiiclcd
style
show
is
below;
this
either
the
Hut
in
die
assumpbon
situation
and has
is
to
is
lie
to
person
on
a
believed
that
h
tells
di^scribcd primarily
essentially
Fiedler
inter-
label
in
vou
rebtiveiv
pnmarily
interested
in
Fiedler
assumed
that
in
that or
it
the
proan
or
means
task-
that
leadership leader
in
desenbed
would
seen
•I
to and
than
wxs
because
modified
nl«Lnt/
had
was
k
(LPC)
quesuon-
relationship-oriented
important person
he
Fialler
you
diat
either
rhe
that
resjK»ndents
co-workcr
Nobce is,
rauog
lenns.
respondent
that
ever
if
F.«ller“e-
pu^ns
ha>
rc
lead-
as
or
co-worker
favorable
task-oricnieii.
(such 1
the
the
as.
and she
in
co-worher
adiccrives.
least-preferred
n
hip-oricined. by
about
IrasC-prcfcrrcd
leader
he
contrasung
then
factur
sn-le
adjeebves
with
more the
fi^ed,
task-oriented
of
with
score),
kev
basic
lions
orfcen,
co-workers.
co
a
least-pr^-fcned
reb
vo-u
score),
relatjons
low
or
working
tells
*at
contrasung
.sets If
hni
.s
suppornve/hosuk)
rhe /«xr
able
would
a
aU
describing.
least Io
.As
of
personal
rebbonship-oriented.
oriented.
or
theyre
are
of
sale
the
!ft
usk-cnented
chink
hr
(n
u
called
conta.ns
is
each
terms
out
ope.i/guardcd,
ro
said
Icadersbp
hnd
he h
person
pcrMin
basic
«,
wh.ch
re.}x>rnlvnt
sc-Jc about
liAnng
cftc.cnr/.ncffic.cnt,
measure naire
he
^mditnduals
if
a
posibon
is
replaced
if
upbmat ctfccdreiiess is to be achieved. After is
an
oeucssan*
indiriduaPs to
m.)t(.h
basic the
leadership
leader
w’ilh
shde the
has
been
sicuadun.
assessed The
through
three
the
situiioonal
LPC,
factors
it or
contingency dimensions idendfied by Fiedler are defined as fiillows: 1. Leader-member
rclatiotis:
I
he
degree
of
wnfidcDce,
crust,
and
respect
subor-
dinates have in their leader 2. Task
structure:
I
he
degree
co
which
the
job
assignuients
of
subordinaics
are
structured or unstructured J.
Poadon
power:
The
degree
of
influence
a
Ir.tdcr
bu
wer
power
«ria».les
»□<*
is
hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salat)* iDcrcases The nest step >» the Fiedler model is to c^■flluatc the situauon in reniis of these coniingencY variables. Lcader-memher relations arc either goixl oi ^usk «nxTure either hitrh or low. and position power either strong or weak Fiedler stated «bat the better the’ leader-member relations, the more highh stnimred the ,.>b, and wronger the posin.m power, the more control or mfltjen« the leader h^^ For 'Wnpk * ven- fak
of eTcSr-
b« amfidencr m him or her (good leader-member «o be d.xK-«M* as * age a-mputatiuo. check w ntmg. report filmg-are sp«hc
♦7
.» • •. ^nd iV.e H.b pr<wiJ*--s cousderaWe frccHoin to rev^ .„^r). On the othtr hand, an unfavorable J f voluntary Lnitcd Way ftjnJ-rai,j^ «ntro!. .Xhogvther, by nuaing the *2 •.
Grouw m th* and clear wsk and punish subordinates (s^ng ..tuadon might be the
W
ss+ich a leader could j^^ l ^^LPC and an abscssmcin of the three canbnUich Jmonded,^ J ' ,o^oi tnaiching them up to ad.Kte maxin,a« genj y «nab^, the F research, Ficdkr mnehtded that task-orientoj leadenilup erfecuteno - situations that were frry f/ii'oraMf to Them and in leaders tend .o perlonp.hihit 10-2). So Fte.lkr -ould predict ih« “I”" A'"d"'^eon I II 111 ■^‘U orVinsiniati<«n,ask-onentedlea.krsperLm Si'‘Rcladon.HT rel="nofollow">:<.;iented leaders, however, perform better -J nxjderatek Lomhie siruaduns-^aretrories TV through n. In densed these eiffht situations dotvn to three.' He nowjiays that wAmneniwI perfurmbest inriruwidi..*ixb high attdlow control,wdttlerehtmitslup-onentedk«J. cr® perform best in moderate control siiuadons. As Kiedler
a
whole,
mode)
evidenev
lu
lead
support
reviews ro
a
ar
of
(he major
generally
least
studies ±at
positive
sul»cainial
tested
conclusion.
parts
of
the
the
That
overall
is,
mtxlel.^
model use only dircc categories rather than the original eight,
If
dierc
validity of is
considcralik
predictions
from
the
there is ample evideoLt
in support Fiedler s coflclusiuiis. Bui dicrc arc problems tidth the LPC and the practical use
CXHIBIT 10-2 Findings from the Aedler Model
•“ Performance
A
— Task-oriented
Retaxionihip-orlented
Good
%
Pavorab^e
Category 1 « (IH teaderMviembe Good Good Good r i At ft relations High Low atruCTure Shortt ^VSfetf PMCiOn 1 c] power
MQ derate
Unfavorable
IV
V)
VW
Good
Poor
Poor
Low
VMak 1
Low
Wwlt
Sow
$
Poor
X
/ /
kJ 4bA Chapter 10 l-i'adw^ipandCwaWThin stable. Also, the c-xianRency variables arc mm, i to r.>tten diPficuk rn p™s^ce„z:sr/"^R>r pracfstioner^ rebtinns ^ircs bow stniciured theusk is and h.«. tbt’ leader-member nou much position ponx-r the leader has. Leader-Member Exchange ITieory
^avc you ever noticed that leaders ciften act
.1
have favoriu-;- That, in es.^ence, is the fouiuiatirm nf rhe lea
people and »^*uhange theory? •
the leader’s in-group.-people wlu.m rhe leader amount uf his nr her lime, and why art mnre likdv tni r^ri,-.
tnists u.h,.T .'"‘J'J'"'’' / ‘J‘^T'''’Portionate
followers foil inld die nut-group. Tlicv get lew iif th.? le M
Oilier
fcn-ed r^Y'.^ that die leader cnntrcis, and have fjrmal iiuthonry interactions. The Y<-n' pr< that early m the history „f the interaction between a leader
rwstn on
and a itJveai follower, rhe leader imphc.tly categorizes the folloaer as an “in’or an “one and that die re ationsh.p ,s relatively stable over time. Just preaselv how the leader chooses who falls into each categon’ is unclear, but there k evidence tJ^at leaders tend to
* . K .
chofKC in-grnup memhers because they have attitude and personaliT>*fhardcierisdcsthat 5»re sunifar co the leaders or a higher kvel of competence than out-group members. Scudie’i confirm several l.MX theory predicnon^; Leaden du differennate among followers; these disparities arc hr from random; and followers with in-group 5wnis have higher performance ratings, lower turnover intentions, greater satisfaction with ±eir superiors, aud higher overall sausberion than those in tlic out-group. PathXSoal Tlieory Currently, one of the most respected approaches to leadership is the path-goal theor\'. Developed
by
Robert
House,
path-goat
theory
is
a
contingency
model
of
leadership
that extracts key elements from the Ohio State lendership research on initiating siruclurc and consideration and the oxpuctancy theoiy of Tnorivacion The essence of the theory’ is char its the leader’s job to assist his or her followers ill attaining rheir goals and in provide the direcuon or support or both needed to ensure
that
their
goals
are
compatible
organization. The term
with
the
overall
objectives
of
the
group
or
is derived from the belief that effective leaders
clarify the path to help their followers get From where they arc to the acluevement of their W'ork goals and make the journey a king the path easier by rei ucing roa blocks and pitfalls.
..
According to path-goal theory, a kader^s behavior is the degree 6at it is viewed bv ’hem as an immediate source o satis °
to .*
of 5a«l.cu„„, .,1 1.0
makes
subordinate ,he
need
,
t®"' satishiCtion
contingent
on
e
ccinc
goidonco, suppo^ o„d
Ovc performance. To test these statements, House rhe Jfrrrru’e Zwrfer lets subordinates know' what H expe l« done, and give, ,pacific guidance
^fthem. schedules work to , dimension
^ly parallels the Ohio State studies initu S This dimension is essentially ^’^dly and shows concern for die nee
|
tartIR &oup in the OrganiMtj"”
W
• u .h. nhin State studies’ consideration. The synonymous with Oh suegesrions befr>re making a lieasion, Th,^ ) insula «W«-r«r«.-«r«««erfi<»dfrse.-sfhal^ng ng^^ behavior, Mouse assun,"
.,H=ble, rh« .noderate *, fader beh™or-oafa»n= rehnonsb,,. fh,,,, in die
are outside the o.iitrol of the leader (task strocttire. formal auihori^
system, and u^rk group). Factors tn the second class are part of the personal characterisucs of rhe
(locus of c-ina-.)], esjwricnce, and percxi\-cd ability). Essentially,
dK thcorv proposes tlun leader behaviors should coinpleraent ihcsc contingency variables. .So rhe leader will be ineffective when his or her behavior is redundant with sources of enviroiuneiittl structure or incongruent wirh subordinate characteristics. The following are examples of hypt.-theses that have evolved out of path-g,)a| riieorv. • Djrecnv’e leadership leads lo greater sausftiction when tasks are ambiguous or snetful dial I when thev’ arc highly strucnired suid well laid out.
Supportive leadership results in high employee performance and sausracuoii when sub* ordijutes
are
perfonning
structured
tasks.
(Lxadership
complement
■ Directive leadcrsliip is environment.) likely to be Ledundanl ajiiong subordinates wiui nigh ability’ or with considerable ^perieace.
■ The dearer and more bnreaticradc the fornxal au±ority rcladonsiii|K», the more leulers should exliibit supportive behavior and deeiiijihasizc tiireceive behavior.
■ Directive leadership will lead to higher employee sadsfacrion when there is subsian' tivc conflict within a work group.
EXHIBIT 10-3 The Rath-Go a I Theory --------------------------------------------
A
/• ------------------------- -X Environmental contingency Factors • Task structure • Formal authoney system • Work group
Leader behavior ) «Directive ' • Supoorrrv# •
Participative
L
f ------------------------- s Outcomes > • rorrormanco • Sedsbetion i
J Achievoment-orlgfned
V, ___________ [ Subordinate contingeficy factors^ :
* Locus of control Experience Ptreerved ability
J
Ch^ir 10 LvidcnhSp and Creathii T Siib-»rdinateswirh Jin internal locus of cnntml/rh 4. OW’D destiny) will be mott satisfied with a Relieve they COOTTO) their ’ Ptninpaovp st\ic. Suhordinaws with an cxccml locus of con&nl u • Achie^TinenT-onented k-jdershin will incn>^o. -,.u 4 u. "»«« wiA , Arectiv. Je3d to high perfonnance wfc.„ Rc^arch rn validate hypotheses such as tK^. ^„.x.
supfxtm .re
^asfentou d^gs
Che
logic
likely
lacking
m
ro
either
underlying
be the
rhe
,»s.uvely employee
u theory
influenced or
the
That
is
when
work
"npio
the
setting.
^X^t^fncel^S
leader
Hwem.
?o.np««t”
the
leader
S w5^
.peuds time « x,.laming tasks w hen tht«e tasks arc- alrea.ly clear or when the employee has
the
ability
and
expenence
lo
handle
them
without
interterence
is
likely
as redundant or even insulting,
to
be
seen
'
Leader-Participation Model In
J973
Victor
that
related
that
task
leadership
smitTures
researchers Vroom
and
should
be
makings
Vroom
in
determined
incorporating
leader
IIKHICI
followed
seven
and
varying
that
Yettnn’s
Phillip
behavior
have
argued
as
ind
behavior
was
developed
participation
demands
for must
norruadve—ii
determining by
Yerton
the
different
cy-pes
contingencies
of
{whose
routine
and
adjust
to
and
a
situations.
making
J
nonroudne reflect
the
sequential
amount
rcleviUive
leader-jwrticipation
decision
in
provided
form
a
of
The
task
set
IK
was
Recogniimg
activities,
of
jKirricipacion
model
could
‘
model
a
identified
these
struci-ure. rules in
chat
decision
decision by
tree
malnng
‘^es" or “no” choices) and five altemaavc leadership styles. More model.The
work
new
the
by
model
making
leaders with
recent
the
group
V^ruom
retains
decision
and
and
the
Arthur
same
completely
developing
a
Jagu
five
by
resulted
altemaDve
himself
consensus
has or
in
a
leadership
hei’scEto
decision—but
revision
of
this
swles—from
the
sharing
expands
the
the
problem
contingency
I'ariables to 12. These arc listctl in EKhibii 1fl-4. Research been
testing
encouraging.
manager puter
to
use
program
both
But» on
to
a
the
original
unfortunately, regular
guide
the
bxsis.
managers
and
In
model fact,
through
revised is
Vroom all
the
Icadcr-parricipation
far -and
too Jago
decisi<m
complex have
for
models the
developed
branches
in
the
has typical
a
com-
revised
niixlel. VVe obviously can't do justice to the moclcfs sophistication in this discussion. What’s important, however, is that Vroom and his associates have provided us wit **ne solid, empirically supported insighw into contingency variables that you should consider when choosing your leadership snle.
(lender As a Contingency ^nd Females Lead Diirerently?
Variable:
Do
Males
extensive review of the liter.cure suggests two c<«ci™ •^dership First, the similanhes between mens and womens ieadcrsh.p «"d “> ***r»ciph the differences. Second, wh.t differences dtere •«>*n
prehT
’ Arectn^ >n4e.
a
democratic
leadership
style,
whereas
n.en
feel
more
comfortable
w,th
•<
Gnrtfw «cbc Ofwiiatiw EXHIBIT 1(M
CantingencyVaiiabtes in the Rewired Leader-Ranidpatk>n Mwbt
Immwtance nflhedewiiHi 1 11H mlinate crtmm i wnr niio t he ikcwwr . suttiouin inl^rf’maiinn ui c«*aU a |«xl decwnn 2. ehc Impona«eo/n)»»imnp« 3. i Hnu *i.ri tiiwniml die ppyblom ts 4. Whether ail wwcntk- dcc-.siun would rc hm.t sabitriUtiaw uisukemcnt 11. V^Tiethcf evsK ui bringing .bsxrscl ^ibunbnaie. u.geiher err 12. pMi^ed Snorw BAsftd on v.H, Vfoom aM A.S. Jafc, We Wew tewtenh-p: ftre«awtoi^ lo to Che leader of minimixing the dme ir take^ to makv the decision 0/^»a«tof$ (Upper SMOIQ Iri.p.iri^nc^ ircing {Mink'ijMihwi cool V.H.Vraoiii for Je»xloping Rluer.HJ: PnwceofHaH. 198S). PP n M as I2;a liiid andsubordinate W Yettan, tfliWws/J/p dwsion skilk enrfOwisraft AfaWflg (PHttbuffr Uni-«ci> o( PlTS»gn PKSS 1573). p. 154 Reprx'teP bv perffihslon of We Unkersity of PttsbufB^ € 19/3 by dniwilty I'he similannes among men anti women leaders shouldn't be completely surofPinsbufSA Pic^
prising.
zAlmosc
being
all
^yiiunyiiioiis
cnil
populauoii
the
swdies
with
leadership.
don't
tend
co
organization
selection.
Just
as
engineering
have
People
wiili they
lol
rraits
sociabiiin*—are which
a
can
to
organizations
pie
project
who
achieve
people
with
to
gender
’Tins
is
The
posiuuns
and
in
co
is
that,
organizations
to
or
civil
careers.
of
be
and
careers
regardless
leadership
tend
and
confidence, pursue
regartlless
gen-
lection
managerial
intelligence,
into
lhe
enforcement
choose
nowadays
posinoits
in
self-sc
law
who
promote
result
career
in
as
managerial
apparent
encouraged
true
and
of
careers
-such
leaders
used
differences
individuals
leadership
recruit
have
Be<.*ausc
choose
do
as
issue
Why?
who
attributes.
leadership
this
such,
so
leadership. tend
at
cvideni.
perceived
leadership
formal
As
common,
be
exert
Similarly, who
in
he
associated
likdy
Inoking
of
m
gender.
positions
pco-
gender,
those
more
alike
dun
in
the
different. Despite inherent
previous
leadership
share
power
prefer
to a
st)des
and
lead
interpersonal u.e
the
directive
lo
p^inon
Inr
ever,
t
ndings
more
demot
App^arent pre
ereuces
rheir
rauc
y.
group so
and
indusioa infiuence
ai
than
in
norms women
rely
others.
style.
and
their
their on
7
when
Women
the
followers*
other
rely
hand, onr
.styles
.ire of
leaders
in
such
of
override
jobs
and
how-
leaders
male-dominated
to
to jobs.
personal act
more
’
m
^y7or«
likely
authori^
female
autocratically.
between
mure
and
conclusion,
for m
They
contacts,
formal
first
lendcnttv
women
are
the
participali(Mi,
self-w'onh.
expertise,
on
with
he
differences
encourage
charisma,
stereotypes
feminine
some
enhance
Consistent
masc'oline
abandon
to
They
ijualified.
declines
indicate
men.
on
.Men,
ba.se.
l^e
males
and
attempt
and
influence
need
f^iudies
women
command-and-corurol
their
esc
of
information,
through
skills
conclusion,
hisioncaliv held the great majority of leadership position* rnfn^
J
tanpting
to
assume
that
ihe
existence
of
the
noted
automatically work to favor men. h doesn't. In
today s orga,uzatmn.s. ficxibihty. teamwork, irusi, and informauon-sharing are repb>
difference*
10
npd siruu^rcis competitive individualism cmw, i □ fi’^Tcn to. motivate, and prm', ’ * i „, do rh<«e things Iwncr than men. 4s a specific Ii fiincniinal teams in organizauons means that ncvod«tors I’hv leadership styles Honiun iVDicalk . «„gd.... ...cn, «, they „<• l„. Hl.,, „. f.^u. ,tXri;:Z‘ Xh. -.her parn- a .inner ,n .K
Ciwirw' '•B
*omen seem use of cixw’’’UM ktome skillful “ "jr -
TTtAJTTHEORfES
UPDATED:
CHARISMA riU LEADERSHIP ,U.«,
o(
tade«. p«,,s
the J
k;..krsh,p
hes^
by
c
lowers
ho,.
who
and
followers. VVinsKm this
latter
bj-
raising
to is
1
nr
By
and
transcend
capable
Churchill, the
gt.idc
role
hew
type.
di«
people
anfy.ng
j„,p.reUn
(heor.e^
of
...s<.
task the.r
own
having
a
chansmatu
(.eneral
Doughs
sense
he of
force the
of
this their
reqv.temenrs.
arc
i
in
have
hdlowen
in
There
self-.nterests
profi,un<| or
and
their
is
fdr
personal and
value
the
the
abilities of
their
.hrection
of
effect
D.
they
leader'X
the
oreanwa-
his
or
Jes.se
“I’d
ihcir
walk
her
Jackst.ii
R.Kjsevelt
transform
tasks.
oXui^
of
on
leaders
Franklin
tntnsactiond
npe
good
extraordinary
and
involved
another
transformational
MacArthur,
iniporrance
chapter
are
of
followers
through
fire
if my boss asked me” is the kind of sujiport th.ii eharismatic leaders in.spire. W'hat characteristics differentiate charismatic leaders from noneharismattc ones? Five artrihurts seem mcist inipomnr^ ^ Se^-c^nftdefh'f: I hey have complete confidence in their judgment and ability. -4 i7J7OTir 7'his is an idealized goal that proposes a future lx tier than the status quo. The greater die disparity between this idealized goal and the status quo, the more likely that followers will attribute extraordinary vision tu the leader. Ln//v/ctio/f.f sinmgly
efjinniitted.
in
rhar
'fhey
i^hfon:
are
(Charismatic
ptrcei\ed
a.s
leaders
willing
to
are
take
perceived
on
high
as
personal
being risk
incur high ojsts. and engjige in scIf-sacrifice to achieve their vision. Evm/ort/wf/n ceived
as
bchifviQr: novel,
Leaders
ujKonveniional,
with and
charisma counter
engage to
in
norms.
behavior VVTien
behaviors evoke surprise and admiration in tollowers. /wj(p iti a chitfifTf agenr. (;harisminic leaders arc perceivetl as agents of radical change rather than as caretakers of the status quo. WTtat can we sav alxiut the charismatic leader’s impact on bis oi her fidlowattitudes and behavior? One stmly found that followers of charismatic leaders *prc more self-assured, experienced more meaningfulness m then work, reportei supp,»n fr„n, their leaders, worked longer hours, saw thc.r leaders as nK.ru ;?’»m.c, and had higher performance ranngs than rhe followers of nonch n nc vffaine leaders^- Another study found that people working were more productive and satisfied than those working - J ‘^a^d on the more traditional transactional behaviors of ^^Mderation.'- Two studies, of c.iurse, provide unly luw^iJ .o generalize. V\e need m.n e research on this sub.cct, but the carh • ^'tiuraging.
chat
is
successhil,
perthese
------------------------ ——1
'W*'' m
i^cBr*. aftJ f^xMtfCO M nukx st happen.rSL^ Affcs tn-n odKf Rxms a«eu<*-«ung m several wa>v kKdar »>< ct-Rwatns inw^r. dut ofler- m oa^aij diX?L t^J«M«>. *nd c««n«-o »
«> improve. MEKII
aJ^X tatbiisiasm «h»t pwiJe ha« h* spornng ev««s an*!i other ktant Ba« Miriries, hmwins the c«w «<» commitnwit «» J*? »x«tpb«,-Ibe Ln is««>erties of a >-i«« seem to be mspiranonal possiUhties that arc «h.;-«fitcnid mJ reabnlJe mJ ha« superior imagwr and aniaJiQo^ VKW« JMIUM be able to create ptwabihucs that are mspiraboiul and unique ami oftw a « and demoosmbh better for the nrgMuxawo »d te rnrrnl^r^ Dcmbfe viswos fit the dmo and arcunisunccs and refleet the ODKjBeoess of the unranizarHVi. People in rhe urgaruMOvn must also heliet'c that the veNQ is attainable. It shewdd be pereenw^ as chalfenpng v-et doal>k. \'isions that have dear anienhrinn aod po«TTtuJ imagery are nH>re ca^y grasped and aevepted. XXTttt are some examples of viaoos? -Mary Kay Ash > vision of Mx>men as eooepmeurs
seUn^
onptfiy.
Jidin
voris
can
prodoers
dur
Oiamber^
trausforiii
improre
CEO
busines
their
of
Cisco
hnrr;.
And
sebF-image
Sj’smns. Steve
is
ga>*e
impetus
creating
Case*
the
a
CEO
to
\T$ion ot
her of
AOL,
eosmetia how
oct-
envisioRS
hs
frtn leading the tnittnnation ncsoluiion b)* merging .AOL with Time M anter. M*hat
skills
do
visionaA*
leaders
exhibit?
Oniv
rhe
vision
is
idendfletL
these
leaden appear to ha* e three qualibes (hat are related tu effocti* eness in their viMociarT Fwsr
is
the
abdin
to
aq)laiii
the
vision
u>
others.
Ihe
leader
needs
ro
make
the
vision dear in terms of required acticais and aims through dear oral and uTitten cunimtuucatKNi. Second is co be able to es^mss die n$i4Xi not just \*
behavior.
fcree
the
\iskin.
ship
amun^
Ths
This The s
requires third
the
behaving
in
uav-s
still
is
being
able
to
abihty
to
order
acth'idcs
rfut
extend sn
Ae
conti&ualK* Ae
nsicn
vision
njn*xy to
can
and
different he
re®’
leader-
apph^
*
*
raricty of snuanom.
TEAM LIADERSI UP uxretiiAgi) ukii^ fdice wtrhia 3 team conreiL L’nfonunatvh*. an.. n<w cqwppcd ro h^dte the dungt to teams. .\s one prominent consuh* flR rh^
^fwbk Qunagers ha%e tnxible nuking the tran^noo heo®^ en«x«^ to Jo hefurt *
, ij , 4nod>er 15 percent could never lead a team be«u«. . rrhcy’re unable to •rt,e,i dicres ihax huge group io the iniddi,.. Te^./i ..T
MptWIO LeadershtpandCreatiiia
sublimate
their
Iriisc 143
doniinatinr. W””!-
to dien't ^ndership dciesift conw nucundly The chnJ kngv Ixkr mosi nianaffcrs, thvn i. r^dfit leader. ’They hdKe to karn skills such as th/^ J*' to h^txinw an effccuvc -'‘^nuation, to
SM others, LO gn-e up audutrity. and undeimXX
‘’"u^ ‘"'‘^tvene. Effeedve
leaders have mastered ihc difficult bahncbie act of I,, XS
ond
when
flomer M
to
int.-rccdc.
New
team
JdeS
aKinbcrs need more initonomv
Sav^'
w>ntrol at
X w^en rhe tea... needs s„p,vvrt and h^
■
«
A snidy of 20 organizations that had reorganized tbe.melvcs nround teams «nam common responsih.l.ttes that all leailet. had to assume. These inX.S coaching, (acliMring. handling dBapi,nary problems, reviewing team/individt.al ue,fonnance, traimng and commuucat.on.^^ Many of these responsibilities apply to managers in general. A more meaiiingftil way to de^n-ibe the team lender's job is to fpcus yn rwo pnoriries: managing the team’s exienial boundary and fadlitating Ac ream pjx»cess.' We’ve broken Aesc priorities down into tour specific roles, first, ream leaders arc //flirow tivr/; nwnagement, die honi
team rtf
odier
ccn^tfni^netes, These invUide tipper
internal
teams,
to
odier
constituencies,
the
team,
gathers
eustnincrs. secures
inibrinatitm
and
suppliers.
needed
resources,
from
Ac
outside,
‘I
hc
leader
clarifies
and
represents
athei-s'
shares
this
e.^pectainfonnacion
u’iA team members. Second, ream leaders are frrrwWt’'.?Z»'?r?r
assistance, rarclv
hpically Ac team
lalk
stituencies. its
relates
know
leader
team
is
to
more most
ihrough For
leaders
.sir
technical about
likely
Ae to
problems,
instance,
when
team
leader
took
to
upper
management
case
in
on
meetings
or
operation
tasks
being
contribute
is
and a
by team
responsibility and
for got
issues. done by
an
try
Why? than
approval
resolve
Ac
problems,
the
team
members
Because rhe
penetrating
needed more
to
does
team
firm
staff.
from
(ound He
through
leader.
questions,
resources
aerospace
getting the
help
asking
getting in
and
helping
external
itself
Ac con-
short-handed,
presented rhe
Where
die
team’s
company’s
human
resources depariineni.
.iui
Third, team leaders are cor/fiict nidtMirar. WTien disagreements surtace, tJicy help IXGccss the conflict. W’hai’s Ae source of the conflict? Who is involved? What ai e the issues? VVhat resolution options arc available? Wnt are the advaniitges and tapes of each? Ky getting team members to address questions such as these, „
minimizes the disniptivc asirects of intraieninfonllicts. Finally, team leaders WP«n;,
cheerlead,
They danfy expecmtuins and
whatever
else
is
necessary
to
help
team
their work perforniaiiee.
IS LEADERSHIP ALWAYS RELEVANT? <-'nttrarj to the emphasis in this chapter.
"XmaX'sin.ationi what-
Ihia from numerous studies collectively demonstr
organiza-
2... .. *
behaviors leaders exhibit are ?L±J± Z’che’ffinnal leader’s “«»l 'iriablB. can a« as sulKtitutes lor leadership, neganng
tatW
1”'”“ •" -1 effectiveness.-'’ .^-eristics of ^uix.r.linatcs sudi » experience, training, ’ c '?Tenrari?.n or need for indcpenticnce can neuaalizx; the effectrt or ability u, '‘’^'Sid^'d.KX task -ambiinikv. Similarly, pc-k’l'' )<->« ^'c inherentj, ate smirtun. an .ntrinsiwlly satisfying may have little need f,< , leX Siv tiranisationa) characteristics stich as expllctt fornuhzed girals,
rigid
X nd proe'edur'es. or cohes.t e work grou,« can act m the place of formal leailcnhip. Thc^rcccding
comments
sttbsequen;
chapters,
roented
have
of
to
the
an
leadenhip
explaining
guided
leader.
It’s
another tions,
goal
it
may
he
independent
employee
tended
behavior.
sorpHSing,
to
too
siiuphstic
therefore,
recognize
variable
contribute
in
a
on
explaining
lol
and
an
solely
toward
ail.
variables
place
It’s
to
Alter
performance
accomplishment
important,
iiidependenr
on
have
predicting &>
not
introduced
impact
concept
and
being
wc
should
undue
the
to
have on
of
the
and
been
d,^
siipp.nen
vanahle
fee
sulwrdirwa
as
behavior
leadership
Itehavior.
employee
2
Yet
this
consnler
that
organizational
(.hapter
satislaction.
l>asis
explaining
that
htink-n
explicitly
.n
of
is
In
their merely
some
productivity,
situa-
absence,
turnover, and satishteuon; but in other situations, it may contribute litde toward iha
end. Even die
media
zadon
think
tliroiigh
ordinarj' the
chirismatic k
a
now’
autocratic,
and
than
merit.
they
is.
ends,
conditions
cri.sis
kadcrdiip
but
becomes to
These
noi
Charismadc
return.
given
xnay
thev The
be
leaders
often
liability.
thinking
that
l>ehaviors
panacea
may
pcrfc»nn
forceful,
a
ihc
be
Charismatic
then
tend
many for
after
the that
managers
are
have
drive
a
good
in
the
pulling
behavior
opinions to
ideal
pxirly
confident
their
that
a
cnsis was
people
gruup
subsides needed
often
greater
public
or and
during
self-possessed,
degree away
and
of
and
certainty can
lead
their organi^aticms dow n dangerous paths.
TRUST AND LEADERSHIP Trust,
or
reiudinder
lack of
of
this
trust,
is
chapter,
an we
increasingly define
what
important tmsr
is
issue and
for
today's
provide
you
managers. with
some
In
the
guide*
lines for helping to build credibility and trust
Miai Is Trust? IriMt is a positive cx|)ectatian that another w ill nor—through words, actions or Sinns act opportunisiicallyz' The two most imfxirtant eleinencs of our defifti6oo>> that jt implies fomiiiariiy and risk. The phrase f^in t apectatiun in our definirion assumes know ledge and familir' 1?™’;*!“'
« a bistory-dcptndeni pnx-xss based rm relevant bet
I o experience, fr takes rime to fbnn, building incrcmentallv and actumuiatingi Most of us find it hard, if not impr«sihlc, to trust someone im^ediarcl) i/
matures
we
gam
confidence
tn
our
ability
to
tiwrii ™ng reboonship. frust mvolvcs making oneself vulnerable as uh.„
have
a
pr^itive
ttsk anT^er^khiv in «>
expecution
ClM0crlo we nnunatc in.bnnanon ..r on BUS. pr-v-Je' the opi’t’rtuniiy fo,
»»KKhep^ pfWWM. Hv i-
■»«,
tni« n<>( fating rist per sr rather someone, 1 expect that they will „<>[ ,1'' ® Unaf arc the tci
’*5'>e« to>
.
dertce has i
jxnxrpuon
,,l
®”‘
M
ai<=
others
co,”
^
’noOier's
trust Ijnl mcanmeicss.
en
indivuluars
technical
••Mrth"*
Wsry^vnhine^s
h.mestj,-
encompasses
con<^
’’’ dimensions .k
charaV^'''^
-mor,!
the
and
dimensi .tTf
inrerpcnsonal
knowledge
and sblh. Df»es rhe person know what he or she is talking abouir You’re unlikely
TO
listen
to
lo
or
depend
helie'*^
on
soinc«»ne
whose
abihhci»
you
don’t
respect.
You
need
person has rhe skills and abilities to earr)* out what he Of she says
ihc) mil do. Ctznfnfwc' in
handling
This
relates
situations.
dimension
qoickb*...
than
is a
TO
an
indisiduafs
’’Inconsistencies
particularly
discrepancy
predictahilit),
between
words
for
managers.
relevant
between
reHabilirv.
what
and
executives
and
acnon
“Nothing preach
and
good
iudgmeiu
decrease
trust."^^
is what
noticed dwy
more expect
their 3.s!Kx;iaic.s to practice.*’^ LoM/fv
i**
the
willingness
to
protect
and
save
fece
for
another
person.
requires that you can depend on Mimeonc not tu act op]xtmmjsucall>; The final dimension of trust is the full truth?
EXHIBIT 10-5 Trust Dimensions
Can you rely on the person to give you
Trust
tart Bl Grooptir the Orgmiw^rion
Ihist and Leaderslup
,
with kaderslup. - WTwn fi.llowe„ willing w be vulnerable t<) the Iwder’s uvuuns^unfid.-nt n^si he abused. People are unlikely to bok up u. or fo|l.« their nxhL'pereeise- as dishonest or who is likely to take advantage <.f them, h , ...imiA- iltrihute
^"v kJ .n.sumi,^-..si.srendy ranks at Ute r-tp of ntost people's kst of c^.ra^ oes UieJaihnire in d.eir leaders. “Honesty is absolutely csst-.t.iai leadechip. II S arJgouig to foMow S'«ueonc willingly, whether .the into l«tUe or^to rhe b.«rdnioin, UKV Lt want m assure themselves that the person ts worthy of the.r
Tliree Types of Trust There
are
three
i;r«i7eJw-bajed, are
enrenng
thev're
npes
ami into
tn.st
in
new
about
relationship.
each
other,
organizao.tnal
‘^The
;JeflZ»/?w««»-ba.scd.
a
vnrerniin
of
They
they
rdationshtpsi
following
have
no
believe
analysis
preenons
they’re
rkrerjrw.-f.lwsed.
asst.mes
two
ex(KTiences
vulnerable
if
ro
they
panjc*
mcrewne;
dtsclosc
too
much roo qnicHy; and Uicy’rc uncertain about the longevity of die relationship. Dcterpcnce-Based based
trust.
Trust
One
The
violation
most or
fragile
relationships
inconsistency
can
are
destroy
contained
the
in
relationship.
deterrenceThis
tnrmof
misr is based on fear of reprisal if tlie trust is violated. Individuals who are in this type of
relacionahip
do
what
they
say
because
they
fear
the
consequences
Irom
not
fbllow-
iiig through on their obhff^fions. Deterrence-ha ajnsequencc-s
air
irusi dear,
To be sust^ained, weigh
the
profit
daJly harmed
uni and
I
work
die
only
lo
puiiishiiiem
the
is
degree
actually
ihni
punish
imposed
il
mem
die
is
crust
possible,
is
violated.
the potential loss of ftinirc intcracdon with ihe other party must outpotenrial
part)’
must
that
comes
l>e willing
from
co
noJadiigcxpcctadotis.
introduce
harm
(for
aVtorcover.
example.
I
the
poien-
iiu
qtialins
haxe
about speaking badlv of you if you l^efray my trust J to the person actins disirustiagly. A'losi new relationships begin on a base of deterrence. ’lijke, ab an ill us tn linn, a situation in M’hich you're selling buyer.
You
the car car
be
morivated
that you know
and
share
might
securing
the
cars
the
flaw^.
your car to a friend of a friend. You don^ know to
refrain
from
telling
this
buyer
ahour Such behavior would increase highest XYhy?
price. Probably
But
yi>u
don’t
because
of
ynur
withhold
fear
of
all
the
problems
chances of selling iiiformarion.
reprisal.
If
You
die
the with Ac
openly
buyer
later
rfiinks you deceived him, he is likely to share this with ynur mutual friend. Ifyou knew Ail
the
to
take
your
buyer
would
advantage
inunul
friend
of
never rhe
would
say
any^iing If
to
nppoi
runity.
chink
considerably
the
ii’s
inntudl
clear
less
of
dur you
friend, rhe for
you
buyer
might would
taking
be tell
advantage
tempted and
that
of
this
buyer-friend, your honest)’ could be explained in deterrence tenns. Anudier example ot deterrence-bxsed tniM is a new manager-employee rebritwf shi^ A« an employee, you typically mist a new Ixss ev cn A< nigh Acre is liltic experiviK^ to Aar trot on. The IJOIHI that creates Ais trust Hes in Ac anthonn’ held b Ae and Ac piiniAment he or she can impose ifyou fail to fulfill vour job-related oblipdons. iOiwIedgc-B^ Trust .Mow oi^izational relationships are nKXwJ in LncMt'ledge* Aat is. ti^M ,s bas^ on Ae lx:havioral prcdiaabtlitv Aat comes from i I' when you have adequate .nfonnabon abtxut someimt lo untieretand them well enough to he able w a«^rately predict their behavior.
• < »
,, . . Knt.wledge-based trust reli« „„ • , ,;n,«vle
Chapter w LoderAip .nd party and predictahilitv arrangumejns nv.re n?” *’r
•| h»^ drvel(,pi» over dint, hrgeiv a« « 0)ftfidcn< c of trustw<»rthincss .md prcdictabilkv
Ihii
of r‘'««’Ten«. 7\replaces the
ueUTrence-basvd Wu«. ’'^€’|*ncnt:e dut builds **’««**•
ntopc acnirau-ly you can predict what he w she wil! .fd.c otherpredictably violate rhe it ustcin be predicted! The niore i n™,. voc have with Mmicoiie else, the more this forn jepended on. InrtTx^stjnglv, jt dw krH>viedce-ba^d b.i-ri . ■
untrustuoX-i
Prcthetalnlity ’^ai thf'>6er mterac’■« develope.l and
enhances
,„^ns..em bebav,or. If yon hc.L yon another, apparent colaco,,, you can accept it. forgive the person and move cut in the Har».nsh.p However, the same inconststency at the deterrence level is likely tn inev4k.'ahly break the trust. 'In
an
organ,rational
knowlcdge-bH^ed. th.ir
the)’
Both
knnu-
what
context,
parties to
most
have
expect
A
manager-employee
enough
long
experience
history
of
relationships
working
consistently
with
open
and
are
each
other
hon«r
inter-
flcrions. for instance, is not lihck to be jxrmanrntly destroyed liy a single violauon.
Idcnrification-Based cmuiinnal the
other
xdefid
conneetion and
Read
intenliuib
Trust
I
betueen
Mih.'juniie
on
and
he
"based
highest
the
fur
piirnes.
that Trust
the
other’s
of
h
person
trust.
appreciate
level
trust
allows in
exists
one
achieved
party
iinerpersonal
because
wants
is
and
ihc
lo
act
there
as
an
uiulcrstand
This
mutual
is
an
agent
tor
This
transac-’tions.
parties
dcsire.s.
when
k
each
called orher’s
understanding
is
developed to the point that each cm effectively act for the other Cnntrob
are
minimal
at
this
level.
You
don’t
need
to
inonuor
the
other
party'
bnause there e.visrs unquesrioned loj'alcy. The coupk'.
best
example
A hiisbiind
of
comes
id to
cnufication-leased learn
whafs
trust
important
is
to
a
long-term,
his wife
and
happily and
man
cipaces
led
those
anions. She, in curn» trusts that he will anticipate what’s imporf.ini to her without having
to
ask.
Increased
idenrillcation
enables
each
to
think
like
the
other,
feel
like
the
□(her, and respond like the other.
who
You
sec
i
have
worked
together
for
mist
long
occasionally
periods
of
uine
m and
organizations have
a
among
depth
of
people
expenence
dui allows them to know each other in.side and nut. This is also the type of trust that mwagers
ideaUv
seek
in
teams.
Team
members
arc
so
comfortable
and,
trusting
ol
-^ch other that thev can anticipate each other and freely act m each odiers ahseiuc.
How Do Vou Build Trust? M-gets who have learned to build trusting Prauttces. The following suminaiires
what
y«.u
can
do
to
cmuLu
these
'tuiugers.*’ „ Pranue opennra. Mistrust comes as *hat
they
do
know.
So
keep
Vi #r„.n what people don’t iotow as from [^rrain the criteriahow people
•fceisums- are ma.Ie are overtly clear. candid about pn.ble.ns, and fully disclose relevant
into
,
rationale
for
vour
decisions
be
Groups m the Or^iuQon
S^crivc
an.1
imp^rdul
in
JK.
fcn>i.mce
appr.-.als,
.nd
pay
attenunn
to
eq,u,y
'
?;XS'S^Sl-S'XS>nv.^ only h.rd fact. con. acn^ as col^, St Ll-'you share «,«r feelings, others w.ll see you a.s and hu.aan. Thtjwill kn..« who vHu are and their rcs[*« for you wjlhncrcase. Tell rhf mub. If integritv is critical to trust, you otust be {.rceived as someone who tells the truth. People are geneiaUy more tolerant of learning somcthlog they “don't want lo hear*’ than finding out that their manager lied to them, SZ-ru n-zwtrfeno- People want predirtahiliiy. Tate the ume tn think about your values aiKi beiiets. Then let them consistently guide your decisions FtdliUya»r So
ii-ust requires that people believe that you are dependable.
you
need
to
ensure
lhat
you
keep
your
word
and
commitments.
Promises
nudv must be pn)nuscs kept. Mfji/ft/ffjf can fit
iwfiileaees.
rely. fence,
People
IfiKople I
hey
make
need
trust
those
themselves
to
feel
who
arc
vulnerable
assured
tliat
discicct
by
you
and
telling
you
n
diseuss
will
uptm
whom
something it
they
in
with
con-
oihcrs
or
hvti’ay chat confidence. [kwfirjmuf srr^mnff
C0»rpefme. technical
Develop the
and
a dm i rati
professional
ability'.
on
and respect
Pay
particular
nf
others by dcin^ir-
atreniion
to
developing
and (iisplayinff vour conmuinication, negotiating, ami other interpersonal skills. IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS
The
topic
leadership
pers-peedve.
ovcr\’iew among
of
the
what
leadership
certainly
does
dieories
it
all
and
doesn’t mean?
anempt
lack Let’s
to
for
theories.
cry^
to
detenninc
But
idendfy*
wdiat,
from
an
commonalities
if
any,
practical
value the theories hold for managers. (Careful often
examinaiinn
expressed
in
ing—permeate
most
Fiedler,
bur
it
group,
“directive”
Michigan people
task
nf
by
Clearly, and
gets
name
and
leadership
people—Inn ewn
ends
other
not
on
both)
the
concepts
diat
hold
I'he
task
dimension
of for
treatment,
“initiating
can
going
shi-unk t,,
ot
voiirinuuni
(you
or
two
independent
and the
called for
same just
the
Blake
and aliases
mean-
that
dowm difter
to
State
by
the
Mouton.
The
ns
a-;
could
be
dimensions
(vou
two to
high
•\onsidct-
ctnild
'
Jute ^en shown, over tuiic, to be modest predictors of leadership effectiveness. But the ra« that a manager possessed intcUigence. drive, self-confidence, or the like would no ^ans assure us that his or her siibonlinates would IK- nnMlucQ« le.den4.lp .
lead-
dimensions— whether
on
by
Ohio
“relationship-ortentcd”
How iJiould we interpret rhe findings presented ,n dii.s chapter? Some traits
X’"*-"
‘‘people’’—
orientation”
such
ur
uomiiiue
single
is
by
under
ixscarchcrs a
substanuaiiy stmciLire”
production”
be
“cask'’
“production
“employee-oriented” behaviur
of
terms
.supporters,
“concern
similar
arc
Inw on bodi).
the
path-goal
oncntarions but
theories.
and
siipponive.’
that
elaborate
the
by
researchers,
arion. ership.
more
goes
dinicnstun
discloses
one he
the «r
the
hieh
«>r
Chapter 10 Leadersh^ wd Cresting Tma The early lask/peoplc anor,«..k„ , , ri*l grid thoM-iw,) al»> ..ffer us Utrlc
•'^’'chiMn and •‘’’"•ge-
make on the basis of these theories is >l t"'*' sirongesr tanonshouW end up with satisfied *
'‘’ho ra J h; i
ean
Jnuluccs in- and san^hicX;-or the iho ,,<.,..1 ,,. do„l„p o-ono„B,„^"i7
''’‘''»>»P 0,0.0 when „ A, e^enr. ,h. erido,,., i„di/,,,?,~*«W «n.,u.„i
d.,r«ten»„, snob
Md^S"'’ '"«»«■ «< follower
J we dhvussed the role ih,« tn.s/n? I ^• ^rs tnday z«u«t tk-veJop trustingrdariondnps S d' Bwause organrzanons hare heeomc Ic® suf, WW« are replacing bureaucratic rales iti definin?
nan««k to lead. Why? strong bonds of “etuTwg expectations and relationships.
4 . 1
CHAPTER11
v.
1 « ► s.
Power and Politics
*<
Abe' reading this chapter you should be able to Define power Describe the five bases of power Explain what creates dependency in power relationships Describe how power is central to understanding sexual harassment
A
•1 *1 ■
Define political behavior
•
Describe the importance of a political perspective
!
1.
Explain the factors contributing to political behavior in organizations Identify seven techniques for managing the impression you make on others
JjmifiT may he X
even
want
it
sex Uy
ihc last dirty word.
than to
u
appear
is
to
not
talk to
be
It
is easier
about
power.
seeking
it;
for
most of
People
who
and
those
its to talk
have
who
it
are
alxjut monq*
deny good
it; at
people
getting
setTetive nbouc how they got it.’ In this chapter, we show iliar pr)wer detennines what goals a gr<’“P pursue and how the group’s resources will be distributed among its members. Further, ’^^einbers wiiJi good political skills use their power to influence the djstnhutUHi of reMjurces in thek favor.
A DEFINITION OF POWER Hower refers to a < that z\ has to influence the behavior of B so that B A** tha ’«•« -lefinition implies d) a pvrr««-/ that need not he actuiluxd to Int effutive. (2 > a ,/.pe.de»ee rclarion'h.p, and ( b lha» »
it
or
who ate
Chapter n p
h« some over his or her own liehivior Leti, 1 more closely. powxr may exist bui nor be used. It is, therefor^ have puwer bur not impose it. Pn,^iWy the most important aspen of power • • dence. 'Hie grvflter R’s depcntlcncc on A. the greater i v'
look at eadi of these (xiim, ’ ‘•’"picny or ixitendat. One can of depen-
PcpeiicJt^H’f^’ in lum, i.s based on idiernativcs that B
^ * Pf>*cr in the relationship.
DC
B pbces on the iiltemncves tliar A controls. A oerson
unponance that
he ,ir she controls something ym, desire. If you wanr
you only if
a certain course lo gel that degree, and vour cun-ent member m the uinversii y who tenches that course lie or shr h' jlrernatives arc dcr.nkel,. limited, and you place a 5-cr you. Your
'''
olitaiiiitig 3 passing grade. Similarly, if youn. attending umve^sitv im entirely by your purems v-ou probably recognize the power thev bold over yor^bu^e dependent mr them for financial supyx-rt. But once you're out of school have a ?ob are
making
:i
.solid
income,
your
parents'
power
is
miuced
sigmficamly
\ko
among us. though, has not known or heard of the rich relative who is able to control a lanje
number
ol
fanuly
members
merely
through
the
implicit
or
explicit
tlircat
of
writing them out ol the will? For A to gel B to do soineching be or she nrherwise wodd not do means B musr hai’t
the
discretion
grainincd
that
he
to
is
make
choices.
billowed
no
At
room
the
tu
extreme,
make
if
choices,
B\ he
job
hehatdor
ohvimisly
is
is
so
pro-
constrained
in
his flliiljiY co do something other than w'hat he is tiointt. For instance, inb descriptions, group
norms,
nrganizarional
rules
and
rcgulaiions,
as
well
as
coniniunity
laws
and
standards cons I rain people’s chokes. As a nurse, you may be dependent on your super^ riser
for
comply sand
continued
with
her
dollars
employment.
request
from
to
petty*
Bui,
perform
cash.
Your
in
spite
of
this
heart
^surgery
on
job
description
dependence, a
and
patient laws
or
you’re steal
against
unlikely
.several
stealing
to
thou-
constrain
your a bl I it)' to make those choices.
CONTRASTING LEADERSHIP AND POWER A
careful
the
comparison
prerious
intertwined.
of
chapter
Leaders
our
should
use
description
of
bring
recognition
power
as
the a
way
power
to
with
our
that
attain
the
group
description two
goals,
of
concepts
and
power
leadership are is
br faciliuting dicir adiicvcmcnt. differences relited
to
goal
cktsely a
j..
are
there
compatibility.
between Power
leadership
does
not
and require
powerr goal
One
in
meins ..
diherence
compatibility,
is
mercy
dependenc-e. Leadership, on die other hand, rejuires sonic polls
of
the
leader
and
those
of
the
led.
The
other
difference
deals
withL
the
dn^^
that research on the ru’o concepts has taken. Leadership researci, or ^tnphasizes
style.
It
seeks
answers
to
questions
g such
as:
How
,upp
Ittader he? How much decision making should be share wi the research on power has teinled to encompass a for gaining compliance. It has gone beyim c ^n ^’’■»vr can lx; used by groups as well as by individuals to tonm.i ntnu
c-,erciser because ' i„jividuals or
1
<• **
.. A
hrtm Cirom ia d«
A
BASES OF POWER WTterc docs power come from? '' Hm is it that gives an individual or a group tnfl,«„cj V\-hcrcdocs p< t q„esnT« of o, ™ of ™;wer: coercive, reward, legitinitiU, expert, and referent (see Lxiul«t U-l,.
Coercive rOM’cr l-he etavreive power base is delmed by^ French and Raven as being dependent o„ tear One reacts n, this power out of fear of the neganvc results that might oenir if one fiaded to comply. It rests on tlie appiu ai ion, or the threat of application, of phy^ ital sanctions such as UK inflicn.in of pain, the gencn.tion of frustration through of movcincni. or the control ling In force of basic phy’siological or Mfcty In die 19305, when J<jhn Dillinger went into a bank, held a gun to a teller’s head, and
asked
requesL
for
His
money,
jxiwer
tec
be was
was
incredibly
coercive.
A
successful loaded
gun
at
getting
gives
its
compliance holder
power
with
his
because
others are fearfo! that they will lose something that they hold dear—their iKes. Of all the bases of pos^xr available . .. , the p<wcr tn hurt others is possibly most often
u«ed,
most
often
condemned,
and
most
difficult
to
control
.
.
The
state
rehes on its military and kgal resmircrs to iuiiuiidate naliut»>, or even its own citizens. Businesses rely upon the contiol ol ccojiojiiic resources- Schools and universjdes rely upon their rights to deny studcab fonual cducarion, while the church thi catena individuals with loss of grace. .Ac the personal level, iadi vidua Is exercise coercive power through a reliance upon phi'sical strength, veHial fa ci liny or the ability
to
grart
or
widihohl
emotional
support
frtirn
i.ithers.
Ihesc
bases
provide
the individual with the means m physically hanii, bully, humiliate, or deny Invc to odtcrsc At the organizational level, A has coercive power over B if A can dismiss, suspend, or demote B, assuming that B values his or her job. SimilarJv, if A can assign B
EXHIBIT 11-1 Measuring Bases of Power Does i have one or more of the five bases ..Pposirer’ Affiniiative responses to ilic suRinvnts cin answer rhia question; ■ The pcR<m i-an make (hio^ tiifficulr for people, and you want to avoid ceding him or her angry (aieaivc powrr, ■ The |iri^ is able to pvc special benefits W fewa.O. to people, and v.w find U adv«itags<.»« r<> rratle favors wirh him or her (rv^ anJ power> ■ 1 he person has the right, etrnsidenng his or her p.skion and «.ur sob re.potvsjbilines. to expwt pm to crxiipfy wrh legiuniate requests (leptimaic power) ■ ^K- p^ has the experience and knowledge K> eui, war r«pe«. and W« defer to b» of htr judgment in some matters (c«pen power) a V.IU hke the persitn and enjoy d.«ng dunp K>r lum or her (referent power) Ae^ye«tB(,, Me IWl. p. an, Copynrit ©199l b, m. Menc.r, ^ychoKtgicai tesocMtM H«nnw -• >
Chapter 11 P«>weT and Pnlitx*^ activities dwt B finds unpkasunt nr treat B in a maiwer that H Ing. A possew.*! coercive power (»vcr B.
The
e
..pi-s-
aireu.vcs
L
B
Reward Powe of
ol
embarrass-
n.eravc
power
an<,thcH-cc3Usc
.s
rewani
domg
so
prodoces
.hsmbotc rewards othe.-s as can dismb’itc rewards chat thaco(hei> view view as valuab rewards
can
think
be
of
anything
money,
assignments,
rhat
another
favorable
friemlly
power.
colleagues,
e
pc-rson
will
values.
with
benefits; have
Tn
appraisals,
iinp.irtant
comply
positive
valuab
perlonnancc
People
over
and
one
The»
ontext,
w^
interesting
preferred
„r who
them
organizational
promotions,
information,
wish«
therefore
power
an
the
work
work
shifts
or
sale^ rurniorics. Oiercivc thing her.
of
and
prisitive
you
positive
have
reward value
coercive
value
or
power
are
from
another
power
over
remove
atnmily or
that
something
counrerpam.
inflitT
sonwdiing
person.
of
If
If
negative
you
you
of
negative
can
value,
csin
give
you
remove
value
on
somwme
have
reward
scmehim
or
something
of
power
over
that person. As with coercive power, you don’t need to be a manager to be able to exen influence
through
available
m
rewards.
everyone
in
Rewards
an
such
organization.
as To
friendliness, die
degree
acceptance, that
an
and
praise
individual
are
seeks
such
rewards, your ability to give nr withhold them gives you power over that individual.
Legitimate Power In
Formal
of
the
groups
power
and
bases
organizations,
is
one's
probably
structural
the
most
position.
This
frequent is
access
called
to
legitimate
one
or
power.
more
It
rep-
re sc nth the power a person receiver as a result of his or her position in the formal hierarchy of an organization. Positions however,
is
nf
authority
broader
than
acceptance
by
principals,
hank
dewed
he
to
members
include the
coercive
powers
to
of
an
organization
presidents,
or
ariny
within
the
authoring
reward
coerce of
captains of
and
and
the
their
reward.
authority
speak
powers.
of
Specifically, a
(assinning
positions),
Legitimate
position.
that
teachers,
it
includes
\ATien
their
icJlcrs,
power,
school
directives and
first
are lieu-
tenants listen and usually comply.
Expert Powder Expert
power
Expertise hecotnc
has more
increasingly expertise w
too
is
become
wielded
one
of
technologically
dependent
and do
influence
hence computer
on expert
the
as
a
most
oriented. “experts”
tax
of
[powerful .As
to
power—most
specialists,
result
jobs
experose. sources
of
us
of
become
achieve
goals. follow’
accountants,
special
Influence
more So,
the
solar
as
or
know
the
specialized,
ledge.
world
we
as
physicians
advice
our
doctor
engineers,
Referent Power last category' of influence that French and Raven idenofied w as h« »identification with a person w ho has desirable resources oi’ pe™ m I admire and identify with you, you can exercise power ovt^r me because I want
industrial
has
become
just
and other specialists.
fdcaae yim.
skill,
gi\es
have us
psycholo-
MM
Gfoaps in the Orfaoiution . 1 . .^yJmiraiion of anothu admire ««nc.«c
3 Cin.lv Cm. lord, .nd M.choel.|..rdnn h..e .he ^x.wcr to mflu.ncey..^
choice of pharm.cxuticak, he.kh clubs, and .thk-t.c sh.KS, or
I
wwid
jnil.lir
pn.hjblv
.tocsn'i
nccriug.
dt
i.knrik
i.vvr
.vid,
physically
ns
smooth
vou
and
imposing,
or
4
inc.
s,.lv> In
y«.
pitch
as
du-sv
organizations,
charismatic,
you
il
hold
c.khntits.
you
.ire
personal
hut
he
articulate,
1,,^ dotni.
charatter.st.cs
th«
may lie iistit to get others to do what y«Mi waiU.
DEPENDENCY: THE KEY TO POWER Earlier
in
this
chapter
wc
noted
the
iru|x>rtain
relationship
between
power
and
depen-
dence. In this section, we show ht>w an uiiderstimding of drpe*n
The General Dependency Postulate I>ets
begin
Vkidi
a
general
postulate;
Thedeffernkthy
rui
.1,
the
gf'ftftcrpirwtrA
bat ViH-r IT When you |Kksscss anything that orhers require hut d’lat you alone cniiccol, you
make
them
De|>endency;
dependent
then,
js
soiiK*thmg
is
intelligent,
intelligence
on
you
inversely
plentiful,
and.
therefore,
proportional
possession
of
gives
special
no
ii
to
will
the
not
you
gain
alternative
increase
advantage.
power
sources
your
power.
Simibrl)^
among
over of
If
them?
suppH.
If
everyone
is
the
super-rich,
money is no longer power. But, as the old saying goes, ‘in the land of the blind, the one-ey’cd
man
is
tige,
or
anything
more
yuu
This
principle
can
ting!” thai
If
you
can
others
create
crave,
cx|und
your
options,
explains,
tor
example,
a
they the
monopoly
Iwcome
less
power
so
many
why
by
controlling
dependent
on
you
in
the
aspire
to
of
place us
infnrmaiinn,
wu.
pres*
Conveisely, hands
of
financial
the
olhers. indepen-
dence. Financial indc|K*ndence reduces rhe power odicrs can have over us.
VVTiat Creates Dependency? Dependency
is
Importance Ju
If
create
tant,
Its
should,
been will
oonsistently critical
^ggest
that,
greased
power
^MXer
&
for
u'hat
that
die
ytju’ve
you
in
understood
as
resource
to
found most
that
vidua
the
powerful.
Tr
firms
during
labor
strike,
the
fiamhie.
1
engineers, hese
as
a
inferences
not
groups
wus
who
appear
to
can
avoid
their
the
he
more
generally
imporWc
organizations
these
a
study
firms
were
researcher
the
might
represenbutves
have
valid-
This
that
fact
powerful
do become tnore powerful within rhe pcrMmnel area and the organization as a wlw^
an
instance,
products,
negotiaiiug
as
uncertainty*.
atvsorb
in
jn/nt?
dependent'-
perceived
deparonents by
and
create
For
selling
be
to
are
to
concluded
would
important
resource.
organizjjrion's
group,
that
seek
iniporuat
was
i.s
going
things
markedmr
these
that
or an
facing
or
its
control
Is
uncenainty a
control
organizations
control that
jvu
gut,
nuist
instance,
organizations raced
the
therefore,
expert be
when
wants
found,
rlierefore.
industrial
most
nobody
de)xrndency,
uncenaints’ of
increased
at
Intel
Labor
than
at
negoriau**
during periods ..f fehorsmfe. .An otgani^tion .uch as l . driven company, is dependent on its engineers t„ „ at bH^'arc clearly the most r,nwe?M
" Power,nd Pohu« " ' is a tcchnologv. ‘‘‘'‘■'’'J! *erc-
nwrkenng is rhe name uf rhe ga.„c, anj
'^t I’ructer & Gamble,
These examples support not only die viess' that th ‘"'tr
f^werful group, "’’“ntinty
iijcreases a groups miponancc and, hence, its power h L° jguational. It varies witlun any gii’en organiMtion. Spuxity
-\s
among
organixation.s and undo ubtedly also vanes <jvcr rime
pi
noted
cvioasly,
if
something
?
i.
is
nkntifi.i
V“ „
increase your power. A resource needs to be perceived as This
rehniuiship
c.m
help
n>
explain
how
l^-raiilrin
need
to
m
k?”dependency
ttho have important knowledge not available to high-ranld^rm" p,w^r
over
the
.mportam
high-ranking
mrmhen.
The
im^-fedge-.uukes
,anbng
member.
The
relanon
behavKirs
ot
low
destroying
the
procedure
people
their
m
job
language
and
ating
secrecy
in
rankrng
that
scarcity
member,
even
terminology so
of
manual.s
or
the
to
that
that
u,
dependcucy
show
others
exactly
that
inhibit
others
from
the
activity
will
also
might
how
appear
a
«
h,gh.rankmgt;:di:;;^;::::^:,^^
otherwise
describe
obtain
a
seem
job
what
is
helps
make
of
illogical,
such
as
done,
they
do,
understanding
reusing
creating
to
spccialited
iJieir
jobs
complex
and
difficult
seen
die
|xiwer
more
train
or
oper-
than
it
reaDyis. The
scarcity-dcpcndeiuy
padonal
categories.
relative
lo
ove
than
Individuals
demand can
UnnersJ5'
can
those
for
demand
high
puter-science
in
in
computer-science and
the
faculty
allows
no
in
them
ami
problem
limited. to
in
The
be
in which
which
instructors,
supply
furihcr
compensation
occupations have
van
octnjp^atiuns
ncpjtiatc
adniinistrainrs
market
relationship
the
today
is
result
negotiate
personnel
packages
far
an
finding
contrast, is
is
that
higher
of
supply of
benefit
there
in
abundance English
extremely
the
bargaining
.salaries,
lighter
occuis
nicire of
low
awrac-
candidates.
instructors. tight,
The
wnth
power
of
teaching
the comloads,
and other benefits.
POWER IN GROUPS: COALITIONS Those “out of power” and seeking to be “in” will first tn' to increase their power iadindually.
Why
spread
the
spoils
if
one
doesn’t
have
to?
Bur
if
this
approach
proves
ineffective, die alternative is to form a coalition. There is strength in numbers. The natural wav to gain influence is to become a pi wcrholder. There orc, ose who want power wnll anempr to build a personal power base. But, in doing so mav be difficult, riskv. cosdv, or im|>ossiblc. In such cases, e o nude ,o form a coalition of twa. or more "outs” who. by lomnig t-^ther. can each hetwr themselves at the expense o1'those outside the coalmon., Historically, blue-aillar workers who were unsucce» u m •^n
behalf
w
ith
management
resorted
to
reccut labor
unions
to
^'’8^
white.„,llar emplovees and professionals have
greater
finding „ difficult to exert power mdividually to attain higher wages and gre Wh« predicthms can we make about ««« m cKganiaduns nhen seek to nuxinuxe their size, m po
ninied
^Sl^en^^ibeoty,
to
unions
Crmip> in the OrganiMtion .. „>abti«ns W'e "rSmrn from
u,- ..ther »-av—6ey rrv h> minimize their size. They tend to he RwW ntcess^rv to achieve their obiccuvcs. But Icgislaijj W organizadons in that kpslarors make ite p.l.cj.
th
out
a
-n
cSned
im
"
Son
docs
must
niinnent
ests more
controlled
are
merely
at
in
so
the
occur
decision
least
as
from
to must
about
coalitiims
of
w
in
itself.
than
in
coaiitionS,
Its
size
is
com-
support
as
many
of
course,
the inter, is
cuminimknt,
and less
T,^
necessary,
cooperation,
autocratic
organi.
a„d
to
cnttmipass
which
.n
of
wnsanientv
il«t
alternative.
consensus-building,
coiturcs tlic
set
decision
broad
expanded
valued
a
making
impkmemamn
ihc
facilitate
highly
maximizing
a
be
to
where
as
seek
Densn.n
among the
important
organizational are
managers.
organizations,
expansion
making
organizations,
fn
coalition
in
or
scicermg
organizalions
Coaliiion
to
shared
with
decision
possible
ad.moiaimtnrs
implemented,
nsilidons
likely
and
end
obiccrives,
as
separate
<
tiic
for
coalition’s
not
also
to
therefore
hv
decisi<m.
hierarchically likely
t„
l,,
«)nghT. Another within
rhe
deal
of
dence
prediuion
organization.
task
and
among
More
coalirions
resource
subunits
is
related
will
likely
interdepcntlencc.
and
le’is
In
to be
the
degree
created
contrast,
where
there
coalition
formation
activity
will
influciK\:d
by
of
mterdcpcixleiKc
there
will
be
where
is
a
less
great
interdepen-
subunits
are
largely
self-contained or resources are abundant. Finally, perform.
workers
uaduns. see, to
The
more
the
p-eater or
i<>aliri
are
offset
dardized
u
thus,
high
adirionally
grf>up,
will
fonii.
can
more
c>T)CS.
Of
relative
to
jobs,
or
be
their we
nmtine is
where
to
demand
or
expect
of
that
individual
in
non
resort
to
a
jobs,
w’here even
of
tiiemhets sir-
coalition.
We
workenihaa
skilled
and
organizations these
the
routine
lionprofessional
supplj’
workers
p’Oup
than
and
the
tasks
situations,
greater
low-skill
would
actual
work
expected
to
course,
the
the
In
dependence
they
appeal
unique
a
their
dependence* unions
is
of
coalitions
pndessional
emplo)'ccs
he
task
table;
this
that
and
the
thut
‘^uhsrini
therefore,
sional
routine
Irkelihfiud
To
skilled
fi>rnuiiior^
profes-
have
inciimhenis
stan-
to
find
unionization atiractive.
POWER AND SEXUAL HARASSME>JT The issue of sexual harassment has received increasing attention by corporarioiis the media liecause of the growing ranks of female employees, especially in noniradb U on al work e nn rn n n icn ts. legally, ual
hivors,
sexual and
nfher
nature.
But
sexual
hara-ssiiienr.
years
there
recurrmg
«xuai
pniprismon
face
around
ments;
sexual
is
verbal a
wdl
the
great overt
reques-n rc«.
more
ani^cxs,
in
subdc si,ch
defined
physical deal
as
as
unw'elcotne
conduct,
whether
of
have forms
lor t
is
or
Org.mizatiuns
Imuiing
tms-ard
rmichmg.
harassment
disagreement
made of
dates
after
losing
one’s
forms mi.
of e
a
overt
about
consi.ierable
sexual
advances,
job. sexual
calendars,
in
problems
of where the kne tierween “be,ng fncndlv" ends in,l “k
rhe
a
ihre.ats
today
are
work-plate-
coiisanittS past
that
or
fe"’ phw«‘
refusing^
likely
looks
sex* sexual
imwantcd
harassment-unwanted in
of
'the
including and
for
spccificallv
progress
refusal,
The
subtle,
what
harassment, clear
or
requests
to or
surC.MU-
misinterpretation
•« i
M<«.t studies confirm that rhe concept oft^ h^«mein ' begins. hanssraent.‘’This seems tube true whether thrharassm'’^'^'^ coworker, or even a sulmrdinaie. 1 he sa|R-n ,M,r‘m
, T"''" i I" rx'Mir-employee dyad lH;st charactennS*^
ChdpUrll Powerpnlltiei
unequal P«e«relationship, m which position power L rcM^nJ and nxirre Supervisor,, give subordEs capacity perinnna"'*- make rccoinine.nhaons for sabrv „|i.^ evaluate their Jecide uhi'fltei an i-mploj-re retains his or her ioh Pnimotions. an.1 even ■xiwer. Becaiisc subordinates want favorable perform^ dcasi.ns give a su,Knisor
important
and
scarce.
Its
also
I' •V * ***. r^:
“'ary increases, and
rhe like, It* clnir that supmwm lonrrol rUon.ees worth
notin?
thit
"‘“’^^^"'^ordinaKs
inU-
„.|«s (inanagv.iK-in i»osirions, for Sample) sonieiimpThr ’' v”
consider
h.gh-status
subor
harassing
Sclty tor .he person being ha^sscrl^TX; ,,,nl agains. another’s. Are there odim this Inss has ham^efoX " " "P; fonrard? Be.aiise of the supervisor’s control over ixisout.^ many who ’ to ‘ rtur oi reuJiation Iry- the supemsor
arv
art*
C<>workers don’t have pcisfoon power, but tl.ey can have influence and use it to ,„uallv hat ass peers. In fact, although co-worke. s appear to engage in .somewhat less severe
fonnj,
perpetrators
haiassniefic
of
power?
Most
sapjwn.
For
support
from
teams.
of
By
sexual often
by
die
co-workers,
threatening
do
hanissment
it’s
example,
chan
to
supervisors,
in
providing
vo-workei-s
organizerions. or
are
How
snthholding
the
do
coworkers
informarinn,
cffectivx
j>crfonnaiu’e
of
most
jiilw
especially
nowadays,
as
work
increasingly
wnihhold
or
delay
[Konding
most
exercise
ccHipcradon,
requires
infbrrnauon
freuiKiit
inccrachon is
that’s
and and
assigned
co
ncce?>sar>
lor
harassment
by
the succcWiil iu hitfvement of your work goals, co-\\ork’ers ran e xert power over you. Hanissmcnt
hy
subordinates
doesn’t
get
nearly
the
;ittention
that
a supervisor docs, but it ilocs wcur. Persons in positions of power can be subjected to sexual Usually gender
harassment die
sufHirdinate
[lersons
.suljordinate
sterconpes
orpassivin*
from
if
char
will
reflect
the
victim
is
eattage
in
such
a
in
less
dcv^alue
powerful the
negatively on wonwti;
superior
die
person
impotence
practices?
lb
positions
gain
or
through in
if
(such
a
power
rhe
organiMOon.
highlighting
power
timidity
some
within
as
man).
over
the
traditional helplessness
Why
would
a
higher-ranking
person or to minimize pow’cr differentials. 1 he topic of sexual harassment is about (tower. It’s about one indhidual^ wntrolling or threaieiiing anofoer. It’s wrong. It’s illegal. But you can .iiukrstand bow «tual harassment surfaces in organizations if you analyze it in terms oi power.
POLITICS: POWER IN ACTION '^htn
people
get
together,
power
will
be
e-xertefl.
People
'^‘’"’1^*’.^^“^'^
^When
from which utexen intluc^Ke. earn rewards, and advance employees in org.mi/.atioiis convert their (xjwer iino a>--nnn, Those with good political skills have the
ability
to
use
batts^f (Mwer thc.r bases (xiwe
effectively.
A Definition of Politkal Behavior pierc have been no shortages of dcHnitions they have fiKused on the use of p>we ‘‘T^non or on behaviors hy members that ****»«ed.’ hot our purposes, »c define pohticaf
, Essentiallv. iingi" tbeorganorganiMOonalty non,n yrganizJiion-s as ttor
’'' •'••V '
MM
11 U
“^^’T^definiQtw ciMXtnpasses A el«TOcnii of „ik about orpm«o<.Ml pobm.- PoIuK-il belw.-.or u requirements.
The
behanor
require,
most people ii^ ones ip«^ j
some
attempt
to
U«
/«rer
nidon erKompasKS eff.wu to influent the goais, enrem or
makme
b«e^
O*
det
used for duii.,
when w« «ate dial politics is cuncctncd with the ai^nbuooii of adv-am^p,
and disadvantages widiin the organizaticm. ()ar definidon is broad enough m ind,^ such varied political behji iors as wirfihoUing ke> iaformaatm from denswn makrre, whtsde-blou'ing. filing of gries-ances. qjreaibng ran. .rs, leaking ainfideniial inform uon about organizarional acnxiocs to the media, eichanging favors uith others m o^raniranon fi.r mutual benefit, or k>bb)ing for tw against a paiucubr indisTdittl „ decidon.
The
Importance
'Ibosc arc
who
fail
political
could
rooperarive.
ahra)^
actiow
nTOms.
mpinixanons or
to
behave
of
It be
ledge
would
political be
nonpolidca]
in
w
as
perspective
consisrenr
«*ith
Political
behavior
nice
described
A
a if
all
supportive, can
the
It
rcMrict
output,
tires, hr
distort
activities
can
help
to
anciupt
explain, to
for
lead
"build
empires?
one
to
of
the
why
publicize
figures
to
make
diemseh'es
that
to
at
odds
with
be
rhe
or
that
formal
organization
groups
trusting.
believe
that
vidcB
c\>ll^ioramt
empkn-ecs
oiyanization.
In
w®
onntnsu
a
to be irrarional (behavior in otgaar-
performance appear
reality
harmonious,
interests
in«;tan<x.
the
o^anizadons
political new can explain much of whar may seem zations.
ignore
Perspetlive
emplcn’ces tbeir look
w
iihh<j!d
successes, better,
organizadons
and
inforaatioo.
hide
their
engage
in
desire
for
Wdmi*
effetmeneg
and cfBdencs'. Factors Contributing to Political Behavior RecetiT research and obun anon have identified a number of factors due associated
vith
the
qualities
unique
pkHtical of
the
bchanor.
Some
people
whom
are the
individual organization
characteristics, empio\*s;
othas
appctf to be derived are
a
fc® resub
of the organs oon*s culture or internal cnvirunmenL Individual Factors Researchers ha*c idenulieii rgrtajp personalit}' charactcnsocs. neeik, and other indiridual factors that are likelv to he related to pnlidcal heharior. Fmplovres who arc authoritarian, have a propensity for high risk, or possess an citerual locus of control (believe that forces outside thefnseh*es cuntrol their dc^liny) poliucally with less regard for the consequences to the orgapjzad*^* A high ncAl for power, autonomy, security, or starus is also a mai<M* contributor to an empjorre’s tendenes tt> engage in political behavior? Organuatxmal Factors Political aeririn' zaiion’s culture than of indiridual dirtercoccs.
is
pnihabh* more a hineriun Because <w>gmbahons ha»*
of
the
a large number of employees with the eharartcristics prcriou&h listed, set the ence of polidcaJ behavior varies widely. Although we acknowledge the role that indiridual differences can pbv in fo«sring politicking, the evidence more Htrcmgl)' supports that certain culture proa**
Chapter 11 Pouer a nrl P< iht ia politii's. Culrurcx characU'rized hy l„w trust role sy.tcnu, reward allo,an<«, eng. prc:^surc> for performs,K% and se1^scmii» ’ rtj>iX)minitics tbr puli tic JI avdvjties to lie nurtured
• »ty, unclear pcrff»rmaiwe ucv.sion niakKKraric decision niak'iiaiwgcrs will vreatc
behjvior. SH high trust should suppress th; level of palJkal hX Role
ambiguity
that
-ne.ns
ti,c
prescribed
beh^X^!
’
fI'''"'-
cle^t. There ;iie few limits, tbcrvloic, to the scooc in.) P •
,
are not
poltoal aetions. Since poliuc:,! at-cinties are deUncd'as thos^^TT " «"iplt>yee's Hrmal role, the greater du- role ambiguity the m 'c on ^erivity Hith little chmne of its hemg visible Pertbriniiiice evaluadun is fer from non-s
...SV
sllow
sigilihcant
lihood
siib)et'tive
an
create
time
enter.a to
employee
.imhiguity.
pass
can
The
.n
lue
the
ol
an
away a
perfected
appraisal,
henveeii
get
a
emphasize
aciiun
with
single
"" science. Tlu-
nnd
a
its
politicking.
outcome
single
more outcome
appraisal,
the
Suh]ectivc
measure
that
or-nizA-
measure
greater
the
performance
encourages
or like
criteria
individuals
to
do
whatever is nreessary to look good on that measure, but often at the expense of perfbrniing
well
on
other
iinportam
part.s
of
the
iob
that
are
not
being
appraised.
The
amount of time that cia|vses heiwecii an action and its appraisal is .also a relevant factor.
The
longer
the
time,
the
more
unlikely
it
is
±at
the
etnplovee
will
be
belli
acc(>unti»Hle for political behaviors. rhe more an organizacion’s culrure emphasizes ilir zero-sum or win-losc 3[^Ji\meh to reward alloeauoiis, die more employees will be motivated to engage in |x>liliiking. rhe zero-swn approach treats the reward '*pic'’ as fixed so that any gain one person or group achieves has co come at the expense of another person or group. 11 1 win, you niu.sl lose! If 520,000 in annual raises is to be distrihiiTcd among five empiovees, then any empkn ee who gets tn ore ihan $4,000 takes money away from one or more of the others. Such a practice encourages making cthei’S look bad and increasing the nsibility of what you do. For toward
several
making
decades
organizations
niore dem (jcra lie ally. decisions
and
process.
Such
individual
ihev
moves
managers.
Many
tu
make
sonal
costs
lu
achieve
against
their
Thcyhe rdv
toward
jKwer
there
less
should
mate
directly
now,
told they' to
a
desires.
should
sought
The
ral
result
extent
positions. that
in
being
group not
input
hard
into
order
and
often
Sharing
their
power
managers
may
use
America
to
advise
necessarily in
Norih
asked
subordiniues to
positions
fought
move
are
on
are
their
They
is
general
alkm
however,
decisions.
influeni
a
Managers
greater
democracy,
unilateral
been
autocratic.
managers
their
has
behave them on
the
dedsion
embraced
by
to
legm-
paid with
the
have high
per-
others
rubs
required
teanv,
eomniirtecs, conferencc.s, and group meetings in a superficial way as arenas maneuvering and inanipiilaiina. rhe inure pressure that einploy'ces teel to perform wcl, l morL '
„ . lu.j,. rE..v-ire
m engage in pidiiicking. Holding people strictly accountable or pressure on them to ‘‘look gooil’* A person who perceive.s tliar is
t^eer —oorr will
riding on new quarter's sales figures or next months plant prn< “ highly mottvat^ to do whareXr is necessary to mate sure the numbers come
Finally, when employees see the people on mp «P«««y when they do 2 succes-sfuUy and are rewarded Ibr it. a chma
a
i^created
Gro«p» In the Oganizibon , *’S-kX?in
- -.jiUrlcTftff Pfilirickinc h>* top mtfttgemcnt. in a sense, gives peniila||tf .he nrB.niz.non K, pby polinc b, implying rh..
.nd,
hch^
impression
ochen
acccpraWc.
Impression Mnnagement We that iKopk have an ...igoing interest in how others perceive and thetn For exampk- North Americans spend billions of dollars on diets, health duh memlierships. c.smetioi, and phisric surgery—all intended to make them more attractive to others Being perceived |«.sitively by others should haw benehts for people in orgaiiizittions h migl.i, for instance, help them initially to get the jobs they u-ant in oi-ganizanon and. once lured, to get favorable evaluations, supennr salary increasw, and more rapitl promotions. In a political contcvi. it might help sway the distribution of advanuges jn their fevor The form
pnjcess
of
them
impression
by is
which called
niaiipgeincnt
individuals
attempt
impression
(LM)
to
control
management."
techniques
and
In
aux-rtain
the
this
section
whether
wc
they
review
actually
work
in organiiations. Techniques verbal
Afost
self-pres
of
the
ent
a
attention
lion
given
behaviors
to
that
LVl
lecliniques
individuals
use
has
to
centered
manipulate
on
seven
inform
a
dun
abourrhemselves?’ Let’s briefly define them and give an example of each. Statements tics
such
as
Job
applicant
traits, to
made
abilities,
interviewer,
by
a
feelings, *4
got
person
that
destrilK*
personal
opinions
and
personal
lives,
my
Harvard
M.B.A.
even
charactens-
jkn
example:
chough
1
suffer
from dyslexia.” Agreeing
Confarmity. approval.
An
ganizadon
event
example:
plan
ACCCHM'.
widi
FA
for
aimed
at
else’s
opinion
m
to
boss.
‘^You’re
absolutely
Manager the
coses,
someone wesrern
justifications,
minimizing
rhe
regional or
office.
other
apparent
I
order
of
gain
right
couldn’t
explanations
severity
to
on
a
or
your
agree
of
the
his you
her reor-
more.”
preilienncm-creating
predicament.
An
exam-
ple: Sales manager to Ixiss, “Wc failed to get the ad in the paper on rime hut no one responds to those ads anytvay.” Admirring
Afifkgicr.
responsibility
for
an
seeking to gci a pardon for the action.
undesirable
ex’ent
and
simultaneously
An example: Employee to boss, “I’m sorry
1 made a mistake on the re(x>rr. Plexse forgive me.” Acclaiming'. the
Explanation
desirable
of
implications
favorable for
that
events
by
person.
someone
.\n
in
example:
order
to
maxinuze
Salesperson
co
peer,
“The sales in our division have nearly tripled SIIKC I was hired,” I’httery. appear dled
C-omplimcruing perceptive
that
client^
and
others likable.
complaint
so
about .An
their
example:
tactfullv!
I
virtues
in
an
effon
XCM’
sales
tminee
could
never
have
to
co
make
peer.
handled
oneself
”You
that
as
hanwell
as you did.” tavarr Doing something nice for someone to gain that person’s appn>val. An exajnpic: Salcs|)erson to prospective client, “Ew got two uckett to the theater or tonight that I can’t use. lake them. Consider it a rhank-vou for taking the nine toulk with me. ’ *n mind lhat nothing in IM implies that the iinpressiims peottle cinvey tst CMan y hlse (although, of course, they sometimes are). You can. h>r instance^
fieheve tliwt ads contribute link to ,a|„
QwpUill P©w«r««dpo6iia ,
"' 'he fripbng ot y..iir diviMoi.^ sales R ''?'™’®’‘h«ynu«»thekey utsi- If the image dain.ed is false. vo„ „uv be dk i^Voften, no .me . liU-ly to belietx yon J.d U ’ ^-jutiou' not to he petxeiv«l as insiiH-erc ,,r nijnipulub ’ Arc individuals moix hbdy to niisrcpri
can have a So one must he sent them
some situati.Mis lhan ■» others? Yes. Highiv uncertain oM.'X"^ ^-lauveb i.rtk .nt..n.u,o,m (or challenging a fraudulent
" “»
tnisrcprcseniarifin. Effecth eness <^n>y « hmited mimher of studies have eftatirtitess of LM iechm«|ues. and these have l>ecn cssenualk-
'l
reduce rhe j.
tthedier or n.it I.M bebat lur is rcfatc.l to job intcrvacv s. t- ' T’ „e»s ntaU- a pamt olarly relevant are,, of s-mdy s.nc. aiTtlie^.^are Sl^aSinp'ng ptvsent posinve .mages of themselves and there are relatively ohjeefrT^ Xme (untren assessments ^d typically a hfre-don't hire reenmnindabX rhe cadences iliar I.M behanor ut.rks,'> In one study, for ...stance, intenaewers felt that the .ipplicanu lor a position as a customer-service representative who usetl {M rrtJiniqucs pe. harmed better m die interview d.an tht.se who didn’t use LM and they seemed somwhai more inclined to hire these people.'* Moreover, the researchers nuttidered apphrancs’ tTc.icnt.als and concluded it u.r. the IM techniques alone that influenced the inter, wwers. That is. it didn't seem tn matter if ajuflicants were well or poorly qualified. II they used IM techniques, diey did better in the interview. Of course, it could be argued that since the |ob for which applicants were being ninsidcred—customer-service representative—was a public contact position, selfpresentation may be a job-rcievanr skill and more imponaut rhan qualifications such as college or university major, grades, or prior work experience. Nevertheless, LM technique* u» work in intvniews.
The Ethics of Behaving Politically We condude our discuss inn ul politics by pn.>' ijing soni€ eibical guidelines fr>r political hchavinr. Wliile tlivrc arc no clear-cut wavs to diftereiniate ethical from unethical * politicking, there are some questions you should consider? *' Exhihrt 11-2 illustrates a detnsion tree to guide ethical actions. The first quesOiw you need to answer addresses self-interest versus organizabonal goals- Ethical actions are consisteni with the organization s goals. Spreading untrue rumors about At safeu’ of a new product introduced hv your company, in order to make that ptt^desiim group look had, is unethicalHowever, there may be nothing
it
a 4epanment head exchanges frvors with her division s purdwsmg manager m orfler a critical contract pnxvssed quickly. llic «cond quesaon c<,ncxn« the right, of other ‘**1 dneribed in the previous |aragraph wei.i to the matirexin. though the Ln direkedm the purchasing «meth.ng on hhn" so he would expedite a
n L i ,v>rtmHU F* h the -nt of
h She would have violated the purchasing manager g whether the political iw final questio.. that needs to «»faeTltt to mndards of equity and |U' nd deflates the evaluation of a n aluauon of a favored employee and deflate.
9;
GrowM in tbc Orpotimion EXHIBIT 11-2 b a PoHtkal Action EthkaP rTT..^ ______________________________
{ Quwtfeo 9 ' Is the political I action motivated f by self'serving interests to exclusion of the organization^ i goaJs?
Unethical )
i I
7
jhe ui Orpinuaifcnal Poi>ecs;
AdBved im* G.F cjiaAigr. ua^ohtie, i^nd w v>i3sqL IJewe*. Jolv 19« t ft. 3M. ftesihrw by pw niww disfavored
II. Is the polrtkal 1^^ activity fair vxl equicable’
Question 2 3t>l Does Che politick action respect the rights of the individuals affected?
I
i
44
employee—then
uses
these
evalvatiuns
to
justify
giving
the
fnrmer
a
big
raise and nothing to the latter - has treated die disfavored employee unfairly. Lnfortunarelv. ways
to
Income l>e.st
make
very
who
at
Our
arc
likely’to
be
an
ethical
dilemma
Exhibit jxiwer
11-2 to
cxpluining they
point
able
to
And,
with
you it’s
a
lot
easier
io
for
example,
ran
the
orgiinizatj
of
chat
unfair
actions
are
really
almost
any
behavic»r.
arc
most
try
the
vulnerable
successhilly. to
pow’er
for
argued
tenns
practices
strong
often
in
juscily
polilics,
are
people,
can
persuasive
have
a
argue
unethical
11-2
Powerful
people
organizarionot
if
Remember,
con-upt.
immoral and
Exliibit
behaviors
persua.sively
away
in
ethical.
self-serving
articulate,
gei
questions
seem
that
regarding
truthfully.
tlic
can
is
iMiwcrful,
arc
to
practices
.Similarly,
equitable.
Those
answers
uneilneal
good
interests.
and
the
base,
the
recognize
powerless
to
because
UTiea
answer
act
lair
they
faced
wiih
questions the
in
ability
ethicnlly,
fir
of no
oihrr reason ihau that they nqiically have vcr\ linlc political discretion to exploit.
IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS If power.
you As
increase
not
to he
be
will
a
to
get
manager
things
who
dependence
your
boss
perceives
bt'
no
ready
and
peers,
will
continual
battle.
WTule
seeking
to
in
is
to
you.
You
developing
in
be
done
wan on
alone
employees is
a
other*.*
relation which
want
be
minimize
to
build
seeking
co
you
seek
yoirr
group
to
or
organization,
maximize
your
can.
instance,
for
knot*ledge
suhstiiiite.
attempting
a
But
or
a
power
your ftiake
skill is
a
power you
uiaxiini/zr
dependence
power,
on
you
increase thai
he
two-way bases.
dependent others’ others.
assessing Iwhanor in a political framework. \’ou can better predict the actions o^ers and use this infonmnon to formulate political straicRics that will g*®
tn
will
want
co
your
power
in
needs
and
for
Others, on
And.
The effective manager accepts the political nature of organizations- B)'
helps
street.
them.
dependence
you work with ^4 ill be trying to do rhe iame.
ad\*anrages for you and your work unit.
it
of
on
have
You
will
particularly The you.
course,
result v'ou others
Conflict and Negotiation Afier reading this chapter, you shouid be able to 1. Define conflict 2. Differentiate between the tradibona). human relations, and inifiranionist views of conflict }» Contrast functional and dystunctioral corfikt 4s Outline the conflict process S. Describe the five conflict-hdndhng orientations $• Contrast distributive and integrative bargaining
1 Identify decision biases that hinder effetthre negotiaten *. Explain ways for individuals to irnprovc their negotiating skills
iHjvn
said
that
conflict
is
a
tbi^inc
that
has
occupied
iwnians
more
iha
oihcr—with the exeepiion of (iod and love. But what dii wc mean by the
e
I
ts
any tenii
emiflifi:
A DEFINITION OF CONFLICT While unikrUc
there
has
been
no
shuriage
nJ
hirst, confliu inus f
ennflirt CHSts is a perception iwue-
n is ^^veiveJ ituv not be real.and. ex»n-
•grwd that w* crmflict exists, enursv. co
jeserihed as eonflii
hetauae the group nieinlie.s. ino.lvet! do
and
ddwnaufts <>t umflki include the c<>ncc|
‘'‘-’f'"’Whether
CreBp5ind«Org>»i“’**’ a«u,n„rion there arc wn or more parties whose intcresw «.r Roals a,^ar togl Re«.urccs-.noncy, juh., prrsnfft. and p-.wer for Seed and rheir sc-arcity entourages bhx-ku.g behasnur. The paioes .n
opp«K?«r«.-
'oSerentes flict
is
W'hc
Iwwccn a
term
une
parn-
definitions Jiniite.l
only
birx.-U tend tn
ihe to
nean.
ro
tenter
acts.
The
a
goal
aronnd
intent
are
ol
ano,her,
iniem
and
issue
is
a
therefe^
a
:
.,ate
ofeo^
tehether
eon.
debaie
over
wh«h„
blockage behavior itr.ist be a deiennined actum or whether it euuld occur as a resu|, of fomiitnuscireuoisiante..
A-s
initions,
require
for
ctampk.
tn
whether signs
cofifiict
ol
can
nianikst
refer
fighting
only or
to
oixni
oven
acts,
stn.ggk
as
some
def-
criteria
fw
the existence of conflict. Oar definition of conflict aekiiowkdges awareness {perceptiun), nppofritH„|^ scarcir)’. And Wnckjgv. Furrher. we assume it co be a dcteniiincd actinn, which tan exist at either the brcni or overt level. We define conflict as a process in which an effort is purposely made by A co offset the eftbrts of B by some form of blocking diat will rcsuic in frustrating’ B in attaining his or her goals or furrbering his or her inttrescs.
TRANSITIONS IN CONFLICT THOUGHT IT is entirely appropriate tn say that there has been conflict over the role of conflicc in groups
anti
nrgannations.
One
school
of
iboughr
has
argued
that
conflict
must
be
avuided, that it iiKlicaces a malfunction wiuliiji the group. We call this die Another school of riiougln, rhe hufrrav n'lations weu’, argues that conflict is a natural and inct iDhlc outcome in any gniup. It need not be evil, but rather has the poteii* rial
to
be
a
positive
Inrce
in
deienniiiing
gT<»up
perfonnancc.
The
third,
and
most
recent, perspective proposes nut only that cun flier can be a positive force in a gnwp, but CAj)li<-itly argues that some conflict is /iMntefy
for a group lo perfonu
effectively. We label ibis third school the intrractitmisr virdK Let’s take a closer lout at cadi of these view s.
The Traditional View rhe early apjiroach to conflict assumed that conflict wa-s bad. Conflict was viewed negatively, and it wnv used synonymously with terms such as vioJew. ikstr/tetiftn, and hyoTfonffihy in order tn reinlorce its negative connotndon. Conflict, then, was to 1H‘ avoided. 1 he traditional view wa»i consistent with the attitudes that prevailed alniur group hehavior in the 1930. and 19-|Gs. From findings provided bv studies such diose done at Ihwdiome, it was argued that conflict M’as a dysfunctional outcome resultuig from poor commiinicaLion, a hek of openness and trust heiuecn people, and the failure of managers to he rcs|ymsivc co die needs and aspirations of their employees. pc
view
that
all
conflict
is
had
ccminly
offers
a
simple
approach
tolookinsf«
the behavior of people who create conflict, .Since aU conflict is to be avoided, we lU-ed merely
dircvt
.wr
attention
to
the
cause.s
ofcontlla
and
correct
in order n. improve group and orgamzari.,.,;,] j^rformance. .Mihough studies no*
these
,nalfitncti..mnr
r Chapter 12 provide’‘O'ong evidence tn dispute that this aDnr.«..-k .. high group perfcirnwhce. most of us still outmoded standard.
.. « situanons on the haws of iHis
The Human Kelarioiis View The human rclarions position argued that conflict wac a nor.,..,i and organizations. Since conflict was inevitable fh? h of cont],«. l-hey even rimes when conflict may benefit a nev JoT.unatcd conflict theory from tite ktc
'Kciincnce tn all groups *’’?«190.
thiough
the
mid-19-Os.
The Interne tik>nist View
The
current
human flict
v.ew
rebiums
on
the
likel)'
to
tion.
The
group
toward
ajyt.ach
grounds
become
leaders
i»rrep/c^
that
staQc,
major
conflict a
conflict,
apatheuc,
maintain
the
hamionious,
concribuoon
to
,s
of
an
and
interacrionisi the
inretacdodst
peaceful,
tranquil,
nonresponsive
the
intcractionist
ongoing
perspective.
minimal
to
level
needs
of
the
em,ge,
con-
approach and
approach,
Whereas
cooperative
for
change
thcrcfoi-e,
and
is
conflict—enough
Joup
is
innova-
encouraging to
keep
the
group alive, self-critical, and creative. Ciiven btjconw naive.
rhe
evident Wliether
tnreracrinnisi diac
a
TO
conflict
view,
say
that
is
good
which
conflict or
is is
bad
rhe ill
one
good
depends
we
or
on
hjkc
all
the
in
bad
type
is
this
chapter,
innppropriace
it and
of
conflict
Specifically,
good.
Rather,
some
ids necessay co differentiate bciweeii functional and dv^funcdonal conflicts.
DIFFERENTIATING FUNCTIONAL FROM DYSFUNCTIONAL CONFLICTS rhe
intcrattionisT
view
does
not
propose
that
/?//
conflicts
are
cuo-
flicK Support the tfoals of the group and improve its perl nrmance: these are functions], consCTUCUvt forms of conllici. 'There are also conflicts that hinder group performajice: these are d vs function a I or destructive forms. What differentiates functional from dysfnnctioiial
conflict?
'l
he
evidence
indi-
cates that vou need to look at the type of conflict.^ Spccificall); there are three tyi>es: cask, relationship, and process. Task conflict relates to the content and goals of the work. Relationship con ct
.
focuses on interpersonal relationships. Process conflict ichces tn how the work ge<^ done. Studies tkmonsTratc diat relationsliip cunflicts are almost always dys uncti '\’h5' It appears that the friction and imcnjersonal hostilities inherent in ■XKiflicts
incTease
personality
clashes
and
decrease
1 mutual
unt
erst^‘
dering the completion of <)nrani2ational tasks. On rhe other ham, omfiKt - b. ‘*<-'»ne
and
low-to-modera^e i,
djTifuncrional
levels
of
task
ng*
conflict
conflict
are
ftmcnonal.
For
pi-
Kep, Intense when
they
create
uncertainty’
tymplew tasks, and lead to members working •^elof Q4 conflict conststenriy demonstrates a fMisintc l^tausc it stimulates discussiiMi of ideas that help oop'
about
usk
roks^
.
„-fno.k’rate
1
Gmu)H iu rhe OrpanizaUnn
progressing
through
four
stages;
f
C:ONFUCT PROCESS rtlE
T r
't ♦ • *nv*-«* ♦
potentiaj
, i>e!u'.n
The conflict process tan be chough r of a$ cogniUon and perMjnafizuiiori di'agrainEied in Exlirba 12-/.
Stage I: Potential Opposition
The first strp in the conflict process is the presence of conditions that create oppoco,. nhics for conflict to arise. They n,^dnoT SOMI directly to conflict, but one of these diuons is necessary if ex inflict is to arise. For strnpiiciry^s sake, these con di nuns dsn niay be lookwi at as causes ur sources tlxrc« general categories: cnnimunicatinn, scrucnire, and iKisunal variables.^ Conununicadan from
semantic
'fhe
communicative
difficulric5>
tn
i
source
sunders
tan
represents
opposing
dings,
“noise”
and
forces in
the
that
arise
communication
channels. Much of this discussion can be related to our comments on comm uni cation and cominunicadon networks in Chapter 9. One
of
rhe
major
poor
ronuiiunication
able.
given
to
the
reason
the amount of time
communication evidence
is
inisconceptions
is
certainly
suggest
dial
not
for
each the
problems
that
conflicts.
of
us
source in
most
the
of
us
Such
carry
a
around
conclusion
spends communicating.
of
all
conflicts,
communication
tliough process
with is
us
not
is
unreason-
But,
of
Cour:5e,poyr
there
is
considerable
act
to
rcurd
oration and stimulate misunderstanding.
EXHIBIT 12-1 The Conflict Process
Stage I Potential opposition
-> Stage II
Stage
Cognition and
Behavior
HI
.
Suge
4V
Outcomes
personalization ---------------Increased
-------\
Antecedeni conditions * Communication * Structure
Perceive d conflic t
* Fftrsonai variables Felt conftci
group performance > ____ y Overt conflict
I
Confiict-bandfing behaviors
* Competition * CclUborauon * Accommodation * Avoidance t • Compromlu
that
— ....... \ Oecrease d group ^performance
collab-
A review of rhe research sug^sR that sem • ofinfonnation, ^.jtion and
arc
pmennal
^P»w 12
antccedeni
cwl Negoriscion
‘’’sufficientexchange J^'"’’fovrs co
cndiiim,.,
JenKHistrarcs dial semantic ditficnloes arise as a res.,l?‘i".
Uy, evidence
Ort pvn-eption, and inadequate iiifomiatio,, .h,..,. u a surprising finding: The ix.untid f„,. pjo
firtie
or
too
much
a.miinmicanon
comn.uni-
cniining.xjlechas Further
takes
place
An
i
’^creases
when
either
'’/'"J"'"’''''''
nicariiMi is functional up to a p,int. whereupon it puking in an .neieasc-m rhe potential for conflict Too',nt,ch JOO little can lay the foundation for conflict. Further tl.P rh Sung cn h;ive an .nflne.K, „n a.i™,™.,
as well as »™“-
„OT,s »> informatinn ,s passed bem-een mmibeiTnd rhe dbcTCMc"’'?
Struewre size;
ITic
degree
K,
group
ihe
degree
tion
act
its
tern, oi
of
as
to
forces
to
the
of
between
stuinilore
greater
inversely
m
tins
spcc.ahzauon,
heterogeneity
dependence
be
used,
rouniuzation,
.nenibers.
acQvitics,
found
sm.etun
the
groups.
The
to
leadership
Research
The
larger
of
the
for
variables
in
and
Tenure
and
tends
such
task
reward
that
group
conflict
iJ,e
steles;
indicates
conflict.
potential
include
standardization
group;
likelihood
related.
and
the
conflict.
eontev.
size rhe
assigned
systciiLs^nd
and
specialisa-
more
specialized
conflict
tci
as
be
hnve
been
greatest
when
group members are younger and when turnover is high. There
is
.some
observation
continuous the
porenthi
participation ipation ages
may
w’hen if
also
conflict one
on
that
with
conflict,
promotion
dependent or
for
and the
flict
indication
a
restrictive
but
the
stimulate are
of
dose
style
control
evidence
eon
correlated,
differences.
Reward
gain
is
another
group
(ill
interdependence
allows
one
at
leadership,
of is
flier.
highly
niember's
of
the
noi
others’
strong.
Research
another’s
to
are
expense,
contrast
to
the
two
group
to
gain
ai
much
tight
ina-cascs
that
Finally,
being
to if
mutually
another’s
encour-
create a
on
partic-
participation found
and
reliance
confirm
because
too,
is,
behaviors,
Too
tends
apparently systems,
th-it
con-
group
is
independent)
expense,
opposing
lorces arc siiinulated. Personal lems
Variables
and
r*r«jnalit\'
The
individual
who
“id
prohablv
example,
demonstrate the
most
important
idiosyncrasies
n-pes—for
^nd
most
low
and
personal differences.
individuals
who
self-esteem—lead
overlooked
variable
variables
in
are
to die
The
are
eviilencc highly
poTcinial study
of
individual
value
indkaies
thar
aurhontaiian, conflict.
social
is
certain
do^mane,
Most
conflict,
sv-^-
important, rhe
notion
'■f differing rafoe sv.Mems. That is. people differ in the imporrance .hey give to va freedom,
pleasure,
hard
work,
setf-respeu,
honesty,
ohed.eiice.
and
eqn
differences, for example, arc the host evplannuon of such diverse disagreements over one’s contnburion to the ^oup .md cherawa^ds^c - assessments of whether this particular book Hn dislikes blacks and Dana thinks thinks he is worth $-U),00fl a year bu ■♦.OlM), and that Ann thinks this l>ook is interesting rtu piMvutid lur conflict
him to be worth - Jennifer views ii AS “a iniponant in cre-
•
hrtn
Stage n; Cognition and PcrsonaliMtion I, the omdiBoivs ciu-d in .Staye I
)rusr«».n. then the potvnnal for opp.«6.^
h the nmdia
antcwJvnt condinons can lead to ct>nfli»
• ?, "x’Xted in «.ur definition of conflict. perceplH.n.s required 1 heretore, or ...ore of .he .«n.cs m»( be o« n.x of the exwicncc ot the anieee.lcnt co.,d,ti..ni Ilouever heeause conflkf is iKMxeivc.l docs not mean it is per^nil./cd, \«nimaybe w.re that von and n co-worker are in disapeen.ent. But the disagreement may „,,ke v>u tense or n.wou.s and it may not influence your affection toward this mworker II is at the level whore wmflivt is fell, when individuals htconie em!«i(,o,l|y involved that iwftios exiieneuce anxiety, tension, fntsir.iuoii, or ho,ulu>.
< * .* * * •
Stage III: Behavior The third stage of the cunflict process occurs when □ member engages in action that fnIStrates
attainment
the
of
another’s
goals
or
prevents
the
furthering
of
the
otbert
interests. This action muse be mtemled; that is. there must be a known effon to frustrate another. AT rtiis juncture, the conflict is OUT in the open. Overt conrtolled
uKiflict
ft^rms
ctners
of
a
full
inrerfcrence
range ri>
of
behaviors,
direcr,
from
aggressive,
subtle,
violent,
indirect,
and
and
highk
uncontrolled
strug-
gle. Al the low range, this ox en Ixhavior is illustnied by the stiidenr who raises his or her hand in class and questions a point the instructor has made. At the high range, strikes, riots, and wars come to mind. Stage
HI
is
oven,
conflict
is
also the
where parties
handling
behaviors
might
lx*
reducing
frustration
are
used
has
become
most
observable.
will
conflict-handling develop
initiated not
Five
in
as
a
stage
behaviors
method IT,
preventive
Init,
for
conflict-handling
initiated.
dealing
in
measures
are
most but
approaches
with
cases,
only are
Once
it.
dw
Conflict*
techniques
when
the
HTJicallv
for
conflict available:
n>mpetition. collaboration, avoidance, acconiTnudation, and compromise.*^ Competicioa
VX'hcn
enjc
part)
seeks
to
achieve
certain
goals
or
to
further
penond
interests, regardless of the impact on the parties to the conflict, he or she competes and dominates. 1 hese win-losc struggles, in formal groups or in an organization, frtfqtiently
utilize
Ac
fonnal
auAont)*
ol
a
mutual
superior
as
Ae
dominant
frirce.
and
each of Ae amflicting parties will use his or her own power base in order to resohta Victor)’ m his or her favor. CoUahoratJcm
Wljcn
each
of
Ac
parties
m
conflict
desires
to
saAfr
frdlv
Ac
co***
cent (»f all parties, we have C(.x)|»erauon and Ac search for a mutually beneficial (>«<• come. A colhboradon, the behavior of Ac parties is aimed at solnng the pnihkm and at
clanfr
mg
Ae
diflerences
particqunts
consider
vivw^nnts
nine
wanlJy
evident.
Ae
mure Because
full
rangi.*
dearly Ac
than of
hx'used,
solution
accoinimMating
alcemahves, and
sought
Ae is
Ac
various
phnts
similarides
causes
advantageous
or to
and
of
view
differences
differenc'es alt
The
parties,
in
liceortie collabon-
win-win approach co resolnng conflieix. It is, for exaini’k’
m IS o ^n^quendy ^.^2^
ratlier
hy
marriage
cuumelonu
Behari.xal
sciennsts
who
m trlationAips, are also strong advix’ato of a colbhi<^“
ovc approach to resuinng conflicts
value
opdi'
.. D •c Abidance Reeogniaing that a conflict exists »
Chapter 12 Coaflict md NemUUon
from or suppressing ir. I.idift'crenct <.r the desire Jisagreenicin
can
result
in
withdrawing
withdrawal
The
iwm
7****”
dentonstratiw
an,1 ca.E sates out a rerntory disontt from the <.ihIX
of
a
«iwration.
Jrtinible. rhe parries may suppress, 6ai is wiihhol.i',h * p,emlK.-n are rcpiircd m imcract pression u. a more probable ouicntne than withdrawal
because-
of
the
interdcil^nH “P-
At<»miiiodanon When the parries .sect ui auneasr th..ir ___________________ willing to place their opponents’ interests above their «w.n rehdonsb.p, one pacn- is willing to be self-sacrifinng 7ve Tcfert rh’Tr'” acoHnniodatioii. UTten h.isbaiids and wives haw diffm.ices it ,s nut un orte to acxom.nodare die other by placing a sp.use’s interest above one’s n™" Compwinisc When each parn- to the conflict musr give up so.nething sharing «x-ur^ rcs-tdnnp in a compromised outcome. In compronusing, there is itn clearwu; net or loser. Rather, there is a rationing ,4 the ob,«i of the conflict or, where the object 15 nut dniMble. one rewards the other by nel.ling something of substitute value •nie disuiguishutg characteristic of compromise, therefore, is the requirement that each part)-give up something. In negonadoiis lietween onions and management, compromise is required in order to rc u h a sctrlemc-iit and agree on a labor contract.
The
Impact
tiling
c’ohflict
for
of
cxawple,
tcristics
Naticmal
will,
to
have-
arc
a
exmsisrent
Culture
soiiie
on
dcgr<x.
repotahon whii
a
Cunflici
be
inttuvnccd
Iwingopen,
society
Behavior by
Your
pnir
direct,
and
by
relatively
marked
approach
cultural
roou.
conipctiiive.
tn
han-
Amencans,
1’hese
ckawv-
low
uncenaiiny
avoidance
in
uncertainh’
avoidance
and high quantity-of-life rankings. i\s
w€
feel
secure
lore,
rend
emphasize
discovered and
to
in
relatively
be
rather
assertiveness,
Chapter free open
'I
he
2,
people
from and
threats fledble.
cultural
in
countries
of
uncerrainry.
(Countries
climate
of
low
low
Their
ranked
organiz^ilions,
high
uncertainty
in
quantity
avciidiinrc
thereol
and
life high
quantity uf life tends to shape a society that is open, direct, and competitive. It would also
tend
to
create
individuals
who
tavur
conflict-handling
behaviors
such
as
competi-
tion and cullaborarion. J his prertiise suggests that uncertainn* avoidance and quantiTyA}ualjiy-of-Lle rankings would be fairly good predictors of which conflict styles are preferred in different countries. Il suggests, for instance, that when one E in a Scandinavian country—which tends t
Stage B'; OutcomeK *K- .nurpbv be^een the ..vert conflict behavior in consequences. -Ks Ethibn J2-1 de.nons^i«. *«: conflut has resulted in an iinprovemeni in t c perfonnante ntav t« hindered and the o.ncome dicn HUUM
Cwiversely. dv^ftmetionai.
Fertril
group
goals
and
acrivitics,
and
increases
the
probability
that
the
hxs
suffered
because
it
group
will
respond
to change. For tional
Manv
functional
GM
example
of
you
don’t
conflicts
Motors.^ of
an
to
part,
GM’s
of
conflict.
the
pt)int
conservative
that
co
problems
over
hired
never
white
and
look
resisted
change—they
ward
to
challenges.
the
questioning
w
past
three
company
almost
who
actions.
back
can
he
were
the
‘‘yes were,
their
others
inside
the
GM
ranks,
the
company
to
lor
the
that
to
insulated
managers
cnnfii-m
the
functionality
lack to
mosi
Vnited
belief
further
a loyal
rather
worked in the past would cxintinue to work in the future. iVIoreover, by sheltering executives in the company’s Detroit offices and encouraging them
func-
General
men,”
successes in
Btde
traced
inidwestern
j>ast
sanctunonious
too
behemoth
Managers
in to
had
automobile
decades
raised
looking
ere
than
individuals
males
j)referrcd They
lurcher
promoted
Anglo-Saxon
who
new’
company have
Il
of
a
States
than
for-
what
had
soaalize from
with
conflicting
perspectives. Research Consider
studies
the
following
administrations
of
group
would
think
conformity phere
in
among
of
diverse
findings.
four
L.S.
A
comparison
presidents
overpower
presidential
constructive
settings
found
policy
advisers
conflict
of that
and
'I'he
related
ro
critical
major
conflict
decisions.
was
six
decisions
reiluced
thinking
decisions,
die
chance
that
demonstrated
that
while
surrounded
conflict.
during
the
comparisons
poor
of
an
the
an
nos-
well-develnped
decisions.^ There is further evidence that conflict leads to better and more innnvad^'^ decisions,
as
established
groups,
among
members
observed
that
members
of
was
73
ditions. bers
well
uith
problems
as
pcrfcjnnance than
when that
increased
group, greater
Other
researchers
than
do
there
analyzed the
percent
different
tended
when
groups
than
interests
group to wui
of
have tend
homogencuns
improve fairly
decisions
average tJiat
productivity.
those
groups similar
produce
groups/
had
improvement
found to
more
close
that
The
It
was when
there
agreement. been
among
the
rcsailts:
higher-quabty
was
The
made
characterized
preceding
demonstrated
by
by
solutions
trary to the traditional view, conflict in the group might !>« an indication ol streng*
eonfli*^
invesngutor^ the
indh’idu^
high-confiict
gro^P^
low-conllkt
toft*
imposed
of
a
ot
Groups
findings
that,
to
suggest
varien that-
ctxv
I r* -T^ , C onflict The dcstruvtive von^ pcrfbmwncc ^’2^ generally «;,c: L oppmitnm hre«l» diicontent lead* to desirut tion of the group \nd l^y cf literature to document HOM- the dt sfunchon J efletu veil ess. Ajnung the more undcsirahlr r> Snuf'f'*"*”’’ 'n gi-oup ujhc-:ivencss and'^M'd’” ® H, thepn’oa'-?' ■>( tnfighnng among members. At the e.rtreme fanctioning to a halt and potentially threaten the gro..p\
Ch>|rt®r12 Confttrt anoatj'm
Th
’_g««P .'‘«nunary mipht d'«ttlve e.immon ries ’ ’’'‘’»»nual ” v<mflietcan reduce of S^oop goals ^’niiggroup
Thedtmuco(anorganiuti.inasaresulioft,w,„.,.^k ti - . i,
gtieht
fit'f
‘I’P*:"
For
instance,
Cod,I d,«d .i„.„
one
of
New
York’s
best
knou'.Ua
"
.1„T? i" *
d,. w
n.ns„lu„,. fin„bT w,d, ,he „,p„,z,d„„, -This w„ , fi™ rf,Jh.ri,”e ,„d pnnoplcd d.He™ an«.„g d,e p„mers ,h„ w„e l,.,i„ll) ir,„„„il.bk •n«, same consultant also addressed d.c partners at il.e.r las. meeting. ‘•Yen. don’t have an ettmoinjc problem, he said. ’•You have » permoaliiy problem. You hate each other!"
NEGOTIATION NepotiKion rioflS.
There’s
obnous: tiate
are hav’e
A
some
worker past direci
interacnons
obvious:
or
with
purchasing
agrees
to
finding authoritv'
benefit,
thcntoelves and
almost
bargains
agents 3 in
and
phone
today
team-based
to
w’hom
work
they
groups
may
a
not-sii-
share
nego-
there’s
ininuies
colleagues even
the
And
organizations,
with not
few
organiza-
s;ilespeople
suppliers.
for
and
There's
bosses;
with
colleague's s
in
fnanagemeiir
peers,
negotiate
having
with
ex^enwe with
subordinates,
ans-wer
future
of
Laboi*
negotiate
customers;
increasingly no
the
the
Managers with
subtle: fcr
permeates
the
in
exchange
where
members
over a
whom
they
common
boss,
negotiadun skills become cTidcal. For our purposes, w'e define negotiation as a process in which two or more parties exchange gocxls or services and attempt to agree on the exchange rate for them. In addition, we use the terms negQfMFtQn and hat^aining interchangeably.
Bargaining Strategies There
are
two
general
approaches
to
negouarion—
b/irgaifung
and
Wrgrgrnr Wgi«ributivc Bargaining You see a used car advertised for sale in the newspaper. It il-P^rs f. IK- just what you’ve been looking for. You go out TO see the car. It’s_g«at^and *’nt i,. The owner tells you the asking pnee. You denV wan. rn pay That much, '■he two of vou ihcn neg.3riate over the price. The nego.iaang process yo ■"g in is called di.trihirive hargawing. Its most idenufying feature .s that « ^ro-sum u,nd.aons. Sat is, Iny gain I mak. .s at y.ur «ed example, every dollar y.n. can get the seller to cut from “ »tVJlar you ,avc. Converselv. even dollar more he can ge So
the
essence
<,f
distributive
bargaining
«
negoua.mg
«ner
who
ge
**»o
I
nrtW Giwp* in the Orgiwiaiwn EXHIBIT 12-2 Ofetributiwe versus Integratiw Bargaireng
BurgflininS < IhinKteriMk AvaibUc *o« rel="nofollow">uniol rcsoitfrv* tf> he divided Pnmenr’ monvBtitnis PiiJimr^ I niece? cs FCICU5 of rcfeiionships
Bafggwiftg
Hi J cribuii><^ Bargainin
Inuyi^vy
Fixed
VarwiHv
I win; wu lose O|>|nised to each oihet
1 wifi: you uifi
t
Conveivent or congrueot wiih each other f. on g lenn 1: Hfchard 0. Hinn. iSaS}. o- 280
Shori le/ni Amed trecn ft X iMM and X*. Wttrer. ••xJurhWio^ --------------------------- - ------ y Copyrthi ® RJ Imii*: ma J ft L-ttw. 1985. ftepr.WKJ nr peTiWion cl ftenert 0 ir
Probably kabur
rhe
most
managenxenc
widely
negntiacinns
cited over
example wages.
of
distributive
Typically,
labors
bargaining
is
representatives
in
conic
to die baixainin^ table determined to get as much money a.s jKJssible out of nianagemcni.
Even’
cent
party
bargains
more
that
aggressively
labor and
ne<(itiates
treats
die
increases other
as
managemenfs an
costs,
opponent
who
so
each
must
be
tic fc a led. E.xhibit
12-3
depicts
the
disrrilAitive
bargaining-
stmtegy
Panies
A
and
B
re^Kc-
sentthe two negoiiator.ft. Each has a Mrger /lowr that defines what he or she would like to
achieve.
Each
also
oeccptabic—
rhe
point
has
a
mutana
below
which
p^/nr, they
which would
marks
the
low’cst
break
off
negotiations
accept a less favorable settlement. Phe area herween their
outcome
that
rather
is
tbaii
resistance points is the set-
tlement range. As long as there is some overlap io their aspirati<;n ranges, there easts a settlement area where each one’s as pi rations can be met. VMien
engaged
in
distributive
bargaining,
one’s
tactics
focus
oti
(tying
tn
get
one’s oppment to agree to one’s specific target point or co get as dose to it as possible. Examples of such tactics are persuading your opponent of die ini|xissihiiity of getting
EXHIBIT 12-3 Stoking Out the Bargaining Zone
<
ftrtjr A*8 aspration ringe -
a
rarcy e s aspiration ran^e — • * Senlonianc range
I
k
Party A's Orftt point
Par^ B's resi$once po(nc
Par^ A*i r^BOnce pom
fergr Bi
p, h/, her
OttHUt «
^ing .h.t v.H,r wrge. is l.ir. while >, ..|.r.r«"y«" w'-gei|’'>'"t-
• .enU™
.o
«.u and
. .
•^*‘***« »»gWynur
'■'rpnng „„ yu,^„^
IflfeMWO'v UjrRam.nK A wks . ,„frr kf. I>.'t ilouxl a St 5,IM)(J.,r,|e, ,• ’-•..ineiA ..v »hworder t>’ h
“*’» l’Pr<>vcaed.xtn
,,|U,.prove .he s..k. bu. .he vi...h,’X;.’:^'‘‘ 'hen nk-.k flu. y.;;,’ " .iiicn.»,v ,«,„c„. ............... .................. .. ................. I""'.*, I„„i I hi^ >jrvs VIvein nvgnrhnion uas. «O .(isrnl.unve bargaining. inUTsrX'pXrW’’' »‘‘'»‘inrag. In eonA!l thmgs l>c,ni; v,(..a,. intcgr.v.vc l.arenir,. 7 “ pimnu. ni»7 Because ,be (ormer hu.lds Io,,, felm"''" '''’‘7" w»rbng mgvihvr ,n the fnn,„, |, gaininfc lahlv Icelmg i|,at l,e ,„• she has acliir.e,! . .he ..lluT han.I, leaves one purly a hner. J, tends m htd|7' .H«vs when ,,c.ople have to work .ogether on an otuX uhy, clu-n. we sve iiitire • r . •. i iitswer lies in thv vundidnns luwssan h.r mdu,k- parties who are open with inf, seruhtiviJy hv both parckX tl^ wtiingni by horh'panks
^’’’rtion har1
/'i, ‘‘ 7"'
barl^trgd.ning, „n
wrpmmg >n />rwniz.u(ons? I'hc ”* » " """
•' "’•t'''"'"''”'* "Itc. take on a win-it-any-cwc
Jmaniic
Issues in Negotiation ttv: TOni-hulc owr JisCMssix>n ot negotiation by negoriafom <1ecision-.nak..ig hia^s, the role o. pcrs-anal.n tia.c, Cultural differences on iiegotianng styles
'^7'^,^
n^in^Ss
ami
the
effect
Decision-Making Biases That wx!'ha7hoped f..r, ricgotiating expvnenccs in which the T«SW S I ^uch as JKI$Wt: Wetul co be blind co opp<>rtunincs «hle ...„ of u negotiation. 'I'he fnlkn^mg .dennhes .setc cm Wind us.'* , ,.nnue « prwi.iady selected t. Irrstwrtal tXfilatian it cimmim"" would recnn«"en| a«» ,* bt™. J «H« X rof n«. eneno. ».! X.
iwsi»w« on lead to wastmg a gtejt munry alirady invi-sted are hr considered w he., selert.ng h.n.te n>UTses
"sun
sflo ^^^uiscsof^b""
of
[ v>« ^in Groups torBain«,s,«L.n«th.r their g».n must come « Che expend 1 M^noted with ircegntrive bargaining, that needn t be the ««,
.
in w?n wtn soln. ions. Sy assuming a «ro-su,n gan.c, you p. oclude oppomtt ties IO find options (lint can allow .nnlnplcv^cKines. “ anchor their ,udgtnent,. on irrelCTuni infoni.arion, snch as an initial oftei. Many fectors .nflocncc the initial positions people take wtien entering a negonatton. 1 hey arc otten mean.ngks, E^-tne ,'egoL.Mors don't iet an inidal anchor mmimtze the ainoi.nt of inforn,atio« ami ihc depti of dunking ihtry lu^e to tt'duatc d smiaaon, and they Uont giv^ iniwh weight h> their opporenr^ initial o^Ter too early tn the negobmion. Pnww/wrt/tfrtwy. People und co bt; OM’HV affeewd by the way nifonnauonispteseniwl io them- For instance, in a labor-nianagctiicni ointraci negocianon, rhax your emplovecs arc currendv unking $l 5 an hour hue rhe union is seeking a S4 raibe. You «ro prepared to go 10 $17. I he union’s response is hkcly tn be Jiffevemif x’ou can succe-sshiUy frame this as a S2 an hour gain (in coaipanson to the current waire? rablicr rhan a S2 aji hour loss (when compared against the union’s demand).
*
AvaMiiity
Xegouators often rely too niuch on readily available iofor-
mation while ignoring more rele^-ant data. Things or events that people have often
encountered are usually easy co remember—they're “j;vailable" in their memory. I6 also easy to remember or imagine vivi
A
whdtib reliable ujid rckvant. The uinner"^ airxe, h friend w
OJK
side (usurily the seller) lias much betfer infiinnatioii ihnti dw
orher. V’ei people often tend to act in a negociation as if theirepponem is inactive and ignore the valuable information ilut can be learned by tliinking about the ocher side decisions. \ou can reduce die ’‘curse' by gaining a*; rnuch information as possible putting yourself in your opponent's shocsQ-veran/nlence. .Many of die previous biases can combine to inflate a person’s conSdence ui his or her judgment and choices. W^cn people hold certain beliefs and e^ecmuons. they tend to ignore infornaiion rono adieis them. ‘Ihe result» that ju^goTiATons tend to be overconfident. Overconfidence, in turn, lessens the inceiv uve to roinproralse. Considering th« suggestions of qualified advisen> or nh,eeiive assessment about your position from a neutral party arc rwx> wav's to this (endenev. '
V wodtlbe
Trans i„ Nego,iatio« C^an von predict an oppc«enr% ^bout his or her' ,.crs<)nalin-? It’s tempnn? "’'Sht assume that high risk takefi
(X-rrall assessments nfiJie personal,ry
12 O.nflM and NtRobaiion
.licj. n-aits have nn signiHcant direct effect m ..iircHnts I h.s conrlusi.w is in.pomn, ,
^"<1 *hat persnn-
rtn HK^ =«’<' siniaticnal fiicrors in c u-h i^meni and his or herrliaracrcristics. ' ‘*‘P‘inmg rpufje and not on your Cdtural Differences in Negotiations Altlmurf, ,h dirarr rcbtinnship betw een an individuals Dcrsnrv?li,
"« ^gnifinint
bsckgrot.iiil does sccin to be relevant. Newttiatin» culture.: egonaung styles deariy vary among nanonJ T he Frtnth like conflict. Thev fremienilv „:putntH>n> a
by
long
ume
ivhethcr „„ns.
them hut
you
thinking
in
for
a
you
ve
executive,
iha.
eve.-utn-e
Japanese,
the
(.hmrse
rather
than
world
fur
cuiinTries
their
like
d.ftcrcnr
diuit
together
pinned
or
might tie
tui-n
detail
stuiJe
and
tn
up
and
these
They
that
anti
reached
start
tlieir
a
eharacicrisTics
the
to
to
and
liked.
i
draw
never
over
a
UK^OS'
end
aie
agam.
known
a^hinXe Like
the
to
work
an.und
iiegobatont
by
when
with
conunitment
Astute
advantage
werk’^n^^
solution
all
Americans
be
ibeir
final
process
end,*'’
al
negoriauons a
against
□len'x
Chinese
relationship
loose
desire
thev
Tlic
believe
develop
every
actiitg and
rhcin.'^
cven^
negouate to
dislike
reason.
douT
impatience
often
agreements,
ncguuating
opponents
and
n.,;,
dragging
from out
the other
neguria-
rioiis and makjng friendship couditioiMl on the final •settlenunt. The Tj’pe
of
cultural preparation
relationships, To
ccmtexi
further
the
tor
the
ncgfiriation
barg'diiung,
the
usedt
even
laciies
illuurMie
of
some
of
and
these
signilioiidy
relative
emphasis
where
differences,
influeiivcs
the
let’s
on
task
negiuititior
look
at
nvo
the
amount
versus
and
interpersonal
should
be
conducted.
studies
comparing
the
influence of culture on business negotiations. rhe factors
first
that
study
were
compared
looked
at
opponents
arguments,
their
negotiating
deadlines.
Kortb
appealing made
to
logic.
They
small
concessions
reciprocated
opponents*
unportant.
The
opponents’ the
appniached *rf«ls. '‘as
witli
Thev vicHcd
as
and
very
made
few,
a
weakness
making
Americans
in
the
to
tried
if and
how
they
concession.s,
and
opponents’
arguments
with
North
to
appealing
feelings.
The
establish
Anierieans
by
always
was
style,
by
negodatinn
any.
Russians,'"
jK-rsuade
subjective
casually.
and
to
persuade
almost
Anilh.,
negoriaring
to
concessions.
arguments
deadline.^
Ainerir«ins,
their
approach
early
tried
pnK-ess
uere
countered
.Arabs
bargaining
North
They
recipriK^-ned
Russian^i
con«i.bions. almost
never
tended IO ignore deadlines.
Any
on
facts
and
deadlines
emooon.
made
I
hey
their
uonte.ssinn
reciprocated.
usually very
couiucrcd throu^out
concessions.
arguments
on
offered
Hnally,
and ITiey
as
concessions
opponents’
an
handlctl
fans.
relationship
the
lo
they'
objeciixx
,.
?yaos /»serte< by
the
aii
Russtans
-.hihited J™ H Brazilians mt
The seeond study looked at verbal and nonverbal by Nurth .Americans, Japanese, and Brazilians dunnp ba ' Snmc of the differences were particularly average said No eighty-thrcc times, as compared » nine times for the Nt.rth zXmcricans.
based
how
treated to
resjKuided
relying
a
Among
The
the Japanese and i mnr.? than live periods of Japanese isp ayesession, North
'lienee lasnng longer than ten seconds duim^; e h avtragvd such penodst iht Hraz
/: <
41
Graopa tn (tw (tifantrarinn
n..,.l.vsic«tv ........ 4v/JiU.tln..rH,.|...nu...ilunn,;.uynt..,......y-m p. tor ,1K ll, 4z.h..nv IK.I >•...•!. ...her live mues ,IMH hour.
,
L
IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS
Miinugiiig ContJUl Al..ny
i«nplf
[,cH.ii-i,i.,iiiv. CoHlIivl
a^suin. I'his
thHi
iTwpivr
enn be eillii r
con,.:! Ini--
k
nhtvil
dcioonsiiiHtd
K
that
lower ibis
group
orgj„iz«i,.na|
JIKI
assuinpiion
is
i.btl,
«k'Mi iiciive lo iln- bou linning ol
vonstnii tivt or
iinil. VVh. n us ino high or ...................... ...
io
FAIM!,
a group„r
biiulers (H;rloiiiw«is'e. An o|„iii,al lewl is
one in wliuli then- is enough « onnivl hi (Mrvi-ul si.ign.itHio. stiiiuil.iii- creativity, Iillow iciiMoi,MiolH-rel«'!iscil, iiiul iiiili.i(vthe seeds lor dmngv. yet hot so much to be iliNruptivc IVIwl ihlvtcv van wv guv to nianngcis f.iced with exussiw oinlljil anil the nvxal h) re
alwiiys
Ix'
best!
Voii
shoiilil
5vk(
t
(hv
rcMjIutioii
0235
ipproach that
technique
npprnpriatt
for
each viluaiioH. Some gtiiJvlHU's lollowJ'^ UM* i
whe>i (|ui( k. cktiMVc net ion is vital (in vtikTgcncies); rm
iin|M>riant issues wbun tiII|MipiiLii actinias need invnling (in vosi5 culling, en(oitingun|H»ptihir rules, diseipline); on issues vital to the organizatioifs welfare when you kii<»w ytni're right; and against fKople who take advantage of nona an* jK’titJve Ixdiavior. Use Are
t
to find an integrative solution udien both sets of o)nterns iinponant
insights
Iroin
porating
toru
to
IK*
people eriis
coniproinised;
with
into
ililferent
a
when
your
perspectives;
consensus;
and
to
objective to
work
is
gain
to
leant;
to
ineige
by
incor-
have
inter-
eomntitinent
through
feelings
that
fered with a retaoonship. Use pressing; bal
when
disruption
regain when
avMthuhc
when
you
outweighs
can
issue
perceive
perspective; others
an
no
tlie
g.uhenng the
trivial
cbaine
henefus
when resolve
is
conflict
of
of
or
when
satisfying
resolution;
information inoiv
more your
to
ini ea
let
{K:o|)le
and
nt
inherits;
supersedes
effectively;
porta
issues
when
cool
when
|xiten-
immediate issues
a«
and
deeisiun; seem
tan-
gential or syinpioiniitic of oilier issties. Use fiMtHJHwtathiH when you fiml you are wrong and to allow a lM‘«er ptxsition h» IK* heard, t<> learn, and lo show your reasonableness; when issues are more tnt]tortan( tion;
to
to Iniild
than
others MH-ial
to
credits
yourxeh for
later
and
to
issues;
satisf)' to
oihei’s
minimize
and
loss
maintain
when
you
cooperaarc
**ut-
I Hatched ami losing; when harmony and st a hi h tv are especially im|)orrant; and h’ allow em|))oyees to grow by learning from mistakes. l»sc*<ewp/iDwnf when goals are uu{>onant but not worth the eflbn ofpotefttwl disruption of more assertive arc
couumned
eomplex
issues;
to m
iiiuiually arrive
s; when op})onenu with equal 5157
exclusive at
goals;
expedient
to
solutions
backup when odldMiraiion or uHii|Tetmon is unsuccessful,
achieve under
tem|>orary* time
seitlemeno
pre*ssure;
and
lur a><
Chapter 12 Conflict and
Toward Improving Negotiation Skills
opponents concessions. Concentrate on the negotiation issues not on the personal characteristics of your opponent. When negomdons get tough, avoid the tendency to anack >^ur opponent. It’s your opponent’s ideas or jiosition that you disagree with, not him or her personally. Separate the people from (he problem, and don’t personalize differences. Pay Litth Attention to Initial Offers. Treat initial offers as merely a point of departure. Everyone has to have an initial position, I'hey tend to be extreme and idealistic. Treat them as such. Jtntphasizc Win-Win Solutions:. If conditions are supportive, look for an integrative solution. Frame options in terms of your opponent’s interests, and look for solutions dial can allow both you and TOur opponent to declare a victon*. e• Create 4an Open anJ Trusting dintate. Skilled negotiators are good «listeners, ask questions, focus their arguments directly are not defensive, and have learned to avoid words and phrases that can irritate an opponent (e.g., “eencruusi offer,” “fair price,” “reasonable arrangement”). In other words, they arc good at creating the open and trusting climate necessary for reachingan imegrarivc settlement. fhi' Problem, Sot Pv-sojuiHhes,
PART IV: The Organization System
CHAPTER 13
Foundations of Organization Structure After reading this chapter, you should be able to
1. Identify ttie six key elements that define an organization's structure 2. Describe a simple structure 3. Explair the ch^acterrstics of a bureaucracy in r* «o
4. Describe a matrix organization Explain the characteristics of a * virtual * organization Sumindrize why managers want to create bouridatyless organizations List the factors that favor different organization structures Explain the behavioral implications of different organization structures
Tdwi K-alh,
h^vedifferem strucn.n.-s and fhji in
rb
folloxving
P^ges,
'defincT/v^'^
'/atiiin's sinirnirv. orew-nr Irilf ,l
aO'hides
and
bdu^dor.
.More
**‘’‘«P<»»cnts thjt make up an uiyan-
■.ontiiigeiuy fachMs that make cvrfd,7i^' T’ 77’''*“''“* •hms. and tcnclud^: by considtrring the •’fnitturus have on en.pinyce txthavin/'^ d'Hercnt effects that various urg.-mitation
WHAT IS ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE? An organization structure defines how Job casks are formally ilivideJ. group«^<*’ tiMjrdin.ifed. For inshirKc. Johnsen & Johnson has historically grouped
specit-
■■
ChaptMlS ^i-aut(iiKHno.is companies organizerl around
Siruciw ™«MRm of
these wnipanies considerable «lecision.,n.ki,n, bmrT""® Tlicrc arc SIX Uy elements that manaire^ their nrpmization-s su-uemrv. These are wnVk „?e
i^’
J^'P*
"'^F^'^nenuUaation, and fonoal-
The following sections deserih^rh'^ as answers t„ an important ns aesenbe these SIX elcmencof stnicnin:.
struciural
Work Specialization Early in the twentieth century, 1 Icnry Ford became r;,-k ...if
....
mobiles on an .issembh’ Imc. FA er) Ford worker was assien'ed For instance, one person would just pit on the ried.t „.ould instidl the h,4.t front door. By breakin, jobs np^n?;
'“‘T’ c. repeutjve task.
will J. could be performed over and mxrap.m, Ford wxs able to prtxlucv ea«aTthc rate ol one every ten seconds, while using employees who h;«d relatively limited skills Ford demonstrated Jat work can be |.crfor.ned more elT.cientlv ,f employtx-s arc allowed to specialize. Today we use the term work specialization or irt-mw «f labar in dcstTilK lilt degree to which tasks in the organizanon arc subdivided into se,;afatK jobs. I by
one
rate
he
cwncc
of
individiiab
individual.
it
In
work
is
si>ccwlizatioa
broken
essence,
dou*n
is
into
individuals
tlvit,
steps,
rather
dun
an
each
step
being
in
doing
part
specialize
entire
job
completed of
an
being
done
by
sepa-
a
activity
rather
ctnintries
were
than the enure activity. By being the
the
done most
with
highly
workers
were
least
have
or
levels.
And,
wages
tend
wort
use
of
developed engaged
to
have
demanding
skilled
1940s,
high
efficient
require
would
late
highly since to
in
its
each
reflect
their
can
of,
say,
ncccwry
result
sophisticated skilled
others
w'orkers highest
m
would
tasks,
jobs
skills.
level
saw
In
diis
most
performed
an
orgunizarion
perfonn be
paid ul
industrialized
be
that,
employees arc
in
Management
employees’
step
skills
The
manufacturing
specialization.
skills;
the
jc^is.
most
w'ouki
more
skill,
tlum
paying
most when
mate
some
tasks If
all
prtx’ess,
all
demanding
and
the
i>crfurining
the
iwt
working unskilled
highly
to
workers.
manufecniring
the
be
means
untmined
s
except
a
organizations,
by
both
as
skilled
bclow'
their
skill
workers
and
tlieir
w
or
ken?
to
r
o
easy tasks represents an inefficient use of organizational resources.
EXHIBIT 13-1 Six Key Questions That Managers Need toAnswer in Designing the Proper Organization Structure
The Key Questinn Is
1. To »hat degree are tasks sulxlividcd uiio ■separate jobs’ 2. OnwhathKiswilliobehegroupidtogethfr; Id ufaun de I iiuhviduak and (TToups rt’p»>rtr Hem ffum* irufe^idaals can < marugcr eftkicntly Mid cffmvciy dirtci? Where «)ue» Owiiion-maiuim authtri ty lie’ In ahu degree »ai there he rule* and reguhtion. IO direct employ«* and
The Answer Is Provided
Cht/i"
J4
Pare IV Tlie Organisation Systtm Mtnauen also I-keri for other efficiencies that could bj achieved through work •r niovec shHs at performing a task successfolly increase through ren, XiTess “pnor
Hme
step
is
in
spent
the
in
nork
changing |,rocess,
tasks, and
in
in
putting
getang
a^.ay
ready
one’s for
took
and
anodter.
equips,^nt
EquaUy
impor-
is easier and less costly to find ami trafo workers to do specihe and repetitive tasks tha^ to
do
a
broad
complex person
range
operations. had
increases
to
of
For
buiJd
efficiency
diverse
tasks.
This
example,
could
Cessna
lhe
and
entire
plane
productivity
is
especially true protluce
alone?
by
on
Nor
encouraging
ul
foghly
soplusticated
e
Citation
jet
likciy!
Finally,
work
the
creation
ot
a
year
if
and one
^ipctialization
sjiecial
invenowts
and nuchineiy. For much nfdic first half of chc twentieth century’ managers viewed work specializarion as an unending source of increased product:vity. And, up lo a point, they were probably right. Because spccdaliz-atinn was not widely practiced, its introduce almasc alw'ays genewed higher product!viry. But, by the 1960b, tliere was increasing evidence that a good tiling can be carried too far. The point had been reached in some jobs at which the human diseconomies from specialisation—which surface as boredom,
fatigue,
turnover-
stress,
-
more
dian
productiviiy
could
be
activities. activities teams
In to
with
addition, do,
low
productiv’ity,
oftset
the
increased some
allowing
economic by
to
skills,
do
found a
they
qualicj’,
increased
advantages
enlargiug,
companies
them
interchangeable
poor
rather
(see than
absenteeism,
Exhibit
1S-2),
narrowing,
that
by
giving
whole
and
complete
often
achieved
bt
the
and
significantly
such
scope
employees
job,
and
a
cases, of
varietv
putting
higher
high
them
output
joh cf into with
increased employ’ee satisfaction. Most ing
source
provides
in
managers of certain
today
increased types
see
work
producrivity. of
jobs
and
specialization Rather, chc
as
neither
managers
problems
it
obsolete
recognize
creates
when
nor
rhe it’s
an
unend-
economies carried
You’ll find, for example, high work spedalizadon being used by /McDonald’s to effi-
EXHIBIT13-2 Economies and Diseconomies of Work Specialization
too
it far.
“ ’Tectalisis in inost heairti Saturn roadening the scxipe of jobs and
mainicniinrc organizations. Or, rhe other h , Corjinraiion, Xtrox.andUnisyTjh.ivehad.sticces.shL’...,'^"’’^"'? leilueing sfX'cialization.
Once
fou've
divided
up
jobs
rhrnugh
work
sDeci
ilir^iL,.,
fohs together so that common tasks can be coordinated T^’ h "^1?
*ese
^O4>e.l Wgethcr is called dcpartnientali«tio; One of the most popular ways ,o ^^oup activities is by yi.^rr.cnt performed A „,anuhcninng manager m.ght org;m.ze his or her plan, b/sCparadng^, XL accounnng, manufactur.ng, personnel, and purchasing specLists fnt.^cLnmon deparrmerns. Of course, depamncntal.zncion by function can be used in all types of organ,7-auons^Only the functions change to reflect the organization's obkctivXand activities. A hospital might have departments devoted to research, patient care accounting, and so forth. The ma,or advantage to this tvpe of grouping is obtaining efficiencies from putting like specialists together. Functional departmentalization seeks to achieve econonue.s of scale by placing people with coiiunon skills and orientation'? into conunon units. Tisks can also be deparuiiencalized hv ducer.
Procfcr
&•
major
pnKkict—siich
authorin'
Gamble,
'The
prcxluct
pcrionnance,
direction
of
major a
the
insrance,
Tide,
Pampers,
advantage since
single
product-related,
accounting and
for
rceently
reorganized
Gharmin,
and
along
these
Priiigks—is
lines.
now
Each
under
the
fxectnive who will have complete global responsibility for that
product.
than
as
rhe organizjjtion pro-
firm like.
all
each
If
an
service
have
would
this
type
acoriries
manager.
could
Each
of
to
a
organization’s
would
a
grouping
related
be
departments
offer
of
increased
specific
activities
taxes,
array
of
are
for
managemenr
the
the rather
instance,
consulting,
under
for
under
setA-ice-related
grouped,
services
accouimbility
product
were
autonomously
for
commun
is
an
auditing,
direction
of
a
product i>r sendee manager, .Another way to departmentalize is on the basis of sales
function,
regions. This
for
Each
form
of
of
instance,
these
may
regions
have
is,
departmentalization
in
can
or tendrory. The
western,
effect, be
a
southern, department
valuable
if
an
mid
western,
organized
and
around
organizations
eastern
geography.
customers
arc
scattered over a large geographical area. Al nized
an
into
.AJeoa five
aluminum
deparnncnis:
tithing castiag-,
plant
in
pressing,;
upstate tubing:
•ng. and shipping. This is an example c.f
New
York,
finishing;
production
and
is
inspLCtnig,
orgapac
-
departmenralizatmn
dqartmenr specializes in one .specific phase in the production o a uiiiinuin The metal is eas, in huge furnaces; sent to the press department, into aluminum pipe; transferred to the tube mill, where it is sire c
finally ’ h P^
and shapes ortubmg; moved n. finishing, where it is »mves m the inspection, packing, and shipping departoKm^ to Quires different skills, this method < >ffers .a basis for the hon g ■A
final
catcgimv
of
depanmentalization
is
m
use
t
*e organizanon se^ks to reach. The sales activities m an otiKc pj .
The OrjCBfuzaoon Sywcm .. .„ m«an«.he hmkun ipivcinmciitnistomcni. .
i,„„ tKrcc dcMronents to *eni« retail, wholesale, ang'^ J^segment irs staff on the basis of wheA^ ' . j dienw I^c awiumpr1<*Tt underlying <-U5itqniet
5.™.- SZ;::.. e^a. ..eparn^^
' that
deparotK-ntalizanon descril.e?,\ sions
.najor
along
inenulizcs
lnpanes<.
fui.cdona)
saks
four
customer
nim
in
the
dectron.o.
lines
and
around
seven
grouping.
Iwo
past
decade.
finu.
i(s
mstancc.
nn.nufacunng
geographical general
First,
for
units
repnns
trends,
uustonirr
nrgan.zes
and
around
divides
houeyer,
each
seein
to
.Jeparnrentalization
rrf
.n
pnxesses;
ta^
has
dep9„.
region
gaining
grown
divi-
n
sales
be
we’ve
in
into
momenps,pularity.
In order tn better monitor the needs of < ustoinei-s and to be berrer able to respond tn changes
tn
those
needs,
departnieniidiiaiion. being
The
complemented
described are
in
tn
organizations
second by
Chapter
needed
many
trend
teams
H.
as
accomplish
tasks
is
have
that
that
cross
have
become
those
tasks,
put
greater
rigid
emphasis
funetionai
traditional more
management
has
customer
departtnentaliwtion
departmental
complex
on
and
lm«.
more
turned
to
is
.^is
diverse
we skills
cross-functional
teams.
Chain of Cuinmand In
the
1970s,
organizations. agers
dw
zV
should
chain-uf-coininand
you’ll
srill
see,
consider
ir
has
its
conttpt far
a
less
iinplioitions
basic
comerstene
importance when
they
in
today.
Hut
decide
hou
the
design
contemporary best
to
of
man-
sinictwe
their organizarionsTbe chain of command is an tinbroken line of authority that extends from top of the organization to the lowest echelon and clarihes who reports ro whom, li answers questions for employees such as, “Wio do f gu to if I have a problem?” aad “WTio am I responsible to?” Yon con<x?pts: a
can’t
discus.^
authority
managerial
and
position
organizaiioui
mand,
each
responsibilities.
ghc
of
of
aimmand
command.
orders
and
each
managerial
is
given
a
degree
unity^of-comtnand
without
Authority
expect
give
manager The
cliain
unity
m
uwrdinanon, and
rhe
the
refers ordcre
position of
principle
discussing
a
to
place
auchoritt’ helps
to
in
two
the be in
rights obeyed.
I
order
preserve
complementary
to the
he
inherent Jo
chain
meet
fAdliiaW ol
his
concept
in
com-
or
hex
of
an
unbroken line of authority.
It states tlnit a person should have one and only one supe-
rior
is
to
whom
subordinate
he
might
or
she
have
to
directly resjKinsible. C(^c
with
If
conflicting
the
unit)'
demands
of
command
or
priorities
superiors Funes change, and so do the Ivaric tenets ok oi^anizational design. The concq>cs of chain of awnmand, authority, and unity of command have suKstannally lew relevance today because of advancements in computer technology and the trend lowani cmjx>wenng employees. lowdevel employee todav can access information in onds that was avaikhle only m top managers 20 years ago. Siinilarlv, networked cixnputers increasing y allow employees anywhere in an organization to contmunioit^ wim anyone else without going through formal channels Moreover, ihe concepts ot ^’•hain of command are increasingly less relevant ope g emphyecs are being empwered to make decisions that previiwsky
i.s
broken,
from
a
several
J . tv resenxd for management. Add to th,\ tr> u. funmonal teams and the creation Z ’’ Popularirv of «-lt , IKMSCS,
and
rhe
of Otg,nixrtcmStniame l
uiiin,--<>f.conniwn
course, still many tirganizations that'’fina^4'
•
^^fucfiral
desiEnVth^?’"'’^'”^
relevant?^Th' "’“'“P’*'
^e chain <.f command. Th..
Span of Control How many subordinates ca,, a mana.r ■
.
□on of span of control is impnrtaiK because" to Tl''
"rhis ques-
nomber o levels and maj»,^^fs an or^ruzatmn’ has\ 1? T'’ " the efficient dte organizamm '’"'"S equal, die wider validin- of tbs .statcjiient. iraaimn. .\n cxninplc can illustrate the .-Vsunie that we have two ornnip^ij i operaiivv-ievd employees. ;Vs Exhibit 13-? iUustrLJ^ and the other a span of cierht, the wider -;nun n k matelv SOO few. managers. Ke '"X? spn wotdd save $40 more efficient in lenns of cost. But -it kr^o •
ndL •i
Thark
become.s
when
supernsoT.
no
longer
employees,
a
drawbacks.
First,
manager as
the havv can
the
span d.ne
maintain
already
ro
close
desenbed,
provide conlrol.
they're
the Rut
expciisive
^‘pproximatdy -+,100 ttniforw span of fbur ‘‘PP"^a y^mTZ™?S', ously, wider spans are too
n.es.nsmall
large,
leadership
spans
because
have
d,ey
and" rhrcc
add
maiugemenc. Second, they make vcruejl aimTniinication in the organ! zarion more
EXHIBIT 13-3 Contrasting Spans of Control
M«mben at each level Assuming span of 4
Assumirg span of 6
U/
vjjfes’.
Ln o*
OrgAnlzAClen&l level
(Highest)
wa*
Span of 4: OperaiivK «4.046 H^nsgers (Uveis J-6} = IJ65
Span of 8: Operatives Managers (Levth
= 4.0% 1-4)« 585
X
'
major
levels
of
tart W
The OtgMttatwn System
i j . ^351
nfiKT^nicnt 'l^iird upper managenient. nnr
E
can
handle
...ward larKCf ^pans of control. Wide spu^ X. X cut overhead. .peS^ get Jk.scr ro customers, and cmtxiwer emplnj^. suffer lieeause of iliesi wdet spans
a
wider
span
whe.t
r.nplot-ees
know
their
|obs
nis.de
and
out
u.
can mm to dieir co-workei-s when thw have quest.ons.
Centralization and Decentralization In
som«
incrcly in
iHcamwrions.
cam
which
out
top
top
deei^on
luanngers
nwnaecmenfs
malhig
pushed
mnke
all
the
deuMons.
Jircciivcs.
At
the
other
donn
tn
the
Lower-level
extreme who
managers
raanaeers
are
arc
organizrjons
closest
to
“rhe
making
is
con-
action.” The former organizations are higbk centralized; the latter are decentralized, The
term
centrated
at
auchorihs
that
centralization
a
management
refers
single
point
the
rights
is,
makes
in
to the
organizations the
personnel,
then
lower-level
personnel
provide
organ input
degree
tn
organization.
inherent
the
lower-level
the in
ones
key iza
or
arc
decision
The
concept
uicludes
only
position.
Ij’pically,
its
that
decisions
Linn
which
is
with
little
centralized.
actually
given
In
the
said
Or
no
coiiuust,
if
top
input
the
discretion
formal
from
more
to
make
that deci-
sions, rhe more ik'ccntralizfithit there is. .\n
organfz-ition
structurally be
from
taken
and
one
more
employees
characterized that
quickly arc
is
rc.>
less
by
centralization
decentralized. solve
likely
to
In
problems, feel
a
is
inherently
decentralized
more
alienated
an
people
from
organization,
provide
those
different
who
input
mike
action
into
the
animal can
decisions,
decisions
that
affect their work lives.
anti In
Consistent
with
responsive,
there
large
more
derailed
Sears in
companies,
and
tively year
in
sales
1I—which paru
-has
general uKcnsity.
more
makt^s
The
feet
a
efforts
markeil
trend
closer
about
prcAleins
than
do
have
given to
their
stock
Similarly.
than
400
store
so
separate
welding
creating
these
hundreiLs
that
each Illinois
business T
wl
has
to had
top
their Tjol
decentralizing the
managers.
units
focus
average
flexible
decision
making.
and
Big
can is
to
separate on
more
its annual
more S6
effec-
billion of
a
Illinois
to
molded
units,
each
with
its
customer
set
with
l.iser-hkc
earnings
growth
cent over e past ten years indicates that its highly decentralized structure w'orks.
Formalization iz*d H lullT
as
discretion
management
nails
have
such
more
compete
producing
Tlie
typically
retailers
considerably
stores
equipment of
action
Works
business
from
allows
h>
organiziitjons
managers
that
Illinois
make
toward
are
e%eryihing
that
to
managers
merchants.
from
njanager,
been
merchandise
l(x:nl
found
irianagemcnt
lower-level
Penney
what
against
hxs
knowledge
J.C.
choosing
recent
wbicli jnhs within an organization are srantbnl* ,ner what B to be done, when it is to be done, and how he or iJie dK«U
of
plastic
17
OUTI
per-
, , ., j, h:mpl«’y'-‘" ’* expected .»!«-avs to handle the sa uav, resulting m .i consistent and unifbni, nutnur j„p of organizational rules, and clcarlv defined nroced7r
ChapUrn Foundations nfOtBanbaiioBStrwwe fhe same
;,gxnizanons that h.ave a high degree of fonn.SSttu 2?*’
bchax-iors are relat.veiy nonprogranunetl and e.npimxes doin to csercise discretion in their work. .An indivizt.. !•' inver^eb rfi.iied to the amount ofbeha\aor in diat iob th t^' ^...ooix rlieretfire, the givater
® the
of free'« ndaX±
st
£: bow his or her work is to be done, S.ndSt'
The
deg^e
organizations. College iefonn their
Ceiwm
hiKik them
jobs.
goreming weekly tides-
publishing
their
They their
have
no
lor
houses
are
va,^-
tnstanee.
may
be
some
extreme,
new
well
of
sales
known
publishers
little
“spiel,” more
suggestions to
among
“clock
than
on
in
and
what
clerical
in”
at
have
great
requirement emphasize
and
editorial
on
deal
of
and
little
call
extent
to
tlreir
to
a
die
the
organizations
who
publieauons—have
employees
required
widely
arc
represenuuves
.standard
and
other
can
vompanys
behavior report
the
)obs,
irayelers—the of
sales At
oHonnali^tion
professors and
that
they die
by
in
procedures submit
vanous in
8;00
to
freedom
rules
positions
workstations
formalizaoon
of
for
within
the
A.M.
a
new same
or
be
docked a half-hour of pay and, once at that workstation, to follow a set of precise proccdures dietdied by management.
COMMON ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGNS We now turn to describing three of the more common organizational designs in use; fhe siwpk stnutare, the hiiTaucnjcy^ and the j/tatnx snucnm.
The Simple Structure What
do
a
new
Plnruu'd
small
retail
sttrre,
Parenthood
an
office,
elecU’omcs an
airline
finn in
run the
by midst
a
hard-dnring of
a
entrepreneur,
coinpanywidc
a
pilots
strike ha\ e in common - They probably all have a simple structure. The simple structure is characterized most by what iris not rather than what it is. Die simple structure is not elaborate? It has a low degree of departmentalization, wide spans of control, and little ibnnalizadon. The simple sirucnire is a “flat” organization; it usually has only two or three verticil levels, a loose body of employ ees, an one in uil in whom the decision-making autliority is renrralixed. Its most widely pracocec in small businesses in which the manager and the owner nre one And the same. But iris a so preferred strucTure in a time of temporary crisis because it centra i7xs
,
The strength of the simple structure lies in its .simplici^’. b inexpensive tn maintain, and acct^untahility' is clear. One iua|or Jiffifult
to
mainuin
ui
an\-thint<
other
chan
intreassin^Jl
orgam/uuons.
Ir
'cc
-Kly in.deq«u as an organ,zanon grows because its low ^ah74tH>n tend to create information overioad at the cop. ,„„r and c,,, =ven„.lly «
j ^'u ringle he d,e cnmloy fihv or a iboiw. If
-
PtrtIV Thr
The BureautTBLv SundmJizacoft’ die
bank
vour
Thais
where
clothesj
dons,
or
die
yOh
or
keep
rhe
provide
kev
com-ept
your
checking
government
local
di.U
underlies
accouiU;
offices
rhnr
fire
procection.
The>
is
cbawTcrizcfl
li>'
all
^hc
collect all
bureaucracies. department
your
rely
store
taxes,
fjn
Take
a
where
enforce
standanlized
look you
health
work
at buy
regul*.
processes
for cwniiiiauon and control. Tlic through into
burcaocrsicj’
speaalmrion,
ftiiutional
very
lormaLzed
deparnnents,
highly
rules
vrntralizecl
and
routine
operating
legulalioiis,
authorin',
narrow
Uhks
spans
ti^ks
that
of
achieved
ate
conmd.
grouped
and
deci-
sion making that follows the chain of command. Tlie ized
activities
donaJ and
primar)* a
departments
equipmaiu
ornong
tlieir
hence,
less
the
in
ernjitnyees s.
bureaucracy
efficient
results
manner. ot
u'ho
the
have
hen
bureaucracies
cristly—middle*
and
lower-level
formalization,
for
managrnal
alien*'
decision
lies
in
Putting
economics
Fun
.snbsututes
high
of
highly
and peci
regulations with
in
strength
its
like
scale,
gel
managers. discretion.
tnaking
to
to
by The
lo
together
duplication talk
nicely pen
“the with
ceniriilized.
standardin
fuuc-
of
personnel
same
language"
Iw
aMvencks
Siaruiardiaed be
perfonn
.specialties
minimum
opptinuiiiiy cm
ability
lalented—and, of
rules
operations, There
is
and
coupled
little
need,
therefore, for innosadvv and experienced decision tnakers below the level of senior execu Gves.
obsessive concern with ftillowuig ihe rules. WTien cases arise that don’t precisely fit
IBAl,
Ciencral
nrzed
as
because
a it
Electric, bureaucracy.
has
still
take on
high
formalization. become
with
an
Although
difficulty
dons has
Volkswagen.
more
increast^d
responding
Maisushita.
the
However, decent u>e
of
spans ralizcd. teams.
hurvaucracy
rapidly
basic biireaucratic ch of and
and
co
is Mi’s,
have
fujutional
Another
out
change—the
a meter control
is
Royal
trend
of
Butch
Shell—wasorp'
fasbirm
rnday—largely
maiority
of
large
paruc iilarly specialization and
generally
been
wddcncil,
dcparltncnts
have
been
is
mward
breaking
P*^ople, has its own tnissioii and profit goals. hV been estimated
about fifteen j^rcenr of large corporations have uken this direction.* mst^ce, Exsunan KiKlak Im transformed over 10(1 producrion units into separate businesses. And as we saw earlier, Illinois Tool Works has sti'uc.'tured its entire organs iMioo into small, independent busiue»ies.
authority
supplemented
bureaucracies
into smaller, though fully funciioning, mini bureaucracies. Each of these smaller vetkl^
organiza-
up
Chapter n
The Ma**^ Structure j«rfising ^el-on ^kijtp
1S7
P-I>ut«r orga.»z.tk«»l design option is the nurrix ag^«^*je.s. aerospace r.n„s research conn«»HC^.
hospUah.
gosermnent
and
agencies.
lx ,s nse-d m luboutnri«. «>n-
nixivcrMiic-s.
companies, Kssentially, the matrix combines two The strength of hinchoiiiU dcparwe:\ti»Uz^rDon hes in pulling like specidists
cethcr. tJnuiping specialists mndntizc^ the nunsher necessary while allowing spepc'olcd and shared acroto products. li:> majnr weakiieja is that i5(lifth'iih It) coorduiate th^ specialists usks so that th^ir diverseproiemare com^•ted on ririi^* and within budget. Producr deparnncnralizabun. uu the other h«id. K (yuit dy ihc opposite sirengths and weaknesses. It f)Knlitates e<x>rdinanon Q( spe• r B so that they can meet deadlines and budget targets, and further, ir provides ^ar responsihilit)’ for all activiiies related ro a product But activities and costs are ^"plicated "I’he matrix anempts to gain the strengths of each while avoiding their niosl obvious strurtural ch a raci eristic of the rnatrix is that it breaks the .,n nf-comruarid concept. Employees in the inacrix have two hos.ses—their fiincrinnai department managers and tlieir product managers. Therefore, rhe imuixhas a HWWt nXh^u-s the nmtnx form as us«l in . college of busincs,s non. The ac^ulemic department of atconntins, adnmustmtnx smeJjes, tiuitemg.
maiugmenteon-
The OrfMiadon Sysrem «, forth «re ftincoon-1 units, in .tWition, specific pr«gr.n« (that is. pr.xiucta) m overlaid on the fitncQons. In this way. members m a tnatrix structure have a Jo,} 1 assiCTmcnc -w thdr functi<mfll Uepartmene and rn their pnxJuct groups. For < insmTuv. a professor of acvouniing rrx:hmg aJi undergniduate counc reiw.m u, the director of undergraduate programs as well as to the chairperson of the accounting department, r
. ... he
strength
organi/jtion gets
has
larger,
cracy,
irs
people
The
to
so
become
in
in
Information need
in
and
ability
caparit)’
(he
can
matrix
can
the
lo
take
account
lines
of
authority their
to
facihwte
The
make
it.
little
and
tendencies
worlds
that
liureao-
frequent
coiitaet
quickly
matrix
of
tltc
a
eiimmunicauon
nxirc
the
the
organization
In
and
letter
when
an
overloaded.
for
Further,
reduce
As
direct
organization of
coordmanon
acnxinc-s. bcvoiiie
fonnalizutioti.
permeates
protecting
its
interdependent
increased
spetialtics
wlio
pathologics.
lies
complex
results
flc.vibiliry.
the
maonx
inf6nnation-(M-CK'cssing
dit'fvrent
more
rhe
multiple
coiiiplexiry
between
of
reaches
rduccs
hureau-
deparanencai
organization's
and
memheH
overall
gnih
become secondar)'. Tlierc non
of
K
sko
another
specialists.
ftjnccional utilized.
UTicn
department I*he
organi7.arion
with
individuals
or
matrix
advantage
both
the
the
with
product
achiev'es
ro
group,
the
matrix.
resources
facilinnes
highly
specialized
their
talents
advantages
best
Tr
of
and
jikills
are
economies an
the are
lodged
monopolized of
effective
efficient
scale
way
in
and
by
of
allix:a> one under*
providing
ensuring
ilie
their
efii-
dent deployment. I sjcy
he
to
major
foster
pense
ptwer
with
ambiguity whom,
die
often
and
it
power
struggles. of
tional
the
and
to
introduces
role
and
unusual
their
the
for
conflict,
in h
rules
arc
For
unclear
it’s
and
is
to
for
over
stress.
power
desire
Reponing
expecuihms
introduce
more
role
you
dis-
Ixvst
the
by
and
reports
the
struggles
security to
who
create
graiw
prupen-
increased,
gening
also
its
\Micii
unclear
[xiwer
grabs,” who
significantly
fight
for
it
individuals.
frequently
potential “up
on
ambiguity
individuals
produce
confusinn
places
managers
(he
the
ainhiguicy'
(.2onfusion
can
and
stress
product
result.
diinate
lie
example,
reduces
tliose
managers
work
For
products.
V^Tien
uiatrtx
concept,
conflict.
Bureaucracy
product this
to
not
game.
ambiguity,
the
unjty-of-comniand
i.s
assigned
of
struggles^
leads
cialists rules
disadvantages
to
s-pe-
seeds
of
defining between
and
the func-
absence
of
than
one
boss
ambiguity-.
The
com-
fort of bureaucracy's predictability’ is replaced by insecurity and stress.
NEW OPTIONS In
recent
develop this
years,
new
section,
senior
structural w
e’ll
managers options
describe
in
that
three
a
number
can
bener
surti
structural
of help
Organizations their
designs:
have
fimu the
been
compete
team
The Team Structure •As d^nl>ed in (.hapter 8, teams have become an extremely popular means around * K to organic work activities. An organization that uses teams as its central voordinamin device hxsa ream structure. The primarc characieri-sticsof the team sirucWrt
leva ot the work team.
to
effectively.
In
structure,
organization, and the houndaryless organization.
r*Jrtf*
working
I’arriers and decentralizes decisiofl mabng w *■
the
virtual
ChdptBf 13 L* In smaller companies, die team OTutcur
_
"f<3rea'iTad«, Stt
ins„n«. K^dms. an upscale reswurant in Rosio?d«t^?nn?’'' ^,.,p!,rdy anninrf teams.^ J here are teams „ eX?7
« "rganv,i..d
fish, Fwsrn'-and each has full responsilnliry coinp.w.e.s
are
ucnjTt
"^g^nizatiw. For kitehen-mea,,
using
teams
ihrmigb.m..
Kor
?«
;v, L tio’-v & Associates employs 6.200 peonte rh.^
???'
T
Ciore-.e, maker
employ'-’'-’^ Of less and everyone is part of a self--man,3'’'"^^''0 Afore iificn, [Mmcularly among larger ore okments what is typh-ally a burcaucraev. Tlu. sinicuire com,he efficiency of huicaucracy’s standardization reams provide. fining the flexibility that
The Virtual Organization Whyuun
when
small,
core
yon
can
or-an.zat.on
.on?
that
That’s
the
outsources
essence
major
of
business
die
virtual
functions.
organizatina^
In
snucn.ral
XT
the virtual organ.zanon .s highly centralized, with little or no departnientalization ' Companies few
of
lions
the of
such
as
thousands dnilars
of
in
enms
no
Most
Cisco
System's
Steel
Corp,
National credit-card
Reebok,
companies hiismess
instance, of
Nike,
plants.
It
prcK^essing.
that
computer
ExxonMobil
found
.shoes
its
has
they
then
made
niailroom
Corp,
Cisco
Systems
van
do
manufarniring
and
are
and
that
owning-
networks out
Claiborne,
have
without
designs
contracts
Liz
turned
their
assembled
operations. over
just
hundreds
facilities.
ouwnnrces
and
are
Nike,
outside fems
maintenance
inib for
rnnnu&cturmg.
I7
AT&1'
of
a
nf
hrnw.
out its
its
refiner-
ies to another firm. What’s going on here? A quest for mx
virtual
hxs
ownership. duction the
many In
in
stands
levels
of
organizations, company-owned
own
personnel,
virtual
vertical
such
occurs
company’s
extra
organization
employees.
including
organization,
however,
To
in
sharp
management research
support
accountants, outsources
iind
and
plants,
contrast
sales
all
these
many
where
the
and levels,
resource of
tliesc
typical
control
devciopinenr
and
human
to
arc
is
sought
done
markedug
bureaueraey,
in-house,
are
management
through pro-
performed has
specialists,
and
functions
.ind
lo
by
employ
awyers.
e
concentrates
nn what it docs best.
-H
Exhibit B-5 sliciu-s a virtual organizauon in which manageniciit ovtso _ ^’f the primarj’ functions of the busmess. The con^ of the orgaiuzannn is a of exeJunves Their job is to oversee direcdy .ny aetivincs that .ue J-.n-ho^a^ to coordinate relationships with the other organizations t at -d perfom. other erueiai func.ons for the
jj^es in a—
Exhibit 13-5 represent those relationships, c>’pica y n
fo rrinrdinaun<^andcon-
managers ,n virmal strmrnres spend mos, of ,he,r trolling external relations, u-pit^Hy by *ay of computer ne The major ads^tage to the virtual organizauon is drawWk tn this structure is that it reduces l^ness.
primary j managements
control
y parts of its oxer > P
IS#
4.
fWlV Structure of a Virtual OrganiMtiwi
Atfwtbf hff •t««r V
--------- V IMipendtfii rctwch t d«v«fepmem j coMuftmj ffnn
1,
( pftctorits
/ CommUsioned 1 i
I
V
/ General
Electnc^
Ibrnicr
IICJW
chairman.
Jack
Welch,
coined
the
tern
bOttodaryHess
ofganuauon lo describe his idea of what he wanted GE tn become, Welch wanted to turn his coinpaJiy into a ‘‘$60 bilhon family grcKcry sh»re.'’^ That is. in spite ol i& moiKtrnii'i <.ize. he w’anted co eliminate remor/ and and co break down plieiv
ITie
C-VZC/VM/
boundaryless
boundaries withm Ct
barriers between the company and its customers and sup-
organi7ati(>n
seeks
cr»
eliminate
the
chain
of
command,
have
bmities.s spans of conc-oL and replace deparunents with empowered teams. GE has
hasn’t
yet
achieved
this
made
significant
progress.
and
MoToroLi.
r.ctb
AT&T,
houndaryless
So
take
a
have look
state—and
other at
probably
companies,
what
a
never
such
as
boundaryless
will—but
it
Ilewlett-Packanl,
oTyaniz^tion
would
look like and what some linns arc doing to moke it a reality. rank
By
re
mewing
arc
ininimired.
and
operative
.^60-degree
.And
u.‘anis
Cross-hierarchical sors,
tw/w/
boundaries, the
organizadon
(which
include
employees),
performance
tnanagenient looks top
participative
appraisals
(peers
flattens
more
like
executives, others
hierarchy.
a
siJo
middle
decision-making
and
the
aliove
than
and
a
pyTaroid
managers,
supervi-
practices, and
Statu*
and
below
the the
use
yf
employee
evaluate hw or her performance) are examples of what GE doing to break down vertical b<*mndanes. Functional departments create barriers nize
is
activities
annual CUI
replace around
budgets
maintenance can
to
of
through
based a
hotindarics. The wav to reduce thes^
luiictional processes. not
on
worldwide horizontal
departments For
with
instance,
functions
or
is
tn
use
AT&
departnicnc*
tckcommunicaTions
barriers
«»me
crtiss-functional
nerwixk. lateral
I' bur
units on
^Another
transfers
teams are
now
procews w
and
ay
rotate
and
to
doing
such
d*
juanagcti*®^ peo^e
inB^
and out of different fuiiuxional areas. ThU approach rums spcciabsLs into gener^bselien tuJIy o^ranonal, the boundaryless orgunizanon also breaks down barners to rarrnM/cunmniencies and barners created by geography. Globalization. straW' gic allianc^, customrr-urgantxatjon linbges. and telecomtnuting are aJI exampb'^^ pracTK-v. th« re.lu« „ien,al boundaries. For insranee, firms such :.s \tC CoT Boeing, and Apple Computer each have strategic alliances or )oini iiarmerships «•'*’
L
I* I
The Boundaryless Organizatum
‘
<|o,CTs«rn».n,wnies.TheAe alliances hlurvk . jn
z.,
ir,,nrh.
‘'’’Cinction
StriKt we
l>jtwe«.
.evhntlu "J,
.h nerworked computers -iT
<•
»»o*.ndirvles,
i„tnorpan.zanon..l and
1-ople to comniuniJ^X
JVHY Dt) STRLiqTCHEs Dih-FER? Tfcr orxaJHxoiJon trCrm nij^s dvR’rjbcd so f sundjrdi/.kxl burcflucnuA to the lrM«s
•.
^ged
from
the
——w smiiniMj
hiehlv
□
IS. eecooce, JI,., ch models o( orjr,m..r,nn s^ttnrc. One eauj J he X" •"'= ^lerJIy sy.x,nyn.ous u,di the l.nreaMracy i„ th n it (<jan,l,Z2an„, -., hnuced .'nlbrinatit.n
'*««• . ’""’Aamstic model. I,« j J h ■‘^»^««»«»i2atwn
ntnv
‘^c^nward onnwniution). " «'gari?ation. h is possesses
and We p.imnpanoii In' low-level nw.nbers n, « the organic mtxld. I hi. nxxlel look, a lot like thX^Z”^'. d^ir, uxs tTw.s.h2«75rfhicaJ and
J oreanic
mo.h-P
?!»
structured
we-rv now prepared to address tlut X
StrategyAn
organiiadon'b
Since
nhjctiives
siriiiture are
derived
is
a
means
from
llic
to
help
organization's
management overall
achieve
straregi’,
it
its is
ohjectives. only
logical
that strategy and structure shoulil be closely linked. More sueeificallv, structure
EXHIBIT 13-6 Mechanistic versus Organic Structures
Mechanistic structure
• Hi^ horiional dtfferentiation • Ihpd hierarchical retationship* • Fixed dudes • ixwaUcKioA • FOHMI wJ cornmi**®'’®” chtf*«« • C«wr»lMd dMiston authoHcX
Orf ante structure
Low horffOAQ/ di^IofeAtiabon Col^a£rorac>or (ho(>^ verr^cal and horizontal) Add^shle df/tes Low Ibrmafizaoon Informil commonkadon Oecentndiztd decision luchority
X
itl ftirt IV The OrganiMdon System should foJlvw srrftKgy. If management mnk« a mguificani change in its stTaicgv. the srruccurc will need to be modified to aecninmodate and support th« , Most licMi.
1
current
cost
each.'"
In
vices?
An
changes rions.
strategy
minimization, whai
from ()hv
5,VI
an
strategy
Co.,
does
alt
but
not
but
tirms
ifs
on
die
not
a
rather
u
design
inaoducc
mean
pursue
three
stnictural
niganiaacon
offerings
not
tocns
iruiiation—and
dtws
previous
ir^usly.
characteijzc
and
degree
uioos-adon
framcwi»rk&
that
m.n)OT
strategy
one
for
puniueti
b\'
simple and
sttflteg)’ the
bwc
w„h
or
ser-
products
merely for This
works
new
ineiiningfril
mnovatioh.
sinitegy
I. . strategy’ dimenMon^—innova-
or
cosmetic
unique
innova-
may
appropnauty
conservative
Brilishretail^
AUrks sSpcnccr. An urganiMTion that is pursuing A ciKt-miiuraization strategy dghily conrroU costs, refrains from incurring unnecessary innovation or marketing expenses, and cues prices in selling a Iwic product. ITiis would describe the strategy pursued by WalxMari or the sellers of generic grocery* pnnlucts. Organ bodi
of
bafions
the
tunity
for
after
their
prenous
profit.
heir
xiabiJicy
has
and
rip-oJfs
designer
ol
smaller
been them.
styles
Thc)-
strategy
seek
to
to
move
proved
by
innovators.
Alanxifacturcrs low
such
innovative
tljc as
into
of
competitors
to risk
new T
capitalize and
hey
take
strategy;
and with
superior
or
the
rhe
new
label
They
the
but
opporoijy
ideas
of
tint
an
gocxis
also
iif
markets
piob^hly
ewenrially
products,
best
successful
fashion
I'his
Crtterpillar.
on
tnaxitmze
products
mass-marketed
uiiitation IBM
try
minimize
is
lol
firm.s
more
inutation
strategy’
copy
well-known and
an
stnaegics.
I
innot^ators actcrize-s
following
char-
follow
their
after
their
only
coenpetitor^ have demonstrated that the marker is there. So organic
how
link
while
srnicTure.
structure
iries»
we
structure,
mechanistic tic
do
while
in
rhe
cost
to
same
and
structure?
minimizers
Imitators
order
;it
strategy'
combine
maiiibiin time
they
seek die
tight
Innovators rhe
two
controls
create
need
efficiency low
(jrganic
costs in
in
of
stability
They
subunits
fie.vihility
and
structures.
and
the
use
a
their
which
of
the
mcchani?'
current to
the
pursue
‘activnew
undertakings.
Organization Size There
is
icantly
considerable affects
employing
tions. rate.
more
But The
once
adiiicional
SCX)
ID
son
support
of
levels,
size
an
and
isn't
employees
shift
an
to
will
not
toward
more
and
that a
has
organizations—typically specialization,
an
more
do
it’s On
inemliers
signifthose
depirtmen-
Miiall
at
oi^anization
mneh^impacc. 300
than
more
structure
employees,
only
size
org-anizatiun’s
affects as
2,000
have
an
regulations
size
important
suound
that
large
have
Rather,
less
organization
notion
rules
linear. hai^
die
instance,
more
becomes
organization to
For
people—tend
relationship
cmpioj’ees a
more
vertical
impact
to
structure.^*
or
die
Essenrially. ^ng
its
2,000
ulization.
evidence
a
organiMdecreasing
e.xpands.
VVhy?
already
feiriy
incch-
the
Other
hani
is
nxcchanistic
hkelv
to
result
structure.
Technology The term laMogr refers to how an organiMOon transfers its inputs into output Every- oqpni/.anon his it least one technnlogv for fonverting financial, human, an^ .'i physical resources inrn products or services. ITie i^ord Motor Co., for instanct.
1
J
a<>n.Hi«'lly U«s an assembly-line process u, ,„alfv ir. opisereiiies nu>- t.se a mimber of msinKtion leehnol..^ If.!,ire nivth.Mi, the case analj-sis meUmd. the rxnei ienr
'^^-P"Pular rormal
graiW’fd leanung nierhod, and
mward ether roiir.nc or nonroutine activ-ities. The hwmer are dnr^
a“k'*'
P,jred anti standardized operatum-S. Nonroutine activities are indu^-l' varied operations as formnirc restoring, custon, sh..emalci..p?Z?ga.S W'bal the
reJariuiisliips
relanon^hip
is
„th
taller
,„d
fontiahr-ation,
associated
and with
nor
have
between
found
i.venvheln.mgly strong,
more
tkpartmenwhz^l
however, the
hec,
i.s
presence
su
n.le
find
uetutes.
stronger. of
we
technoh^sjy
Studies
mannals,
that
The
an.l
structure’
toutuie
tasks
rebuonsh,,,
consistentiv
show
Althnuph
are
assoriaiS
ktween
teehnolZ
lotitmcuws
job
descriptions,
and
of
insutunnns
or
other
to
£
formalized
JiKUUltncaQon.
Environmental L'ncertainly An
orwniiariujb
environment iind
dieorganizaiion
is
potentially
composed affect
the
forces
or^^anizarion’s
thai
performance.
are
outside
The
environ-
ment haj, Hvqi.iired a large following as a key detcrminaiu ofsniicnire. Why should an organization's structuie be affecced by its ciwironmeot? Because cfenvininmental unevrtainty. Some organizations fate irlativcly static environments; other oi^anizations face very* dy^namic emiroiuncnus. Static environments create sig* nihcanlly less unceminty' for managers than do dynamic ones. .And, since unceruinty a threat to an organization's effectiveness, manageincnt will try to miniinize it. One way Io reduce environmental uncertainty’ is through adjustments to the urganizadon's stmcturc.^^ There uinty
to
is
sulisraiuial
different
cain
thcenvironineiii,
will
lead
to
evidence
structural the
higher
greater
that
relates
arrangements. rhe
.irganranniiul
need
tlic
Essentially, for
effectiveness.
degree the
flexibility. Conversely,
nt
more
environmental dynamic
Hence,
the
in
stable
organic and
ernironiiienth. the mechanisric fomi will be the structure of clmicc
ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE AND EMPLOYEE BEHAVIOR ''f '^tened this chapter by implying that an organizations ’’^‘^'’^“'^5 fuund cfifects on its members. In this section, 've direcrlj assess iust wlia review of the evidence linking organization -^nct and satisfaction leads to a pretty cleur conclusion-yon "w-one prefers the freedom and flexibility ‘’^™^^“rdized and ambiguity is "**» pruductive and satisfied when work risks arc sundardue
and
(.Jects
Not
uneernnccrstnicturc
predieiable
mWmtadvniploycc
pretcrenccs
R.r
work
.pec.hz.Uon,
m.lK..t.s that ..ri-
span
wnuil.utes to higha,
ZJSX^S2,S;»J=S
^we
noted
nnKluctiviry. human
Pn>ble..«
disXonotnio
sDeciah7atwin lhat
}ol^
pre-vSousIv.
V
are
start
of
u.
surface,
doing
the
and
pn>ducnv„y
repetitive
and
h.'i*
(xx-oiuc
wdilloruc
imrinsicalh’
.nd ,U H- of i..l. »Us pc^ndo. speciabzadon is tu.t an unen.hng source
work
rcwanling,
the
4
narrow
tasks
more
point
at
begins
to
suffer,
overtake
highly
which
of
rhe
tdufaud
when
the
economies
of
deMfous
of
and
prudueovin
higher
begins
rn
decline
seems co be reached more quickly than in decades pasr. Uiidouhtedly were
Their
there
is
highly
parents
still
a
ization
and is
segment
there
is
that
Some
of
two
liehaviural
professional
would that
individuals of
o|>eracing
ih
I
from
cKcupicd
by
overly
naive the
workforce he
higit
makes
qucsiitm,
of
high
reality
that of
intellectual
work
special-
is
jxjrtxjnt, w
whether
(oven
that
c
might
conclude
most
likely
to
needs
for
urc high
dm
repetitiveness
ofcoiitsc,
Ciireers,
with
the
|ohs
minimal
fifty-two
sfiecialization
individuals
and
people,
or
choice
ignore
routine
these
empirical
specialized
to
that
For
The
rhe
be
work
rounne.
of
of
prefers
want
sorisfacrinn.
percent
tolerant
ii
workforce
outcomes
jobs
less
but
security
iob
srif-srkcrion
iicgaiivc
arc
the
the
represents
some
of
lobs.
source
today
grandparents,
provides
a
croup
in
or
specialized
demands
this
people
sur-
personal
growth and diversity; A rG\’iew of the research indicates that it is probabk safe to say there is no evidence is
to
support
intuirively
a
l
attractive
elationship
between
to
that
argue
mance
because
they
pi-ovide
sonal
imuanve»
but
the
impt-)s«ble
to
that
high
satisfaction
or
individual
differences. of
a
theories
of
leadership
explain
when
any
Sonic
securin'
empioyees
research
stare
formance
a.s
more
Ixiss
who
or
fails
and
narrow
in
support of
to
Iw
available
spans
and of
at
lU the
coinrol
and
lend
to
and
this
control
subordinates.
Chapter
fonftvl
superv’ision
span
like
abilities
nf
spans
to
among
quickly
discussed
experience wide
is
large
disStant
particular
people
fp/tu
employee higher
more
luuiott
is I'hc
best
At for
is,
alone,
whereas
all
dmes.
Several
would
lead
are
of
likely
to
this
structure to
the
in
contribute
formance and fob satisfaction. VVe find fairly so'ong evidence linking ee/fn-f/liztrfm? and job satisfaciian. In g^cral, orgaruMUons diat are less centralized have a greater amount of panidpative dwtsion mnkmg. And the cvidvin r suggests that participative decision making is itivel> related in job satisfaction. Bur. again, individual ditfcn^nces surface. The rcl>UiKiship beiMvcn dccentraliz-ition and «usfacrinn is strongest with emplov.xs who Sv r"individiuls have little c-onf.denc-e in thei^alxboW held soldVres'i^Libk individual
again,
expcci
conclusion: lb maximize emplovev perfiiniiaiux ami sausfact**
for it
is per-
prolwbly
prefer
the
contingency
factors their lo
per-
high
others of
perfor-
point,
producing
left
degree
employee
(jpponuniiy
rca.son
us
perfonnancc.Ii
.such
tasks their
to per-
J'"
4i
IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS An .
. ’’'d Pedi« and group '’3*e an important lieanne™, ,k”
X
««'>’nh art'■‘^‘'“ces anihigutty and "" ^cilimtcs and m/Xat«
Of course, sirucnire SIM) vi.nstrain.4 i and
voi.fioh
«’h.ir
they
do.
For
«a,„pie
orv-SK
levels ol tonnafization an.f specialization' serL ..T’”'" mend. Iimin-d ■lelegad.jn ofaoib.jrjn' and narr ees huie autononty. Concrols in sud,' tend to van- within a narrow range. In contrasL ort.\n” u arotnitl Innituf specialization, }o«- formajiz n’ion lilce provide employees greater freedom greauT bch^Mnral diversity;
high d’e chain ofcom*iM *tructitred • I be characterized by
Technology and Work Design A
Explain the three key elernents in process reengineefing Contrast mass productiori and rrrdS$ custemizatton Identrfy the cbaHenges to molivatlng employees In e-orgamzations Explain how e-organizstions are rewriting the roles ot Pescnbe the job characteristics mode) Contrast the social niorwation-processing model with the job characteristics model
7. Oesaibe how a [ob can be enriched S. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of flextiime 9. OesCTibe why telecommuting has grown in popularity
<^chnoli)gy
T
is
completely
changing
most
organixarions.
In
this
chapter,
wo
fcxnis
on bow lechnolngics of operacioii*? and infnrmarion are influencing Tnanagemcot
and work processes, and how managers can design folis and work schedules to man* mizc employee perfurmance.
TECHNOLOGY IN THE WORKPLACE Wc inuodxKtd the ww
in v!it ptxvwnis
iHscUSsion
cures dilTer. We said it was how an organization transfers its inputs into recent years, the tenn hus become widely used by economist, mun^^gurs, cons and l)usine$s analysts ro describe machinery and equipment that use sop electronics and computers to produce thoMi outputs. The common theme among new rcchnok»gies in the workplace is so rule machinery ftjr human labor in iranslorming inputs into outputs. This
jp
1^**
Chapter 14
,,
.nd Werk Re..Aitit>n in the niiiMSOih. F.„
''"fe the hid«stri»l
,i)e
h> .ntn.luve .nu hnnica! I.H.ins ,h«» eoul 1 . more elu-..,.ly ilr.ni w.,s ,x.sMhk when ,he j, h» l«en tlu' c..in,>utcnr.rttinn ol cquipuH-nt and n. t
dinged ?
''7'' '"‘lividiiak But
cenltiri that has been the pi inx- ninvcr in reshaninir „Jlcr inuehiiies. for cKiiinjile. have i-cplacud tens of .1? ’ ""'■ki.latf. Aiih.mated
ijuHrtcr-
banks. Nineit -einht perve.u ofd.e spot welds „n new |.\2rr “ ' n
IBA1
has
buili
a
plant
in
eoinpuu-rs that
Austin,
3exas
rUai
*
i
v^haiuus
hours
to
nut the help of.»single worker. Kvei ything h ,,,,, ih^. j',7"
diag-
with-
to the final pacing of finished pnidnets is completely autoinauT''" ThK book IS concerned wHh the l>e-havior of people at work: No coverage of this today, wotild be complete w.thon, d.set.ssing how recent advances tn techno .^,are J.ngmg the workplace and .rtecting the work lives of employees. In thlsX t„M,, we II look at three spembe issues related to teehnologv- and work. These ire continuous iinpnn einenc processes, process reengineering, and mass enston.iaarion.
Continuous Improvement Processes In
Chapter
customer
I.
we
satislaction
processes.
This
and
even
that
instance.
3
However
result
in
the ?00
qualih'
through
search
percent it
L
sound
Post
incorrect
conn
minus
error-(rce
Office
surgical
can,
great
losing
eonstant
when
like
you
pieces week,
he a
realise
of
of
mail or
two
isn't
improved
this
hour.
plane
gotki
upon.
standard
that
of
organizational
that
high
an
amuviient
all
recognizes
should,
sounds
each
the
improvement
and
2,000
procedures
seeking
improvemein
perfonnance so
as
eonriminus
perfbimance
doesn't .S.
management
the
tor
excellent
99.9
lence.
fonning
descrilwl
For
of
excel-
standard
would
U.S.
doctors
crashes
a
per-
day
at
O'Hare Airport in Chicago!^ Quality menu
so
increase in of
customer that
that the
results Inc.,
management variahitiu’ uniformity
lower
costs
Champaign, qu.ility
same
progrAins is of
audit—from
period,
constantly the
and
Illinois,
monthly
seek
to
reduced.
product
higher
or
the
number
26..^
per
1.000
For of units
production
continuous
WTten
service.
qualirv.
cut
unit
achieve
you
product to
0
tripled
eliminate
Increasing
instance.
and
process
defeexs-as over the
a
variations,
uniformity,
Advanced
turn,
Sy^wms
detennined penod.
er
you
in
hiltration
4-year
num
improve-
hy
a
Uiirmg
o
wor
ers
o
1,,creased
declined bv 20 percent. J’’
tens of thousands of organizations introduce men(,
how
will
employees
be
affected?
They
will
no
longer
c
.1:
e
previous accomplishments and successes. So some peop c may exp wress friHn J work climate that no longer accepts comp with no finish line can never be won--a situatioi lju.s tension may be positive for the organization <-haptcr 12?X hut the pressures from an <’an tTcate anxiety and stress in some emphnyes. I ni > for cmphi’yees is that management will look to '
constant tension, in,ieThfuif eonflia from ,^prov niost significant implisource for part and parcel
ideas. Employee involvement programs.
T
RBftW
The Organize tinn Sytcein ,.f
coniinuoas
ment
in
improvement.
|jroce«
Empowered
impr.wement,
for
work
iiisunce.
teams
aix
who
widely
have
used
hands-,xi
m
invok,.
orgamzattom
thai
1 '
inrr/wluced quality pnHtrams.
Process Reengineering We abo intnxJuced prrxess reengincCTing in Chapter I. Wc described it as considen» bt>w > r>u would do thinp if you could start from scratch, llie tenn reenginemng CXMI^ from the pnicess of taking apart an electronic product and designing a better version. Michael f hnvner applied die term to organizarion.^. UTicn he found companies computers simply to lutomate outdated processes, rather than Tinding hjndamentaUy better ways of doing things, he realized that the principles of reenpneering could applied to business. So, as applied to orgamMOuns process reengineering means th® management should start w’ith a dean sheet ol paper—rethinking and rtdtsignin^ those processes by which the organization creates value and does work and ridding itself of operations that have become anoquated.Key
Elements
Three
organization
\
horizontally
by
that store
the
dis
lined
locations,
instance,
a
more
comprehensive
distinctive
better
than
efficient
itself service
competencies
process
so
system, technical
its
competitors
technical
support,
important?
Because
by and it
are
idencHying
processes,
and
competencies
competition.
superior
from and
its
core
disnncdvc
distribution
or
reengineering
assessing
organization’s
personnel,
differentiates
of
competencies,
An
docs
sales
elements
vc
process.
organization
knowledgeable ware,
key
Examples
higiier-quafitt* support
guides
prices.
what
it«
include
better
products,
more-
Dell
emphasizing low
reorganizing
define
might
an
('.oiuputer, high-quality
VA’hy
decisions
is
for hard-
idendfiing
regarding
what
activities are crucial to the organization’s success. Alanageinenr also needs to assess the core processes chat clearly add value to the organization’s
distinctive
rials,
information,
ues.
capital, UTien
planning each
to
adds
activities
the
and
organization
after-sales value.
drat
competencies.
Not
add
labor
is
as
support,
surpri .singly, or
into
viewed
curunner
little
These
nothing
are
pniducts a
the
processes
and
services
series
management
this process-value of
of
value
and
that that
processes, can
transform the
riuigiug
determine
castomer from
w’hose
only
ju.stification
Process reengineering requires management to reorganize around horizontal piYiccsses. This means using cross-functional and self-man aged teams. It means focusing on processes rather than functiorw. So, for instance, rhe vice president of marketing might become the “process owner of finding and keeping customers.Ii means cutting out levels of middle manageinein. Hammer points out, “Managers are not value-added. A customer never huy-s a product because of the caliber of management. Management is, by definition, indirect So if possible, less is better. One of the gcwls of reengineering is to minimize the necessary amount of management.*^ Implications for Employees Process reengineering has been popular since early 1990s. Almost all major companies in the United States, .Asia, and Europe reengineered al least some of their processes. 1 he result has been that )oR have loM their jolw. Staff support jobs, especially middle managers, have been partied' larly vulnerable to process reengineering efforts. So, loo, have clerical jabs in seP'k^
val-
strategic
what
analysis typically uncovers
always done it this way.”
industriuH.
to
mate-
degree
a lot is
of
Sve’vc
‘^•Moor .nd Wwk Dwjp,
pniployces who keep their jobs after proves ,hat they aren-t the same jobs. These new k'k j^Juding niore nncracon with eusromer, antSpp ^,n«hihncs, and htgh. r pay. Ilowexxr. the dlec ?’ bnplement process recngi.u-enng is usually toud, oL ^ruinr) :>nx.cn ass.K.a.ed wid, taking on new It^HSuhhshed work pracut^s
W«'>X fo«n
formal
social
network
jklass Customization The
Tom
Clancy
or
Stephen
King
paperbacks
vuu
find
„
i
i
printed on huge offret presses, then stored in hanr-a.-size waXh^''"'" du,T^
f«
bookstores
m
fleets
trucks.
The
nm-ek
are 7'’’
pn!K^ of several-hnndrcl thousand <x,pies Rot print rtins to kee,» prodiH tion costs down. called
Print
even
one
at
and
.store
h.gh-iech qualilv
on
Demand,
a
nme-aimost
it
m
a
These
Ixaoks
mstantly.
prinnng-and-binding paperback
these large
allosvs
centralized
m.
to
Publishers
computer. machine
high-tccli
pnxlucc^and
be h„ve
Then,
only
when
goes can
by
action,
be
in'snul'
digitice
t.r.lered
into
machines
to
sold a
a
hooks
customer
creatmg
Icxated
in
a
hewkstores
qumdi^'’ contents a
sinde
slick
hiX-
allowinB
a
store to custoni-print a book for a customer in sixty seconds oi less. From demanded mated
the
days
mass
large
Henry
production.
processes
favored
of
to
Firms
because
systems
to
through
used
manufacture
quandcics
ma«-prndi(Ctii)n
Ford
division
producis that
the
in
of
prtxhieoon
Industry
Ford’s
cHieienaes
standardiz.arion,
quantities-
costs.
costs.
1990s,
labor,
large
i-educed
minimize
late
Eennomies
after
Model
industry
T,
and
auto-
of
scale
relied
on
.McDon.ald's,
and
Levittown stand as icons lo mass produennn. Neu
technologies
(CAD/CAM). they're
making
toinizarion tKts
that
manufacturing
ft>ods,
mcthixls. converting ^^’rp.
possible
sendees
production
Peking
are
encompasses
and
aged
however,
mass
are is
one
for
products
to
'*b«iId
order”
that
Strauss
have are
of
two
like
tbsu
Print
are
to
of
whjch
be
custoniei^ And
been examples
it
firms
manufacturing production.
Demand. enough
to
cuscoincrs.
1
Some
products,
using
traditional
wanr
custom ibnc
HCCIIIS
configured of
On
indiindual
made
and mass
flexible
custoroizahon.
to
systems.
design
economies
lajlored
mass
continue for
the
pniccssrs
individually
Bur
l^vi
computer-aided
customization
production
probably to
as
undermining
will
pixxlutrti and
such
for that
their have
niass ciistoiiiization. Ca.se is a huge farm and constniciion equipment mauu
Mass
cus-
create
prod-
he
hiture
such
as
pack-
firms
are u
wdl^
mcrcasmgty
particular
success
\
needs? em
ra
. ‘
^ned all its products to mass customization. For ^^gnujn farm tractors arc now made exclusively to order. Lnder its r ih'ev had 'n had u. sele.1 from the model, and options chat a dealer had *■*116 months to get the one they wanted. Now
customiKd
*'pti<jns such as engine, tires and power tram. / '^■’w in 5 to 6 weeks. Iwrvi makes IW stvlcs of jeans. Still, many **« they’re hMkinp fok No proldeml Uvi cun provide them wiffi
of
inass-producd^
features
custumers
And
jjpd a pair that is exactly eiustoni-fitteJ pair,
i
1
Mrt IV The OnntcMMn Sysivm choosina from 3 k.ic inoriels, 10 “made
to
order"
jean,
«
5 kg .nd 2 types of fly. VVTuW hit
inoi'e
(al^mt
S55),
l.evi
uses
computer
Standardize options and v»it tosu. Mass
nisuHnixatinn
technology
h,
'
j.
oficrx
advantage^i
to
both
customers
and
manufacturer^
Customer don t have co n»npromise. I hey tan have the products they want, tailored to their individud tastc.s and needs. For manufacturers, they create more sansfied cu&. tomer-?
whiie.
res-ults
in
litdc
nr
the
or
no
wiic
time,
incrcaMng
work-in-progress
or
pnxiuction
effiucucy.
ftni.sheri-gcxnls
c-ustomitatiun
inventories
and
iv.iob^obtc
pixjductt gaihcrinc duHt on shelves or in showrooms, and it requires less working cap. iui. Case says, tor instniicc, that merely by reducing im entories of its finished UHUm by more than half, its fiitviug between SL.^00 and $2,000 per marhine. J he downside of iiuss customization is that it creates increased coordination demands on tnanagemenu And it typically requires cinployecs to go through signifb cant retmining. Mass <'usr(>mi7.ation usually requires reengineering of processes, and reorganizing w ork ai’Ound teams to increase flexibility.
ORGANIZATIONS BEHAVIOR IN AN E WORLD area
of
technology
is
changing
t or insiAiK f, rerms like current
lexicon.
In
organizations
more
than
electronic
technology,
and i -husiftexf have hcconic a standard parr of die
this
scciicni,
we’ll
define
an
e-organiration
and
die
affect
it
is
liv-
ing on both iiuhviduai and group behavior in rhe workplace.
What’s on £-Organist ion? E-
refers to
the
Hales
side of
electronic business.
V\Tien \*ou
read
about
rl*
tremendous number of people •ndio arc shopping on the Jnierner; and how businesses can set up Web sites where thex’ sell gtHuK. conduct transacuons, get paid, and fulfill orders,
you’re hearing about e-coirunerce. In contrast, e-business is the full breadth ert
SUCCCHSIVI
activities included in a stracegicH
lor
running
employees,
suppliers,
Internct-based
and
Internet-based enterprise, h includes developing
companies;
customers;
and
improving
collaborating
with
crmirnunicmon partners
to
fichvccn
electronically
coordinate
OMH
And the Term c-ui^ruzatiun (e-orgs) merely refers co applicaUoits of e-busiocss cepcs
IO
sthfxiis,
all
oi^anizauons.
museuim.
E-orgs
govemment
include
agencies,
not and
only the
Inismess military.
firms, For
hut
also
rnstaTice,
hospitals,
the
Intenial
Rex’cnuc Service is an t-orgauization h ecu use it now provides access to taxpayers over the Internet. ITie
to
understand
coinpunencs^die
worldwide
nework
Internet;
employees by
the
network service pirary •f
way
underlying private
•J
best
and
and
Internet,
to
linkages
extranets
which Type
Most
organiutiocs
e-oipmizarion
iiirraneTs,
interconnected
authorized
degree firms.
of
the
outsiders. it
.Vs
uses are
organizations with
are
heavy
and
uunpurers;
cjctcnded As
(Inurnct)
14-1 and
into
on
this
intranets
accessible pnvauj
today
as
categor)’.
in*
three is
«
an
organizations
onlv
to
e-org anet
extranets.
is
and
small
Type
(Host small e-cmnmerce firma. Anil finally, Type D’s are full e-orgs. I’hey've eoflt^
at
Internet
an
(inu
such and
Itok
arc
illustrates,
ozonizations
reliance
to The
intranets
traditional fall
is
extranets.
intranets,
Exhibit
global
concept
selected defined extranet!
retailers
B’s
are
Type
and
contem* C’s
arc
1■■v4w?as
iXHWIT 14-1 What Defines an E-Otganizatian?
il
OufMtl* 'RxhwIonrvMl^tMkn^
r High
n
Intranet and extran et Irnfca ge^
High ’ Internet linkages
Lo*
Degree of Mrvnest
—I
I Full
O U 4 0
None -[■ A pfctck cBay> mmcs
incecratcd Cisco kom
a
global
aad
Si-stems, Tj-pe
A
private
^\mazon.com, toward
a
lype
networks. and D,
it
Type
D’s
Wai-Man. increases
would
Note the
incktde
that
degree
as to
such an
which
firms
as
organixatinn it
takes
e-ortf pfoperue^.
on
,
The following discussion looks at how e-organii^»fions affect OTpbyee behav. k.r. But Aince e^,rgs. in acrualin; encompass a range of elecmnuc teehnolngy applications. our ohsersadcHU and predicdoiis need to be qualified: 1 he more aiv lion uses global and prh"3te newtwi linkages, the more our comments a
u
*111 be applicable to its employees.
Selected Implications for Individual Sc '
on how e-orgs wiB l.x>k at i«st two selected
We e-nitd develop a full chapter or affect mdisSdual behavior. Given our space individual topics-niodvalion and ethics.
..nployces in c-organita-
A,= .b.e -1“"“ nons? rhe answer appears to be
their work cHort an employees m e-or J j^„jence on
susceptible to distractions that can dunivin. In addition, techmeal a P that make them ven'
matUeuble.
these »kdk. .\s a result, pemauun cxpectau.ms dun do thetr peers «
thcr '"^^•^yons traditional orgaiu
different comfrequently base
MrtIV
The OqBtticanm System
rupnon^ by wllw^es pc .
surfing the Ncu pl:ivintf online gan^ W *«*•
S
online.
Some
of
the
■•cylx.T-fft.irs," and searching
n.n«
ns.ted
«U-s
ix=o^.lc
access
tru.n
uork.
tor
instance,
.re
each
day
il>cWeather(;hani>d.Anuz<>n.ioin,3ndcbav •rhe
averatre
visiring cent
L’.S.
sites
unrelated
oHnst
die
work
lo
be
motivated
•'Mimetbing problem
isn't
to
else’'
are
aldiougb
is
Etensity,
u
below
the
ple?
Quite
the
Net
employers
arc
industry*
average.
lot
turnover
And
actually.
rale is
what
'Ehc
and is
Roof,
TtV
gives
difficult
employees.
for
So
employees
c-organizaiions
many
have
benefits
rarely
seen
instance,
signing
bonuses,
onsite
incentives
sides. the
One
is
increasing
gtxxl
when
future,
a
the
rewards
is
comparisons. with
just
happened
public,
inequities
has
continually
the
There
join
nuking
a
firn
those co
chasing
implosion
of
dot-ei>m
options
as
motivators
feel age,
chat a
and gave
looks
llic
addidon,
you
w'ere
qualiiiuirions out
stock
wanderlust
ibtoc.ks
in a
3lXK)
two-way
instance,
sued.
give
incentives
and
organizations:
fur
full-time subsidies.
there
arc
them.
The
they on
downother
l<x>k
condirions
reverse.
employees
in
between
the
designers
and
potciiiial
for
dcniouvaiing
there
the
problem
$>0,b0<)
nuking and
a
3001 Many
of
rlxi* inter-
year
bursa*
$10
nd
Ilion
now
her
company h^-'’
The
aniung
wry
couipany’s
software
nuking
is
the
discrepancies
is
peo-
professional
beciuse
cieaUon
ofiaterfnD
e-org
employees,
many
wealth-creating and
its
home,
and
among
valuable?
next
for
favorably
options
mentality
points
keep
while
high
glaring
15
new
when
very’
meredihk
the is
Specifically,
employees
In if
options
create
get
tTeates
treated.
you
who
don’t
organ-
motivatiid
memberships,
those market
a
bill
empluyees—particularly ITiis
experietK'v,
health-club
but
often
the
and
typical
rccipicnth
is
in
attractive
their
options.
are
eiujiloyces. would
in
free
on
stock
hard-ro-hirc
How
tended
b^vc
Web-monitoring
a
of
what
progi**anb t*alled Rabe
phone
benefit
inequities
inequitably
u>
oii-s,
breaks
kjiow
about
technical
list
employees
demotivate
Iwing
similar
extensive
stock
and
can
to
they’re
by
perceived
other
firm
someone
created
organizations,
aud
may
progi*anK
this
morale.’^
year,
sdinubre
keep
cell
rewards
growing
bjr
feci
stuck
these
options
who
The
effect
provided
engineers-
gone
benefits
finn
potential
Internet-based
and
to
a
that
to
fonnal
has
toward
an
options,
solution
trust
firm,
likely
Inwmer,
installing
car; and another
and
and
pnihlem
stock
The
she
.stock
doing
find
nonmanagerial
cnnctei^es.
l'lu.*se
to
arc
emplovces
percent
$10,000
implemented
by
5
Wheels
a new
the
providing
undermine
per. year.''
emplo^’ee
only
companyHut
a
lhe
so
40
CAberloafing
ro
services
Eiensit)’
this
siccess
also
can
t.,
employees
affect
employees up lu $400 a month to pay for the
eHiirts
Ml
stress,
employees,
guidelines
such
and
diversion,
clear
Web-consulting Its
a
to
that
billion
easy
as
interesting
that
abcrloahng;
have
minutes
mdicate
exeessive
they
Many
VII
SS4
adversely
workforce.^’ a
using
evidence
Virginia-ba.sed
committed
If
csrablishing
and
hi
ereaccs
else.
expecred.
tliere
solely
or
spending
e-som.ues
alone
more
and
is
Recent
due
wresting
iobs
access
job!’
K
increasingly
monotony,
izadon
her
Munetliuig
making
behaviors
snfnvarc,
or
in
do
is
includes
online
h.s
Net
einplovers
itself
overcome
with
jM-rxkictivuy
U.S.
If
and
to
worker
LosiiriK
ro
employee
illustrates
oppuriuniry. that
e-organiMtions
the
use
envourJg^
hanf-to-hire employees tn give up a large salary in exchange fer stock oprinns. Thb
X
1
’’PdoM seemed to g^ only UD R k
fin®
n,jn>-sp’ck opuons become ^vonhless.'^ For individnd i ■ firms nwinly for the pos.Mbiliiy of getting rich through *b «in he J powcdyl denionvjtor.
'W ork Desigr. ‘‘"’P. ’■‘‘fi ® ^phons» a declining mar-
Ethics Elcctn.nic surveillance of employees bv emninr. P’« «»
orga.iiMfi'^nS desire for control againsr an cmpl.'n-ec’s „:nt of increasingly sophisneared surveiUanceTo^\^” ^'T' ddeinnia r.f hou lar an organization should go m momiorins the lA' •” ees who do their work on compurers?^ for iiiswnce, rhe Web activity of every otic of Xerox’s 92 nnn HT^KI
>ehavior of employ-
Xerox fired 40 ^ ns employees because they were caught in die act of surfing forbhl den Web sites. The companys monitoring softu^are rcoirded the unnuthorizxdviril w shopping and pornography sties, and every minute they h,,
argue
that
they
need
surveillance
a»ntrol$.
These
them to make sure employees are working and not goofing off not
distribuung
ee‘s
who
organization
might
create
a
wcrch
and
to
protect
hostile
environment
for
the
controls
and that employees are
organization
women
allow
or
against
members
employ-
of
nunoriry
workplace
parame-
groups. rhe ters.
surveillance
There
seems
employees
at
know
are
they
mingled—for
dilemma
to
work, being
instance,
be
when
is
little
exacerbated dispute
using
watched.
the
But
employees
as
doing
that
by'
the
employers
organization's home
blurring
life
job-related
of
have
the
equipment,
right
and
and
work
life
work
at
home
to
when
are
monitor
employees
increasingly
rather
than
inter-
at
the
office—the ethics and legality of surveillance is less dear.
Selected Implications for Group Behavior b
this
leadership,
section, and
w'e
will
organizational
show
how
politics
issues take
on
such a
as
deosion
different
making,
look
and
communicauon, inij*orunc*c
e-organization$. Decision Making The iradition.il approach taken in OB «hcn making needs to be modified for e-organizarions.
Exactly
what
those
J®"'"®" wodificaoons
should he are not yet fuUy clear. However, wc offer wo protections. Iwe,
First, individual deckn-making models are likely to E-nrganizatitins are typically team-based
•nodels will offer greater relevance. Second, the thoughtfuL rational models of de w management literature (see pages 70-. >)— There arc no proven business models tor e-orgamz^tio^^- • ^alue experimenution-thase that utilize quickly and assimilate it and that can accept fail me an E-organuations don’t have the luiniry o trying co
coinmiiinties. .
So
gToi
.naVine—which dominate J I6 c,,,.ppss iroes co finns tliat gather data
ei^r decision^ in starch limited information
j.
in
F^rtiv
’n
The OgflniMCinn System . I, -i^„vfrarmflltinffmLstjlM.-s.l>eci«ionsinc-<jrganizjitionsareinacia*^ w ± tos bei,?g «.nu..u.lly nu.difi«l »nd even dtscardrd. And ro.. ; Je ec“on pmgran.s nrc dally u>ek« hccausu kw ,.f the deas.ons that "n k encountered before. So no. only do dec.s.ons .n e-orgs need to b, Lk fas,, thev have to be nude ba«d on hnle prev.ou. expenenee. 1 his. of enurv, the pn>l«bi1ity of errors and the need to be able to recover qu.eldy from ndstakes and move on. Communkadon Because
they’re
tradmonal allow,
even
make
obsolete
between
or
also
graphically
employees
who
even
have
going
to
ers
informal
how are
San
arc
activities
Web
sites
comparing
meet
apart.
are
becoming
and
5-com
routes
to on
company
employees
electronic
gripe
u
working
www.truckinlife.com,
the
distinction
and
filtering.
people now
gossip
in
than
in
geo-
easier
fur
ot
Young
conditions
offline
industries
lawj’ers
and
flight
arid
those
number
and
lliey
supcnnsion,
its
grapevines.’'
about
as
allow
Moreover,
share
AIR!
such
meetings
anywhere.
hierarchies,
negotiations,
virtual
through
anyone,
communication,
regularly. to
going
stauis
concepts
meerings,
instance,
Singapore
associate
rigs
as
with
mjtwopks,
L-organiMfions
without
historical
nonverbal
cubicles
that
greedy
to
and
two
For
commumcacon
anytime,
cation
communication.
infornuuon
directly
down
muni
such
conducted.
Francisco
instantly
break
oJ
integrated
coiiununiene
coin
ruk‘>
networks,
localions
work
w'ww.
systems
and
dispersed in
to
interpersonal
talk
employees
longer
revise
redefine
conler’’
no
communicate
eomnninicadon
formal
“water
can
the
comprehensive,
individuals
KnxpJnyees open
icwruing
around
levels
encourage,
These
They
designed
hierarchical
channels.
arc
E-orpanizatioiib
are
pay;
truck-
attendants
share
gossip at w'wwJnsidctheweb.com. The
downside
A
recent
poll
18
pieces
of mail,
sages,
14
fiiund
foxes,
incoming
of
this
that
and and
open
the
18
average
tn
U.S.
23
voice
interruptions
netw
worker
memos
in-house
listen*
cnnununicirion
niinmunicatinn
receives
daily.”* mail
cost
ork
He
or
or
cell
is five
she
phone
also
phone
employees
conimunkatinn calls,
reads
valuable
36
13
messages.
overload. e-mails,
Post-It
*rhesc
rime,
ines*
frequent
erode
their
ability to coiucntrare, and can negatively effect their work pnxlucrivity.
Leadership
Is
organization? focus
on
leadership
Business
three
in
an
executives
differences:
the
c-organization who’ve
speed
different
from
char
in
a
in
both
think
there
is.
They’tend
they'
have
to
worked
at
which
make
rradirional
decision.*,
the
to
impor-
tance nt maintaining flexibilirv', and need to create a vision of the future. Alanagers decisions. (luickly eBay a ent
Bur and
>soluteiy
the
sei
In
one
to
2.2
a
is
comiRitirion
changes
users
organizations
problem
“We're
company
we would
all
the
says,
istered
in
growing dw
much is
at
we
million.
yearlong
from
and
in
then
50
Everv*
they
three
she
lo
dis 140,
previously
we would
when
world
president per
mon
M*ant
The
the
percent
employees
(where
data
Whitman,
to
.30
the
c-organinations.
Meg
chaUenge:
Hasbro
strategy,
all
w(»rse percent
went At
have
intense. 40
leadership
year
never
we and
had
simply execute
is
and
quarter.
hai
l>e<x>mc
been
moving CEO
J
from
making
a
pace cJiffer*
100,000 an
against
at
reg-
execudvel*
it.
At
eBay,
we constantly revisit die strategy—and revise the tactics,'”'' m ’'****'” online businesses n
tmtt
tme
a
as reference
themselves as spnnters and their contemporaries in long-distance runners. They frequently inject lo
a
rapidly
speeded
up
working
uusmess) leader today has to unlearn one lesson that was drilled miu each QIMl4
environment,
the ‘tvcry
terffl I*"
gAthcT cbta so th« yo. .a„
VV»3.
i^a-n.et urne. ""
You can^ d,, du^
In
□a«li"‘">
to
>pcei1,
k-aikrs
in
c-orgs
„jl with the ..i>s and downs. I hvy ntx-.l u. ahlL,
n^ud
hiH,
fl
They have n. be .bk
something doesn’t work ThT^'I?'’’'* ^ocxwi MaA t-iiban. eofounikr of Broadj-ast^j^jj^ anmlifi**' Jirtvcl- «c thoiigin ad^ erasing would he the core of<S
" ‘”K»n«peh**'” “"■hen
.Q th'waht that the way to define our network was to disn-T"”^ 'Lcn- "e w ere wrong. V\e\e had to recaWirate again ^Sing « ■" The
’ fininder
of
'>?ain-and we’U have to PnceLme.eom
saw,
"Forget
about
o-u
’
„,tiH;usc<»‘St-"’'h on rhe ne« generation of pn>blen,s Ldrrship
Jnd -n-' I-'-
•>
deep
understanding
of
how
teehtioiogv
is
uoin/r^
requires
vi^aty
0,,hei„J„,4„f„ppL’i'Ji.'.S
<"n-»,„™„l
dw»nnnuities—jnd they chtxk tlut map constajidy Visionary leadership is undoubtedly iinpomnt ’in even- organization But in a hiperkinetic envin.iunent, people require more from the.r leaders The rule noli tie, and agulatrons tliat ehar.ietcnze more traditional organizatmns pronde’di^ti.«i and reduee lUKcnainty for employees. Such formaln.cd guidelines don’t npically exist in e-orgs, ami it falls on e-lcaders to provide direction through their vision. Polirirt and Networking recognizes the political nature tif organizatiotes, the nJe that poiirics pl.iy in decision making, and the impurtaiue nf nccviorLhig m develiiping wmuis both within and ou&ide an i>rgunization. But preliininan* indicators suggest that efteetivv politicking and nensorking arc different in c-orgs than in the tTKre tradtrional (.iffline organization, In traditional organizutions, effective politicians keep themselves \isiWe, utilize wifM\.*ssion nianagcmcnt techniques, and partiidpatc in activines that will put them in dF>sc rontact with inlluendnl people. But these are essentially face-to-fiu'c activities dut amn’t like I v m be as effective in vorganizations. E-puliticians iirc likely tu rely much mure on cyber-schmoozing ' ia the electronic graiwvine. Internet chat nxims niesMge Kxirds, tor instance. o)>en up opponunirics to meet and talk with people *110 an help employees he more effective in their iohs and their careers, Cvbcr-vxhmmJzimf isn’t likelv to rvpbux the water e<M.ler, cxiraii part), uniwralumni get-togethe.^, or trade shows as places to make contacts and hwld political ‘U'c'. But online networking will hecome increasingly popular and etlecuve asa supl^rment to more traditional jiolitical channels.
'^«ll E-Orgs Redefine Interpersonal Relationships? has redefined »..replace P-*’''"--nSX |„„ge‘r earns,rarnenl be ,nne p aee m d.r.np .hen
^»re
‘^iJicadons of these c-org. to imenu rsoiw •'*'’?rt IS substantive
e\
tixlai than ju-st a few wars ago. f or instani_ , *?' 'ohne
4.i hour, ,scr wwk. In
« ’ hnurs..’^ I’here is also preliminary .ha, .he n.„e P-l-'.. M'*?;''^.^^^ar.e, of m^nla' users with friends and tamily
idencx*
are MK-nding more time th;U pe<‘plv‘ predirtnl Cmvenity stml> t„„e the) sjwnd in real-hfe
gx
PartrVThe Oi^niMcion System
Z
report that they now arc spending IMS time attending social actnitics and talking rheph<.ne to fricn
of
rhe
digital
age
to
conclude
that
Internet will undennine a sense of srxnal community. But it clearly creates new- way^ interact
with
w'oA
people
they’ve
colleagues.
never
mtl
and
Employ-ces
will
may
meet.
never
increasingly Theyll
be
working
develop
on
-office”
teams
friendships
wdth jwople thousands of miles away. And ‘^good interpersonal skills” msjy increa&mgly mean
not
nielude
only
the
the
skills
ability lo
ro
interact
comruLUiivate
effei-hvely
w'annth,
with
jx-opk
enwuon,
trust,
lace
to
and
face,
but
leadership
ju^
through
written words on a computer screen.
WORK DESIGN TTie
way
employee
that
tasks
are
pcrfoniuncc
and
combined
to
create
sarisfecrion.
In
individual
this
jobs
secdon,
ha5
V’e'll
a
direct
look
influence
at
task
(2)
some
on
characieru-
Qcs theories, work redesign, and work schedule options.
Ta.^k Characteristics'Ph cories Most
of
us
interesting
and
researchers. to
identify
different
acknowledge challenging
They task
jobs,
tliesc
have
than
tion,
satisfection,
tant
theories—the
the
and job
face:
(l)Jobs
others.
These
by
developing
responded
characteristics and
two
of
jobs,
relationship
performance.
of In
characferistics
how*
have
task
not
and gone
task and
characteristics we’ll the
review social
art
unnoticed
characteristics
characteristics
section
model
different,
fect^
these
these this
are
theories
are die
OB seek
to
form
employee two
by
that
combined
to
more
most
motivaitnjior-
infrirmation-proccsang
model. The Job Characteristics Model The dominant framework today for definite ta^?k characreristics and understanding their relationship to employee motivation, perfurmance, and satisfaction is J. Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham’s job characteris-
tics model OCM)."' According to dieJCZM, any job can be described in terms of five core job dimensions, defined as follows:
SkifJ vatrefy^ Ihe degree to which the job requires a varieh’ of different aetivides so the worker can use □ niimbef of different skills and talent IM ttiifatify: I "he degree to which die job requires completion of a whole and idendfiable piece of work
3.
1 he tlegrce u> which the has a aibstantiol impact on rhe lives or work of other people
4.
degree to which the joh provides subsmbal freedom, independenceand dxstretion to the individual in sehediilmg die work and in determining the cedures to be used in carqnng it out
5.
degree to which carr^nne out the work aniviefes required fav th® rwuhs m the individual’s obuining direct and ckar information about the effeco*' new of his or her pcrfonnance
Eihifni H-J offers cxamnl-e c Janmeristic, "ariple, E»h.b,t 14. J
•*
I•
‘^Ww 14 presents
the
r«4« j Eksign ftch„oJoBy «nd Work l'»w f.>r each
,ot,“'I
d,nu-n«ons-*k,J/ t~,rinv. task ul,.., •?.
>
^^ningtul 7-hat is. if these threeS mnniihent will v.cnv ,hi- jol. as hein^
f.r« three exist b a job
tmJ, tlur job- rhjt {^,ssvs>. ,t(,rono„,v p
valuable L
responstb.lm; for the l esvfts and rha! ff a ioow how cttei-rively he or she is .-rfor P'‘’^<
«hen sh.
i
’^l*>nMbihtvl has
1 ta^ that she cares about {expcricn,s?i pSKhnlogjuJ states lire firesent th--
‘jn
The n < r .
mance, and sarisfection and dle’lowiT hr7’" the nrffaiii/aiion. As l’■,xhihn 14 1 sh '*
‘^'"P'^Kc's aj^j |;(.,.(.e
'i'''"' ! "d’erfor-
..»,by rndnlda,!, ».,h a h.gh grop-U, „„,l ,r, „ ™.
.Se
,„b,, ana c„„efc„, ,H.„
.«« «h»
XXXX'T arQ wnri Jow grovf th need.
Characteristic SkiU nriety
High variety Low vanen* * Task identicy High hlentity Ixiw hknnrv 4
Task aignifiwm High significance Ixiu significance AutMomy High auvmnmy Ixrn autonomy
ftrcdhBck
Examples
of
High
and
Low
Job
Eumpte
The <jwn«r-op«.*ntor of a garag< who 4o«s clccthcal repir. rebuilds engines, dries bjilv work, and intrruYs with ewsrumeft A boJ>*!hhop worker who spray? paun 8 hour^ a day k cabinetmaker who dcjiigii^ fl |Mcee
huilda the object, 4firi frn/shev it ro fXT&U/n« A worker in a fwnuiure factory whi>o^wrii«2 hihe sokly co make Ug? Xunung the sick in a hospital micnsive care unit Sweeping hospital floors A telephone in<«ralkr who •icheduivi hi* or her own nwrk for che
n«a will*MH supervision, atul ifeddc* o« the most cfTuethc ttchfiHpies hit a particular installation A tdepht»w oiwratiJT whe must liaiulle lalU as il'cy rtnne atstirding to s nunne. highly sps'Cified procedure An tlectrtintcs fosturv worker »h«. »«»niibl«s a modem and then leso ii
i<.
dciermine if h opvrares |>n>per^y An fattr/O’ ’^<^ker who o-onbles a modem and then nwtes I efttHWltls — Ute j< Mttn <• CopyiW* it »• a qutbty cntnil in-peit»r who tesrs it for pn^wr n|«tition and makes nettled ac^tfvonertes
, J
EXHIBIT 14-2 Characteristics
ittrion Syitrm lisn 14-3
The Job Characteristics Model Personei
Crtticaf . paycholofial smes
and work crutcofvws
Experienced > meanirgfulfvess of the work
SkiU variety Task Wentity Task signtficafwe
High internal work mocnration Htgh-quality
ExperwKed responstbllic
y
work perforwance High satisfaction
Autonomy ------------------------------------------ ojtcornss
of the work
with the work Low absenteeism and turnover
Knowledge of the Feedback
actual resulu of
die work activities
V Soi^nx. J.fl. Hackman and J L. SuUe. cds.< ZmpMMng IJIB 8t Vi
Moreover,
they
will
rcsjvind
mure
positively
to
the
psychological
states
when
the>*
jrc
present than will individuals with a low growth neerl. The job ch a ra Cl eristics model has been well researched. Most of die evidence supports the gen end framew iirk of the thenr\ —that is, there is a set of job characteristics,
and
these
erable
debate
chanuteri
about
the
sties five
.ilTcct
specific
bchaviuraJ core
outcomes.’*^
dimensions
in
the
But JCM
tliere and
is
still
the
conoid"
validity
grtnsTh need strength as a mcxlerating va riable. Wicre docs this leave us? Given the current $bite of evidence, we can niakedi« following statcincnis with relative conluicncc: (I) People who work on jobs with hi^’ core ioh dimensions are generally more iiKJtiv^ied, satisfied, and productive tban^ those who do not; and (2) iob dimensions operate through the psy^chological influencing personal and work outcome variables rather than influencing the conics direedv?’^ f Sotwl ^’’^'^atioQ-Procegeir. vt j than n, tbeXv/r e<.»acu..U„ d-c,,.,. I.l
{x'ople a-si^o,, 4
ninfcck-arjnffli^ (SJp) nifliW-"
ot
^’»Pt«r 14 Technobj^ »nd Work Oe«t
The SIP m<J.lel argues that einpiy^ ,he SCCMl cues provided by rtJ.ers veiih uSom»>el.=iviors in re c-worke. s. supemsors. Irienrts, farnik- n, ? ***)'«>nw« i h? Ijng prt . Munnur pb working in a Bn.ish ( ±0
H.r
dns one paid f.arheuiarly well. a^i-k , ,..e^7wn weeks later, however, his n.odvarion
i'4is were L
«.as rhat his ca-uorkers cnns.stendy b.d-mouthed i ' “‘'1 ’"’• ^ad happened luring, .hac having Jock in and nut proved
"a-
wK
^penxsop never bstened to their opi.nnns. The obieT'^'u '""<> ‘h« ,^dn,„ ihanped in the two-week jK-rind; rather (iX h
(larj-’siob ’
basis (»f nie«agcs he had recekctl I'roiti others ' A inimlxT of studies
generally
Kalin-on tbe the 1
conlirm
insrance, n has been shown that emplowe mom ari ** '1 ”*
™«<’el.’^ For
lated by subtle actions such as a co-worker or boss e'"'
can he manipu-
jiiseiice u( job J'catiircs such as dtfllculiv chalk-ncr should
give
as
much
(nr
more)
existence or n can be inanipueniuloKes''\J'^^*'-'“‘"^’’-^V
atteiitinii'p,
’’
rhet give to the acnjal charaaeristics of diosc joU' rhev miirbl'^^ -"Ployees how i„,c,«u„g .„d
Lj jcLTt ™°"
^ptoi should ,Eo no, k surprised th,, newly hue J e„,p|„,„s J people „
p,„,„o,e,l
,0
a
new
posiuon
are
1
rno.e
",
likel,
to
he
at
their
teeepnve
,o
Le.al
info„n,„,T„
d)in are those \nth greater seniorih;
Work Redesign What
are
jobs
to
cusses
some
of
make four
ihe
them
ot
options
more
those
nuinagcrs
interesting
options:
job
have
iiiul
motivating
rotation,
job
disposal
for
if
they
employCLS?
enlaxgcment,
job
want
The
tn
redesign
foJlo^ving
ennebmenr,
and
disteam-
Used work designs.
Job live when the
Rutation is
to
UH*
It
employees
activity
i^s
same
level,
that
all
ihcir
gives
employee's
ested
in
from
job rotation (or what
an
cruss-trains
suffer
upward
more
no
longer
has
job
mobihry;
many now
challenging,
similar
customer
overrourinization
skill
and
cross-rraining
is
For
representatives.
tiicir
mw-hiy/w/g).
employee
requirements-
serv'icc
variety^
the
call
of
rotated
instance, The
challenge.
And
for
exposes
them
to
work, Wiib to
one this
technique,
another
America
altema-
job.
West
Airlines
company
say5
that
emphjyces
who
are
about
sixieeii
at
this inter-
differen^r^s
•if the company versus oniv one they would l>e exposed m it jobs were specialized. 1 he sirengrhws of job roTation arc that it reduces boredom and increases luouvabon thnmgh diversifying the employees activities. Ot course, ii can • ^2. I>enefit5 for the organization sinix* employees with a wider range o ' ageincnt more flexibility in hdiedulin|r work, adapting ro changt'. an j^sed On the (rthcr hand, job rotation has its drawbacks.
his or
and productivity is reduced by moving a worker into ''
rotation also
^'vr efficiency at the prior job was creaung organizanon creates disruptions. Members of the work group a'c I he supervisor may aJso have to spend more
employee, . and monitor. mbjrion can detnoiivate
"jg the w«wk of the recently roraicd empkiyee. km “Welligem and ambitious trainees who seek
'Pe«4ln
jn their chosen *■
f The OrpWMtif^n Systwn
W
Job EoJwsement More ch<w 51. yean^go. the idea of e-.p^ndinje
'J
nr wh«^«’l job enlargement, grew in papularny InereaMng ibe nun.hcrand v,„. X ofLk.
■
individual pvrtVn nKd reM.lted .n ,ohs with .nore d.verMty
of nnk sorting du' incomirg in.dl by depannien.. for .usance, a mail sorter^ jobeould be enlMfcd W include physieaiiy delivering the mail to the vanom .Icpartmenrs«» runuingoulgoinB letters diroughllK postage meter. Efforts at job enlargement met with less titan eiithas.astiL- resiiks.-+ As <«« einploj’CC
who
experienced
such
a
redesign
of
his
job
lack
of
remarked,
“Bt-torc
I
had
005
lousvRjh. Nw. through enlargement. 1 have three!" ' jobs
/Uthough ir
did
job
litdc
enIsM'gement m
instill
nuacked
challenge
rhe
'^r
diversity
mcaningfulness
lo
in
a
overly
workers
sp^xialited
aetivities.
Joh
ejii'ithnienr was intro.luccd to dc.i! with the shorteomings nf ciilargeineni.
Job
Enrichment
increases
rhe
Job
degree
enrichment which
TO
tile
refers
TO
the
worker
controls
vertical the
expansion
planning,
of
jobs,
execution,
and
h
evalu-
aci<jn of his oi- her work. .An eiirichcd job oi^anizcs tasks so as co allow the worker to do
a
complete
rcspousibiliie,
aciivit).
and
increases
premties
the
feedhack,
employee’s
so
an
freedom
individual
will
and
be
independence,
able
to
assess
increases and
correa
his or her own perftimiance. How based
on
docs rhe
jnanagement
job
enrich
cbaracterisdch
an
luodch
einphy'eeX specify
the
job? types
"JTic of
following
changes
in
suggeshons, jnlis
that
arc
casks
and
pot
1
measure
most likely to lead lo improving their motivating potential (see KxhiWt 14-4). 1.
Cyw/jw/e them
Munagtr^
back
tygeclicr
diould to
seek
form
;i
ic
lake
new
CAJsting
and
larger
and
fruvliuiulucd
niodulc
of
work.
his
increases skill variety and task idcinity. 2.
fVivnr Ntfr/nffZ-srent uniu. The creation of natural work units means thar the tasks aa enjpkjyee does term an identifiable and ineaiiingfixl whole. TH 15 measure increases anipkiyee "ownership* of die work and improves the likelihood tfut emplo^xes will ^•icw their work « meaningfal and iniporunt rather than as iiTple%*ani and boring.
EXHIBIT 14-4 Guidelhes for Enriching a Job ---------------------------------------
Suggested action ;S','
>,,
.1111 tiBlo
^ Forming natural work
Core |ob dimensions ,1,1 SkjBvylcy
Talk MentiQr
ffittahttihing dient :'l 1 . ■ -----------------relationships loadrng
Automm
charmte
; /• *
J1^. HflcMwan aM XL $MU e4s../rpmMn|Ul^*(ni0rt(aHrM«xt^Scaah»«aman^ 1977 LO 13&
I
M
fJc Chapter 14 Tethnolni^ and Work J. ExtafM chevf reioftert^hip/. 'I’he udient is th empluyw works .m (iind may he an prodiKt or svrwr that the organi^^uion). Wherever pwsihlv, maiwifer/ch'^’u^ JKrrnconc mitside the sJtip* heewevn workers and ihcir client tn tn esiahliidi direct relationback for tiie employee. ''ariety, autonmny. and feed4. £v/7^/«i^y6Z-r VerUcal expansion pves cinDlov.*t. tn* tn direct relationtbac were formerly r-erv-ed for man.X t>ewe«n the doinj!- and the \ontrb» and H increases 5. d'uHncb. Feedback lets emplovces kn.iw n.s..... u fonihng rhrir jobs but also wheihcr their perform net’ it ’ P®'* renwining af a ronswin Jevd, hkylly, feedback about Jirerrly ns rhe emplovcc doe. the Performance ,houW lx. receive • ’ ’ Mtherthan from manage men i on an fKeasional
In and
general
turnover
6e
evidence
ity;
in
seem
.s
be
overall
costs
others, to
the
and
e-.^Jence
increases
inconclusive?'^’ it
decreases
consistently
some
Even
more
that
satisfectionj
In
n.
shows
job
but
on
situaiions,
when
enrichment the
iob
productivity
conscientious
use
of
reduces
critical
issue
ennchiuent
goes
of
productivity-
increases
down,
resources
absenteeism productiv-
however,
and
a
there
higher
docs
quality
of
work
in
product or service. Team-Based
Work
groups
teams.
work
and to
about
try’
co
Designs WTiat,
improve
iijJjvidual-based
because induals
the
w'ide
instead
Revisited if
anything,
employee
W'Oik
to
a
of
can
we
perfornwiue
design
popularity’
ot
Jncrcasiiigly,
than
we
say
in
do
person—is
ahnui
those
about
teams—specibcally
single
people
a
the
assigning
doing
design
groups?
desitrn
relatively
arc W'c
at
group-based
kjiow
rhe
tasks
of
a
group
to
a
lot
level,
more mostly
group
of
indi-
recent
phenomenon.
That
said,
to
as
valid
nr
the
group
a
group
to
perform
the best work in this area olfers two sets nl suggestions.-^' First, level a
as
high
the
JCM
they level
are
recommendarions
at
w'hen
the (1)
individual die
noted
level.
group
task
above
seem
Managers requiros
should
members
be
expect to
use
a
variety
of
at
relatively
high level skills; (2) the group task is a whole and muwngful pietx of work, w itlt a visible
outcome;
quences omy
for
for
(?)
the
other
deciding
outcomes
people; how
(4)
they
of
the
the
do
group’s
task
the
work
provides
work;
and
on
group (5)
w’ork
the
task
members on
the
have
signihuani
conse-
with
substantial
auton-
task
generates
regular,
trustworthy feedback about how well the group is performing. Second, Cohsistent the
group
with
following
composition
findings
four
described
conditions
are
is
critical
rn
in
Clhaprer
8,
met:
(I)
die
success
managers
Individual
members
ol
the
should
w
have
rhe
to
wor ensure
necessary
greupthat task-
relevant expertise to do their work; (2) the group is large «)members
possess
i,ncrpcrsun.il
as
well
as
task
skills;
and
(4)
membership
.s
atcly diverse in tenns of talents and perspectives.
Popular Work Schedule Options Jn a work world where employees are increasingly complainJTtg ...L.Uule onrions about being pressed ^'-r time wl the difficulty of balancing personal and work fives, ’uch a. flextime and tclecommuring can be a way W .mpmve employee pnxlucbvjtv, and sarisfaction.
moder
Tt>e Orfuunuicm Sysietn Hcxrimc
'
n«rim.
allows
is
employees
short
some
ha^o
worU
specific
work
within
cerSn
core,
asoally
"flesihle
discretion
number limits.
su
ft»r
of
.V
hours,
over
hc.urs
with
a
wh«m
a
sh«.wn
work
week,
in
flexibility
they but
r.xh.bit
hours."
ban.!
arnve
they
14-S.
at
are
each
day
surrounding
the
actually
employees
their
Hibs
two
hours
fi
during
A.M.
the
and
closing
common
Iwfore
core
and/or
at
6
P.M.
[scriod,
after
the
All
but
they
core
are
time.
to
«heduling leave
vary
c.nstsu
A^M-
at
a
and
free
exclusive of a one-hour lunch break, the a.re may be 9 opening
It’s
the
of
core.
work,
a
hr«n^
cotjinxm
For
example,
to 3 P M., with the office are
allowed
Some
required to
to
be
«
accumulate
their
program
all^
flextime
extra hours to be aawiulated and turned into a free day ofFeach month. Flextime full-ome 25
has
U.S.
million
flexihiliiv
become
employees
employees,
on
extremely
flextime
or
nearly
dieir
daily
arrival
equally.
U^iile
in
employees
an
42.4
popular
almost
2H
doubled
percent
and
of
the
of
1991
S.
full-time
U
xnanagers
option.
from
times?*
departure
percent
scheduling
But
enjoy
to
The
1997.
w
.approximately
firkforce,
flextime
die
pnjponkmuf
isn’t
freedom
now
ha»c
available
of
flextime,
dl only
2 J. 3 percent of manufacturing workers are offered a flexible schedule?** rhe tceism.
benefits
increased
toward
and
job
.Most
the
of
absenteeism
traffic
autonomy
performance
and
can
and
overtime
their
up
worker work
and
include
a
work
fur
the
stack's
They
expenses,
anjund
beyond
improves
absences,
numerous.
responsihilily
evidence
schedule
and
are
congestion
Bui
frequently’
tardiness
flextime reduced
satisfaeoon.^^
Employees
reducing
reduced
increa.sed
employee
fr>r
productivity,
management,
ncss,
sons.
claimed
lessening
sites,
that
whats
record?
productivity/*
probably
for
employees
can
with
adjust
personal their
tardh
flextime’s tends
align
of
increase
Flextime
to
hostility
may
favorably.
hours
aUen-
in
elimination
employees
claims,
reduced
to
reduce
several
rea-
d^mand^
thus
work
activities
to
those hours in W’hich they’ are individually more productive. Flextime’s with
clerical
(Jc^partment retail
major
Usks is
stores,
drawback
for
limited.
or
similar
is
which
an
It
not
is
jobs
in
that
its
not
employee’s a
w
viable
hich
applicable
to
every
interaction
with
option
receprionisLs,
for
comprehensive
people
service
job.
It
works
outside sales
demands
his
or
personnel
that
people
well her in heal
their w ork stations at predetermined times. Telecommuting
It
flexible
hours,
freedom
leagues.
Its
home
least
ai
might
called twu
related term rAr r/rOizJ
be lo
close
dress
telecommuting Jays
a
week
to
as
you and
on
a
the
ideal
please, refers computer
job and
to
for little
many
people.
or
interruptions
eniploy'ees
that
is
linked
no
who to
do
their
\O
their office.
commtitinp* frtMn work
at
(.A closeh
—is being increasingly used to describe employees wtxJ
work out of their home on a relativciy permanent ^sis). Currently, about 21 niiilit*’
EXHIBIT Y4-S Example of a Flextime Schedule
I 3m
cot-
4m
p^le in the United States tekcoiwnutr *2 L-
technology and WorkO^i
plain' Sotmare. Patagonia, and Xerox are . Management Svs n VVliat kinds of MK k-nd rhunsekS be^n idennfied a.s m.,st apprup.iatci to.nine?,Three cateEones have ines and pmkssional and other knowJedg,_^™J'™-’’’^dhng tasks, moWleaLand employ ers who spend the majority of thl J
»"»-
phone are n.Koral candidates for tekcomi,,,,,;
“t the telc-
ewtorner-.scrvKx- representatives, reservation aec K ' '"i”'
’c'cmarltetcn,
spend iiinsl o! dicir time on the phone. As Iclecomm '
specialists
on riieir computer sci ceiis at home a> ea.silv as..n tk
information
There are numerous stories of telecoim.,
in any office, ^••ccew ' .A1'S.-T has 55,000
teleiomniiuers and claimsstories that it nf has sav.-d the There numerous tele 75 percent of these -AT^T itlcroinmutere said personal
and
family
lives
rni'hon And tlian
licfore
they
staned
wewL
*^'^
claims that tclcconunuring has increased nrothictivitv ■’5"^
^ysicins
key employee, who ,night o.l.erwi.e h„e left, .„d ,.„'d
jI mT
|,„„
overhead.
As
cost
eqm^en,
telee—niauoa, to
the
introduce
the
nmial
of
trad.tion.l
ha, office
office
plummeted, b
a
wny
to
space
has
maoagots inmate
cst.laL
„e
aod
the
i,KTea„„gl,
employee
ikxibilin'
ev.vTof mohvated
and
productiv-
in; improve employee morile^ and cut co.sii.
Ihe wx
don\
long-lenn yer
huvc
future
of
dcfimiive
teltcrnnmuiing
answers,
Por
depends
ijtsunce.
will
on
some
questions
for
which
w’ho
tlicir
w’ork
employees
do
ar home be ar a di<;advamage in office poliuo? .Might they be less likely co he considered for salary increases and promotions:' Is being out of sight ct^uivalenc to being out of
mind?
close
Will
proxiinin*
non-work-relared of
rhe
distmedons
refrigerator
such
significantly
as
reduce
children,
neighbors,
productiviiy
lor
and
those
without
supennr willjxiwer and discipline?
IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS Technology is changing popic’s jobs and their work lichavini. Quality management and its emphasis <jri continuous proces^^ imprnvemenT can increase employee stress as individuals find ihat performance cxpectahons are ^nstanrly being increased. Process reengineering is completely reshaping^c j s o tm lions of emplovees. And mass cust<xni/ntion E making it possible for organmtions to efficiently tailor products to individual eustotne.’s tastes, but tj-pMlIy requires cmplovees to go rhniugh significiuic rd raining.
u.-rtlnmes to
The /„rg„„z»ti™ «ppli» hpcrnet. intranet, and *e M, hneatltS „f ,ta aepvities. „ i™ managers. hor instance, employees
etnpbvcc monitoring X'^r.^lo,™ privacy; precedt-ni: op'"
undermine rherr work prod,rcnv,t,n the wjfruarc creates ethical dilemmas tor tn.n .g . decisions must be made more quickly Minimum cations increase the porenual distractions from work tasks; cffecmx lea ‘lensHms quickiv. maintain high flexibility, t-orgs will likclv use electronic networks as a
overload and furdier .
be able to make usions. and eiiiplweesin boddinK political allies, QKISI
the
"'T
2t4
Part
Organization System An undersModing of wrk design can hdp managers design jnhs that pc«^. nvdy affect cinployxe motivyuon. For instance, jobs rhf>t score higJ^ on the •ncrciihc an fmpHyee’s control over key elements in hjs or her work. Therefore joi)s th at ofler autonomy, feedback, and similar enriching task characteristics help to KaTisfy die indindnni goals of employees *'ho desire greater control (jver their WTJrk. Of course, toit5;rstcnr wirh fhe stKaal «ifofnia«on-pfrx.es5ing mod^[ perception that task cliaractenstics are enriching is probably more important in influencing an employee’s motivation than are the objective task charactensties themselves. The key, then, is to provide employees with cues that suggest that their jobs score hi^ on feernrs such as skill varict)’, task identiry’, autonomy and feedback. In shokdd
an
effort
consider
to
help
implementmg
employees work
copc
scheduling
with
work/lifc
opxk>n8
confUexS,
such
as
managers
flextime
and
wtecomnauting where applicable.
t*:
I
Vr-
/
Human Resource Policies and Practices After reading this ihapter, you should be able to 1. De$cnb€ jobs fof which interviews are effective seiotton devices 2. List the advantages of perfonnance’^imulatjofi tests over wrirten tests 1 Identify fotx types of employee training
4. Identify the advantages of using behaviors rather than traits in appraising peribnnance 5. Explain the most popular performance appraisal criteria i. Identify who, in addition to a boss, can do performance appraisals 7. Explain actions that can improve the performance appraisal process
H
t. Describe approaches for managing workfwre diversity
he quabn of an organizadons workforce is largely a result of rhe people it
hires. II a firm hires new cmplovees with inadequate skills, for mstante. the
work perforroance of«hese employees is likely to suffer regardless of maiiagenicnt s efforts to pronde morivarion and leadership, create effective groups, or design chaiIcngins jol>s
«
The message of this chapter is diat human resource p-iUcies such as cmpltnec selecn«»n. training, and perfonnanee appraisa unce
an
organizauons
effecriveness.'
We
begin
^bicct of our
discussion
u.th
the
sub|vc
hjrintr,
EMPLOYEE SELECTION '^lui ch> application forms. intcr>icw5»» P”^*ul lenen of rccomnwndanon have •4-n.o.m ,b.», . M. -PPUCM. >bM t-an hdp UK orpmaaoon
ft>r olHatnmg determine
SjWcn
a
fUrtlV Tbe
or nor rhe flppHfant^ ski Ik, knowledge, and Abilities arc u|>propriaic for the }<*' question. In rhis section, we review the more im|Mirtant ot these selection device*^ *’ Jhtcreicw.s, wriuen xcsfs. ami perlonnancc-simolaricin tests.
hucrvicu'S in .South Korea, iapan, and manv other Asian touniric*. cinplovee interviews tradititj,^ ally Ji a VC not been part of the sekcdon process. Decisions were made a I most entirely the busts of evam scores scluiksnc acartnplishTncnrs, and letters of tecomincndaonQ ’I’his is not the case, however, tbnjughout most of the world. It’s prolwbly correct chai mosr of tloiAknow niauy people who ftave gorren a full-dmc iJi wiihnut at least one intern ew. Of all the seketitm devices char organisations use to difk-reniiate inb tacilidares, the hiterview cymlinues (o he the iiiie most frequently used.- Even eompanjcs in Asian counrnex have begun to rely on employee interviews as a sen: ening device? Not only is the interview widely used, it also seems to carry a great deal uf weight. That is. rhe results tend co haw a dispropcruonate ainount of influence nn the sclccuoi) ^keision. The eandidaTr who performs p<M)rly in the enipkonnenr interview is likely to Iw rot frtim rhe applicant pool, regaidlcss of his or her experience, tot scores, or letters ol recouun end anon. Conversely, “all too often, the person mostpoh i shed in jnb-^r eking techniques, par tied adv those used in the interview pnieess, is die one hired, even though be (rr sbr nifiy not be the best candidate for the position.”'* These selection
interview
duration, fccrive
causal,
Mjiccrion
and
often
can
distort
share the
findings
ihrir order
and
made
to
rusulis.
I
use
a
incdiod
recording
r>indom
JaUi
unduly
high
are
standardized
sci
information,
from
and
.such
hnerviewers weight
to
questions,
been
ro
standardizing
the
rhe
internew^shon
tn
to
a number favor
of
the
an
nf
inrf
biases
applicants and
evaluations.^
intcnfowcrs
rating
be
tvjMcally biased
information,
influence
providing
whicli
are
structure,
tending
in
proven
interviews
ncgauve
to
manner
unstructureil
Without
interviewed of
iiristrueuired
'The
performance.
include
biases
ihe
que.sdon5H-has
gathered
job
applicants
of
conducted.
ol
fa cure
giving
winch
up be
These
atumdes,
because
frequently
device.*'
interviewers of
itnpomnt
is
unrelated
in
are
w’ho
a
Hawing
Dv
having
a
uniform
with
applicant’s
qual-
ified tion.s, the variability in re.sults across ajiplicnnts is reduced and the validity of the interview as a selection device is greatly enhanced. The cant’s are
evidence
intelligence,
related
to
level
job
increased.
For
in
rnaiugeriat
upper
indicates of
interviews
motivation,
performance,
e.xatnplc.
that
these
positions.
the
and
validity
qualities This
most
interpersonal of
have
may
arc
the
valuable skiils.'
interview'
demonstrated
explain
why
as
for
assessing
^^Tien a
selection
relevance
applicants
rhest
for
lor
an
qualities device
is
perf^tinance
senior
luanagC'
mem positions t)-picaJly undergo dozens of inten iews w ith cxecunve rccruitert*, hoard members,
and
other
coinpjmy
explain why organizations
that
executives design work
before an
a
final
Hind
teams
decision
is
may similarly
through an unusually large number of interviews. In practice, most organizations use inten’icws for mure than a *prcdicbon-ofpcrfonnance” device? Companies as diverse as Suudiwesi .Airlines, Di.vncy, MicT<«ofu and Procter & Gamble use the interview ro assess applicant-organization fit. So additicMi (o specific, iob-relevanr skills, organizations arc looking at canAdaics sonalit)' char^txensbes, personal values, and the like to find individuals that fit the o^anizjihon^ culture and image.
made, put
h
can
applied’’®
■P^*t15 '’umsnRcwwcc Police,
Written Tests •h-pical uiirun tests intelligence, aptitude .1 i-
pipular as si-I« lion dcsStes. the,, have gcncralk’ ,1'
«»d integrity. Ltxw ’^equcnrly Jx^en
drtrtctcn/. d as disenininaring, an.l many ..tKani^ri k
i. lx.-ing jol.-rclated,
»Iidate, such lists js ‘’hdaied. << cajmix
Tests of inielk-tnjal abiiiiv. ^natial -^„,i L - . . „d motor -ib'liT ^’«ve been shoH-,, skilled
and
iinsUlkd
opcnitive
Mxuraty, jol^
in
or.«^,
indiisirial
•
P’’®dietors
for
many
s«3ni-
proven to IK- parricilarl)- g.xxl predictors h.r ,..bs that XuLTr' Japanwauio makers, u heii staffing plants in the ••'-''P’ltivc complexity.*'’ written tests Io predict which candidates will he high perfoXis^^'f "'"'“"J TwiJia. for instance, <-an lake up uj three days of oj •' *'’h . .............. Jabilin' work with others. uv
I
hese
in-,
carehiincss.
are
powerful
ovc
cmphiyee
are
paper.and-penal
responsibility,
in
predicung
liehavjur
on
and
tests
honesty.
supervisory the
job
that
The
evidenev
ratings
such
as
m«.surc
of
job
theft,
factors
is
such
impressive
performance
discnplinc
as
that
and
prtiblcms,
depen^bilthese
tests
lounterpitKlucand
exccswve
alfrcntcckm.’-
Performance-Simulation Tests VVTiat bettvr way is there co find out if an applicant can do a job than having him or her do it." I hat’s precisely the Ic^c of perfonnance-simubtion tests. Perforinance-simulation decades.
Undoubtedly
the
tests
have
enthusiasm
increased for
these
in tests
popularity comes
during
from
rhe
the
past
two
fret
that
they
sampling
and
more easily meet the requirement of job rclatedncss chan do most written teats. The assessment
two
best-know
eeniers.
'I’hc
n former
performancc-simulation is
suited
routine
tests
iobs.
are
whereas
work the
latter
is
relevant
for the seleedon of managerial personnel. Work sampling tests are hands-on simulations of part or all of the job that must l>e performed by applicants. By carefully devising work samples based on a detailed descriptKMI of the tasks involved in a job, management determines the knou ledge, skills, and abilities needed for each job. Then each work sample element is wtchtxl with a corresponding job performance element. Work samples are widey in the hiring of skilled workers, Auch as welders, machinists, can^ntef^. and clecfneians. For instance, cajididates for production jobs at B.MWs factory m South are given work sample tests.' ’ They’re given 90 min uics to perform a variety epical work tasks on a specially built simulated itsseinbly line. lhe results from work sample experiments arc impres-sive. Studio aJm^^ tiemonstrate that work samples yield validities supenor to wntten aptitude
A elaborate set of J*»ltt«e 1 candidate^ managcnal poteonal, is I®
p^vchologists eval-
centers, line executives, cwdMb.es » the) KO through one to several days of exercises tna
5-
The OrgaBlmon $y«Mn ,, ____ X •he iobJ’ Based ort a liwofdeicriptlve activities might include intendt^^ - kadcrlcss gn«’P diH-ossions, and businewdeek -
pmWerna that they wotdd qnns that the acnial j«
hour ixriod. , J k»w valid I* the assessment center as a selc< non
It
X. muTdccidr how to'respond to i« num<« i« h.s or her u.-basker within ,
Tliev
have
effectiveness
<‘f
assessment
centers
is
impressive
1 he evidence on the consistently demon-
managerial
srrated results thai predict bter job perfr.rmanc r in
Competent become inal
employees
oby>k
te.
training.
employees ers?'
For
sjxnt
Xcmx.
don’t
'I’hal^;
as
why
instance,
S54 a
billion
case
remain
in
competent
or^nizafinns
spend
it
was
reported
in
one
recent
point,
Ski11$
billiuns
of
that
year
spends
forever
more
U.S.
deteriorate
dollars
each
corporations
on
formal
than
$3(W
training
with for
tndliun
year
can
on
UM)
50
each
and
for-
or
more
mjllion
work-
year
on
training
and retraining irs employees.’**
Tjpes of Training Training
can
include
advanced
courses
everything
in
categones—basic
executive
litcrac);
from
teaching
Icaikrship.
The
technical,
employees
following
inrcrperymal,
and
basic
reading
summarizes problem
four
skills
to
general
solving.
In
skill
addition,
we briefly disruss diversity and ethics training. Basic
Literacy
Skills
Ninety
million
American
adults
have
limited
literacy*
skills
and
about 40 million tan read little or not at all; this literacy problem is costing U.S. companies
$60
billion
annually
in
lost
productivity?*''
workplace
demands
require
a
10th- or 1 Id^-grade reading level, but about 20 percent of Americans Ixtu ccn the ages of 21 snd 25 can’t read at even an 8th-grade lev el.-*’ In 1998, 36 jxrcent of U.S. job aptilitamoi
failed
some
version
of
a
basic
skills
test.’’
In
many
Third
World
countries,
few workers can read or have gone beyond the equivalent of I he third grade. Oi^anizarions for
their
are
emplfn*ee$.
increasingly
As
long
as
having
job
to
demands
provide
basic
continue
to
reading
require
and
that
math
skills
individuals
hav'e
solid skills in rhe 3Rs^ and many job applicants continue to lx deficient in these skills employers will need to take |K»idvc action to close the skills gap. Manv business firtWs lor
instance,
are
hiring
instruemrs
and
offerim*
classes
in
English
and
mathematics
ft*
employees at the workplace and during work h ours. T^hnicaJ
SldlU
technical
skills.
Most
iniining
Technical
is
training
direcied has
at
upgrading
become
and
increasingly
improving imporant
an todav
employee's for
t*®
reacns—neu- technolog) and ncu structural designs. Jobs change as a result of new technologies and improved methods- For mswnce, many auro re|«ir personnel have had lo undergo extensive training to fixawl maintain recent models with computer-monitored engines, electronic stabtliuo? Mtelliic navigation s>-stenis. and other innovarions. .Siinilariv. ciMnpuwf required millions of production employees to team a whok
f".™,u„„,
eMnp*
iniportan, becn.se of
and break down rradinnnal deparunenwl^"''*«’*■ It-arn a wi'It-i' variety' nt i;,sk«i.
"amcrs, employees need tn
Inwrp*’’^*’"*’* en,p|„vves belong tn . i J,eirw■‘»•^^ IKTloj-mantt depends nn their abiluv ,.,i. r ,x,rker and ibeir boss. Some employees have t'xeelien'’HnV'''^^^‘'^‘’‘''i^
Ri some dcerec.
-rsre«iu'''i-' iramingto improve theii-s. J'his indinl..« I "'‘■'''’fHit othh<.«' to communicate i.kas mote clearly, and kZX play^^* Problem-Solving Skills Managein, as well as nianv cii,Dh,v..r< .vS .c, j^utiPf have to solve problems on the |oh. VVIum petmk tetuc^ ^ttorm nnnIdelicicntm ibe.n, lhev can pardemnte in nrX?v^ '
’‘><'1'*’’ut
'
,„,We acuvitH. to sharpen their lojpc, reas.S^ing, an7J ,,ell as thvit abilities o .i«tss causation, develop alternatives, analyze alum select solnrions. Probiem-soinng training has become a basic part of al.no”; eveiy organizational cffoit to introduce self-managed teams or implement qualiiv’
managtrnent programs, WTiat
About
Diversity
training,
for
instance...
tiatives.
MS
|>crccnt
programs
are
eMniiiiiiig
Training? recent
surv-ey
used
generally
fhe
stereory'pes.
(ound
training
intended
centerpiece
as
to
chat,
part
provide
Participants
(earn
of
tuinpanies
their
programs.--
vehicle
to
tliversicy
among
of a
most
value
lor
is
diversity
ini-
with
Diversity
increasing
individual
programs
training
awareness
differences,
'and
increase
their CTCKS-CUICiiral understanding, and confront sicereoh'pes.*^ The
rypiciil
exercises, cise
at
panrs
program
lecuircs, Hantord
to how
old
(2)
V\^Kn
I
from
discussions,
and
Insurance
respond
are,
lasts
to
would was
chat
the you
18,1
thought
a
day
gn>up
semghr
fullowinp guess
half
you middle
increase
questions:
are?
three
experiences.
to
bur
to
In
age
began
For
and
If
you
words,
ai
age
Includes
exainple,
sensicivih*
(1)
otiicr
days
training
to
^ging
asked
didn’t
know
how
how (J)
a
rolc-phipng
old
do
Today,
I
you ihmk
exerpartici-
old
led
you
inside?
middle
age
begins fl! age ____ . (4) Wluir would be vour first reactiem if someone called you "an nhkr Horkcr’7‘^
Answers
h'pes.
another
In
tach
partitipani
born-again stercohpes,-' ‘•ertain to
these
program
was
asked
Christians, They
groups
shatter
to
in
the
questions designed to
blacks,
were the
also past.
stcrcutyT^es
to
write
asked
used
to
analyze
awareness
of
the
anonymous
Hispanics, to
on
directed
then
raise
an
ifays
Based
were
paper
men—to
explain
why
responses,
guest
at
gnMip.
each
power
detailing which
they’d
This
of
all
was
>
stereotypes,
had
troehle were
stere<»-
groups—women,
they
had
speakers
age-reiared
attached
working
brought owe
with
into j
ex
the c
diwiission. About Ethics Training? A sun-ey fouml that alxiut 75 working in the l.lHffl largest U.S. corpiratii.n.s receive ethics traimug, on wheduT you can teach ethics is not clear. Cntk-s argue that ethics arc based on values, an *
, already been
^■*'1) age. By the time employers hire |u'uple. their e ^tabltshud.
The
In’ cxdinpk.
critics,
also
claim
“taught," hut niusr be that
ethics
cannot
he
formally
The
System SuBPWten ofcthKs training argt.e that values «n be leaded and changed a^
early chiKl. And even if they couldn't, ertnes tia.mng tvnuld IK effee .ve rhclp^mployces «, recognize erhied dilenunat. heco.ne more .avt^re rj tk edtie,! LXndcdt-ing their actions, and reaffinns an nrpm.zant.n s ex,Kc-tao.ms that tnem. bers uiU urrcthicaNy.
Tmining Methods Training methods are most reatlik eUwfied as formal or informal and on-ihe-iob or ff a , I • I
off-thc-job. Hiscoricaliy, training meantTw-witf/ structured ingly
relying
nations ity.
formar.
They the
on
and
most
H<jwvver,
mosr
has
indicated
leaching
training
information
important
is
nothing
and
outcome
skills
sohe of
and
more
trend
organizations
than
is
and
keeping
work-related
this
that
unptanne.l,
m/»ww/rrd
informal
share
Its planned ui advance and has a
evidence
individuals—Ikr
1I
problems that
cisily
employees
emplityees many
ith
increas-
adapted
current.-''
helping
w
are
each
one
managers
losit-
In
real-
other
out
another.
are
now
Maybe
supportive
ofwhsr used to be considered “idle chatter." At a Siemens plant in North Carolina, for instance, to
be
management working.-"
managers focused
recognirits
Discussions
thought, OU
now
about
Miking
that
around
nonwork
u'i>rt*re1ritcd
die
people water
needn’t
be
cooler
or
sports
topics
such
as
prubUni^.
So
now
on
in
the
the
production
cafetena
or
politics.
Siemens'
line
weren't, They
management
as
largely
cncnimges
$ucb uaMial meednrrs. (Jn-ihe-j^ih ments, job
and
formal
training
invest
in
Trahiifig
includes
mentoring
methods
ffff-rhe-jfft
is
programs.
that
rra//ii/ig.
job
they
The
rotaaon, But
often
$54
apprenticeships,
the
primary
disrupt
billion
the
figure
undci^tudy
drawback
workplace.
we
cited
include?
\*idcola|>cs, television the
The public
classes,
most
group
olT-the-joh
Hamburger
enhancement, maximizes
and
learning
experienced
tltat
employee
who
live
self-srudy aei
ivities
training
earlier
franchisees. bum” is
lassroom
programs, Aatusc
and
we
undergoing
Internet is
the
Vs
its
all
have
on
and
deal the
it
hum
training
costs
in
a a
satellite
•beamed
studies.
course training
One
of
oftered
at
operations for
protected
customers. with
encompasses
combines
skills
job.
aiso
case
curritulum
real
time while a supervisor tries to explain or show
But
twy-week
done
on to
training
organize
for
courses,
interpersonal
frustration
when
lectures.
rolc-playing
Hain
And
minimizing
<
on-the-
of training might
programs
management,
while
‘‘slow
is
University.-’^
equipment
managers
service
popular
somixiars, and
famous
McDonald's rant
nmst
these
So
was largely spent on tht fnnnal, off-the-fob variety. WTiat this
of
assign-
Alost
clerk,
'They
take
an employee how
restau-
environment of
us
have
cashier,
or
other
up
our
valuable
particular tasks art
to be done.
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL Why
are
onnain-* oons
ot
performance <»
t
eir
ob(c«jve
appraisals
employeesr appraisals,
important?
What and
potential how
are the key questions addressed in this section. J.* It
can
I
low
do
orgaiiizaii(»ns
pniblems
can
arise
managers
ovenxune
to
appraise subsen
thus*
th*
pcr-
th*
inten-
i.ntbkinj,?
'Il»e«
Chapter 15 Hunan Rcsnurce Pnlido, and jVn-fonnance Appraisal and Motivation
.
fn <* h 3 ptcr 4, i.’oiisi dera b I e ii iten d on was invc n K ► t h P ..v \v<
cLiTt^ndy ..ffcn the best
jn,ount ol effort an .ndiv.du.l will exeri on hi^ her i,?h \ moW is pcrlonnance. specifically the effort-performwce and Mages. Do people see effort .as Jca.Iing to perf< ’ "e that they vafoe? Cleady people ite ro
Th"
„eed to know how rhe.r pedorn.ancc will be mcasmred. hurtber fol .n K fi T ?' dent that il they e.x«i an effort w^dlin the,,- capabilities it will resuk in . p^rfonnance as defined by the entena by winch foev are hMgXn J VS fed confident that .f they i^erfor.n xs they arc being «k«|. thev will aV Je tS fevwd;^ du‘y vahie. In hrief. if the olvecrives that employees are seeking are for
measunng
focir
efforts
will
will
he
an
are
achieved,
Hence,
objectives
lead
a
we
can
are
vague,
-satisfactory
payolf
expect
by
the
plays
If
appraisal
iiidmdtials
appraisal
and
the of
to
an
work
employees
tlu-ir
organizabon
when
role
lack
confidence
performance their
in
or
performance
there
objectives
their
intineneing
that
believe
IH;IOW
considerablv
important
unclear,
potential
an
employee’s
when
appraising
We Evaluate?
criteria
eripl
to
unsansfactorjr
performance
motivationWhat Do The
foose
or
criterion
performance
that
will
have
managenient a
niaiur
chooses
influence
to
on
evaluate
what
employees
do.
Two
exam-
ples illuscrate this point. In
a
public
employers of
seeking
interviews
sis
rhat
with
employment
they
rhe
the
workers,
agency, einplojTncnt
conducted.
evaluating
number
of
which
The
criteria
interviews
served
interviewers
interviewers’
influence they
workers were
actions
behavior.
conducted
seeking
appraised
were
widi
by
consistent
Interviewers
than
employment
were
die
the with
more
number
of
and
number die
the-
concerned
clients
they
placed in jobs.-^^' A
management
community* drive
to
highway police
officers
would
the
highway
for
their
w'ork,
munity's
consultant
but
City
this
Council
come
that
entire
specializing on
ducj’
in for
cut
through
the
toun,
shift.
Clearly
this
fast
behavior used
made
mileage
sense on
police their
shift,
and
get
speed
cruising
once
pulice
research
the
into
back
had
as
an
that
their
and
little
consultant
vehicles
norited
police
forth
to
learned
one cars,
along
do
this
w’ith
good
the
com-
that
evaluative
in
measure
of
police effectiveness?* These ^raisal.
but
e.x3mpfes what
.r^rnz/ZJ
demunstraie tnanagemcni
the
importance
evaluate?
rhe
of
three
criteria
most
p( rel="nofollow">i»ular
in
performnee sets
ot
ria are individual task outcomes, behaviors, and traits. •ndividual Task Outcomes If ends count, rather than means, then nianag ‘h-uld evaluate an employee’s task outcomes. Using task outcome.s a plant mm ’get txjuld be judged on criteria such as quantity produced strap g per unh of p'roduction. Simtlarly. a salespetsran could be as.. . n o e.H «les volume in L or her territory, dollar increase m sales, and number *^'’unt» esrahlished.
-
crite-
The OtgaiWcadon Symm Beh^o» In many w rioim rhe
and b.r.er
each ,s
«.
lliia
Mork
case,
team's
perk.rmance
rhe
member
examples,
artions.
whose
unusual
purnows
ciloyce^
individuals
learn
nor
difficult«. identiiy apeafic nutc.nes «n he
may Iw
hr
behaviors might
leadership
cd-;,
itKhnIe
style
that
ro
plant
may
are Iw
manager in
that
ue
.T«l.ly
l>
employc<-H |m(
s
be
his
Pertinent
he
li,
hr
her
.n
tcan,
siah
efft^
s;dc5i>cpson
.
msTanew.j, rhe
pr«k,»
jrerbima.ue
nionihjy
staff^
ec^rnlnwcne,
tH-havior.Jls.ng
used
or
ofa
u,
KleirUly dearU.
eouM
exhihitt.
..t
en.duaud,
employee
suHinmng
nKln.1^^e^
n
inffinsiu,
orimposwhk in evaluate ihe
promptness die
pamnilarly
assignmcnis
ditticult
management
,s
apprai,ji
rrimrts
ar
behnviors
the could
average number of contact calk made per da>' or sick day^ used per vMt. 77, e ^^eakest set
real 17 That such irails arc fre
used in orgaTiirations as criteria for assessing an
employee’s level of performance.
Who Should Do the Evaluating? Who be
should his
or
evaluate her
an
employee’s
immediaTc
boss.
performance? By
The
tradicion,
a
ohvions
answer
manager’s
would
authorin'
seem
rypically
to has
included appraking subordinates’ per for man t:c. The logic behind this rradidon seems to 1>c diat since managers are beki responsible for their suhtirdinates* perforinancc» it only makes sense that these managers should evaluate that performance. But that logic may be flawed. Others may actually be able to du the job better. Immediate and
Sujierior
middle
boss.
^*
About
levels
Yet
a
nf
95
rhe
number
of
yiercent
organizanon
of
all
are
conduct€
organizations
are
pcrfonnance
appraisak
by
recognizing
the
the
at
the
employee’s
drawlwck.s
lower
immediate
ro
using
this
source of eval ua Lion. For instance, many bfKses feel unquulilied to evaluate the luiique contributioas with
their
of
employees’
scifrmanaged bosses
each
from
teams, their
of
rheir
careers.
subordinates.
Others
In
with
addition,
telecommuting,
employees,
an
and
cniplnycc’s
other
rcsen: many'
l>eing of
today’s
organizing
immediate
asked
superior
“play
organizations
devices may
co
not
that be
God” using
distance a
reliable
judge of chat employee’s pertnnnancc.
Peers
Peer eva]u.»rions are one ol the most reliable sourtres of ^pprakat data. Why*
Firsu peers arc clow m the action. Daily interactions provide them with a comprehensive view of an employees 10b pcrfornuince. Second, using peel's as raters results in several indc|>endcnt judgmeiirs, w hereas a boss can offer only' a single e-aluadon, .And c average of several ratings is often more reliable than a single evaluation. On d* down side, peer evaluations can Miffer from co-wwkers’ unwillingness ro e^^wte <W another and from biases of friendship or animosity. Having employees evaluate their own perfomuiKc is consistco’ seh-inanagement and empowerment. Self*o*aluauuns get high marks from employees ihemscbrs; they tend to lessen employees' dcfcnsi%eAC«
Chapter 15 Human ReMMirce Policies and Pr*cd«« about the appraisal pr.>cess^ anil they make exedkhr v k i r -cr/onnanre disfussuuis benvecn emplovecs anj ? " stimukung job^
^juess, h
self-evaluations
ofren
have
low
niight
agreeinen^
wilh
scU-servmg
bias
Because of ihese .mon. drawhaeks. sdf.evaluL’o," are developmentJ1 uses than evahiadve purposes.
better suited frir
feurth judemenr 'smirr'A s.^
i».
SuborJin;iCv:s. These evaluations can provide accurate and'detaSldiX** marag^T. 1 hey ,,rc also conscstcin with ...any organizaticns' eff..t,s tn create cultures j„r value honesty, openness, and employee empowemreut. 'Ihe obvious problem dns form <./ ratine^ is tear nl reprisal from bosses g.v.-n unfavorable appraisals ■rhefft-rv, re.spnn.lenr anonymity is cnicial if these evaluations ate to be accutate. The Comprehensive Approach: The 360-Degrec Apprais.-il The bust Approach to performance appraisal is the use of 360-degTee appraisals?-* It pnmdes for performance feedback from the fell circle of daily contacts ih,u an employee iiug^it hare, ranging from mailroom personnel to customer to Ixissei to peers. The number of appraisals can be as few as 3 or 4 evaluations or as many as 25. with most organizations collechng 8 to 12 per employee. A d^rec
survey
of
232
companies
appraisal(’oiiipanfes
found
currently
that
using
more
this
than
65
approach
|>erccnt im
were
ludc
using
Alcoa,
360-
DuPont,
Levi Strauss. UPS, Spimt, Ar&'H and W.lGore .Assonates. V\'hat’s the appeal of 360-degree appraisals? I’hey fit well into organizations that have introduced tcairis, employee involvement, and qualif^’-managcnicnt programs. By rehing on feedback from co-workers, customers, and subordinates, these organizations are hoping to give everyone a sense of participation in the review process and to gain more accurate readings on einplotn^e pci*fbrmance.
Pertormance Appraisal Methods Obviousiv,
performance
emplot^ee’s
performance?
appraisals That
is
arc what
iinportHni. are
the
But
specific
haw
do
you
techniques
fir
evaluate
an
appraisal?
The
following reviews the major perfonnance appraisal mcihods. Wrirten Essays Probably the simplest method of appraisal is to write a narrative describing an eniplovee’s strengths, weaknesses, past perlomiancc, potenaal. ansi suggestions lor improvement. The uTitien essay requires nj; complyftainirg to compkle. bad aiijraisal may be determined as much by the evaluators writing skill a.s by the emplyvue s actual level nf pert’onnance. Critieal Incidents Critical incidents focus the *at are key in making the difference Qych. That h. the appraiser writes down did that was especially effective nr incUcctivc. The ey and not vaguely defined personality traitSi 3i*f Pn^VKles , rid) sKofexumples from which m desirabk and those that call fur improvement.
what the employee
the
only specifichehav^^rincal incidents ‘ ^hown the behaviors emplm^c ear be shown
•T
• <; • The OrTWlMti"" SW'”
i..HnrSrtlcs Onc.ftheoWcnandmostp^ulirnwthcMlscfippral,^ G«phic l^np , «t of pcrfi.nnanw favton. jmch ^ the .!«■ oJ gi^h'c « J[ . ..ij-n.^vWpe, cooperation, 1oyalt>', attendwu, and
quunot.-
M;
’V
-
• ■»
honesty. .UHI I
down
tl.u
list
nnd
rateTS;
npkallv specify live points, so a factor such as>
^^'^■,^'”'■^.'”■■’''‘'1^ ‘l<=pth of inti>rnntion\h't essuys or cnrictl inadents- do. they are less tmu-wnstunirg devclon ..nd administer. Thev also allow for quantiUUve annh-s.s and coinpans.,n.
Behaviontlly maior
Anchored
elemenrs
Raring
tn.in
div
Scales
vriiical
Behanontl
incident
y
and
ancliored
graphic
ra
rating
ing
scales
scale
wmbinc
approaches:
Hie
appraiser r.tirs the vmplovecs on die basis ol Kenis along a conQiiuuni. hut the points are exam,des of ,x t.wl hehanor on the given iol, rather than general dcscnpnons or traits. Behaviorally able
j«.b
fnxind
anchored
behavior.'Examples
by
asking
retr.irdingeach
translated
into
a
performance.
paics,
plan.s.
I
of
p^rccip^ints
liehavior
of
raring
scales job-related
ro
give
perfonnance
set
of
specify behavior
siK'cific
executes,
solves
These
dimensions,
he restdts of this process trninediaiv
and
uf
carries
and
having
dcsci
iptioiu,
nut
tncKur-
dimensions
are
ineffective
examples
dimension
are iK-havioral
and
ctleccive
lx:havi(irnl
each
problems,
olwerv-abk. perfonmnee
iliu^alicins
dimension.
pertornijnce
dcfinire,
are
vanmg
then levels
such as antid-
orders,
and
handles
emergency .siniarions. Muidperson
Cx>mparisons
perfornuiKx against measuring
device.
Multiperson
that of The
one
or
three
comparisons
more
mo.st
others.
popular
Tt
evahwtu
is a relative
comparisons
one
rather
are
individiuh
than
group
an
absolute
order
ranking,
individual ranking, and paired comparisons. The oetlcf rank'ifig requires the evaluator to place employees into a particular dassiffcation, such as top one-fifth or second onc-fifih, This method is often used in recommending students to graduate schools. Evaluators are asked lo rank 6e student in the top 5 percent, the next 5 perccin, rhe next 15 percent, and so forth. But managers to appraise employees, managers deal with all their subordinates. Thereft;re. if a rater has 20 subordinates, oniv 4 can be in the top fifth and, of wurse. 4 must also be relegated to the boitom fifth. The manager
is
difference
r/ntkhfg
required
between
iMenty-first ^ouped,
mJiriiit/al
and
Ulis
the
to
approach
appraise
first
and
twcnry-sccmid.
approach
allows
orders
employees
JO
snixirdinatcs.
second
employee
Esen for
rank
no
tliough ties.
this i.s
.some The
result
same
the is
best
approach
rhe
of
from
assumes
as
ihal
employees a
clear
to
mav
nnfenng
worst.
If
that
the
between
die
be
ebsek
nfcmplm-«s.
Inim the highest perfonner down to the knve^i. The
p.,ire.l
eomparur,,,
approach
compares
each
employee
with
every
otbef
employee and rates each as eirhei the superior or the weaker member of the pair. After all
paired
cximpar.sons
are
made,
ea.
h
employee
is
assigned
a
summan
ranking
hasc-i
.m the number of superior scores he or she achieved. This approach ensures that exh
U rciame stands nU. For ciample, u uiu*eW
r I
1, k, R«ourcePn^«^
Humin
^ieht 'I''- 'hr graphic rating ^-ak- an.l ,hc indnadu-i „ t ,nl«>mwn«»n ahniii its snuicnts' pcrforminr/^ ^"’*1"***”"' »*'’*’<*« moi* :«•' aU«.!.itf grade'„f A ‘*‘e at tv^,,st,',dentil‘ "" L’ ’“■'^P'TOvi H,fferaiK at mnndng c-.uraes anti draw omd'Sl jbouT each where neit to one gra.k- it says "ranketl fourrh \ cnnclusioni ^hersav.' "■•anke.l t.uirreentlisly, the Utter inntr.ietor ogtout •T iiutrumrpvra pivcA
SyggeMions ^1,,
ped,.nuance
evalu^itor. eJ
fbr appraisal
on
nuke
ptiq^oM's.
state
1
hi.is
and
traits
see
the
the
appraisal
or til
by
themselves
(the
iiroccss
.raneik-ltl
s.nd..r.,y
errors,
as
.nftate
.dlow
or
use
sitnihiriqpolitical
eiTOi).
one
whtj
curse,
nvcrily
ft<
Xl
mukr-
eluracterist.c
people
to
instance
leniency)
halo
of
nr
pr.,e«s
(the
;\n.l,
opix.ituniiy
the
of
charat-terisi.cs favoring
I
(lu.sitive
.tssessinent
iinconsciouslv
a
prx.hknis.
evaluations
the
other
.d
Appraisals
error).
to
So.ne
have
qualities
some
evaluators
reward
or
punish
tl’slikc. While there are no protections th.it will niurranlte accu-
cinplnyv-'vrate
leniency),
Performance
p.tcntial
unconsciously
evaluations
to
a
anti
assessniein
their
siniihr
is
halo,
can
(negative
inlluciiie
upiiraisci'
proe-evs
kn.ency,
hey
iKrtori.i.niee
unduly
Improving
perfonnance
appraisals,
the
following
suggestions
c-an
significantly
help
to
make
the |)r«Hcss more tibjcui'v ami fair Emphasize related
Behaviors
lo
gocxl
are
intuitively
question
is:
ersthan
those
such
appealing
.Arc
employees
find
others
Our
eoncltisi
hut
there
who
who
is
rate
is mi
as
dcsirahlc who VVe
high
cxccHeru
that
in
loyalty',
low?
rate
.ire
niaVs
Traits
as
individuals
who
are
Than
perfonnance
trails
ForexampL\
Rather
traits
evidence
on
arc
f
to
licrle
evaluated
as
answer
this
these
as
do
loyalty' that
or
no
high
certain
rciaricjn
employees.
traits
question
easily.
VVe
are
jxjur
score
well
on
mitinlivv traits
may
will
lx:
he
jierformance in a large section
to
be
performance. scir-cxprewiion
But
those
ami
lo
nnJ
on
not
and
considered
rcliahilin;
in
characteristics but
often
courage,
characteristics
can’l
suppon
tracts
have
ii’kitiiitive,
jKTformers such
Many
the
relevant
biglier
pcrftirm-
know
that
iwrfonners. traits
such
prized
adeiiuate
liy
there
We as
can these.
managers,
synonynw
for
,. tn id i
Another weakness of trait evaluation is the judgment itself W wt is nya ty . 'Hen is an employee ‘‘reliable ? What you consider -loyalty," I may not. So traits suffer from weak inlcrratcr agreement. Document
Perlbrmance
Behaviors
in
a
Oiary
Dianes
^»rgani/t intormation m their memory. I he evidence vpccifK critical mcidcnts lor each employee, . less prone to rating errors.^'^ Durics, lor .nstanee tend
i , , r..dHce k-nicneV and 8938
halo errors lice a use they encourage the evaluator to fotus on | ^*havn,rs rather than traits.
.
* Uulciple Kvaluaton A.s the nuiiil>er
’Naming more accurate infonnation increases. I
an iiHTeasc in the nundxT of appraisers wi I"'-.
.h,«,
rt„
n,i,l(lle. .„,l
V,.u
’«> f<»|bs* a normal \ p j mah*hy ctmgrcjthlciie aimpcooom «
scr .b„ .PP-”.''' A «I •>, evaluaW’.' P-PK. P^
udX
pcrfn™“«
hrtnr
The Oi^hlMdjjn Syewm k.wcM He«.iCM .n- dh.ppea, «•»<’ the fi.ul |KTfr.rmfln« i, .n^,^ ..r thne .cn.nining- The l-.gu nf ...ult.ple „ ■
««• nw AM- ............ .. >l>^.hr ' I’-'' I l.r.el..rr. I.y viniihivcv. wiihin the org^mrAiiKMi MI U* VI g’JHi n huiiibpr o1 c\nluau(>hi» OP iiMiitf nuilliple asu’>MM‘s G»s pnn’ulrd «n
appNihJs). IIUTUASV llw
;d)iluyot'.HWnignKHvv.iliaaud rJi.iMc r^..hhmons. Hflluaie Sckiiivch Appi.nM r' JVHIUI ev.ihiuic only in urvan in vhuh they have If Mter. iitike rvuhratiuns only an (limcnsuins lot ,hc‘y arc in
M.inc
a pxxl posiiinn in rale, 'vc im-reusv ilu- interralvr iigrvemcni «n
Evnluators
rvatuDiors.
There
If
you
can’t
//«//g<«id
evahiaiors,
is
suhstantial
evidence
that
sin
halo
lenieiu'y
lhe
training
alternative
evalnau»rs
is
ran
to
make
wtr
gticxl
them
more
act (Irate ratei’sJ’* (ainnnon Workshops shn|b not
in
typically always
envoi's
lie
were
sesMons
ernirs which run
h
as
nianageix
from
one
necessary.
practice to
Onv
three ease
decreased
immediately
only
rninuies.
lasting
live
and
have
observing^ days,
has
Iwen
aher lint
but
Ixx-n
and
in
exposing^
lhe
rating
nllocaling
cited
effects
mininnzAxt
livhaviors.
many
which
htuirs Ixith
evaluators
to
tr.iining
do
of
<»r
cliininauxl These
to
hahi
in
wnrk-
(raining
iiuy
and
leniuney
explanaiorv
training
.ip|KMr
to
diinniisli
twer lime.'^’ This suggests ihe neetl for regular refresher sessions. Provide
Kniploycvft
appraisals
lo
inii-ease
turcs
eharaetenze
notice
ol
aired
in
what a
fair
with
ttuc
js
Dne
the
pereepri<m
process
expected
hearing
Process
so
ol
(haI
sysiciiis:
(hem;
indn
The
(2)
iduals
all
concept
of\/w<
employees
are
(I)
iiulividnals
relevant
afteeteil
can
/izvAWcun trcaietl
are
evidence
to
respond;
and
a
priqnised (
I here is txmsitierahle eviilcnce linn appraisal systems often violate employees due process liy providing them with infrequent anil re la lively general iwrlbrnuiut feet^Mek, allowing them biilc input into the appraisal priKcss, and kmnvingly intmducing Inas into iKu foimattce ratings. I low ever, when due process has been pj(« appraisal sysu in, employees report |)osittve reactions to the appraisal pnxess, [wranx t e rvaluaimn results as nuire accurate, and expre^ inca*ased intern n» remain with the orgMui/ioioiv
Don'l l-orgct Pcrformaiue Kwdbuckl ’’^anaj^'rs, few auivines are more unpleasant (han providing |Hrfornw»^ tmh, managers are likely to ignore this res|H»ns(hdi^?’
1
applied
fairly.’’’
provided
based on the evulence and free from hias,
t^mployees?- In tact, unless pnssured tn- organi/4tionai policies and CJ®" .j
IK
0
iht*
Three
tvilli v Ihial
to tea-
adequate iolation
is
decisMW
,
,
Chapter 15 l.un,»nKa.
Prw;tlfl< feedbavlc'."UCW I’fJiciMjnd Th *' ‘‘•'’''•’'"ng perf.in.unee
Mb, the ^luctance to perfonnan« rtiree rea«>t.s. hrsi. managers are often unenmfonat ' r .•eaktiesses .hrcctly xvith employees, tiiven that alm"? n,
imi'Tovc
in
some
areas,
fc.,r
nwnagei-s
a
eo„fro,„a,
*’'7
'•‘"’P'nyee
could
(^llwvk. I his apparently apphes even when i.eooi,. .hv'”' *
stand
negatht
putet! Bill fiates reporu that 'ticniwift condu-t-d^ .w rate their i xperieiite with .i einiiputer. “Whe,, i, Ji **“* required users to worked M ich ask for an evahuition of its ixrfornianee the '‘•'''de.l u, 1« pt®.
iliw But »hin we had a second computer ask the «im Counters uith the first m.ielunc. the ieop etre „,„c-tance to eriticirx the firs, computer •,!. its laX J^^'h to hurt its Ic-ehngs, even though they kncM it Mas onb ^mjcJiiL Se‘'‘‘”i ‘ emplnjres tend to bccon^ defensive when their weaknesses are poimJd oct of accepting rhe feet I,ack as constructive and a basis for miproving performance ,«m« emplo.vces challenge the evaluation by criticizing die manager.it redirecting
Idanic to someone else. .A surv ey of 15 i area managers in Phila.lclphi i, for instance found that MS ixrceni of these managers encoimtead some tvpe of aggression after going employees negative appraisals,-'' Kimilly. employees tend to hive an infiated jssessnteiit of their iw n pcrfonnance. StatLsticalb s|waking, hall of all employees must he iieloM-avcragc performers. But the evidence ind'ic.nes that the average emplnyccs estimate of his or her own pcrfonnance level generally falls aruiind the 75th perccnrile.-^’ So even M’hen managers are proviiling giKid news, empiotxes are likcK to perceive it as not gcMxl enough! The train
solution
managers
rexiew—one cere,
and
in the
in an upbeat improve,
.ind
to
in
how
which
the
climate IIKHKI,
the
as
|Krtbrnuncc to
feedback
conduct
employee
problem
txmstructive
perceives
constructive—can
the
result
is
feedback
ap[>raisal in
not
the
as
(o
ignore
sessions. fair,
employee
IIK
it» An
manager
leaving
the
hut
to
effective XS
sin*
interview
informed a lx nit the perfomiancc aixas in which he or she needs to
determined
to
correct
the
deficiencies/
In
addition,
ihe
performance
avivw should be designei,! more as a v'ounscling iutiviiy than a judgment priKTss. I his can
hesi
he
aexomptished
Iw
allowing
the
review*
to
evolve
out
of
the
einploncs
own
self-evaluation.
UTiat About Team Performance Appraisals? Perfonnaiicc ipprjis.il itmivpts have been alinosr exclusively employee-s in mind. I his fact rellevts .he l.hct cha. 47
building block around which organizations are biiih- But as MI se ?
around
«u. .hi« b..,.l. „„.re .„d ,.,.,rZ;.rg,niz«„.,n, are reerruUunng HDH should rhosc organ luve Ix^en offered li designing a f"n«nee„f,e™,s.“
using warns <. imonwes th« that suppirts and imprm J
1.
7ir /ir rtfults apply IO iniponani goals that the icatn is supi
2.
Bf^pn t:ift> ibe Hinit'i (Wtnmtis afJ TbTfinal pnaluc. the cusu-twr rnpuretiients ITw
J' * aceoinplish. ~^|,uted in teniis of the ewno’*"'’ reexi.ves can ‘;X; X^ontheh«uof«W.«n,
betwe^ teanw
^je ume.
and ukutiT)'. ^nd the pnwei® »wj“
.4
Hut IV Tlic Orgmimtion Syntm
V
3 Afrijwr botb tcttta und MtitvidtMf Define the mks <»f <arh team a wnns of m-wnplishinviiu th«f wppon the wain's work process Then u
Perft>nnan<e Appraisal in a Glohsil Context We in
previously affecting
WTiy?
examined
Irehavior.
Because
rhe
role
Caution
many
that
inu-st
perfonnance
he
cultures
u.sed»
are
unt
appraisal
however,
plays
in
parricubrly
in
motivation
generalirjng
concerned
acr<m
with
and
t-ultures
perbrounce
appraisal, or, if diey arc, they don’t look at it in the same way as do managers in (be United States or Canada. Jo illustrate these paints, let’s look at three elements of culture: a person’s reUdonship to the environment, time orientation, and focus of res|xjnsibiUc\\ U.Sheouibc Middle I*
and
Canadian
people
in
Eastern
w’idely
these
conn
used,
organizations
because
believe
countries
tries,
on
hold
the
other
managers
in
people
the)’
hand,
tliese
responsible
can
dominate
performance
countries
tend
for
their
their
appraisals
to
see
actions
environmert.
In
aren’t
to
people
likely
as
snhiupted
to (heir environment. Some PcrforiTjancc once
a
countries,
such
appraisul.s
arc
yeir.
la
Japan,
as
the
United
likely to
however,
be
States,
frequent
where
ui
people
have
a
short-term
such
a
culture,
hold
a
long-term
time
orientation.
couducted time
at
frame,
least perfor-
mance appraisals may occur only at five- or ten-year interv’als, Lsradk culture values group activities much more than do the cultures of the United States and Canada. So North American managers focus on the individual in performance approisals, and their counterparts in Israel arc likely to cmphaMze group contributions and pcrfonnance.
___________ IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS AlajMgers traitiing, affect care
and the
contrul how
to
selection
employees
qualit)'
needs
the
nt
be
an
taken
are
prcxTcss,
evaluated.
organization’s lo
ensure
Because
workforce
that
decisions
the
rcg^irding
these
and
manage
rhe
organization's
rial
beharior
selection
employee
of
decisions employees,
process,
rrainiDg
programs, and appraisal system support high employee performance. An erly co
Organization’s
designed, the
i<»l)
they and
.selection
will
the
practices
identifr
will
competent
organizatjon.
(
he
determine
candidates
u.sc
of
who and
(he
gets
hired.
iKruratelv
proper
It
prop"
match
ihcni
selection
devices
will
increase die prnhabiliiy riiac ihc right pervun will be cho.scn co fill a slot. While design
employee
their
person-job
lit
performance improve and
a
select
the
will
may
he
selection
ion
systems
be
achieved. less
candidate's
replacement
is
will
so
need
from as
VMten
than skills.
frr
sat At to
is
to
science,
maximize
errors fact
worst, Iw
a
arc or)’.
the
Idund.
some
the
likelihood
made,
the
Training
candidate
Similarly,
organizations
chosen
may will
when
results in hiring less qualified candidates or individuals who don’t fit into d*
that
be prove
the
fail the
lO right
candidates
necessaH’
to
unacceptable
selection
pruec0
A g„., „rperfor„,„,, perfonnance ctmcrihimon as a basis fL? ? “ pcrtormaticc appraisal process em»i, appraises actual job performance deinonstrare.1 in Chapter negame consequences such as red for aJceinarive job opporwnidcs.
„ «x-Uratch. r . ‘‘^'''ard aUocarion » *^riteria *’‘> be Jer«qu«c> the.,rs- rh ‘lUci.’rreism'^^r “amb
'
:»s
■ Chapter is ,, /orgamzanon. chow chosen are I,LHI . R«>«iree PolW- J This, .n turn, IS likely tn Cense -t-h. rno.« ,.f,v,oas vffecT o. cr.S ,mpn« mg the sbii.s necessary- fr.r ,k ® P^grams on work i' L her M»b. .An increase in uhiJit?i„.„_ ‘ ®'"PH-CC TO suceeswi.u'^**^ higher JnxI. Of c<„,rse. i»ue of motivation. P^reinial become* p P^'rfcnn at >
4
CHAPTER 16 ...................................
r' .
Organizational Culture 1*
*1 I
After reading this chapter, yo'j should be able to 1. Define the common characteristics that m^ke up orgdniistional culture
*
CM 01
Contrast strong and weak cultures Identify the furctiunal and dysfunctional effects of organizational cutture on people
%d VI
List the factors that maintain an organization's culture Clarify how oilture is transmitted to employees
♦•«*
Describe
spirituality
and
characteristics
of
a
spiritual
culture
Contrast organizational culture with nalional culture
1. Explain the paradox of diversity
JiX.d their aid hides tunl behaviors ln\i pic..™ be vativc. Thesu irans, jn f,„ fh,.„ dlc people \^,thin diese oiganizau„ns/^ that, airhougb JiarJ enipkwccs generaliv cJcsfribc ^n'r Just as trib j culnirc!, havc^rnr"'"’ *11! act toward fellow .ttcnbeij an.l h.iw n.embe.>. I.ehave. Iu7. u^.r finploj-ce attitudes aiu) hehavh.r diuosse*! in tht: following pages
organizations. In Ch^prer J, ux !>tah!e iraics hdp u5 predkr «nnovaavc. w cwiserrtf variable in organijawiis uwcrtheless exisTs and tbt nrganizarions have clrures that g'l'trr. 's-, how it has an ituparfoo lie managed
pjy-rNING ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE *" ’
Jis meaning held iw members Srim- - Th. sy'.teni o, shared meaning ,cren«tks rh.« die orgamz.irion
‘T’"
SnZ: R«earch has
values.
s..gg^^^
l’
a^racterisoes. m aggregate, capture rhe essence of an I.
ImmJlinu anJ mnnvative au.l .ake risks
nsk
raking—lhe
Avmc tn whi.-K e.npirnees arc en«.ura«d w be
2. The degree to which empkryct^ arc aiialysiv. and arwncion lo detail
3. 4.
i
exhibit preasKm,
Ofitcowe wiewrZrt^i—ITic degree to which manaff*.in^«n. t conwM
rather
ih..,
the
Pa.t>ie
Techniques
«nd
proccs.es
t.ed
to.ch^.^.e^oL^lutrotn?,''
he tiegree ,o which n.onagcncn, decisions rske into considers-
tKUi the effect of ouicojncs on people within the orgai.j^ation 5.
degree to which work acuvities are o^gani^cd aremnd i«nis rather than jndmduals
the
6.
z/ffirrtorrnw—The degree chan (tasygouig
7.
SM'ty
Ejch
these
charncrerislics
on
these
organization’s
culture.
standing
tneinbcrs
way
which
people
are
~Vhc ilegree to which organizanrrnal qarus quo in contrast to growth
oi^nizaaon
that
to
inemhers
arc
seven
This
exists
becomes
about
supposed
a
characteristics,
picture
have
on
to
the
activities
concmuuni then,
ihe
Exhibit
for
how 16-1
a
and
ewnperirive
euiphasire
from
gives
basis
organizalion,
behave.
aggressive
low
to
composite feelings
things
are
of
done
demonstrates
how
rather
maintaining
high.
Appraising
picrure
of
shared in
ihc
it,
the
underand
the
these
charac-
seven
charac-
rerisucs can he mived to create highly dh'ersc organizations.
Culture Is a Descriptive Terra (hyanizationai
culture
is
teristics,
whether
they
important
not
because
il
concerned like
with
them.
dilfercnuatcs
I’hai
the
how is,
concept
employees it of
is
a
perceive
descriptive
organizational
the term.
culture
This
|M)int
is
from
that
of
job satisfaetion. Research on organizational culture has sought to measure how’ employees sec organization; Are there clear objectives and pcrfonraiicc expcctariniii? Does the <’tgaTiiz4iion reward innovation? Drx^s it encourage competitiveness? In contrast, research on job satisfaction seeks t<j measure affrerive res^ponsvs to ^hc Work envininmenr. It is concerned with how cmployccjs led a )out ii^aiion'^ ex|)ecunons, reward practices, methods for handling con let, an ret 'Although the two terms undoubtedly have characteristics i ar
is
^‘ncl that the term ^^aluative.
is
c.h.re is descriptive, whereas jeb
Organizations Have Uniform Cultures? ^K»ni/a,i<,nal culture represents a common
^uhureas^sj^te^
"*”^*rs. Illis Icaturc was made explicit when wc dt ,i;ffLrcin twek^mnds or We should ex,wet. therefore, that individuals w.th ihttercm t« 6P
jMTVgBitetfoa 9trm
Conirwtif’gOfganttaOonal Culture*
cxNwiT ie-t
<>r«8nir.atiM z _ ftnn MaoaKCTv ate tipceted la bitty d»c*wt«m iA ThJ” ’ "’“r< who van pS detailed d>» u> wppon that r^ dcr WioK a««l jiiani^rs >rc i ^-.fnani duflffe or riak are nm «Hvnirag< ,«Mr>cnd»n<m' ... oixnh m(K»/x. .M«..gen,e« „ 7«r.H.n.t ind^icluaU. r‘hr« art diMintt
with higli «tqiartmenta»ndlinw
W..rt »uHnc. uz.- fiiriii.l n.n..u.. .nh -her en.pl^ of anil ernp'"^"'1^ of onnmanil Perfonnan. e ei-aluainms ind fei.inb •>” — nation of W rti*' wd jsrranouons. OrgaalutxMi B I hu is JIWI a manafjctunng 6nn. H«f«. h<»»cvcr, ownagcjneni eixnuragn and reusiids nsk laUng and change. Decision^ on inrunion are valued sstnudi a% those rhat arc well rari/maii/cil. .Management pridec iwlHm is history ofcxperiimmting vidine* tedimdogics and lU succe** m regularly iniroduchig inmnauve pruducta. Aheugen or employees *hcing market driven and rapidly respomiw to the changing needs of its vusoiruers. 77rcrc are and rcguladons anphn'cev tu UAUfw, and «se fiutcomcs. Employees are given considerate auiunumy inpro|>eraes organiudons have a dominant cDJh,r^Most large choo«iigthe culture means exjjressts corn the v^h..goals k numerous ms of subculnires. A ibrrnnanf bythe which arc attumed. ^«hared by majority of the organization’s
mein(>ers. When we talk aU
-'^‘n.re. we are referring to .ts donu-
nantc-ulture. k is th's niL^I, soiiality, Iciiis, defined
Suhtnltur^f situations, by
or
tend
to
cxnericn.-.-s
depantneni
deXlon^n A
iksimThese
dejiartment. for cxaiiinlc, can have?’’ l" that departjnert. k wiil include the the organization that is nhvsi.~jltv m-y Uie on a d.ffercmf.S^ahtv m-xJlfiedh,Hte se,«ra,ed unit’s ihsd^.i M.'nlm.n"'
i
f'organization
yganizarions subcultures
to are
its.
distinct
per-
refit«
common
pn»h-
litcb'
to
separation. The atwonting uniquely shared by members of 51’^™”'^'”' bmnlarJy, an offite or unital
be
..
,
Chapter 16 OrganitwonalCohart
If orgfln/zatmns had no dominant culmrt and .ulH-iilri''’rs, the value of organizarional culture a, an ;^Hcandy lessened. Why? Because d,erX:M £ represened apprepriate or mappropnate behavior, h ofcul.crc that makes a such a potentXZ'
'>f numerous
Strting versus Weak Cultures It has bccn.nc .nvreasingly fxipubr tv diftcrentiau; I>etv».«t, strong and weak culture urg^-n’vnt is Unn stnrng cultuiy hnvc a greater impact on employee behavioTS are ni»re directly reiated ro reduced rtimover. navior and T7 '"i'^Tl ■' "■-g-ni«t.on's core values being both intensely held and widely shared.- The more members who accept the core valuesand d,e grciiter rhc.r oi.nmiimcnt ro those values, the stronger the cnlture is. Consistent ft
I1*1J
metnhers
because
mate
of
high
ijped
one
employees
the
ft a greater influence on the behavior of its
high
behavioral
ol
the
know
in
degree control.
strongest no
of
sharedness
For
e.vainplc,
.service
uncertain
and
cultures
terms
w
hat
intensiw
tTeates
Seattle-based in
is
the
expected
an
internal
Nordstrom
has
retailing
industry.
of
and
them
cli-
dcvel-
Nordstrom
these
expecta-
rions go a long way in shaping cheir behavior. One strong
specific
cutttJre
zation
siands
zational
result
of
tlernorisiraies for.
Such
commitment.
strong
H
high
agreement
unanimity
These
culture
of
should
among
purpose
qualities,
in
low
members
builds
turn,
be
employee
about
cohesiveness,
lessen
turnover.
A
whar
the
organi-
loyally,
and
organi-
employees’
propensiti’to
leave
die organization-
• > # 7 3 ,0 x 'i S ;
WHAT DOES CULTURE DO? We've
alluded
to
argued
that
strong
liiin,
we
a
more
org'.inixadonal culture
carefully
cHliureV
should
review
be
the
impact
on
associated
functions
tliai
behavior.
with
We’ve
reduced
culrure
also
tornov’cr
pertornn
and
ejfplicitly
In
this
assess
sec-
whether
culture can he a liability’ for an organizadon.
Culture’s Functions Culture
[lerfonns
defining Second, tstts
role; it
die
•nterwt.
several
that
conveys
a
generation Fourth,
is,
it
functions it
sense of
within
creates ol'
organizanon.
distinctions
identitv
commitment
enhances
an
social
to
for
between
organization
something sysiem
nne
I’clps hold the organizaliun together by provuhng appiopnatc
it
has
a
urgamzation
members,
larger
suhiliry.
firsi,
boundaryand
otte^.
rhird,
culture
than
ones
mdiwdual
Culture
is
e
tau
souia
1.«itgu
\ control
'-•n.l.loyecs should sav and do. Fmally. culrure sen-es -as a sen^-mak mechanism that guiiles and sliapes the attitudes and behavior cl enij > makes clear, culture h^ncoon is of partcular interest to us. As the following quotauon makes cleai, culrur ^Itfines the rules of the game: iniphcil, .nd raker f«r granted _Bur Culture by definibon is elusive, intangible, even. ..rganizanon develops a eorc set of assamptions, understandings, and .mpiKar ndes that pnem (bv-to-«by behavior in the workplac*- L! nwl newcomers Icam
F. 4
J” f :
f
1« ^'h-gatutatioQ Systtm
the rules, thc>’ are nor accepted »s full-fledged memlxrs of the organiutioo. Iran^^prcssions of the rules on the pan of high-level csccunxcs or ffrmt-line employees result in luuvcr^al disappros^l and jM>uerful penalties Clonfonniry m the rules becomes the primary’ basis for reward and upward uwbtbty * As we show later m this chapter, w ho is offered a job, who is appraised as a high performer,
and
who
gets
fit,
that
is.
organization are
compatible
and
Disney
\5'ak
some.
with
with
employees
promotion
wheier
the
are
strongly
applicants
the
cukurc.
IT
is
W’nrkI
apiwar
to
be
almost
the
image
bright who
a
smiles.
will
Thars
maintain
that
not
a
image.
or
influenced
employees
coincidence
that
universally Disney
.\nd
both
by
individuil^
attitudes
and
empkiyees
at
attractive, seeks.
the
the
clean,
The
bchariijiDisneylanj
and
whole-
company
informal
nonns
sclcet^
and
formal
rules and regulations ensure th.it Disney employees, once on rhe job, will act in a rek advciv unifonn and predictable wav.
Culture As a Liability J**
are had,
treating
only
that
organization the
i?.acii>n.
From
It
die
Culture
is
ther
the
exists.
an
of
its
when
things
the
is
are
aspects
entrenched
of
liehanor
asset
burden
the
is
an
onganizaoon
and
most
the
iis
of
abilitv
to
a
to
to
is
stable
an
or^-
ambigushoul^'r
strong
culture.
that
be
will
fur-
when
the rapid
appropriate.
ennrnnmcnt. tu
the and
undergoing
respond
or
But
occur
longer
a
bndi
reduces
those
likely
no in
(or
imponant.
environment may
it
with
socd
commitment
l>eejuse
agree
is
iVs
benefits
especially
organization
hinder
that
valuable
arc
what’s
not
situation
an
clearly
and
culture
co
are
valuable
do
said
organizarional
culture,
WTien
organization’s
Consislencv
is
of
values
dynamic.
outlined,
These
done
This
haven't
enhances
culture
shared
We
as
behavior.
standpoint,
effectiveness.
en\nrnnment
functions,
cmployxc
how
manner.
Culture
dysfuncoona!
liability
the
however,
of
employee’s
potentially
organizations
nonjudgmental
employee.
employees
a
a
Many
the
organization’s
change,
in
consistency
tells
ignore
it
and
increases
ity.
culture
It
changes
may.
in
die
environment.
CRMTING AND SUSTAINING CULTURE organization away,
forces
s
culture
doesn’t
influence
the
pop
out
of
creaunn
of
a
thin
air.
Once
culture?
established,
WTiat
it
reinforces
rarely and
fades
sustains
those forces once they arc in place?
How a Culture Begins .\n
organizations
largely
due
to
current what
it
customs, has
iradiiiuns,
done
before
and
and the
general degree
wav of
of
doing
success
it
things
are
with
th««
had
endeavors, So the uluinate source of an organization’s culture is its blunders.' The
founders
of
an
organization
traditionally
have
a
major
impact
in
estaWish"
ing the early culture. They have a s ision of what the organization should be. They are unconstrained typically their
by
previous
characterizes
v*:sion
on
all
any
customs new
for
doing
organization
organizational
ineml)ers.
things
or
further
ideologies.
fiicilitates
Becaase
the
The
the
founders
small
blunders' have
the
size
that
inip(»sii¥ origin**
idea, they als<j topically have biases on how to get the idea fulfilled. J he organiiAW’*^ culture
results
from
the
interaction
l)etw’cen
the
founders'
what ihe original mcmliers team subsequeiuiy from therr ow n e.tpenenceL
biases
and
assuui|Wuns
nilture is largely n ixflw-ti,,,, nf«, Bill Gates- fn-res himself « aggressive, conipetitive an,I same adjectnes often used to ikserilie iMitrow’ilt „ff;,iinJers
who
have
had
an
immeasurable
T chairman, ‘''seipImeU. n,<»e inmact
.,n
rk
‘■■'’’’‘cmp'Taiy
etaniples
ALW Morita at Sony, Fred Smith U Federal K
are *^‘'y
tosmeiics. and Richard Branson at the Virgin Gtwql.
KeepiiR s Cidturc zMivc Once a culture is in place, practices within d.e organization -.r, o ,„ • exposing
employees
to
a
set
ot
simikr
•-e
experiences?
Fl>r
example
mm^T.
'
,,rion's homatt resource practices reinforce its culn.rc, The Xd..; nunce
appmisal
and
pronmtion
who
support
piay
entena,
procedures It.
and
particularly
3ctionii
Ct
top
Selection
'i’he
als
have
who
zation
the cion.
It
attempt hiring the
6e
would
be
of
people
organitation)
gives flict
between
of
the
employer way,
the
judgment
of
than wdio
h<jw
ignore
this
whether
w'ho
have
common
values
at
Icxst
a
information
ihcir
applicant
those
Selection,
to
selection
and
abrogate
process
the
»a
the
therefore, marriage
sustains
an
will
and
hire
iolw
will be
within
meet
Mgiiiflcnntly
aspect
the
decisiem
of or
esseniinlly
those
values.
The
Candidates can
becomes
a
there
appears
organization's
to
to
tx.*
culture
by
hire.
a
a
allowing natch. out
individuals who might attack or undemiine its core values. For outerwear, titles
at
instance,' prides Gore;
\V.
R.
Gore
itself
on
its
there
are
no
&
Associates,
democratic
bosses
or
the
culture chains
maker
iUid
of
of
(iore-tex
teamwork.
command.
All
I
hbnc
here
used
arc
employees
nii
are
in job
called
“associates" and have equal authority. The company’s -W plants arc al.so kept small so eveiything
can
he
done
i'^b
applicants
through
*ith
die
of
level
in
teams.
extensive
uncertainty,
In
Chores
interviews
flexibility,
selection lo
and
process,
ensure
dial
teamwork
teams
of
candiilares
w
that
employce.s
cinployees o
can
have
t
to
*idi m (iore plants are selected out. ■'■>P -Management -fhe actions of top nunagemciu also have a ''fganizanon’s culrure. Through what they say and how du-y behave, se . «tabl,sh nonns that filter down through the orgamz.anoii as co
.
„ro-
h™ „,u,h freedom nunrRer, should giv^e .he.r M.bonta a. P"«e dress, whai aelions will pay off in terms of pay raises, pn wds, and the- like.
,
Fw example, look at Xerox Cuiqi.* iR ^”*1* Wikm. .\n aggressive, entreprene-unal type, he oversaw
i iix i to 1968 was Xerox's staggering
put ea tlwl
of also con-
themselves
selecting
the
those
process
mi.st
by
This
in
perceive
street,
job^
organixa-
widi
scll-sclect
two-way
organi-
given
rhe
selection
svho
individu-
results
eonsisLent
each.
influenced
into
inadvertently,
<»
at
the
any
fir
organization
if
loti;
will
organization. f>f
the
iorc«
the
closer
identifv
th,5
Three
practices
u
a'cSs
reward
it.
candidares
(ones of
rake
n>
purposely
|x^rrion
about
values pool.
gotKi
is
hired
subjective
march,
s
candidate
rhe
c.dtiire,
challenge
pertorm
one
well
the
who
Let
to
is
development
culrure—scivetiun
pn^cess
proper
applicant or
about
a
career
with
d.use
abilities
more
in
mcth
a
or
applicants
and
and
ii,
expel)
selection
skills,
to
hired
suhlaining
the
decision
naive
ensure
in
tj-qaically,
hnul
even
'Sr
training
rhase
>;Dcializauon
of
knowledge,
maker's
that (and
ind
goal
But,
practices,
part
nianageinent.
'fhe
to
[Kiuiiz.e
explicit
decision
ensure
unporunt
successfully.
requirements,
reward
“
out either
In
this those
Partly 1'hcOrfini»tiiMxS>»«m
? of iu 914 copier, one of A« niost successful product in Amrica*
bXn Under Wkon. Xerox h«1 in enavprencurial environment, with an infornu^ S-^a,;»n.der,e, irt.cv.t.vv, boM. risk-mki-.g naln.r.. Uilsons rephcemc-nt a, CEO I K r Pv-«cr Mc(k>i«.ugh. 4 Hanard \UU ^v,th a fi.nnd .nai^gcnx-nr su4t. He.w, tuted burcaucranc o.ntrols and a .iu|ur change m Xeruxs eJUKc. By ihc .VR<x.l..uxh stepped do*^ in 1982. Xerox had become sto^ and fi.rmal, unth lots of politics and rurt banks and las ers ot waichds.g «ers. H.s tepl .vrmenr ua, fhvid T. Keuw who beheved rhat the culture he had mhented hu^dcred \eioxs ahd»t> oomtwte Io jncrejsc the company’s campedth-cncss, Keams mmnwJ Xe^x do>n by fttttiV 1 ^.n<)0 iohs, deJrgareri decision miking down wan!* and rehxused the oiyaniurioni culture around a simple theme:
the quality of Xerox pnulucts ind ^eivkev.
By his actions and diosc of his senior managerial cadre, Kearns conveyed to evcTy^>ru. Xerox
that
reured
in
the
cmnpaiiy
IWO.
Xerox
valued
still
and its
had
rewankd
qualin'
problems,
‘fhe
and
copier
efficiency. bu>iness
When
was
Kearns
nianire
ard
Xerox had tired hadh’ in developing comptitei i^cd office sy-stems. 'I'he next CKO, Paul Alliire.
again
soughtV
radon
arotuid
a
iiunufecrunng with
and
Ri^
riioman,
Allaire
sought
a
on
high-tech
replaced
culture.
to
IBM
of
reshape
cxet
Ac
iirrve. He
services
built
all
spring I
emnsioned around
reorganised
product
company’s
culture
Wlule
he
unified
rhe
Xrrnx^
Tn
technology.
Specifically,
depanincnt. half
compcuucjii.
former
.Xerox of
the
Xerox’^
inarkenng
and
ouibLisrling
refocused provider
w'orldwide
divisions,
oursiders.
jug
reshape
to
of
1999.
hcHnan reshaping
digirnl
.Mlaire
documents.
team
innovative was
only
Xerox
and
management on
lasted
corpn-
development
top
focus
the
B
into
replaced
by
monAs,
he
a
Although
think-
LST-moving Thoman
is
pone, Xerox’s current top nmnagemcni team condniics trying lo tulfill his vLsiun. SudaJizadon sclecrion, Because
No
matter
new diey
porcntiully organization
employees Are
the
how
will,
are
legist
n^ost
good not
fann'liar
likely
therefore,
to
a
job hilly
widi
disturb
wnnt
hi
rhe
indfictrinated
rhe Ac
organization
help
in
orgaiiixadon’s
hcliets new
ind
does Ae
in
orgam74tions
culture,
employees
recruiting
new
iliat
adapt
are
to
its
an
J
culture.
employees
are
in
The
place.
culture.
This
adaptation process is called sochlirAtion. All Marin e.s must go through lioot camp, where thc\' prove their com mi unent. Of
Course,
at
the
'‘^Marine
way.”
employee
through
learn
about
rhe
>:ime
Vunt, a
a
Ane, rapidly
Arcc-wcek
firms
Ac
hisujry’
^Marine
growing program and
nainers
are
Boston-hased in
key'
which
ilicy
personaeL
indoctrinating consulting
bond,
New
new
finn,
accjuire
Disneviand
puts team
recmiuinthe evert'new skills,
employees
and
spend
their first tv o full day3 ol work watching films and listening tn lectures on how Disney employees are expected to look and net. •
discuss socialization, keep m mind that Ae most critical socialization
IS ai time of enuy into Ac organization. This is when Ac onranizarion seeks f> TOukI Ae outsider inm an employee m ‘‘good standing/' Employees who f.iil to learn c essential or pivotil njlc behaviors risk being labeled nonconfonnists or rebch and. ultimately being expelled. Bui rhe organiz^iciun will be socializing every employed’ fxig inay >e not explicitly, diroughouc his or her career in Ae organization. Phis cononual pnccss further contributes to sustaining Ae culture. ScK’ialjzjtiou can k conceptualized as a protvss made up of thrw? stages: pre^nvai, encounter, and metamorphosis. The first stage encompasses all Ae Icarwng at occurs ore a ncM’ menil»er joAs Ae organization. In Ae second stage, the («• employee sm what Ac organization is really like and confronis Ae likelihooJ thK
a»pur« Org«|«to«J ^.rratirtiis and reality nxav diverire. In tlit third ,.te plaxv. The new c,n,.h.yee mas,cm ,).« skith'rc^.iS’for V iwrtonus h« or her new ro es and inak. x »kt. ?i-
.v ’*7 ’'«or her
anpinyt*•' «<,rk prcJucnx^ty. cnm.mancn,... ,he orgnm.auon-, .>b,e uves an^ hX or^anuatmn. Exhibit 16-Z .k-picts this i.nKei The/’W'vvtwZ^Zz^Xr '>ccur<. bcl<»re (he eniplovec inins dip r^r
' L.
^.^rhoth the work ,.. IKI done and the organ,zarion. Eor instance,,., many ,ol>S tXricularb prokssional work, new members w,ll have undergone a eonsideral.lc tlejee prior sm iahzation ,n tra.mng and m school. One nuior purpose of a business «hool. lorexJinpic, is to MKiahzc business students into the attin.des and behavium hrms wain, h iHUjncvs executives hclieve that successful einplovecs value the profir ethic arc )uyaK tan hire
<^ut oi husniess -ichouts who huve Ixen preinolded in this paucni
ButpretrrivaJ
MK
A1/C
ysei!
hard, want to achieve, and work svdl in learns thev
in
nioxt
t^liZsinon
goes
organizations
lo
beyond inform
the
specific
pros|wc(i>'e
job.
I
he
employees
selection
about
the
process
itself«
organization
as
a whole and to ensure the inclusion of the right type—tivise who will fit in. “Indeed, the
Abilin’
process
uf
I
he
detennincs
individual
his
ahilin*
m to
present
move
the
into
.ippropriatc
face
organiintion
in
die
during the
the
first
scletlkm
place.
Thus,
success depends on the degree to which the aspiring member has cniTcctly anticipated the exptcuHions and desires of those m the organization in charge of selection.”'^
Entry' into the organization begins die front
the
possible
boss
3nd
the
more
or
ceptinns
in
accurate,
the
gained
earlier.
But
between
their
general—and
encounter this
is
realiry.
stage
often
cxjwctntions—alxiut If
merely
not
ihe
their
expectations
provides case.
a
iob,
prove
to
reaffiriiiation
WTierc
expectations
co-wurkers. have of
been
the
and
per-
reality*
employees must underp > socializathMi th ar will detach them from previous
asMirnprions
die
organization
less
differ, new
ducTiis
dichcitomy
Now the individuals con-
and
desirable.
JCTiialities
ot
replace At
the
their
those
assuinpuons
extreme,
job
and
new
with
members
resign.
Proper
another
may
set
bctxitne
selection
should
that totally
the
organization
titsilkisinned
significantly
with
reduce
the
probability of the latter oeeiirrence. Finally, the
encounter
new
members
stage,
‘lb
do
must so,
work
they may
out have
to
any go
problems through
discovered
changes;
henw,
this (he wrXtfwo/pjbofw yfrigv. The choices presented in Exhibit 16-3 are alternatives
EXHIBIT 16-2 A Socialization Model Socialization process
Outcomai
during wc
call
CMture
Hwttv TbeOk^^woonSyMBm CJQWrT 16-3
&my Sodatization Options
T1i« more a tie* vinphn ee is fwgregan’d from the ongtring wmi setrftag differentiated in some way tn mat* capIxiT hi* nr her newvunxr’s role, the more tonnak b. Spcafic onuoUTHHi and training pR»grutm are exampU*. InlVxntal soeialtMCKm pm^ employee directly into hi> or her h’h. wldi licde or no tpeoal atieniinn. :y Cotieari'c New members can be Maaaliizd indnuiuJly. Many proic»uonal offactt socialize new employees ua this wav. Nc» tneinheTs nan abo h< grouped (ngethcr and proo^g^ rhmugh an fch ntiewl set of as i»‘ ftiikitary bocn camp. Funi iariMr tinw M'b«bilr in which newcomers make the transicuin from <jutodertK» indderran k' trinl or variable, ^fiied xhcdule establishes standardized stages of rraftsiuoo, *uch« I thtise UMxl m nitadonal training {tnigranK. It akM> includes pnibationar) periods «uch as the^x^egf “reowre or one" procedureeu assvitani professors in univerSibo. Variabie dungs out schedules give no advanced nonce ot thvif irjftsinon limeiflhk FIH* cajinple, this dtxnlies the typi* i/tWTintre i s. ]nTd«mnre «>dalizacion rhdt the luu comer’« qualities calquail6cahon«> proraotion sysecm. where one is not advanced tor n» tht stage until he orqualiries she i* *n?4dv.“ are the necessan* ingredtencs jobnest success, so those aixJ ScWrf/iT Serial sodaJization is characterized by the use of role rnmicL who qualiticauoiw arcuair aad C3on finned a nJ supporteil. DKesHnire snciab^flotin rries tn ynp »u'ay evrtiin encourage die rK'wtviiwr. Apprenticeship and mentoring programs art exaiiipk^. In random characiensiics of the iz;ition. n4e ctnxluls are JebberauK uiibtiehl. 11 ic oe* empkwer is left on his Of her own n» reeniit Fraternity and sororicr ’pledges' go througfa divestiture sixializanon lu shape them hrve into th« Sexra; Baed on iV» Maaflea “People Processwg; Straae^ o< OrgpnuaUondi proper role. SoodiQsOoflrOi^an^eiiM <3>iant% Swnner 1978. pp td*d6. Md LH. Sd«rn. “Orsrustional Cultuie/ X/ncrfcan FeMuaqr 1990. p. !!€ (
vt. fnfiimak
organizations able
can
to
metamorphosis?
process
are and
work
group,
accepted they
tern—not
the only
practices be
say
that
new
They
they
have
peers
as
asks,
used
to
OWTI
Finally, measure
constitutes have
a a
internalized
the
and and
complete
they
know appraise
fob
well
done.
on
be
They
Exhibit new
with
are
the
their
members
fee!
self-confident
understand
and
informally that is
showed,
employees’
orpni*
and
They
what
desir-
sociaJizaUOD
\'ew
evaluated,
16-2
a
organization
Tliey
know
is
entn
norms.
procedures,
will
the
the
the
successfully.
work
j\s
of
individuals.
they
what
comfortable
those
rules,
their
impact
norms
job
the how
and
positive
valued
But
and
become
accept
the
but
metamorphosis.
metamorphosis have
trusted
their
desired
members
understand
to
well.
should
die
competence
as
what
phosis
their
about
can
when
jolh
and
by
have
and
their
bring
We
complete
/.anon
will
uw
is.
the
s>v
accepted
what
e.xpecied
criteria of
successful
productivity
diM
them
metanKrand
cheif
comnutment to the organization and reduce their pro|)cnsiiy to leave.
Summary: I low Cultures Form Eadubit T
he
16-4 original
influcneot Ae
general
to
be
the
stunmarizes culture criteria
climate
socialized
employees*
values
of
how’
is
an
derived
organization^
from
rhe
used
in
hiring.
what
is
acceptable
w
ill
depend
to
those
of
on the
The
the
founder's actions
Uhavior degree
organization
agemimt s preference for socialization methods.
culture
of in
eswblished
philosophy.
of and
is
the w
current
hat
success the
Tills,
is
in
t<^p
not.
achieved
selecihin
and
sustained.
turn,
sirnngh’
management
How in
pnicess
set
employees
art
matching
oe*
and
top
maB*
OMpterlB
HOW EMPLOYEES LEARN CULTVRE
J-
Culnifc is transmitted to employees in a nomber of fonns
ries. rituals, material symbols, and language.
'
portnt beingmn-
Stories D«rijj the when 1 lenry i-oid H was chairman of the Ford Motor Co,, one would have been h,ird-pre«ed to find a manager who hadn’t heani rhe storv about Mr Fordes executives, when they got too arrogant, that -Its name that’s.«the biijlding. I he message was ckai: Henn- Ford K ran the cumpany. Nike has a number of senior executives who spend much of their time serving as corporate about.'”
ston
tellcrs.
VXTien
they
Bouerman went ate
a
better
hires
hear
tell
the
the
stories
story
to Ixjb workshop
running
talcs
professional
And
ol
shoe, Oregon
sport
and
of
and
they’re
are
mcani
co-foundcr
poured
.star
attain
tell
how
talking
running
h)
they
rubber
about Steve
lo
(and
omvey
Oregon
what
track
into his wife’s waffle
Nikes
spirit
of
Prefontaine’s
better-performing
in
eijuipnient,
to
they
is
coach)
Bill
iron ro
cre-
novation.
battles
Nike
When
new
make
running
learn
of
a
Nikc^
Cfniunitnicnr to helping athletes. Nordstrom
employees
are
fond
of
the
following
.story.
It
cninpain s policy toward customer returns: WTien this .specialty’
.sinmgly
conveys
the
retail chain was in its
uifency, a (.njstomer came in and wanted to return a set ot automobile tires. ITie salesclerk was not sure how to handle the problem. As the customer and salesclerk sj)oke, Mr.
Nordstrom
ceded,
asking
instructed «>mer Mr. *e
walked the
the
had
Xonlsmim. need
to
do
queso.ms-asked
customer
clerk
received we to
by
to
how
lake
his
make
sell the
policy.”
the
refund
don't
return
and
and
tiresl”
he
tires
the had
hack
left,
the
conversation.
pid and
fejr
provide
perplexed
“I
know.”
replied
cuMomer
happy.
I
Nordstrom
then
die
mean picked
tires. a
clerk
He
immediately Mr.
full
looked
ar
boss.
“Inn
it
when
1
up
rhe
^end in the auto parts business to see bow iimeh he could get St.wies such as these circulate through many organizanons.
N’ordscroni
rash
the
inter-
refund.
After
boss.
“But,
die wc
say
we
wlcphotic
then
do
whatever
ave and
a
called zsm-
raus-to-
a narrattve of events about the organiMriuu’s founders, ni c re'Jcti.jns m ^•bes sutxesscs, reductions in the workforce, reloc-anoa o emp raisukK. and organizational coping. These stories anchor the presen “*1 pKMKle ctplajutiuns and legitimacy b»r current pracotes.
no
.^si
(V 'rhe Organization System Rimals Rituals nf
are
the
repetitive
ureaniatinn.
^iquences
what
whicfi
are
expendable.
quest
for
permanenl
goals
of
are
University
nuivicks most
chat
express
intporumt.
faculn'
which
nicmhers
employment-tenure.
reinforce people
undergo
TyTi«ll»
the
a
the
^re
value,
nnportar^t,
lengthy
tacuky
key
nniai
n.eniber
n
and
in
their
on
proba-
don for .six years. x4t the end of that period, the members colleagues must make one of nvo
dioiecs;
WTi.ic
does
extend
a
tenured
cake
to
obvain
it
mance,
.service
.iatisfjes
the
to
the
appointment tenure?
deparnnent
requircinenrs
for
or
Tc
and
issue
usually
university,
tenure
in
one-ye.ar
re(|uircs
and
one
a
satisfaetoiy
scholarly
dcpamneni
terminal teaching
actmty.
al
one
contract,
But,
perfor-
of
course,
university
may
be
appraised as inadequate in another The key is that die lemire decision, in essence, ask^ diose whoflre tenured to susess whether die candidate hxs demo ns crated, in six years that
he
have
proved
ulty
niernbers
is
a
caji
he
of
are
Ls
The
across
iu'^iructor
activities
member
spends
assess
by
parsed to
some
often,
cases,
of
hours
each
but
neglects
for
tenure.
Wist
to
the
norms
set
on
in
die
piobationary
fac-
action decision
tenured
feculty
week
prepar-
Ills
has
by
of
the
the
will
this
however,
adapt
early
hundreds
areas
students
over
properly
the
dozens
evalna.tinns
failed
in
year,
In
More
well
vocialirxd
F.very
tenure.
f«*iard. doing
who
maybe
has
will
the
been
tenure.
denied
not
Outstanding
have
granted arc
member’s
instrucror
who
l.icing
unkmities
faculty
publication
faculty
of
and
achieves
the
Colkiigwes
performance
the
and
that
isnire
In. worthy
imporcanc.
and
simply,
poor to
class
leseaich
fits
at€ollege::i
traced
for
The
she
themselves
result
believe ing
or
the
or
her
hapiwned, department.
period
what
atti-
tudes and behaviors his or her colleagues w'ant and will then proceed to give them what they
want.
/Kiid,
of
course,
by
demanding
certain
attitudes
and
behaidors,
the
tenured
faculty will have made significant strides toward standardizing tenure candidates, One
of
the
corporate
best-known
rituals
is
Mary
Kay
meeting. Looking like a cross between a circus and a Mis.s
Cosmetics’
annual
America pageant,
award
the racct-
ing takes place over a couple of days in a large auditorium, on a stage in ft out of a large,
cheering
clothes. pins,
Saleswomen
fur
“show'”
stoles, acts
addirioB, mism, and
the
to
i.s
a
II
with
pariicipnms an
by
array
on
publicly
Mary
her
overcome
personal
success.
Tt
of
recognizing
reinforces
to
dressed
conveys
and
that
through
hard
Laiupreia
are
cw'o
of
Seattle’s
they're
less
rhan
10
blocks
in
her
achieving
personal
hardships, and
and
sales
sales
to
found
diamond Ths
performance.
her
that
evening
quotas.
dcrentiinauon
salespeople
work
glamorous
gifts—gold
outstanding
Kay's tc
in
flashy
success
aspect
material
important
the
acj*—based
motivator
enabled
all
rewarded
(ladi
ritual
achieve
with
arc
pink
as
w’hich
quota
audience,
and
own
reaching
encouragement
opti-
company
theii
they
In
too
sales can
achieve success.
Material Symbols Fullers But,
and
although
ferenr
feel.
decor.
T
casual
and
he
Fullers staff low-key
is is
formal
to
the
formaUy attired, It
has
a
stylish
most apart,
point serious, but
of
highly the
two
being
focused,
minimalist
rated
and
restaurants
“stuffy.” and
decor,
expensive
stiff. ITie
convey
It
has
In
contrast,
staff’s
a
restaurants’ a
very
dif"
n)useuni-!e'’®l Lampreia is
casual
dress
and
and
ser-
Style are consistent with rhe decor. Both
Fullers
and
Lampreia
consistently
receive
honors
for
their
vice; require rcservanixis days, and stxnetimes weeks, ahead of rime; and cost at Ic*
fixxl
for dinner for two. Y« the resiaurwits bav,; rwo .i.fr dtiDfP s«'-^ =*=* smplovees- attipe o,nvev messages to new empluyfPS. Ar Fullers . 3, and consenative. I he message at La^JVX „j4xed and open. Messastes ran also he conveyed by material st^hob besu«vcd n,
'u ” reflected in th«e material symbols "ti’cr hand, is that we're
Some corporauons provtde their top executives w.th chauffeur .1^ i ««cunv«. unlimited use ol the corporate )t t. Executives at otlier Am, '"""USIIIM and traiisixjrtation paid for fo- the company, but the car is a Chevrole7(tiT ’
“'x*’
the plane sear is m die economy section of a commercial airlint Other fomishifo^. ries.
and
5„nb..b top
e.xaniples
ol
c.tectitive
fterts,
the
material
presence
ntnvey
lo
the
..
and
who
the
include
cxisiuKe
reserved
employees
management,
sjmbols
of
parking i.
kinds
the
of
employee
spaces
unpomnt, of
size
behavior
lounges
for
tire
certaiu
degree
(for
olfires.
dw
or
cl-anee
onsite
emplo«e>.
of
example,
dSTdfo
These
eg-alitananism nsk-iaking,
conservative
Language organi/anons
member
of
a
and
units
culture
or
within
organ
subculture.
iz^itiuns
By
use
learning
language
this
as
a
language,
way
to
identify
meiiibeniane^ittorheiT
acceptance of the culture and, in so doing, help to jjreserve it. ‘I'be following are examples of terminology used by employees at Knight-Ridder Info nil all on, a (.alifornia-hascd data redistributor: /rrrrrrwj assigned and
each
rrimow/?/
Librarians The)’
arc
sprinkle
for
Research
and
OPAC
mu'll
find
(Boeing hve
indi\ndual
record
in
a data
data
ftpir/aur
(searching
a
a
source
lerminology^
rich
their
conversations
Libraries),
(tot*
online
appUtarion);
OCbC
online
yourself
of
patron learning
center
accessing a
data); MAIDS
bast
lil^crally
(a
for
in
names
or
co
Ohio If
that you’re
vocabulary
sei
of
key
terms
people
acronyms
catalog).
CATlA
KM-7C{a
foreign
with
unique
(manufectiiring
(a nunibcr
base);
of
kcy-words-in-contcxt);
outside
and
sonic
their
such
as
does
c<xi|icrative
a
nw
AKL
acronyms,
inscalkLon
order).
profession.
(^XshKxiauon
employee
(computer-graphics-aided, assembly
in
cataloging), at
Boeing,
including
BOLD
chrec-dimensioual data
system);
POF
(purchased outside production); and SLO (sciTice-level objectives). Organizations, over dme, often develop unique terms to esen offices, key personnel, soppl.ers, customers, or pmduers rh.t ere less. New employees .re frequentlt overwheltned with .enrnyms “"'i
“
.her six monX Jn the job, have become fttlly p.r. “* latcd, this leniunolum acts as a common denominator that unites
cultur
or ^ulKuhiire.
MANAGING CLLTURAL CHANCE an organization’s culture is made up ^■uli to change. An organii'Jtfon^ culture devc ops ‘^Pl> held values to w'hich employees are stron^y ‘ ■“•aber uf f,Kce. condnuaUy operating to matn ain P suteiiK-nts alH.ut the organiMUOns mission
maiX
desineTfo.
authoritarian, piiriicipativc, individualistic, social) thatare appropriate.
Many
of
^^a^'^and is rootci in addinon. ibc« -j hese >nclude the design of
phwHal sMt-w and buildings, the doHWoam leadership style, historical sdecrio. fix past proHuxioft prarrices. entrenched rituals, popular stones about ke>- |)ea,rit foniial struvture. ents.Although the orranizau.xi’s past perhntnance evahiatton untenxFc» changing an organization^i culture is difficnik u isn’t impossible. and the urganixaaQ|A cultural change to tw cffccuve, it helps if certain coodidon< are prevalent. The evidence suggests ml rural change is most likely to take when most or all of the followuig tour conditions exist; A dranhttk 4T7<w fWTr or o’ created. Fhis is the shock that luulennincs the stact^ qiKi and calls into qiiesrion the relevance of the current culture. Examples of these cnscs tnitfht l>c a surpnsing finaniial setback, the li>e» of a niaiw customer, or a dr> fnahc technological breakthrough bv a competitor, li is not unheard of foi some necudves ro purpnseh create a crisis in order co simulate cultural change. 7«n/oi
/«
hiidmhip.
New
top
leadership,
which
can
provide
an
alternative
set
of ke}'values, is usually needed to make cultural change work. I hey are more likely u> be
pcrceiv
include
the
ed
as
capable
organizaann’s
management
posiiioas.
of
responding
chid
executive
Bringing
in
a
to but
neu'
the
crisis.
also
CEO
This
might from
leadership would
need
to
outride
encompass
the
orgajuzjdon
defirriiek all
senior
is
likely
to increase iJie chances that now cultural v alues will be introduced. An outside CEO, ill
convast
to
promoting
someone
from
within
die
urganirjtinn,
also
conveys
a
mes>
sage to emplovcc?! that change is in the wind. Young und sfitt/U t/rganizanon. Cultural change is more likeh* to take if the organi* ration is bodi young and small. Cultures in voungcr And ifs easier for IS
small-
ITiis.
organizations are less entrenched.
management to communicate ir^ new* values when the <^gaaizaaoD
incidentally,
helps
explain
the
difliculty
that
multibill
ion-dollar
corpo
rations ofren experience when crying to change their culture. Ifijji culture.
1 he more widely held a culrure is and the higher
the agreement
among members on its values, the more difficult it w ill hr to change. Conversely, weak cultures are more arueiiable to change than strong ones. Even immediate
when or
the
dramatic
above shifts
arc
conditions iu
their
lavorable,
organizations
managers culture.
slxuddn’t
Cultural
ImA
change
for h
a
lengthy process- which should be measured in vears rather than months.
CREATING AN ETHICAL ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE TTie content and strength of a cnlnire influences an oi^anization^s ethical climate and the ethical behavior of its members?^ An organizational culture inu^t likely to shape high ethical standanh is one thati high in risk tolerance, low-to-moderaic in aggressiveness, and focuses on means well as outcomes, .Managers in such a mlnire arc suj^iorred fw caking risks and being innovative, are discouraged from engaging iu uubndled compciititin, and will pay attention to goals arc achieved as well as :rhat goals are achieved. A
strrmg
0rganizati0n.1l
culture
will
exerr
more
influence
on
emplovees
than
weak fHie- h the culture is strong and supports higli ethical standards, it should have a very
powerful
example, romers,
has
and a
positive
strung
employees,
the
influence
culture
that
conununiryv
on has and
employee long
behaiior.
stressed
shareholders,
Johnson
corporate in
chai
Johnsctfi,
ohliganons
order.
TykooJ (a J&J pnxluct) was found on store shelves, einpkivees at J&J acruw the
&
WTien
10
Ibr cuS'
pcistawd
jriitftion of tHe fd lowing pratiiccs: culture? We suggest a corner a ni^del. Employees will look
OrgnfZHkHI^ CBteiTC Vniied benchmark States independently for defining appropriate pulled the pnKl„„ Izehavior from .k « as taking the ethical high road, it provides a nmiov^ ’'’’■'"■-management is seen even issued a statement a.nccming the tamperSrun• N management ethical Ethical amhuniir, *** employees, tiduahConmninicate what was morally nghi; they expectations. knew what^fu iniBVVTiJt candi.seminutf^g managementan do..rganiX7±":j to creau a ic . ” to do. ating and T *■’- -P'-’Xl
Sow " ' Prov^ ah,cal
Sex up .seminars, workshops, and similar ethical trainmg
programs. I se he« iram.ng sessions to reinforce the organization’s standarik of conduct, to clarify what practices are and arc not permissible; and to address possible ediical dilemmas. Visihly reward ethical acts and punish unethical ones. Performance appraisals of managers
should
measured
against
include the
a
point-byiHiint
organization’s
evaluation
code
of
of
ethics.
how
his
or
Ajipraisals
her
must
decisions
include
the
means taken to achieve goals as well as the ends themselves. People who act ethically
should
he
visibly
rewarded
for
their
behavior.
Just
as
importantly,
unethi-
cal acts sliould be conspicuouslv punished. Provide nisms
proactive so
behavior
that without
mechanismi. employees fear
of
The
can
organizatiem
discuss
reprimand.
needs
ethical
This
to
provide
dilemmas
might
and
include
formal
mecha-
repon
creation
unethical of
ethical
counselors, ombudsmen, or ethical officers.
SPIRITUALITY AND ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE WTiat do Southwest Airlines, Ben & Assotiaxes,
anti
'n»m’s
of
Maine
Homemade, Hewlett'Packard, Wctheril! have
in
common?
They’re
among
a
growing
number
of organizations that have embraced workplace spirituality.
V\Tiat Is Spirituality? “
^Vorkphec spirituahcv is noT altout organized religious practices. It s not about theology.
Workplace
spirituality
recognizes
that
people
have
an
inner
»!.» „d„„Xhtd by meanngful •>’»■ -’kes place » U.e "Iv ’- (>rg.„,J, promote e spirint.l culture tecogn.ee that ■ m,„d »d . spirit, seel to find rae.ning
‘ 1 X*
,nd
purpose
tn
the.r
wort,
b. .nd
des,re
uiih other human beings and l>e part of a community.
^'I*y Spirituality Now? ^
, .
P
>
myth of ranonalsin^hrly. concern But just a.
44
1
*•
Mt IV TW Or^uucian SysMa we've- now cxin.c tn r«]iu that dw Study of etnoBOM imp^ ow undenoB*^ oryanizatii.iul behavior, an □wut cness of siHittuality CMi help you to better undenttj^ 1 •!
crnplovw lichantar in (he twenty-fim century. Of course. eiuplo)-ees have always had an iiuier htc. bo why has the search meaning amJ purpose fulness in worfc surtiiCTd now? There are a number of rcaeo^ Ue xurcrunze them i/i Exhibit 16-5.
Characteristic of a Spiritual Organization The
con«pi
such
AS
we
cerned
ethics,
spiritual
full
that
workplace
valuts,
instance, their
of
uindvation.
organizjinons
potential.
This
discussed
with
^irinialin-
in
spiritualit)
to
more
on
out
and
work/life
concerned
aiialogutu
relation are
leadership,
arc
is
draws
with
tv
likely
ti»
s
.As
people
ol
pmblems
topics see.
and
fcr
reach
self-actualixadon
oTgani7,nnons
addres.s
of
j’ou’U
develop
description
Simibriy,
directly
discussions
balance.
helping
Maslow
jnotn*an(>n.
previous
that
are
con-
created
by
work/
life u>nflicts. W
hat
.Mchough
dirterentiates
research
on
spiritual
this
i|nestion
orgaiuxalions is
only
from
preliminary,
their our
nonspintualcouncerparai
review
identified
five
cul-
tural charactenscics that tend to be evident in spiritual organizations.^*^ Strung
Sense
meaningful of
the
ing
the
Ben
&
its
of
Purpose
purpose.
MTiile
orginizadon. low
Jerry’s
producing
household
i
and
profits
Southw
cst-cost
Spiritual est
airlares,
has
selling
ice
that
are
be
Aidines,
lomemade
pnKlucts
nwy
on-dme
of
organizations
made
instance,
ice,
closely cream.
im^Mirtant.
for
sen
build
and
their
they’re is
cultures
not
strongly
the
pleasant
exi^erience
inteniieshed
.socially
responsible
from
of
natural
.Maine
stri^-es
ingredients
primary
coinuwcted
a
Tom’s
around
to
sell
and
are
values
to
for
a
prorid-
cuscomen.
beharior
into
personal
care
envinmmentally
friendiv. *
Focus and which ple,
on
value
of
Indiridual people.
employees they
also
can tn’
to
The)*
Deveiopment aren’t
continually provide
just leam
Spiritual
providing and
einplojiuent
organizations
jobs.
grow. securin.
Thes*
seek
Kccugnizing Hew
ret\>gTuze
the
to
c^tures
the
lea-Eackani.
create
importance fiir
wunh in
of
peo-
insmncc.
goes
to extremes to in’ to minimize die cfteci of economic downturns on its srall. l^c
EXHIBIT 16—5 Reasons for the Growing Interest in Spirituaihy
--------------------------------------------------------------------------- > A» J MAintcrholansT to the pressures ami «rrvM of t turbuleni puce <»f hit. (Utmonportry lilest\'lp«—sinjrie-parcftt famines. gecHtrafthw ntobilin*. the tempuran* nature c£ h»hR» nca u:chnoli>gte5 that errate distaiKY lircuvm —undtfrwurr (he lat'i of onninuniiy many people (eel and increase* ihe need fin »m«»lvfrrn:w and c^mncvtion. ABmp Uiln -hmtnKni. reaching mKMih*. are looking for M«neihing in thnr lift?. F(»nnaU/ed rehgiiHi hasbn t wciricvd hn* many pc;o|ile ami ihey vundnuc to tnoi fix Mdton m replatT hek u1 kijth and tn fill a gro« mg (vding of empnnra. Job drrtuixk tu>'e ma«lc the wurkpiaev di Hinn ant in many (Hxiples livea y«i they coMWtte » qur»t)on the meaning of worit. IIK* desire tn integrate pcfxonal life values whh unv' prulewiiMta] life, in Dmes of eeonueuc prosperity, more (lenpk ha*« the loinni* tn engage KI a warch n> tem*h their hall putemiaL g
dnwncums throuc^h i workweeks (sh^i^cd by ail); and Intiger-tenn dcStZ?’?'"'^ 3nd buyouts « UiroQph early rttirements -Pfusl And Openness Spinnial organizations art ch honesty, and openness. Managers aren’t afraid to adni.t XTt
trust,
A
ertrentely upfront with their employees, customers and s..^ r ’ W-’ctherill .Associates, a highly soccessfiji auto parts distnlnih^ lies here. ..nd cve.yone knows it. We are specific anX 5uirahilinof the product ^le to derecr any pn.blem""' rmolo'*^
EmpoM^rnient
.mnbined
with
ageme-n
empowering
,p.nt«nlh
based
employee*
and
dous
take
li.ey
As
a
customer
whatever
case
in
service
action
they
most
point.
Southwest
representathes, deem
to
and
necessary
tu
make Airline
i
learning^and ManageTs^n
amhoritv
to
imhviduJ
thoughfftii
and
rnnscien
emplovxes-including
baggage
meet
tn
erxi".
decisions.
deleganng
employees
we
employee
work-related
comfortable their
in
promote
make
are
trust
needs even if ’«“•«' nught n.n be climarp
to
to
organizations
customers' ’
hich-triut
de.sire
employees
teams.
our
I’he
rhe
decisions.
attendants, to
for
** prewdent of
handleiv-are
customer
needs
flieht
encOTra^d
or
help
fellow
workers, even if it means breaking company policies.
Toleration
of
spiritually
based
people
to
reprimand.
be
Employee
Expression
organizations
is
themselves—to
Employees
at
lliat
express
Southwest
The they
their Air,
final don’t
moods for
characrerisne
stifle and
employee ieelings
instance,
arc
that
diflerentiates
emotions.
without
They
guilt
encouraged
tn
or
allow
fear
express
of their
sense of humor on the job. to act .spontaneously, and to make their work fan.
Criticisms of Spirituality Cricics of the spiritual iiy riiovej^ieiil in organizations have focused or ru’n issues, first the quesiioii of kgriitnacy. Sped Ilea I ly, do org’anizations have the right TO imptwe spiritual values on their employees? Second is the question oF economics. Are spirituality and profits compatible?
icy
On
the
to
make
especially fhi'i
first
some
business
criricism
question,
is
there
employees firms,
have
undoubtedly
is
clciirly
uneasy. no
valid
die
Critics
business when
potential might imposing
spiniualiry
for
an
argue
that
spiritual
is
emphasis
defined
secular
values as
on
on
sqnri^al-
insrirodons, employees,
bringing
re
and God into the workplace? • However, the criticism seems less ‘iringing
igwn e
limited to helping employees find meaning in their work lives. 5 1‘Sted in E.^hibit 16-5 auly characterize a gniwing segmem of the ’^ybe the rime is right for organizJtions to help employees fmd meaning an p rp in their work and to use the work-place as a source of community The issue of whether spiriroality and profirs are tainly
relevant
for
managers
and
investors
although limin
busincs-s.
,
research
study
by
a
'tfd, indicates tJiat the two objectives may be vci y comp ■ "ttKir «,n«iliing firm found that companies thai unproved pi f>ductivity and significantly reduce m that organizations that pn.vide their dnelopineni outjtcrforined those that dulnt.
,s Aocher study fi,r spiris,u!|i« also report chat
‘ .1
tart IV
The Orpnixatioo System ipirituafity in oreini^aooiw wa* positively reUwd to c^dvi^ cmpl.,yM team perfonnance, and orgiuiizational commitmein. And if you re kxiking for ,
'
single case TO make the arg:umenr for spirituality, H’S hard to beat Southwest Ait. i ScutiiwtTii viiiployces have one of the loM-est turnover rates in the airline industry/, consistently has the lowest labor costs per miles flown of any major airline: it regu, lady outpaces its eompeutoi^ for achieving on-lime arnvaU and feucst eutttwncr complaints -ind it has proven itself to be the most consistently profitable airline h the United States.^*
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE yjiRSUS NATIONAL CULTURE In places throughout this book we've argueil that national tliHcrenccs^chat is, national culture—must be taken into account if accurate predictions arc to lx? made about organir.iuonal behavior in different councnes. But does national culture override an organuadonk culture? Is an IBM facilicv^ in Germany, for CKample, more likclv to reflecx German edmicity nr IBM’s corporate culture? The than
research
does
Munich.
indicates
their
national
organizadun’s
tlicrefi>re,
Organizational
dial
will
culture
be
culture?-
influenced
ducb
culture
have
a
hxs
German
more
great
by
a
greater
employees
(icnnan
influence
on
impact
at
culture
an
behavior
to
reflect
etnplny'ees
IBM
than
the
on
by of
facility
IBM’s
people
in
culture. at
trork,
but national culture has even more. The goes w
on
be
at
the
less
hiring
an
expect, to
preceding
hiring
stage.
concerned Italian
and
with
who
dterefore,
find
conclusiun
hire
A
the
job
to
British
be mu
qualified Id
coqvoradon.
lialian"
for
the
“typical
with
the
corporation’s
employee
appliouits
selection
who
arc
way
process
a
die
national
hiring
fils
chat
has
good
fit
its of
will
lor
Italian doing
be
with
self-sclecrion example,
used
their
is
ojxradons things.
likely
than
We
by
dtai in
should
rnuldnationals
organizuiions
duriiiiujit
culture, even if such applicants arc somewhat atypical for members of their country.
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND THE PARADOX OF DIVERSITY We
briefly
employees
mention who,
here
because
a
of
contemporary
race,
gender,
challenge
ethnic,
or
for
other
maiiagcnt.
Socializing
differences,
arc
not
new
like
the
raajurity of the orgajiizarinn’s members crearei whai wc call z/ir {yrradax fff Alanageriienr Otherwise, management
wants
these
new'
employees
employees
wants
to
are
unlikely
openly
to
accept to
fit
acknowledge
the
in
or
and
organization’s lx*
accepted.
demonstrate
core But
support
cultural
at
the for
same the
values. dine, differ-
ences that these employees hnng to the workplace. Strong cultures put considerable pressure on employees to confirnn. They liiwt the range of values and stydes that arc acceptable. Obviously, this creates a ddcmnia* Organizations hire diverse individuals because of the altcmadvc strengths these pie bring to the workplace, yet tJiese diverse behaviors and strengths arc likely co diminish in strtmg cultures as people attempt to fit in. .Managernent
s
challenge
in
this
parad<»x
of
diversity
is
to
hsdanev
gods. Get em^oyees to accept rhe organ izadem’s dominant values and encourage d*
two
confliedng
Chapter T« OrgiaraadwMlCnlm^ c of diffcrcn™.- -loo m..ch to investiture rites is likely tn create 2■‘n-vng.hs ihur pcopk of diffvrent backgroun.U bring to the There seems to be little doubt that culture has a strong influence on ;^;ani^."'‘’'’efflpl«
behavior
But
what
can
management
do
to
design
a
culture
that
molds
pp,p)oyce5 ill the wAy iTiimagcnivni wants? When acai
of
There
an
influence.
There
few,
if
any,
or
her
arc
touched diese
orgamzation
by
bis
conditions
best
faeilitatt
organization culture ven'
is
become
ihc well
made
liciomv
may
b«
little
[he
most
cultural crisis,
months.
turnover
can in
ol has
the
of
took
to
so
conditions,
time
cultural
“favorable
l>e
successfnllv organization’s
Not
However,
its
and
dominant
fonn,
and
particularly So. and
if a
change
handicap
have
impiemenied
that are
leadership,
to
be
the
under will
when
the
that
this
it it
bcaimes tenets
change
culture,
to
to
because
over
time,
management,
there
the
short
measured
increase an
to
given
ii.espcriallyin
conditions"
yxiung and small, and a doiiiiiianl culture that is weak.
a
directly
that
(iiven
established,
resistant
stnall.
is
charactcrisiki,
once
is
culture
ailtutc.
permanent
great
surprisingly,
goals.
changes
top
is.
and
organizations
them.
to
founder
a
to
to
do
organization
is
arc
the
a
organiration
create
stable
The the
too
The
has
to
organization
van
knows
opportunity
the
cultures
an
the
management
traditions.
Everyone
what
coiiiinitted
inanageiiietit
favorable
change
It
established,
esuhlishcd
relatively
Strong
inappropriate
or
vision
of
so
being
sulx.-ultiin;s
change.
becomes
weeks
no
csiabli.shed,
up
to
pist
achievement
entrenched.
employees
are
management
is
resistant
js
the
existence organization
run.
in
Under
years,
probability of
a
that
not that
dramatic is
both
w
•*
Organizational Change and Development After reading this chapter, you should be able to 1.
Oescribe forces that act as stimulants to change
2. Define p/annetf change 1 Summarize Lewin's tliree-step change model 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Explain sources of resistance to change
9.
Summarize sources of irvnvdtion
Describe techniques for overcoming resistance to change Explain the values underlying most organizational development (00} efforts Describe a teaming organ 'zafion klentrfy symptoms of work stress
1#. Define knowfeetge manaiement and explain its importance
'^his chapter is about organizanonal change. We descrilie ens-ironmcnwl fixoes A. that are requiring managers to implement comprehensive change programs. compare two views on change. We also consider why people iind organizations often rwist change and how this resistance can be overcome. Finally, we present the concept o organizational det el opmen t as a sA'stemwide approach to chance and introduce several conteinpf,rary issues in organizational change.
FORCES FOR CHANGE rcouir^orranTT9r^”'^'**i"’* acting M stSulanB^i chai^'‘
dynamic and changing environment th*
Ch^ter 17
Org&cuwkm&t Caangt Dentofmtmt
I V
gXHiBJT 17-1 Forces for Chang
F’nrce
BxaniDlrv .MGI€ eiiltural .Iivtrsii5 Inrrc^st in
of’’He Morkforre
TcchnilfojC’
Hster and cheaper computers ^c« nichilc coniiniinicatiiin devices
EcoTcniicsniM’ks
Clwnge.s in oil pnceai J fell of Oecliin- in rh© Viilut o| the GIOIMI compelirfirs Mergers and cnnsolidaliuns Cnnvth oF e-viimnipi'w Inrcrnet cHai rooms Piercings, and tanoos among wcni^rs Incieased urban living Black rule mtere-ii of SouthinAlrica
Comped b on
5e<'iaJ (fend:>
World polhir*;
I
Opening of markets in China The war on terrorism fbllcM’ing')/! l/Ol Throughout this book, we’ve discussed the changing insU3icc, Human more
almost
every’
resource diverse
organiiadon
policies
and
workforce.
is
practices
And
many
having have
of tbevorkfirce. For
to
to
adjust
change
companies
are
to
in
a
order
having
to
muluculcural to
attract
spend
cnvironiucin.
and
large
keep
this
amounts
of
money on training to upgrade reading, math, computer, and other skills of employees. As noted in Chapter 14. instance, are
cuinputers
being
are
increasingly
is changing jobs and organizations. For now
perceived
commonplace as
in
necessities
alnww by
every*
a
large
oqjanization; segment
of
cell
the
phones
popidatic^,
and process reengineerin? prop-arns are eliminating wasiehil and redundant jo ta We pretty
live
good
in
an
indication
^‘age of
of die
dlseontimitty/’ fonirv.
In
the
tomorrow
195<)«
was
and
esseiiiially
1960s, an
the
past
extended
was
trend
a
fine
bom yesterdav, T'hat’s no longer true. Beginning in the early ! uvemight quadrupling uf world oil prices, cfflOTBzir yiorii' have connniie lo '
_
changes on organizations. In lecent years, foi snsiance, oil pntes a^e eantly
increased;
new
dot-ram
businesses
have
been
create
.
turrje
tens
j
|j
j
of investors into overnight millionaires, and then crashed; and the Euro has 10 percent against other major world currencies.
are as likely to
,s changing. In today’s global
,XnT X"J. nL
come from across the ocean from acros^^ town. g
both tradiiionul
h necessary for established orgaiuzkitions to defon competitors
who
develop
new
*Kh innovative offerings. Succcsshil organizations f«ponse to the coinpetidon. Thej^H be fast pmduas rapidly and getong them to market quic y. J.on predvK. .Jiles. and an -e-ng snaam of new be flexible. They’ll require an equally flexible ana POn adapt to ramdiy and even radically changing ra
entreprenctinal firms products
and
sernteschange of developing new
’‘U oji short production products, in odier words,
in
%4
frtif TlwO»f»h«WBSjM«
nrndt don’t remain -Mtie. F«r in^ance, in cnntr«t «. ,u« JO y«„ •SWM/ m>* .harinff inforiiifliinn in Internet chat rmims; lecnagen ,-nX7n?ly ornamenting their iHxlic. with piercings and tanons and many LXXd (ienention Xvrs arc leaving the suburbs and moving U. the au«. w" have aretied strongly, thr..uplio..t this htK.k. lor the .mpurunce .rf ««ng nrcanizational iKhavi-r ((IB) m a global cs.ntexi. Business sch-.b have been preach, inga giobal ,Hirspcct,vc since the early I'^SOs, bft no nnc-mrt even the strnng«tp«^ ponents of glol«.lizaiion-c.mlil have imagmed how
u-o^ change m
.-ecent vean A few examples make the |v.int; the fall ol dm Berlin Wall, the tcunificatNNi
c/(Knmny,
IraqA
invxMfUi
of
Kuwait,
and
the
breakup
of
th
Soviet
Vnioii.
in
just the pasi decade, dianK^-> in world politics have increased business o^nKiTOiniuesm South Africa. (‘Inna, and both South and N<»rth Korea.
JklANAGlNC; PLANNED CHANGE A
group
of
housekeeping
owner: “Il’s ven*
hard rbr
.sjM»kesw.’onhin. rigid if
hours
you
‘’Each
don’t
don't
group's
tilrimamm
ny>st
of
work
set
employees
up and
us
has
MS
for
of
wh<»
work
fur
significant
family begin
as.
Were
going
(lexibk
work
hours.”
The
request.
’l*he
agreed
to
irs
small
hotel
rigid H-to-S wtirk
to maintain to
a
and
personal
kxiking
owner
for
day
hours,”
the
said
their
responsibilities.
And
someplace
listened
next
confronted
else
dmughtfully
rhe
owner
dollars
to
towwk to
the
introduced
a
tlcxnmc plan for these employees. A the-art
major rolnjcies.
Sophisacated improve would and
automobile One
spent
chat
receive
area
would
coinpiiter-cuntroUed
the
company^
dramatically since
equipment,
nianufacrurcr
ability’
change
to
the
management executives
equipment find
jobs
were
be
|wople
a
equipment put
de
feci
in s.
working
considerable
developing
billion
new
correct
the
anticipated
the
would
and
uf
several
in
employee
program
to
help
was
place
install
state-of-
quality
control.
to
Since
the
die
quality
significantly
new
equipment
conrrol
resistance
to
|K'ople
lieawnc
area,
the
rew
familiar
with the equipment an dea! with any anxieties they might be feeling. Both of rhe previous eerned with making things
scenarios different.
are examples of change. I’hai is, both were tonHowever, only rhe second scenario described A
ff/i/rmeJ hotel—diey rencc.
.Many changes in organizalions are like the one that ixxnji rcd at the just happen. Sonic organizarious treat all change as an accidental
We’re
concerned
wixli
change
activides
that
are
proactive
and
otvur-
purposeful.
In
this chapter, wc addre^*^ change as an intent io naJ, goal-oriented activity' What to
are
improve
the
the
goals
ability’
uf
of
planned the
change*
organization
Essentially there tn
adapt
to
arc
rw'O.
changes
in
First,
it
seeks
its
environment.
its
environment.
Ses’ond, it scek*s to change employee behavior. If HTicn new
an
organization
competitors law's,
important
changes
take
place,
empower
employees,
is
co
iiuioduce sources the and
surv'ive, new of
must
products supply
organization introduce
it
go
needs
work
respond
co
or
sendees,
out
of
to
teams
in
govcmniciu
hii.siness,
adapt. are
changes or
similar
to
stimulate
Efforts
examples
agencies
of
planned
enact
environmental in»iovam)n,
change
activ-
ities directed at responding to changes in the cmironmcnt Since
an
organization’s
success
or
failure
is
esscndaHy
due
to
the
things
that
employ ees do or fail lo do, planned change also is concerned with changing the behavior f»f individuals and grou|» within the oi^aniz^tion. Later in this chapter, we renew
apter 17 Org,ni„hwal
i «*'i>Tn.etu
rtchniques that organizatiws tsin use to get pconle m kok they perf'in" inwrjctinn with others Uho in nrgaoizadoiis is responsible tor niAnaffiiitr^l..
'n die tmles
change agents. Change agents can Iw nianagers^or noniiiJna'S^''^^'
«
or outside consultants. For ,tia,or change y s’l'l hire the services of outs,de co. Jitants rfpro Because they are from the outside, these individuals eaj offer an o J . ““'stance,
«npl«yees of the
unas-ailablc to insiders. Outside consnltans, however are d.s^Sw uimally have an inadequate understanding of the organization’s hism^ operttingprcKcdures, and personnel. (hjvsi.le constilunr; ak. mav k nm.r to h« vnti, die re,KTvu.ssK>ns after the change is implemented. In contrast, intend staff.spec,ahsb cu managers, when aenng as change agents, .nay be more tlioughtfu! (and p(«sibly more cannons) because they have to live with die consequences of their actions.
C:HANGE
Tvvo VIEWS OF
Simile Sea
1
to
The a
organizauon
specific
port,
is
'fhe
like
large
shipk
ship
caprain
traveling
lias
mAde
across
this
the
exact
calm
nip
Mediterranean
hundivds
«f
times
Ixdbre with rbc same cre«-. Ever)' once in a while, however, a sxorm will appear, and the crew
has
tn
respond.
ment
changes—and,
1
he
having
captain
will
maneuvered
iihikc
through
the the
appropriate storm,
will
adjiismicnc—ihai rcnirn
to
calm
implewaters.
Impkmairing change in organizations shnnld therefore be seen a$ a response to a break in tJiC Status quo and needed only in occasional siruanons. Simile
2
The
organization
is
more
akin
to
a
4O’ftxit
raft
than
to
a
large
ship.
Rather
than sailing a cairn sea, this raft mu si traverse a raging river made up of an uninterrupted
flow
of
manned
by
before,
much
obsudcs, raft
10
people
ol
the
needs
permanent
the
exact
to
pull
white-w-ater
w’ho
trip
is
have in
destination to
shore,
To
worked
together,
the
is
never
the
of
rapids.
dark,
the
where
raft new
is
river not
crew
make
clear,
tilings none
dotted and
memho'S
have by
at
arc
worse,
the
Lravcled
unexpected
irregular added
raft
is
die
river
turns
and
frequencies
and
utlicrs
the
leave.
Change is a natural state and managing change is a continual process. These
wo
similes
present
verj-
different
approaches
to
understanding
and
responding to change. Let’s take a closer look at each one.
The "Calm Waters" Simile Until vro’ recently, the '‘calm waters^’ snnilc duininatcJ tJ.e thinking of agers and academics. It’s best illustrated in Kurt LewinV three-step esenp change process.- (See Exhibit 17-2.) .According “'’Attjfjjgthe status quo, changing to a new state, and
,
J s
nr The OtpaiMMM* 9>*m ► TTic s»tw« quo cm he considered an eqidlibrtom state. Mtwing front nnfrStg. uh^h cm. he achieved m one of way.: * 1. n.e.AiwiK/ora/.whichd-n.-vrbehaviorawjv from the sunn quo, can Se increasna, J. I’hc two approaches can be 2. Theunfreezing rwwmwgyiwrt, whichdCTomplishctl. hinder .n..vc(neni the itself exisdnp em b, Once hxs been the fr-«J change rancquilibnum, be implemented. clccreaACfl.
However,
the
mere
uitroduction
of
change
does
not
ensure
rhat
it
will
lake
hold.Tl^
new situauun ihcrdare n«xnh to be rrfi-ozen it can be susuined over unic. Unless this last
step
is
emplo>Trs
attended
will
there
revert
to
»s
the
a
ven*
strong
previous
chance
equilihriuin
the
slate.
change The
will
k
oliiectivc
shondivcdaaj of
refreenng^
then, is nj stabilize rhe new situation l»y balancing the driving nnd rtsttainiiig fijrces, Note
how
I,twin’s
three-step prcxxss
treats change
as
a break in
the
organiza-
don\ e(|uilihrium stare. The sranis quo has been disturbed, and change is necessary to establish tively
a
calm
new
equilibrium
environment
state.
that
This
most
view
might
organizauons
have
faced
been
in
appropriate
the
1950s,
to
1960s,
ihe
rela-
and
varfy
1970s. But one can argue diat ''calm waters’* no longer describe the kind of sexs that mana gel's currently have to negoti^^te.
The **White-Water Kapids” Simile The
’’white-water
rapids”
simile
is
consisienr
with
the
disciiwicin
in
Chapter
B
irf
uncertain and dynamic environments. It is also consistent with the dynamics asscxriatcd with going from an industrial society u> a w'orld dominated by infornution and ideas, To get a feeling for wdiat rnanaging cha/igc might be like when you have to cootmually maneuver lowing
in
uiiintemiptcd
curriculum.
Courses
vary
rapids, in
consider
length.
attending
Unfoitunalcly,
a univcrsiiy that when
wu
sign
has up,
the
W-
yxjudon*!
knf>w how long a course will last. It might go for 2 weeks or ?0 weeks. Furthenuore, the insinictor cm end a course any time he or she w anps, with no ]>rior w arning If chat isn't had enough, the length uf the class changes each time it meets—sometimes ir lasts 20 mjiiuTcs, other times it runs for .1 hours—and drtenninauon oftidien die next ria’s niecting will cake place is set by the instructor diinng tliis claw. Oh m. there's one more thing. Ihcexamsaieall unannounced, so you have to be ready for a test at any tune. To respond
succeed
in
quickly
to
this
university’,
every
you'd
changing
have
condition.
tn
he
incrctlibly
Students
who
flexible were
and
able
to
overstructured.
rigiii. or slow on their feet wouldn’t .survive, A growing number of managers are coming to accept diat chetr jrJi is murii like what a student would face in such a irnh-ersity. Swhility' and prcdittaWlity done exist. Nor
are
disruptions
in
the
status
quo
only
occasional
and
temporary;
followed
by*
a
return to calm waiurs. Many of today’s managers never get out of the rapnls They’ face constant elungc. bordering on chaos. ‘Fhese innnagei's arc being forced to play a game tlicy VC never pJayal before, governed bv rules that are created as the guiiie piogrcjscs.
Putting the Two \^ews in Perspective Does rt cn* manager face a world of constant and chaotic change? No, but the set of managers who don’t is dwindling rapidly. Managers in businesses such
a.s
womens
higivfashion
dorhing
Ironu^ a w<»rid that kxiks like white-water rapids. I'hey used tu kxik with envy it
have
king
coft-
X
Chapter 17 Organiorionai t3,a..w «u n-
c«-n«rp.ro m md^r.« sud, „ ^.(bo(l renauranc, office equipment, publishin«r
nun«6,«„rt„.r nil ,, .•r
banking,
rba. nugbr have ix.en true 30 or 4<,, J
,.«lKtaWc emi-
Fov orgnntzanons nxby can near change as rhe ' J 7*^ 7^ peatefti! w 'TM. Even these few dp so ai great risk 'Ik. ‘^’^'bance in an nth<«-gafii/Jti..n ..r ii-, managers to be aimplacent VI.Kt
^^Wng «Jo bst
* '..r
•, t
,^rf«n IKtnonths. ArtrmsucbasPcop|cExJkss^;;Sr^^^^^^ ’ tj,e nKxiel “lieu IrHif jinn, then went l^nknipt a short ti™. I
'I
‘If-' ’in’i broke, don’t fix it" no longer applS t' “Jf ■' broke, you jus. haven’t kx,ke.l hard enough EU r!anp?a>
RBSISTANCE TO CHANGE *' One
of
oeW
the
mr^t
behavior
resistance there
is
-
is
that
p^itjvt.
It
weren’t
ch^rtic
well
dex
umenud
orgajiuadons provides
a
findings and
their
degree
of
sone
resistance,
organizational
randomness.
Resistance
to
Fur example, resistance
TO
change
from
studies
members
stabiJity
behavior
can
also
resist
and
a
change.
predictability
would lie
—^'Hij and oreanfra
_^x:.. Wft.. of individual
In
to
a
this
behanw.
take
on
characteristics
source
of
functional
If of
conflict
a reorganization plan or a change in a product line can sdm-
uljrtc a healthy debate over the merits of the idea and result in a berter decision. But ihcre is a definite ilown side to resisrance to change. Jr hinders adaptaiioji and progress. Resistance an
be
overt,
resistance
to
implicit,
when
it
emplovees
quickly
direatening
to
that
js
change
go
impliat
is
doesn’t
ininicdiate,
or
overt
immediare.
respond on
or
necessarily
and by
strike,
deferred.
deferred.
voicing
or
the
Implicit
surface Iris For
The
resistance
standarditxd
easiest
for
instance,
complaints,
like.
in
maoagcnicntto
a
change
engaging
greater efforts
in
diallengc are
wav-s.
is
a
is
deal
with
proposed
and
work
managing
subtle—loss
of
Resistance
slowdown, resistance
io\-alt)
to
the
organization, h^s of mod vac on to w<jrk. increased errors or mistakes, increased absenteeism
due
to
"sickness”—and
hence
difficult
to
recognize.
Shnilariy.
deferred
actions
cloud the (ink between the source of the resistance and the reaction to it. A change may produce what appears to he only a minimal reaction at die rime it is iiudated but surfaces wccU, iinpa. build
But up
mondw, it
or
becomes
and then
even ±e
vean
straw
later.
that
Ora
breaks
explode in some response
single the
change,
earners
in
back.
and
of
itself,
Reactions
that seems totally out
of
to
has
little
c^ge
can
prc^inion to
c
thange action it follows. The resistance, of course, has merely licen deferred and stockpiled. Wiat surfaces is a response to an aecumubrion of changes. l-ets look at the sources of resistance, tor analytical puqK?ses, we \e ^hem hy individual and organizational sources. In the real world, the smirces oft
Individual Resistance Individual «.urces of res.sance ro chanf.^ reside in bxsie hunun vharmensucs such five reasons why
« f*^veption5.
personalities,
and
needs.
The
like
people,
tollowi.ig
su.nwanres
•'•dividualh inay resist change. Kvery day, when you go to work and streets? Pn.bablv. If you’re n n-gubrh
most
you
hnd
smg
..
The Oiganieetion Syuem As hu.«un beings. -e’« crw«n-»
Ufe « cmnjes enou,^,; ,.4^
need » consider the hJI range of options for the hundreds of deacons we make esxr, day. To c<jpe vrith this complenn-. we all rely <^>'ah«s, or progranunji r«Doiiscs^"'hen we arc crinfronted with change, fhw tendency to respond m 0^ accusomied ua« becomes a source of resistance. So when > our .lepartmeni n a neu crffice’building across to«Ti, H means you re bkely to hav e to change ma,, habib- uakma up 10 minutes earlier, taking a new set of streets to work, finding a parking place, adjusting to the new office layout, develofung a new lunchtime uid w ua. Security Per’ple who haix a high need for scenritj- are likely to resist change because it threatens dieir feeling of safely. When Boeing annoonces it’s laying off JO.OOO people or Ford introduces new robooc equipment, many employees at firms may fear that their jobs are in jeoiardy. Economic Factors Another source of indiudual rcMsrana is concern dm changes al lower one s income. Changes in job tasks or catabli^ed work mutmes also can arooje economic fears if pwiple are coocemed they won't be able to perfewm the new r
',
nurrines co ihcir previous standards, especially when pay is closeb bed to producTh5ty. Fear
of
known.
the
And
Unknown
people
eca- Ff. for
general
subsnnire
don\
like
ambiguity*
the
unknown.
and
The
uncertainty
^ame
tor
applies
in
the
employ,
the incroduchon of a quality management pn>gram requires tta
production be*
in
Changes
workers
learn
staosdcal
unable to do so. 'Fhey'
process
may.
control
techniques,
some
may
fear
they’ll
therefore, de> elop a negative acdcude toward
quahn
management or behave dy*sfunctiana!K if required to use stausdcal techniques. Seleed^c their
Information
world
changing ktxp
it.
their
mation
through So
with
bosses
their
the
nuke
die
introduction
in
explaining
wc
lions.
arc
intact.
cluUenges
As
percep
individuals
pcrcepdoas
chat
faced
Processing
Once
guilty
They
of
of
hear
world
a
they
in
(Chapter
2,
have
created
this
selectively
what
theyve
quality
why
teamed
processing
they’
u
CTeated.
of
co
The
nunagemcni
knowjedge
ant
shape
world,
resist
hear
ignore is
they
infonnadon
in
They
prtxiucnon
may*
statisdes
individuals
ignore
wor^n
the
neccs-sary
«dcr
or
infor-
who
argumcnis the
in
are ibcir
potential
benefits rhe diangc uill pros ide them.
Organizational Resistance Organizadofls,
by
Aeir
very
nature,
arc
conservative.
Hey
acmxly
resist
change.
You
don t have to look for to see evidence of this phenomenon. Government agencies want to continue doing what they have been doing for years, whether the need for their sefchanges
or
history.
Changing
Fducadonal mne,
arc
essenoally ness
remains
nrms,
the
same.
church
institudoxis
which
rhemsdves
extremely
die
teaching
same
too,
appear
Organized
doctrine exist
requires to
open
resustanx
to
technologies
highly
religions
resistant
to
deeply
great minds
change.
today
arc
as
change.
persistence and
Mosr they Six
entrenched and
challenge school
were maiur
50
in
their
padentV’
tsuWished
doc-
systems
are
using
y
MOM
busi-
ago.
sources
of
organization^
resistance have been identified.^ Structural tor
Inertia
exampl^die
Organizations
sclcvoon
pnK*ess
have
buik-in
sy-stematically
mechanisms selects
certain
to
produce
people
petpie oui. Training and other siidalizadoft techniques reinforce specific rtde requtf*-
in
and
siabiliiycerw®
Chapter 17 Organutti ^<’pnwnt
gnJ skills. FormaliMtion provides job descrimi<.n . ^pbrtTCS r..
1
The
ndes, ami procedures fi,r
are hired iiny an ..rffatiiMtin,. ,rz.-k
^jpcil JirccU’d lo behave in ecrcaiii ways VVhen^n'*''**”'-^' ^th cha.>ec, this striK-fural inertia acR as a counterbalance ijmited F«'tuh ’'f Changes Organizations arc mad,.
,
''
You can’t change one without affecting the others Fr r " ,Hanges
the
^Vstn.crure ittd
to
matclu
changes
Group a
tc-cbnoJogical
m
Inertin
the
changes
if
An 11.
processes
change
subsystems
Even
constraint.
the
h.s
in
|0b
to
wart
union
by
simnltaneouslv .n^ig \ing the organiz^tnoilikelv to be acc^tedToTw
is
be
nullified by rhe er f^v'stcni. change their behavior,
to
mcn.ber,
suggested
without
technology
tend
individw.ls
mdmdna
subsys-
for
instance,
management,
but
may
it’union
larger groupnorn«
bewiling norms
to
dictate
any ujiibierrtl change made by managcmeni:, he's likely to resist to of
Expertise
5|>eciaiized
Changes
gn>ups.
rfidr
human
cfiis
adnunistrflcon—has
Cccaustf
resource
The
tliis
in
orgrimzational
recent
move as
activities—such been
our^ioiircing
resisted
i.'?
a
threat
by
training, by
die
threaten
vompanies
dex’elopmerr
many
to
may
human
to of
stills
expertise
outsource pay
resource
specialized
the
many
plaits,
and
departments.
held
by
people
of
benH’hy?
in
HR
departments. Threat
to
Established
making
authority
ization-
The
can
Power
Kektionshtps
threaten
introduction
long-cstablishcd
of
parucipaiivc
Any
redistribution
power
relationships
decision
making
or
ol
decis
ion-
rhe
or^n-
self-managed
work
within
tearos are examples of changes that often are seen as threats to the power ol supervisors and middle managers. iTireat
to
control
Esrabiished
sizable resources
Resource often
see
Allocations change
as
Groups a
threat.
in
the
They tend
organization to
be
that
content with
the wav things are. WiH die change, for distance, mean a reduction in their budgets or a
cut
in
their
staff
size?
Those
whu
most
benefit
from
the
current
a!location
of
resources are often threatened In’ changes that may affect future allcKUtions.
Overcoming Resistance to Chang V\Tule there are numerous forces that act to resist change, thange agents can take to lessen this resistance. The foUowng ne y ig of them. Communication
Resistance
can
be
reduced
throu^
^^unv^^that
the
snuX:
hdp them see the logic of a chunK^. of resistance in misinfonuation nrcleared p’>or a facts and any lies misunderstandings arc is inadequate conunu^ppniach M'ork? It does, provided that the source o res mutual trust '^canim and that inaiiagement-employec relations arc c ,iniikelv to succeed, ■nd credihilin'. U those conditions do not exist, the change « *‘»rtici|Utit>n People who panicipate in 'ttonglx commined to the final outcome t h.r individuals to reais: a change decision m *h.c >
«Ten‘t involved. And it's . which they paracipated.
may aceXt
tesistiny
®
patterns
some
s^^tem.
The Orgsftiation System
?3 befiire a change i» made, th.-se oppo^eH can be hnw^t int.. the decision proc«,.« the cxi>ert-=.e to make a meaningful contnbulion. their invoK,. nicm ran reduce resistance, vbmin romniiuncnt, and increase the quality „f o*,
decision. Provide
Support
resistance’
Change
^instance,
showing
offering
employee
Reward
Acteplance
of
nwsion
of
and
can
Change
and
Change
As
behavior
agents
offer
concern
counsci.ng
karning
behavior.
agents
a
and
o
empathy
therapy,
we
or
discovered
modification,
should,
range
by
in
provide
a
2
and
powerful
employees
to
listening,
skills
rraming.
S,
in
force
widi
redaa
active
new
Chapters are
efforts
prxuc.ng
providing
rewards
tlicrefore.
siippnmve
onr
dj».
in
shaping
attractive
tewmis
that are coniingcnr on an ejitancc of change. These rewards can range from praise and rccngninoTi »> jay incrcasc^i or pruni<»nons Create
a
LeamhigOi^ntzadon
incennonally this
a
five
designed
teaming
uith
with
each
that
evcQ'one
examples
odier.
of
agree
learning
less
capacity
to
continuously
.As
People
iirnkrstaiHl
can
is
the
ui^nizatinn?
basic characteristics.
Resistance
shown
in
Exliibit
put aside their
h
upon,
their and
in
organizations
work
would
organization adapt
17-3,
ok! ways
organization then
an
really
co
been
We
call
organizations karn
form
achieve
FedEx,
has
change.
thinking,
work^,
together
include
and
learning of
that
a
to be
plan
that
hord,
have open
or
visioii
vision.
Seine
General
Electric,
Motoroh. and Wai-Mart. What it
needs
can
co
improvement. vision.
aiake
explicit
do its
co
their
firms
commicmcnc
co
change,
becomes
pare
I
bis
coauninnenr
Second,
the
organization’s
boundaries
between
by
fattening
the
use
reshaped
management
of hj
become
basic
misukes.
,\nd
ferences
OUT
the
people .structure,
cross-function support values.
the
to
a
I
I’hat
open.
1
combining
Finally,
create
his
the
a
requires
be
This
openness,
people
who
cake
cliliutc
that
brings
encournging
strategy'and
and
to
can
departments, culture and
First,
cunrinuous
redesigned
organizadon’s
Risk-takmg,
rewarding
to
to
and
organizadons
interdependence.
learning.
needs
the
incTease or
organizations?
innovation,
needs
teams.
means
of
learning
structure
eliminating
continual
management into
and
make
reduce
be
and
achieved increasing
needs growth
chances paradoxes supporting
to
he
should
and
make
and
dif-
functional
conflict.
EXHIBIT 17-3 Characteristics of a Learning Organization There exists a shared which »r\TP>’onc agrees on Peripk discard dinr old ways of thinking SIHJ (be srainbrd r«r(iw»d
1. 2.
3,
«
«o
-
Chapter 17 Orgmiieckaal
V^NAGING CHANGE THRO15CH ORCANI^'^'I ‘<^ NAL DEVELOPMENT xJ mARajciog change wi^uld complete whhouv including organiitaJ Il^conctp^ * ntion^
Organiiaoonal dcrelcpment (017) is not an easily defined dnincluding organiuvneompas^ a aillecticn of phnned-changc humanistic-dcBwnnc vahiCs that seek lo 5 ri ttyt an easily defined vnint^ , ,1....:. ..^...'. ........... ” ' Ag. Tlie OB pAvad^gm values human and organ) za non a) ^onaS eliec»vcne.s and employ., w.ll-bemg, 1 i spirit t»f mquin*.' The change agent Tli. OB [wra.li^ values human and organizunonal growth. collab<.rative andsuch as power, es««/* ^.,,..1..-:. c^’Uahuration. Concepb ^Cipativr P1.KCSSCS, and a spint of inquiry. - The change agent msv l,e directive in riiv vonuol. conflict, ai\d w>etcion art held in rdaflvely b's however, ihcrc is a sm>ng emithasis on a.llahorarion, c; following briefly identifies ihe unflerlvi <’ esteem aJiMmgOD 1. ying values in mmt OD Individuak are pcaen.ed a. being responsible, ronseienbous .,„d caniig. They should be treated with dignity and rcspccr. 2. 7iW .>r,.! «,pp^. The effective and heaJ±y organization is characterized bv crust, authennem', openness, and a siipporuve cliinatc. 3.
.'^uatizathn.
Effcciire organizaiions deemphasizc hierarchical authority and
control. 4. Ccnfi
Problems
fMfutfoti.
shouldn't
be
twepi
under
the
rug.
They
should
be
openly
confronted. 5.
The more ±at people who will he afTected by- a change jrv involved m
Fjrtth'tfurCion.
the dccisjons surrounding that cliange, the more they wiU be conuuiiicd w iitiplemenu ng those dccuioos. VVhai change?
are
Ir
some
ihe
of
the
following
013
pages,
techniques
we
nr
present
fivx
loierventions
for
bringing
abour
intcn'cncons
that
change
agents
might con si tier using.
Sensitivity Training It
can
go
groups,
or
dirougfa open
by
a
variety’
i’-groups
unstructured environmem
IM’ocesses, <>rieiiicd. rather
which
(training group in
loosely
names—laboratory
groups)—but interaction.^
which
directed means
than
being
tuld.
*eir
ideas,
beliefs,
express
of
all
that Tlie and
a
refer
Members^
panic!(*ants by
training, to are
indmduals
attitudes
through
crriics lie
nt
die
she
reiects—any leadership rule. The
ohjcciives
of
of
in
sdenrist.
observing
not
encounter
changing
and
opportunin-
does
training,
together
themselves
l)ehavdoral
team
professional
method
brought
discuss
professional
a
sensirivitj’
a
The
group
participating
panieip»nis>
accept-
ability
is
-w
fact.
w
ovcru>
... j .,....,P«.PSS T-gnmps
are
to
provide
the
subjects
wi
uicreA.
to
empathize
,J• wih
c
oihcis,
imjirosc
greater -„n,vcd
conflict-
’^Venoc. increased tolerance of individual diflcrences. an p ^**»luti«)n sluIK. If individuals lack awareness of how others percen can effect more realistic self-percepnons. grea«r gro p
.
j^yght
K'f "f Others, and increased understanding of poup increased
and
inienivtive
of their own behasior and how others perceive them, greater
delude
free
their
and for
behavior
rhen the successful cohesi»vness, andT-a ' „ohesi»vness, and a
«wtirrion in d>‘sftmcttonal tnurpcrsonal conflicts. Furthermore, it can ideally raarft inteerotion
l>etween
the
have
declining
in
T-ffioup5 rcawn is
htui
probabb’
able
witii
ii
rhat
can
threaten
moved
th®^
provTS*
away
that
an
from
intnisive
Inditidual
and
the
organization.
In
practice,
}>o|«ilarity
o\-er
the
past
or
two.
nanire
the
as-ks
pjrticip;int>
employee’s
emphasizing
r»f
co
^clf-inmge.
individual
decade
howc^'
UTiy?
0^^
prtKcss. Many managers
arc
dischrse
themselves
Second,
Iveliiip
in
OD
and
forma
efforts
focused
lion
in
uncortifc^^
recent
more
on
anj
years
hav«
issues
related
to tinproving work processes .mil group performance. Survey One
Feedback
tool
ancte*
fijr
assessing
attitudes
tiieinber
options
in
organiratum
among
held
by
and
organize!
solving
non
these
a
I
memlwTS.
ditYercnces
idcndlnng
is
the
discreph
survey
fec^
Imck appnurh? Even’one importance
is
cinplovees
who
all
members
gest
the
of
in
nation
directly
the or
be
xsLs
between
to
him nr
and
her
for
to
in
manager
unit.
A
nt
any
given
practices;
is
members
what
perceptions
with
feedback,
questionnaire
determine
satisfaction
survey
Organization
their
decision-making
units;
participate
or
intersiewed
members
including
am
ftmify—the
organization
may
typically
topics,
organizational
reptjn
questions
uonnairc
an
usually
arc
of
those
completed asked
on
a
to
job,
bjsug.
The
ques*
broad
range
eftectivencss;
organization,
key
and
relevant
attitudes
communicanon
the
unit
maybe
issues
and
but
peers,
coordi-
and
their
immediate supervisor. The vidual’s
data
Iroin
specilic
These
data
issues
that
importance
this
“family'”
then may of
questionnaire and
to
l)ccome be
the
the
(Tearing
encouraging
are
tabulated
entire
organization
springboard
difficulties
dismssion
for
for people.
and
with
data
pertaining
and
distributed
identifying
pnibiems
Particular
ensuring
that
atrennon
to
to
indi-
employ^ecs.
and is
discussions
an
clarifying
given
focus
to
on
the
issues
and ideas and nor on attacking indinduals. Finally, bers
group
identifying
)K>s$iblc
tening?
Arc
or
assignments
job
result
in
new
the
discussion
the
survey
implications
ideas
group
in
being
be
the
generated?
impnwed?
agreeing
of
on
feediwek
questionnaires
Can
Answ^ers
approach
decision
to
commitments
like
various
result
findings.
making,
questions to
should
Arc
in
people
interpersonal
these,
actions
ir
that
mem-
b
will
lis-
relations,
hojied,
'till
remedy
the
problems that are identified.
Process Consultation No
organization
mance it
can
can
lie
be
operaie.s improved,
improved.
perfectly. but
The
they’re
purpose
Abnagers
ofren
sense
unable
iJentily
what
of
to
process
consultation
that
their
unit’s
can
be
improved
for
an
outside
is
ixrforand
hu*
consultant
to assist a client, usually a manager, to yxrccivc, understand, and act on pnx.*ess events with
which
he
or
she
must
deal.’*'
These
might
include
work
flow,
jnfi>mul
relation-
ships among unit members, and fonml communication channels. Process
consultation
(PCJ)
is
organizational
effectiveness
can
be
and
einphxsis
in
its
on
similar
to
improved
involvement.
But
sensitivity’ by
dealing
PC
is
training
more
with
in
its
assumption
interper^HmaJ
task-dimted
thw'
that
problems sensitivity
training. C^suiuntK A,
in
PC
are
there
to
give
the
elieni
'insight*
armnd hint within him, and between him and other people.^’ITiey do not soke 4*
into
what
is
gning
uo
nrwni/a-.i'iii'' problems. Rather, the consultant is a nruid.^ „ L
S dUev
•aiVx-ss to help the client solve his or her own pttddems ’’ ’ The cmsultanr worb with the client in jniprovenienf. The emphasis is on '‘joirtly” be^-r- - ’ within
proce-sses
hb
or
her
ludt
*e
that
can
be
co„ri,iualk\dled
eensulvint is gone. In add.nnn, by having the clieni aetivek «n long aftcj.
diagnosis and the Jeveiopment of altcrnarives, tlicre will lie '
ri,e pmeess and the remedy and less re.sistmce tn the action ^la.i chosen y parncipate in both die greater understanding of Impiriandy, the process consultant need not he an exrirt: i v Ur problem that is identified. The consultanfs CApenise 11*^^^. !,!^ Hoping „,,p„™hip. ,f tnowW outside the clients
and
consultant's
"^
expertise,
the
consultant
hehs
dient tn hKate such an expert .and then instructs die client in how to get the mS out
of this expert re'^nurce. Team Building Aswe’v-e ingly
noted
relying
in
niimermis
on
teams
places
lo
throughoul
accomplish
this
work
bonk,
tasks.
organizations
Team
are
building
increas-
utihzes
high-
level
where
interacnon group activities to increase trust and openness among team members.iTeam activities and cetns
building are
leave
can
be
intcnlejXTiiienr.
intergroup
applicaiions
applied For
our
development
to
within
to
organizational
groups
or
discussion, the
next
Families
we
section.
(command
at
the
intei-group
emphasize As
a
the
result,
intragroup our
interest
groups),
as
well
as
tunctions.
To
illustrate,
to
level con-
commit-
tees, project teams, self-managed teams, and task groups. Nor
all
group
activity’
has
interdependence
of
consider
a
football team and a track team:
AlihOugh members on both teams are concerned v.-irh rhe teams total output they funcuon
differently.
The
football
team’s
output
depends
synergistically
on
how
well each player does his parriedar job in concert with his reammatus. The quarterback’** performance depends
CMI
ihc performance ol his linKmcii and receiver's^
and ends on how well the quarterback throws rhe hall, and so on, Ou the other hand, a track team’s perfonuance is determined largely by the mere addirion of the performances of the indhddual members.’ ’ Team
building
is
applicable
to
the
case
of
interdependence,
such
as
in
footM
r h
objective is to improve coorHinative efforts of members, which will resu t n ’wreasing the teams performance. .. . .ji di>velThe activities considered in team building typically indude Went of interpersonal relations among team members, to « -Ijujlj. "'embers role and responsibilities, and team process analysis. Ot co Jpg may emphasize or exclude certain activities teunU? confronted, ^^clopment effort and the specific problems anyone members w ®«Kally, however, team building attempo, to use high interacuo g iTust and openness. attemut to define the goals It mav be beneficial to begin by having „erceptions of what the *«nties of the team. This will bring m die surface diffe 1^^^ purpose may be. Kolhjwing thi.s. ’>«K*-4i.!7effectivx is the team in strucn.r.ng pn«nties
and achieving its
ThebrgaciBitwn Sjww Thfe Md identily powndal prohl«n areas. This self-crin.,ue d,.c««ion of u ..nTdone with member, ..f ihe total team present or. when Uq interchange of views, may inWally take place ,n smaller poups foU
-a
lowed m bv the shariiie of their findings with the n>ta3 team _ iSmi buikline can also address each member’s role on the team; carh role can be identified
nnd
individuals
danfied.
it
mav
Previous
offer
one
ambiguities
of
±c
can
few
be
brought
opportunities
tn
they
the
have
surface
had
to
For
think
some thnnigh
thonHighly what iheir ,ob is all about and w hat specific tasks they are etpected to carry out if the team is tt> oponiize its eflieiTiveness. Sriil process
another
team-buiMing
wnmiranr—that
ideniiiy
die
way
is,
work
to
is
activity
analyze
performed
can
key
be
similar
prtxcsses
and
htiw
that
these
to
that
go
on
processes
performed within
might
by
the
ream
to
unprosed
to
the
be
make the ream more cffccrivc.
Intergroup Development A
major
groups,
area
As
of
a
concern
result,
in
this
OD
has
is
(he
been
a
dysriinciional
subject
to
conftict
which
that
change
exists
efforts
between
have
lieen
directed.
Intergroup development ceptions
that
saw
account
the
groups
human
icsounxts
cerned
that
with
the
have
iiig
of
some
making
change
For
having
,i
of
profit/’
of
hunch
employees Sudx
the
example,
composed
group a
to
other.
as
as
protcctetl
coiui'Kiny
each
departincnt
department
seeks
attitudes, in
one
company,
shy
at
ot
“ultra-lilx:raIs
might
stereotypes
id
stereotypes,
conservative the
ir
can
have
the
are
and
the
more
con-
hurt
than
feelings
an
per-
engineers
lyjws,
who
get
and
obvious
negative
impact on the coordin stive efforts between the departments. Although of
the
group and
more
ineers how
after
dicrc
it
which
are
popular
snxral methods
independently
co
Iwlievcs
other
the
similantics
appnwehes emphasizes
develop
and
for
lists
group
problem
of
its
perceives
diftciences
arc
iinprtndng
intergroup
solving.In
perception
it.
The
discussed.
relations,
ibis
method,
of
itself,
the
groups
then
share
Differences
otw
are
each
other
group,
their
clearly
lists, articu-
lated, and the groups look ftir i he causes of the dispariries. Are were group? tion
groups’
Stereotypes
standings the
the of
phase-
formulated?
intentions?
Answers
causes
goals
of
to the
Have
questions difficulty
working
to
at
odds?
Were
Have
some
W’ords
and
like have
these been
develop
perceptions
differences concepts
clarify
die
identified,
solutions
that
distorted?
been
been exact
the will
caused
defined nature
groups
can
improve
wlial
by
of
the
move relations
Subgroups, with mejnl)crs from each of the conflicting groups, can now be erefurther diagnosis and ro begin to fornurlatc possible alternative actions that *d1 improve rcUtions.
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE FV>r many employees, change creates stress. As a result, many managere are asking, inc stress among my work sTi/fff '^Innovate or die” is another popular phrase
basis
misunder-
differently
groups.
m managcBKnt cialcs. IFA*,
On
by
each
conflict.
Unt‘e
to
the
integra-
between
the
Chapter 17 O»g»ni„,ionaj
Chanee anH ru. And « organixauons have b.c.„ne increasingly ««cen,.H inrellecnu] n,anagcP. arc seeking answers optinMiing
,ba, a,n http people
^^p^cs, address rhc!«r three questions.
In 'he follow.
U^ork Stress
Sa^
- dj-naniic conJinun in which an individ„al is confnmied with u.
, constraint or demand related to what he or she desires and fo is perceived to be ^.th uncertain and imponanc.” Stress is not ,p and oHtse-lf. .although stress is often diseussc.i in a negative c««nf« T?" Sidve value. parUcidarJy when ft offers a ptnendal gain. For example 'it oS^n Sdeusor stage perh.rmers achieve a superior performance in a criiical ftmsS However, stress r.s more often associated with constraints and demands. .\SS nievetts )'0u troin doing what you desire; demand.s refer to the loss of Ln^J. you take . test at school or you undergo vour ^L peffo^t c! ^ew ar work, you feel stress because you confront opportunity, constraints and Jeroands. .A good perft.nnance review may lead to a promotion, greater resp.m^bilitics, and a higher salary. But a poor review may prevent you from getting the pmmo non. All c.yrreTiiely poor review might cause you to be fired. Employees brought for
on
by
no other
to
cost
U.S.
productivity,
today
are
prc.ssurcs
at
reason,
increasingly work
and
iCs aftccting
industry
between
employee
at
home.''’
the borrom line.
$200
turnover,
compiaininc
and
$300
accidents,
about
higher
^\nd
managers
For
instance,
billion
a
workers'
year
arc
stress
^ying
levels
attention
if,
job stress is estimated
in
absenteeism,
compensation
costs,
diminished and
direct
medical, legal, and insurance fees? ’ Symptoms too
of
high.’
Stress
expcrieriringa dirfiiiJfy like.
in
These
Stress
What
shows
high nuLng
level
itself of
routine
symptoms
signs
can
in
in
a
stress
di
number may
decisions, he
rale
tJiat
of ways.
develop
loss
subsumed
an
employee’s For
high
instance,
blood
of
a{>pcriTc-
under
three
stress an
pressure,
accidenc
general
kvei
might
employee ulcers,
who is
irricabilicy,
proncncss,
caregorics:
be
and
the
phy*siobgical,
psychological, and behavioral. .Most of the early concern with stress w’as directed at phy'siological symptoms, prijiiarjiy because the topic was researched by specialists in the health and medical sci«ces. This research led to the conclusion that stress could create changes in metaboJ™, increase heart and breathing rates, increase blood pressure, bring on headaclies, 3Jv( induce heart attacks, rhe link between stress and particular physiological s^inpnot clear. There arc few, if any, cemsistenc rchuonships. Thi^ inability co pair u-ith particular symptoms is anribuicd to the complexity of the symptoms an ^difficulty in measuring them objectively. But physiological symptoms avc t c ’^^st direct relevance to managers.
, i-
. Of greater importance are the psychological stmiptoins. Stress ^-t&ciion; and job-related stress can cause job-related thssarisfacnon.Jo ^3ct, is the simplest and most obvious psychological elfecr o itself in other psychological states-for instance, procrastination.' Behavioral stress ahsenl-e. and nirnover. as well as changes in eating habits, nereased ^'•’'’Munpiion of alcohol, rapi.l speech, fidgeting, and sleep disonteis.
prosiuo^ng g
Mt
W
Tke Organ
Sptem
RcducinK Stress Not ah stress is d^t^ncticmal. Moreover, realistictally, stress M never be coralIv clhnuBiced from a person^ life, cither off the job or on. As we strcss-rcdwrd<.'n rerhniqucs, keep in mind dial ewr concern is with reducing the pan of stress that is dyshintaonah H icnns of nrganiiarinnal factors, any anempr ro Inwrr sn-ess kvek has to begin '«ith employee
Management needs co make sure that an employee's abifciucs
nwich the requirements uf rhe job When employees are in over their heads, their stress levels will hpically be high. An obicciivc job preview during the scltenon process will aho lessen sws.s by reducing ambiguity. Improved
'ir^amzdti>>nfjl
(ommuwill keep ambiguity-induced stress to a minimum. Similarly, a program Mill darify job rcsponghiliries and provide dear perform.inee objectives is al>o a way to reduce suess. if stress can be traced direcriy to boredoin work overload, jobs should l>c redesigned ro increase challenge or reduce the work load. Redesigns that increase opporniniries for employees to participate in derisions and to gain MX-ial sup|Xiri have also been fbuml n» lessen stress. Stress it’s
dilJicuIt
tioii’i. tle
that
arises
fa>r
die
S|>ecifically,
employee
is
al
For
to
directly
the
receptive, their
manager
there
in
life?
arc
turn,
or
free
whose
and or
a
If
few
personal
creates
stress,
in
a
life
creates
Second,
there
two arc
manager
believes the
problem*..
ethical
to inrnide—even
uppruaches
oT^anizarion—ih
lives
rhe
outside
suffer
offering
of
them
sort
out
rough
in the
it
is
Firit,
couskleran^ost
ethical
manager
its
prolessional
from
sub-
and
can
die
consider.
a
lack
help—can of
v their
managers,
piioritics.
meet
planning
that
and
perneed.
OTganiution
prove Still
another
lien-
approach
physical aM'iry prctff /nHs.
employ
in-huuse
thTtc-managef/zcni
a
ma
helping
ally sponsored
rhe
low-cost
irtyjgrarfi ebcial
cwtrol.
have any right
personal
problems;
counselors,
cmployce.s
that,
manager
personal
can provide stress relief. Employees often want ro talk to someKHIT
sonnel
employee’s
ernptoyvv’s
Employee one
an
does
tile
wayrj—ip
from
is
organizaiion-
Some large corporations
physical
ness
specialists
techniques,
and
who
provide
show
employees
individual
employees
fit-
willi
exercise
physical
advice,
activities
they
teach can
relaxation
use
in
keep
which
many
their Stress Iwds down.
Stimuloting Innovation How
can
an
o^ranization
beixjme
more
innovative?
The
standard
toward
organiz-itions strive is diat achieved by 5M Co.^^ 1 he maker of Scotch Tape and PostIt-Notes world
has by
built
a
reputation
consisrentiy
as
one
new
of
the
products
must over
a
innovative
organizations
vert'
period
long
of
in
die
time.
3M
his a staled obicctive that 50 percent of its sales are to come from pnxhicLs less than 4 years old. In one recent year alone, 3M launched more than 5<X) new products. V\‘hat s the svcrci of 5 M’s success? HQiat can other organizations Ho to duplicate 3»M
s
teristics group
track
recohi
surface them
into
for
again
innovaiion? and
smictural,
agaiji
riiere when
culrnral,
and
is
no
guaninteed
researchers human
formula,
bur
certain
diarac-
study
innnvaeive
organizations.
ru.source
categories.
Our
message
We ro
Q»apter 17
^n,c ,hat
orpmiMtions faciliratc the flexibility, Ldapm''n ntak*’ adi.pnon of tnn.waiiofts
.
easier
':«.trali«rion, Innt^
SecJd
T"'
’a
,, associated with innovation. Managerial tenure apwtrcnt nd knowledge of how to atx-otnplish tasks and ohlS d e
legitimacy
i„nn«n»« >” nurtured where there are slack resources Ha^'n |.g5ource-'> allows an organization to afford to purchase innovadons s jnstininrg innovuuons, and absorb failures. Finally, interunit co^^' hiph in innovanve organizations. These organizations are high us^r^ oT"'’'"' flctiori across departraeiiCal hues. Culnit^
Variables
encourage
Unfortunately,
aijsence risk
Innovarivc
cxiXTin.entat.on.
mistakes. nt
taking
hniures and
<«-'HUU interorganizations
niey in
rather
reward
too than
.nnovation.
hod,
many lor
People
tend
to
successes
organizations,
rhe
presence
will
suggest
of
and
have
similar
and
failures.
people
are
successes. m-
new
cultures They
celeln^te
rewarded
Such
ideas
for
cultures
only-
when
train
and
They the
extinguish chev
fed
dui such behanors exact no penalties.
Human th«r
Resource
Vanables
members
to
fear
getting
u-on’i
keep
become
champions
actively
anrf
Innovative
them
fired of
eun-cnr,
for
'They
making
change.
enthusiastically
organizations
Once
offer
high
job
mistakes,
and
ihey
a
new
promote
actively
idea
the
is
idea,
secunty
that
encourage
developed,
build
so
develop employees
individuals
champions
support,
of
overcome
to
change
resistance,
and ensure that the innovation is implemented. Suaunary’
Given
the
sialus
of
3
M
as
a
premier
product
innovator,
we
would
expect
it
to ha\’e most or all of the properties we’ve i den rifled. And it docs, llie company is so higldy
decciitndizcd
that
it
has
many
of
rhe
characteristics
ul
small
organic
organixa-
lioDi. AJl of JM’s scientists and managers are challenged to ‘ keep current ” Idea champions 15
arc
percent
cTeared of
and
their
encouragcil
time
on
by
allowing
projects
of
scientists
tlieir
own
and
engineers
chwsing.
The
to
spend
company
up
to
encourages
Its employees to take risks—and ir rew-ards die failures as well as die successes. Pii’^lly» kM
is
years, Irides
a
model
overall Itself
on
of
corporate
annual
employee
being
an
id zed the company for being
stability. nirnover
employer
toe
for
The is
life.
a
average
tenure
minuscule
Financial
3
for
compnny
percent,
analv’^ts,
in
fact,
and
officers
the
have
is
company
recently
ent-
stable. Tn particular, they rake issue wat
.
nient’s unwillingness to cut costs through employee layoffs. Managements it’s this Muhility that iindcipins its innovative cuimre anrightc5t scientists. Knowledge Management piemens, the ^obal teleconinmnicarions giant, recendy huittcriand
to
build
a
relccoiiununications
j^pite of the network
that its bid was 30 percent higher than
or
nvo
secret
m
Siemens’s
illowed Siemens people
was its knowledge management system.- 1reps wim Netherlands to draw on rheir experience and pro . j|y nxjre reliable '''huKal dau ,h.. proved the SiU.H^ns’ network would bt subsra .
• J
thv kiJiniKilnun’s
•A
The OrgSRtMtaon System S^icms, Koii ’
Siemens is one «.f a eniwing ntimher of compsmes^nclud.ng ( Motor C> . Johason & Kdinsim.
Intel, \olksw-gen, Hexlett-PavUrd. BJJ
Roval Uanii of t^inada—that have ixaliicd the nilix: ol knou ledge man.igciueni (KM). ' WTwt is knmdcdgc management It's j process of nr^'anizmg and distnkxiung an organiMdon^ mllevdve uisdoin so cht lighi infomiaiion gets to the right penile at riX rime.- When done properly, KAI prtwidvs an oi ganiz.irion with lx)th a wanperitive edge and improved orgiinizjiional pertonnance because ii nukes itb emphwees smarter. Knowledge First,
sofw.-’ cal
or
in
financial
employees’ petition.
Second, that
attempts
to
important
intellecnial
assets
Organiz-qlions
that
can
w’isdoin
arc
experience
ns
baby
they
the
increasingly
organisations,
capture
make
is
many
collecrive
awareness
and
imnugetnenr
boomers
represent
a
it.
third,
-•Vid
organiwrion
organizarion
undertake
management
st’stcm
and
a
wealth
quickly
and
elfiacndy
leave
they
access
h»
likely
the
rn
KM
will
be
sj^stetn
instance, previous
up
mu,
an
lost
there
if
Acif com*
inereasmg
reduce
arc
no
redundancy in
scratch.
A
have
learned
eniployees
as
their
employees
from
re»-
iinponam
there's
will
when
start
as
three
“nutsmai-t”
workforce,
dut
needn't
what
least
now
more
For
at
are
knowledge
efficient.
for
assets
well-designed
project,
allow
to
cl
a
more
new
can
iKgin
nxiav
a
large
know'ledgeand
cut
wasteful rime retracing a path that has already been traveled. How
docs
an
organiz.auon
record
the
know
ledge
and
expertise
of
its
employees
and make dial in form nd on easily iKxes.sihler l( needs Io develop c’omputer daial>as«of pertinent in lor mation that eniployees can readily access; it needs to cieare a culm re that supporcv
and
rewards
sharing;
and
it
has
to
develop
niechaiibstns
dut
allow'
employees
that have dcvdo|icd vahiabk expertise and insights to share them with others. KM pnKc»
begins
by
ideniihnng
reenguieering,
what
managenienr
knowledge
needs
to
matters
review
vide die iiiosi value.'Then it can develop computer that
inf(>rmaiion
unless
the
ivadily
culture
available
su|ijwrts
lo
the
rhe
,ieople
sharing
of
to
die
processes
oi
to
^anizaiion.*'^
idenlifj’
tlxwe
networks and datalwscs dial
who
uiosi
infnnnarion.-^
need
it.
Bin
Renicinbcr,
as
KM
As
widi
that
pro
can make won’t
noted
in
work
Chapter
11, infonnarion rhai is iinpwcanc and scarex* can lie a potent source of power. /Uni people who hold rhat power arc olten reluctunt co share n with others. So KAI requires an f>rg> nizarional mua
cuiiun*
provide
employee
die
find
that
promotes,
nicchanisnts
uscluJ
on
it
designing can
be
the
quickly
and
die
die
)ob
system
to
accessed
rewards for
enables
shanng
ein|)Joyees
them
to
knowlccige. to
slure
achieve
iunally,
KM
knowledge
that
letter
performance.*^
knowdedge. Infiirmation overload needs lo he avoided
capture by
and
morivation
and
/vrref
knowledge isn'i necessarily bt’
values,
rinly
pcojilc
pertinent
whom
it
inR>miarion
can
help.
and
Royal
then
Bank
organizing
of
C.anada,
if fur
instance, has created a KiVI sysiem widr cixstomized e-mail disuiburitin Usts cai*efiiny broken
down
by
the
company^
rate
in-house
employees’ iiuranet W'cb
specially,
that
sites
serves
ride, as
featuring
a
and
area
centnii
‘'lessons
lea
of
interest;
infcx-niaiion med**
set
aside
repisimry';
sunxnurics
a
and
where
dedicated
site
created
sepa-
employee*
with
various expertise can share new infonnarion with othci’S. IMPLICATIONS FOP MANAGERS rhe zarional rion,
necil
tor
behavior.
organir.atioiu]
change Think design,
cru'iini^^sscs about and
cepts without inquiring ahoin change,
almost
attitudes, die
like,
it’s
all
of
pcrcepdons, ini^xiKsihle
die
concepts
ceants, to
think
within
leadership, about
nrganimotiva*
these
con-
I If environments were
I
oicdy
rtie
Org,-;, snnw
as
«,£]„.
„,!._.
,2^
'='^f»raung
7^
^“rbulent IHA • ^*fdc or «
/ members rv undercj^
‘’‘^oeriH, ,
/ ebrtr<x/iejn475c peaccftjl dpf/,. / most managers. Today’s
u orld skeb”^’srurU ^^^^*
du»g. .gc„.,
'" -his .Ort.,, S
I
1. 1 r
s •>
A
V.
-1... d,„/“ ™
»nd
abiliH
Epilogu riri
^norate.
feehnj,^
Xing
of
the bttine meaning to aft author that it has to accomplishment mid rehef. A» boA
both
of
o.
rejoke
our tour of the es«nud a>n«pu .n orgutuxauonal behav... ,1^
.s a good rime to cwmine where we’« been and what ,t all ni«ns. he tmderlpng theme of tl)i5 book has been that the hehanor of people a, ,otk is
not
a
random
phenotnenon.
hehavton
can
nevertheless
accuracy.
Oi.r approad.
Employees
be
explained
has been
are
complex
and
to look
at
cnni.es.
predicted
«tb
organizariorial
bnt
a
dteir
atnmd«and
reasonable
behavior
at
^grce
three levels; the
ifldjvidual, the CTfJup, and the oi^anizatton s>'?,tera. We
srarted
co
understanding
uons
individual rized,
with
difference';
and
therefore
rhe
indindual
why
mdi^ncluals
act
they
among
cinplm’ees
can
be
genemlizarifins
and
can
reviewed
be
die do.
major We
psychological
found
s>'steinatically
raatie.
For
that
many
labeled
example,
we
conmbu-
know
of
the
and
catego-
that
individ-
iuil.
management
people
into
jobs
than that
arc
are
people
with
compatible
investigative
with
their
personalities.
personality
types
So
should
placing result
in
hi^er-perfonning and mt»re-satisfied employees. Nc.Yt, of
group
viduals in
a
crur
analysis
behanor
by
the
group
is
more
number
than
moved
of
when
to
the
group
complex
than
members
in
alone.
We
level.
We
argued
merely multiplying the
group,
w’hat
because
denionslratcd
how
the
we
kj’iow
people
roles,
understanding
that
act
norms,
about
indi-
differently leadership
when styles,
power relationships, and other similar group factors affect the behavior of employees. Finally,
we
group
behavior
Major
emphasis
processes,
work
overlaid
systemwide
to
further
wms
given
design,
variables
improve to
human
our
showing
on
knowledge
understanding
how
resource
our
an
policies
of
individual
organizational
organization’s
and
of
practices,
smicturc, and
and
behavior.
technological
culture
affect
both
theoretical
con-
die attitudes and behaviors ol employees. It
may
be
tempting
to
criticize
the
stress
this
book
placed
on
cepts. But a.s noted psychologist Kun Lewin is purported to have said, “There is nothing
so
pratrical
xs
a
good
theory.”
Of
course,
it^
also
true
that
there
is
nothing
so
impractical as a good rheoiy that leadx nowhere. To av<)i
this to
result
book inquire
has
insights
included about
been
into
a
the
die
behavior,
wealth
of
examples
implications
presentation but
which,
of
of
and
theory
numerous
when
taken
for
illustrations. the
concepts together,
tem to help you explain, predict, and control organizational behavior.
And
practice that, provide
of
we
regwli^’b'
management.
individually, a
comjJes
offer syv
Endnotes CHAPTER
1
Sec P Ad' I c •
iJt
AAUCOM; I9'>6h t pf^ef-indj H '•cig- “Puiiuig FcopkFi^tfor (jrtjjiuaO^’'«’ ' ’* //Az.;rp^, tf) KxKtttnx^ MM PP <“ 4S. ind R./V Ban»n and GJ>. Mwkffiafi, -BfyopdSTKiaJ Ca^MUl; Hi»u 5w
Tampereen ttkniJUnon horkeakoulu 1540540923
154 054
II
I
ESSENTIALS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR Seventh Edition
Stephen P. Robbins San Diego State University
Pt
*
rriMUice Hall Upper Saddle River. New Jersey 074S8
r
PulJicjliun IJai I. ihrary
2001055446
Edrwjn D^vid Sluwr Senior Mifupng Editor (Fdiforial):JcTuut
Hreiuice Hall
This book is dedicated to my friends and colleagues in The Organizational Behavior Teaching Society who, through their teaching research and c&mmitment to the learning process, have significantly improved the ability of students to understand and apply OB concepts.
Brief Contents Preface n
Part I PROLOGUE 1 I. Introduction to Organizational Behavior 1
Part II
THE INDIVIDUAL IN THE ORGANIZATION 14 Foundations of Individual Behavior 14
*
Personality' and Emotions 30 4.
Basic Motivarinn Concepts 42 Modvarion: From Concepts to Applications JS
6.
Individual Decision Making 69
Part III GROUPS IN THE ORGANIZATION 84 r**- 00 o*
Foundaoons of (Jroup Behavior 84 Understanding Work learns 100 Communication 115
10. Leadership and Creating Trust 130 IL Power and Politics 150 12.
Condict and Neeonation 163
Part IV THE ORGANIZATION SYSTEM 178 13.
Foundations of Or^tanization Structure 17 8
14.
Technology and Work Design 196
15.
Human Resource Policies and Practices 215
16.
Organizadonal Culture 230
17.
Oipmizatiunal (Change and Development 248
Contents Pre^t'e xvij
Part I PROLOGUE 1 1. Introduction to Organizational Behavior 1
Dejiuitfov 2 Cmtributinv DwcwZiwey Goals of Organizational Behavior 5 Explanation S’ Pfvdictioft > Contrrt! S Challenges and Opportunities for OB: A Managerial Perspective tntpfwifig (^liatUy and Productivity 6 Intfncrcifig PeopZr Skills 7 .Wji waging Hbrjtftwxr Diversity 7 IQ Clobaliautiatf j £y/ipoa’frrrtg People 9 StiMulatiug /iiwavtf/ion and Cban^ 9 Coping with '‘‘Tcmporaiiness^* 10 Helping Euiployees Balance Rbrk/Lifi Can/licts JO Declining Employee l oyalty 12 Ifnprwing Ethical Behind or 13 The Plan of * This Bewk 12
Part II THE INDIVIDUAL IN THE ORGANIZATION 14 2.
Foundations of Individual Behavior 14 Values 14 Types of I tf^rer I $ l fjiyatty, and Ethical Behmar 17 WM f7vJU*wn 17
* )*
The Field of Organizational Behavior 2
CoMerrts Atunides 19 19 'Redwing Tb^ AttiuMBebavior
U.
PcrcepQOn 23 Fzr4^rs/rryZwe»<^«’«
. -la
Attriblift on Theory 2i Sbortath ^o yadgittg Otberr 23 Learning 26 Implicirions for Managers 21
Pereonality and Emotions 30 Personality 30 The iViyerfi-Briggx Type InJkator 3t The Big-Five Model 31 Other Key Pemnality Attributes 32 Pcryotutfity tstid Nnifo/?/?/ Culrurt! 33 MitU'hing PerstirM lilies and Jobs 34 ErnoDons 36 HTrat Are
56
ItDisplayed Ef»<stwti$ 3T The Six Universal Emotions 38 Gender a nd Emotions 3 8 Emotions and National Uulture 39 39
0B for Managers
41
4. Basic Motivation Concepts 42 A^Tiat Is Motiv’ation? 45 Earl y Theori es of Mod vaiion 43 Hierarchy frf'Needs Theory 43 Theory X and Theory K 45 Tisj0‘Factor t heory 45 Contemporary
The
MfC/e/iiw/V
ori
es
of
Theory
Modvadon Needs
47 41
Goal-Setting Tbeoty 48 Reinforermem Theory 49 F^fuity Tbeoiy 50 Expeaancy ’Theory 52 IXw’t
Forget:
Moovadon
frepkeatfons for Xlanagers 54
Thtsoncs
Arc
Culture-Bound!
53
Ml *
Contents Motivation: From Concepts tn Apphcadon.s 55 jMa nagemcn l by ("Jhiec Oves 5 5
J inkhig XIRO anti Gt/al-Setting Tbcoiy 37 MBO if/ Pratdct 57 Behavior McMdificadon 5 H iiljat h OS 5^ Li//i:it/g OS Mod /ttid Reinfomintut OS Mi/d in Practice 60 En^loyec RecognicoD Programs 60 Wjb/7Z Are C-mpioyre Recognition Progratnd 60 Linking Recognition Programs and Rern/arctjaent Theory 61 JE’wp/oj*ee /?e<w^?jr7/urt Programf in Pritctice 61 Einf^oyee Involvcm e n t Programs 61 WTwf/ If Empioyee lnvf>/vetn.enrl 61 fRampies of Ewpioyee Z«voZve*tte/tr Programs 62 Linking Emplfjyee Involvement Pr/tgra/nx anti Mativati/w Theories 63 Employee Involvement Prograntv in Praeiice 6J Variable-Pay Programs 64 HTwr.-fre Idrtable-Pay Progta/ns^ 64 Linking Variable-Pay Programs and Expectancy Theory 63 ^ d/^iahle^Pt^ ZVwgj'/wnr bi Practice 66 Slall-Based Pay Plans 66 11 kat ^4 FY 5jbfZZ-Raje
6. UKltvidiul Decision Making 69 How Should Decisions Be Made? 70 Tbe Ratinaaf DftifioN-.Makfng Prwcft ^0 Improving Creativity in Dtdtian Makhfg 71 HUM Deciskms .Actually Made in Oi^anizations 73 SosTMa^J
73
p.
74 7$
60
COMMIU OneloptHK.iliemativtt 7-5 Mukif/g CfMiicts 76 Itiffn/duftf
"77
Ov^auizationul Constrabits 80 da ftm ul Echics in Decision Making 82 Lnp I icfl ri ons for xVlana gers 8 3
GROUPS IN THE ORGANIZATION B4
•s i
Fart
Foundarions of Group Behavior 84
f.
D e fi ning a n (1 Cl xssi lyin g Gruup'^ H4 Basic Group Concepts 85 Roles 83 S7 Cohesiveness 90 Sfze 90 CofnlMsition 92 uS'mmr 93 Group Decision Making 94 The Individuiti I 'ersiis the Qrryup 94 Groupthink and Grouffsbifi 95 Selecting the Best Gre^up Dceision-Makuig Tecbniqtie 97 Implications for Managers 98
8,
Understanding Work Teams 100 Why Have Teams Become So Fc^lar? 101 Teams Versus Groups: VVTiafs ±c Difference? 10 f lypes of Teams i 02 Problem-Solving Teasns 102 Self-Managed iUrk Teams 103 Cross-Fafit'tional lemts 104 nrtual Teams 104 Creating Effeedve'(^ms 105 iVork Design i03 Cosnposil/on 106 Conrm /08 /’nwfw 109 Turning Individuak into Team PJayere 110 77>r CIMHenge fiO Shaping Team Players 111 ImpUcatioos for Managers 112
Contents
9.
(>>mnwnicarion 113 Funcnonx of <'ommunication 114 I'he (3oininunication Process 114 Piremon of Communicahon /^wmi'ord L’/fwani LftMa/ 126 Interpersonal Communicadon 116 f3ral Cow wunieation 116 I Written Conrmunication /I7 .VtftfivxAtf/ Cow w ATtff ftfritf n 127 Chganizddonal Connniinicadon 119 Forwa/ S/»ali- Gro up Networks 119 The Grapet^ine 229 CoMpuier-4ideJ CowsnuHUMtion 222 Barriers to Effective Connnunicaiiun 123 k f///err123 Selective PtTcrpr/ow 123
I
2nfortnation Cherioad 123 Gma^ Stylef 22} Emotions 124 Language 224 Cro55-Cul rural Communicadon 124 Or//urai Context 22} . I O///wrtf/ Guide 126 Krhio; in CorntnunicadoA: k h Wrong u> 'lUl a Lie? 126 Ini p be a dons for .Managers 126
10.
Leadership and Creating Trust 130 HTiat Is I -eadership? 1 JO Trail 'rheories IJ1 Behavioral Theories 131 Ohio State Stvdieif 122 I'nhet xity ofS
Studiee 2 }3
The Managerial Grid 2)3 Sunttnary af Bel>aviaral Tl^eanta 133 (xiodngmc)* theories 134 ,>
21>e Hedier Model 235
it |r K
7lr»ay /J7 Tlkwr H'! iMdar-Paniei^tion Model 119
Contents A.. „„,! Fr,«zr/r. iyifft.-^>>>iyi I i9 Th.rr Theories Updated; Charismatic Leadership \1sivnary Leadership 142 Team Leadership 142 Is Leadership Always Relevant? 143 Trust and Lcadcrslup 144 J I’h/it fx Trust ? 44 Tmsl a nd l^/tdership 146 Tln‘u Typcx QfTt'uxt 146 tiow Do LfW BuM Trustf" 147 linphcations for Managers 148
11.
Power and Politics 150 A Definition of Power 150 Contrasting Leadership and Power 151 Bases of Power 152 Cor/rh’C Pf»wer lf2 Rrwurd Power ! 55 Leptimute Power 15$ I'^perrPower J5J Referent Power 153 Dependency: The Key to Power 154 TAr Genera/ DepenJenty Poxtnlate 154 fnat Creates Dependetfcy? F 54 P(>wer in Groups: Coalitions 155 Power and Sexual Harassment 156 Politics: Power in Andon 157 A De/?«j7fort of Political Behat ittr 157 The hnportaace of a Political Perspective 15S /'fff/orr Contributing to Political Behavior 15S Itnpre/xion Management 160 The Ethics of Behaving Politically 161 Implications for Managers 162
12.
Conflict and Negotiation 163 A Definition of Confltcr 163 Transitions in
contents niffercnuaang
Functional
frrwn
Dysfunctkindl
rhe < xmOki Pn^e*^ 166 S7rtX<* Potent/af Oppvsrtio/f 166 Sfuge Ih ('of^g/tinn {1701 Penwfaliztitrofi Sfagt /11: B^baviw" t6X /I ? l/ttteomes J 69
(tiing Stratcgfcf 171 Issftff in N'egvtifltion 17/ Im pl ications for Managers 176
Part IV THE ORGANIZATION SYSTEM 178 13.
Foundations of Organization Structure 178 What Is Organizanon Structure? 178 5/>efZ4ZZt4jrion 179 Departni mtaii z^fic n 181 Chain of Caffttnn nd 182 Span 0f Ccitnvi 18/ Centralizalion and Decentraiisatitw 184 Farma/izatron 184 Common Organizatimul Designs 185 TAr Simp/e Structure 18S The Bureauciaiy 2^6 Tfre AfoMv Structure J 87 New Options 188 The Team Structure 188 '/ 'be I'lrtual O/^z/isutiow 189 The Boundaryltfs Or^n/zatioft 290 Why Do Structures Diflfer? 191 Strategy 192 Ofganization Size 192 lecbnalogy 192 Environmental Uncertainty 19/ Oi^aniaatioQ Srniecurc and Employee Behavior 193 Imp]icahi>n.s for Managers 195
Technology and Work Design 196 Technolog)’ in the W'brkplace 196 f ff/trmfiOMi Imprvtentent /bwwrer 297 /Vwm Krewjip»rerfi»g 198 Maa Cttfromiwr/M 199
Ckinflicts
165
Organiratirmal Behavior in an E-WorW 200 r{ V nn EAhganisaHanl 200 Seleited Impluations jar Individual bebnxior 201 Seketed ImpUattiims for Group behavior 203 iVill E-Or^s Kedefine Interpersonal Relationsbipsl 20J Work Design 206 task Churucteristic Tbeurics 206 Khnt Rcdcsigyi 209 Popular ftbrk Sebeduie OptfOfts 211 Implications for Managers 213
Human Resource Policies and Practices 21$ Employee Sd ctuon 216 216
d
tlnrten 2)
0 rfnance-Sbnniatian Tenfi 211 Training Programs 218 ryfk*s 0f Tmitiing 2lX Training Xlef/Mcls 220 Performance Appraisal 220 Pn/ti
ff. Ipprnist/l and MetwatiM 221
Wbaf Du H? Evahiffte? 221 Sbou/d Do the Evafuarin^? 222 Perfornmnee Appraisa/Mcibodr 223 /or Iftrfn’ovrng Pr^yonwrtce Appraisab 22S Don'f Eorgef Performance Feedback! 226 About leant Per/wnann Appraisabi' 227 rnyuz7«///rr e Appraisal in a Global Context 223 Implications for Managers 228
Organizational (Culture 230 Defining O^aniutinnat Culture 2 J1 Is a Desaipme Term 231 Do Or^nnizations Haue Cnifmn (^dotres! 231 Strong J
CW/wrer 2^ ?
Whai r>oes Culnire Do? 2J J C/r//wrr’f Innaions 23} Ciilliitv .3^ a Liability 234 Creating and Sustaining Culture 234 How a Culture ffeffim 234 •• (-"inut Alive 233 ^mututy; Huw Cuhtuyt t-urwt 23X
Gmtents
/! fjyw Employees Leam Culture 239 5/ww 239 Rintab 240 iVI/rtfriaJ Symbob 240 241 M^aging Cultuial Change 241 Creating an Ethical Organiiational Culture 242 Spiriniaiity and Organizational Culture 243 H 'br/t h SpbitJtality? 243 H'hy Spn-itr/aiify C'frtftwte'nAtZfj
24 ? Qf
n
Spbituai
Organi&abfftt
(Jritieimf af^phitnahty 24 f Organ iiad on a i Culni re vc rs U5 Na ti onal Culture 246 Organizational Culture and the Paradox of Diversity 246 Implications for Managers 247 17. Organizational Change and Development 248 Forces lor (Change 248 Managing Planned Change 250 Two V^ews of Change 251 The •‘f’.kZ/M
Simik 2SI
The '^U’bfte- Il
the
Tko
Simi/e 2 32 I
reur
in
Penperrtve
2^2
Resistance to Change 2 53 Re.ort/twrf 255 Ch ganiza tutnitl R rnjfante 2 f4 CHrtfow/wg Pe!fi.rtanee ro CA/T»ge 255 Managing Change Through Organizational Development 257 5‘ear/fjrn^ 7i'zrf/tr>tg 231 Snrcey
Feedback
Prwrxr Canxtdtntion 25^ Teayn Buikting 239 infergrvitp Devefapment 260 Contemporaiy Issues tn Otganizadrinal Change 260 Hbrk .y^resf 26) S'tvMir/tf/rAg fonoiwWoj? 262 Knawtedge MafMgewfKt 263 hnplkations for Managers 264 Epdoguc 266 EB^UMA 267 rTn^u (Indea/CiliMery) 285
25S
244
Preface Ihis h<x>k w as created as an altemaiive to the 600- or ?00-page comprehensive textIwKik
id
urganizjnunal
bcharior
(OB).
It
attempt*
to
prwrie
balanced
coverage
all
the key dements comprising the discipline of OB, in a style diat readers will find both infonnarive and interesnng. Tm pleased to say that this text hm achieved a wide fidlowing in shrirf panion
volume
LXIUCSCS
w-ith
and executive programs and in uaditional courses as a com-
cxpcriciiiial.
currently
used
at
more
Canada.
Lann
America,
than
skill
400
Europe.
development,
colleges
Aasmlia,
and and
case,
and
universities Asia.
Ifs
readings in
the
also
books,
Uni
been
led
h
is
States,
translated
into
Bahasa Indonesian, Chinese, Dutch. JajiHiwse. Polish, and Spanish.
RETAINED FROM niE PREVIOUS EDI TION WTiat do people like about this book? Surveys of users have found general agreement about rhe fcdlowing features. Needles:* to say, they vc all been retained in this edition. Lewgn^.
Since
300
inception pages.
in
1984,
I've
tried
tell
me
this
Users
diUgeiidy length
to
keep this hook to
altws
them co n*;] de raid
k J
approximately
in
flexibility in assigning supporting inatenak and projects. ■
naianced ropk
enrrag^.
.Although
short
in
length,
diis
hook
continues to
provide
lialanccd ccnemge of all the key’ concepts in OB. This includes not only traditional
topics
curang-edge
such
issues
as such
personality', as
emotions,
niotivadon. mist,
and
work-life
leadership; habnee,
but
also
workplace
spiri-
tuality'. know ledge management, and e -organizations. This book is trequcurly singled nut fijr the fluid writing style and extensive use <4’ examples. Users regularly tell me that they* find this book “a in versarional." 'iincrtsring." ''snidenc-fricndhC and 'S'crv clear and uiulcrstandahle.'’ ■ rraouaim. This book has never been solely about theorv. It’s about ther •• ory to better explain and predict the behavior of people
in
oiganixauons.
In
each edition of this book, I have fixnised on making sure that readers sec the Part of the rAr*ason I’ve been able to keep this book
.'(Asfaa of kngth
is
that
it
doesn't
tcaching/lcaming
aids.
OB
allowing
knowled^.
include
'i*his
book
review
quesuons,
continues
instructors
the
to
caM?s.
provide
manmufn
shon
exercises,
only
flexibility
the in
B
link between OB theories, research, and implications f<»r practice. or similar
Itasac core
of
design inff and
shaping their cuunc. ^ ghihc^rstfrrott, dftmriy, of
gtobabzabon
and
cnis-cahural
As shown in Exhibit .A, die topics differences,
divenity,
and
ethics
dtfuochouc thu biKiL Rather than presented in sund-akxie cbapcers» thoe
are
disciRaed
nvW Preface EaMbft A Integrative Topics (with specific page references)
CMpler
Diversity
dobalkalion and Cross-Cultural PIfferenew
5, 11-12
3. 7-8,10-11
4. 8-9
16-17, 28
C J
CM m <
17-19 38 33-34. 39 53-54
62
in lA
61,62-63
79-80, 82
76
81
92
92, 98-99
107
110, 111
126
123-24
118, 124-26 10
139-41
145
156-57
161-62
198
203
11 169. 175-76
12 13 14 15
242-43
246-47
246
16
219-20
219
216, 228
262
249
17
249, 250,263
topics have been w oven into the context of relevant issues. Users tell me they find
this
intcgraUve
approach
makes
these
topics
more
hiUy
part
of
OB
and
reiiitbrccs ihvir iniportanvc. ■
WTiilc rhis book may be short in length, it’s not shon
on
‘iiipplemcnis.
bi>di
faculn’
and
Test
and Item
Pile;
Resource
instructor’s
manual,
whidi
wmcs
i»tudencs.
Iiwtrucror's
Library,
It
a
This
provides
complete,
with
a
Web
including
PowerPoint students
a
includes
dedicated
CD'ROM. and
with
support
comprehensive site
die
siuks;
high-lech
and
insights
package
instructor^
manual
(www.prenhall.coiu/mbbins); compiiterirxd rhe into
lest
Robbins ibcir
skills,
for
Item
an File,
SchkAsscssment abilities,
and
mterese. These suppleraenis are described in detail later in this Preface.
NEW TO THE SEVENTH EDITION •n».s seventh ediu«3ii ha.s been updated in tcraw of research, examples, and topic coverage. For instance, you’ll find new inarerial in rftis edioun onOiyanizanunal ohzensliip behavior (Chapters 1 and2> Work-life lulancc (Chapter 1)
Frtface • Ajnabiie's model ofrreaUviti in decision making (Chapter 6) Group demography (Chapter 7) leam-cftecuvencss model (Chapter 8> Low- and high-context cultures (Chapter 9) Leader-member exchange theory (Chapter 10) OB and the e-organization (Chapter 14) Mass ctistomization (C.hapter 14) Flextime and telecommuting (Chapter 14) Employee selection and training (Chapter IS) Workplace spirinialiiy (Chapter 16) Knowledge management (Chapter 17)
SLTPLEMEXTS PACKXGE cf Organizatiffnat Bt^h/triar continues to be supported with an exwisive suppleinenx package for Iwith students and facuic)'.
For tb^ Student ■
The this your
updated text
as
and a
skills,
revised
no-cost
abilities,
Robbins
option.
and
IT
ScIf-AssesOTent
contains
interests.
Illis
50
is
exercises
available
Library
is
that
provide
in
both
avaikhle
with
insights
and
into
CD-ROM
formats as well as online. ■
Companion the
industT)'
professors ing
Wtb
standard
and
new-
site—The
their
Companion
for
companion
students,
conununication
Web
it
Web
one-click
'nrjfTS.prtnhallxam/robbms
sices.
a
provides
ttxils,
site
Designed
customized navigation
by
course of
professors
W’eb
chapter
site,
i.s for
indtid-
content,
and
other valuable resources. For the Pnfesstrr
■
Instnictor’i includes que^itions.
Manual learning and
with
lest
obfeenres,
skill
exercises;
Item
chapter the
File—The outlines,
Test
Item
instructor’s chapter
File
manual
summanes,
provides
portion discussion
truc/falsc,
muiuple-
cbcHce. and essay questions. •
<>>mpani<>n
Web
site—The
bimunthly
news
articles
qucsiions
and
group
integrated exercises,
Companion into oobne
site
the
text
deliver)-
provides with of
professors
accompanying PowerPoint
with
disi-ujision slides
and
mstructorV material, and sample 5)41 abi and teaching suggestions posted on a conununit)- chat nxwn. O insouctur's
CD-ROM—'Fhe Instructors Resource CD-ROM contBiBs the computerized Test Item File, PowerP
A
Preface .
PowerPoint Fkctronic Tranx^ in-class letturcA pjle. Test Manager » a -Us- M=‘n»g‘-T ^^cir c
and figures corresponding in the text, th p«n,nc-ies are designed to aid the Cnntainmgall ol the que^uons comprehenMve su.re «.f nols ing
and
disinbunng
through
traditional
methods
or
by
an
on
inc
tvcry
via
in
the
Local Area Network (l>AN) servers.
\1dc<»^important
topics
in
organizational
behavior
afc
illustrated
accompanvin? videos Real conip-auics are used to Inflight organizational avior pravriccs diat work!
ACKNOWI EDGAIENI S A
number
thanks
of
are
gestions: Foote,
people
pbyed
extended
Professor Middle
University:
Dr.
to
critical
the
Claudia
following Harris,
Tennessee Jenna
roles
State
in
reviewers
North
for
Carolina
University;
Lundberg,
helping
Ithaca
Jeffrey College;
Co
produce
their
this
helpful
Central J.
comments
Universit}*; Sheruood,
Dr.
revision.
Carol
f.
Special
and
Dr.
sug-
David
Washington Young.
A. State
Wittenberg
University; Dr. zXngeline W. .McArthur, Vnivcrsiw ofWsconsin-Parkside. At Olsen,
Prcnticc-Hall,
Kim
overseeing
Marsden. rhe
I
want
Shannon
production
and
to
thank
.Moore. marketing
Judy of
David
Shafer.
Leale,
Keri
this
book.
Jennifer
Jean, And,
and finally,
Glennon, Janet I
Slowhk
want
my wife, Laura, for her love and stif^ort
STEPHEN P. RORRISS
A
Melanie
to
for ihank
PART i: Prologue
CHAPTER I ________________________________
Introduction to Organizational Behavior After reading this chapter, you should be able to 1.
Define organizational behavior (OB)
2.
Identify the primary behavioral disciplines contributing to OB
3.
Describe tfie three goals of OB
4.
List the major challenges and opportunities for managers to use OB concepts
5.
Discuss why workforce diversity has became an importanl Issue in management
6.
Explain how managers and organizations are responding to the problem of employee ethical dilemmas
7.
Discuss how a knowledge of 03 can help managers stimulate organizational innovation and change
W
describe
hen I ask managers rn describe rheir most frequent ur troublesome problems, rhe answers I ger rend to exhibir a common thenw. The managers TTK«T often peofi/e
employees'
lack
problems. of
'Phey
moGvanon,
lalk
about
conflicts
their
bosses'
between
poor
team
rommumcadun
members,
overcoming
employee reswtance to a cnnipany reorganizanon. and similar concerns. Because a managers job is inherently one of working with and through other people—lios&es. peers, and employees—good “people skills” are a valuable, even neceamy; a»wt m solving these problems. ’ I’bis hook has been wrincn to help managers, Ik and ptxmoal managers, develop these people skills.
sUIU,
THE FIELD OF ORGANlZATIONzXL BEHAVIOR iTie shidv of’|>enptt' at work is gtncrally referred to as the study of or^nizatinnat behavior. Let’s begin, then, by defining the term
Mz/vmr and briefly
reviewing its origins. Definition OfganiMcional behavior (OB) is the systematic study of the actions and attitudes that people exhibit within organizations. L«t\ liwk ai die key parts of this defitiinon. Each phenomena. he
“didn’t
when
the
stop
us
us
For
instance,
take from
to
clusions-
tain
offering
with
uses
inrinnon.
friend
catches
ins/*
our
die
field
of
not
unuiuve
a
cold
really
OB—its
we’re
why
The the
he
quick that
of
scientific is
conclusions—is
remind
cold,
in
ro
happens
seeks
course,
trying
to
“it
caught
interpreted of
in
ol’OB
use
objective, and
or
licid
and
theories
feelings."
properly,”
is,
'I‘he
“gut and
sure
measured
effect.
our
dress
that
and
and
or
malysis.
study:
conrfilion.s cause
“doesn’t
W’eVe
systematic
attribute
So
vi
a
cLingc."
controlled
manner
regularly
his
seasons
eyplanadons under
<jf
bur
to
explain
him
that
every'
year
that
doesn’t
replace
intuitive
evidence
gathered
a
reasonably
rigorous
co
draw
based
on
accurate
a
large
con-
number
of systeinaticaliv designed research studies. What not
/ill
does
OB
actions
important
and
atritudes.
determinanTs
turnover.
The
with
quantity-
die
importance and
turnover—particularly terms In
systematically
oi
addition,
high
Three
employee
of
productiriry
quality
of
itk
hard
rates
of
for
high
of
(or
behaviors)
behavior
have
performance: i.<:
output
an
Actions
types
of
excessively^
absence,
study?
ohvious.
that
each
employee
turnover
a
fourth
to
be
pndui'tnuty, Managers
clearly
adversely
affect
increase
costs
if
and
proved
lie
are
But
tend
she
co
be and
concerned
absence
and
output.
Tn
this
or
But
to
nhenieehw,
generates.
productive
attitudes!
historically
employee
rates—can
employee
and
isn’t
place
at
work.
less
expe-
rienced people in jobs. More
recently,
found
hj
zenship
is
ments
butthat
Examples team,
be
imponain
discredonaty of
volunteering
employee for
determining
behavior
nevertheless good
in
extra
type
th
ar
is
employee not
pan
promotes
the
citizenship
behavior
job
activities,
of
performance.
of
an
effective
Organizational
employee’s
formal
fiincrioning
of
the
helping
others
on
include
avoiding
behavior—rif/zr?«A;p—has
unnecessary’
conflicts,
job
an attitude. Managers :^hfnild he concerned with their employees’ job .VAtisfaction for three reasons. First, there may Tie a link lierween satisfaction and productivity. Second, satisfaction appears to lie negatively related to absenteeism and nimover. Finally, it managers have a humjinistjc rciponsibility to provide their employees with jobs chat are challenging. inTrinsically rewarding, and satisfying. The last part of our definition of OB that needs elaboration is the term Psy chology’ and sociology arc wclt-knoun disciplines that study liehanor, ut they do not concentrate solely on work-related issues, in contrast. OB is spevifiy ccmcemed with work*-re fated behavior-—and that takes place in urganizations. An ^■^•wzatKMi is a consciously coordinated social unit, composed of two or mivc peo* relatively conunucHK basis to achieve a aiinnion gxMl or set of s. r s eharactetized by fi>nnal rol«» diar define and shape the liehavior of its menw
require-
organixatim. one’s and
constructive statements aNjut one’s work group and the overall organization. Organizational behavior is also concerned with employee job
citi-
xrhich is
work making
IntrotkM'rinn xo Organizational Behavior
ben. So OB t n«»m passes thv hciwvinr of people in such diverse organizations as man
IQ
nbeiuring and sen’ite finits; sehoeds; hospjuils; churches; militaiv uinw; chantabl orgamzjnnns; locdli suic. And fcdc’ral govcmn*i€iH ui^cncie*
Contributing Discipline's Orginizarionjil
behavior
contrihuQuns
from
social
sociolng\\
is
applied
several
behavioral
behavioral
psychology,
science
disciplines.
anthropology,
and,
The
and
as
a
result,
predominant
political
is
areas
science.
built
are
As
qon
psycho)-
you’ll
learn,
ps>’chob»g>'*s a mtn Ini hot IS have been mainly at the individual nr micro level of analysis whereas the latter disciplines have contributed to our unde J's landing of macro concepts—group
processes
contributions
made
PsychoJogv
change
selves
with
the
fienonalit)'
is
tlieoriscs,
1-1
provides
field
of
smdy:
iliat
humans
and
atrempring
continue
Exhibit
distinct science
of
anti
and
a the
behavior
studying
contributed
organization.
toward
Psychology
times have
and
to
counseling
to
add
seeks other
to
to
the
iwy
chologists,
psychologists
instance,
and,
of
of
OB
most
are
and
some-
concern
behavior.
them-
I'hosc
learning
important,
the
Iwhavior.
explain,
Psychologisls
hidivithial
knowledge
overview
orgaiiuaUoiul
measure,
animals.
understand
an
who
theorists^
industrial
and
oi^nizational psj'chologists. Early Ictns
could
industrial frtigue,
impede
iKjredoin.
efficient
and
any
work
other
concerned
factor
perfrirmancc.
relevant
/More
themselves
with
M'orking
condirions
to
recently,
their
probthat
contributions
have
been expanded to include learning, perception, personality; workforce diversity, emodoos, trail)mg. leadership effectiveness, needs and modvational forces, job sadsftctinn,
decision-making
processes,
perforrnance
appraisals,
attitude
nicasurcmcjit,
cmployee-seleeriun techniques, job design, and work stress. Socio
Jog)*
social
sv'stcni
relation
to
Whereas in
their
psychologists
which fellow
individuals human
focus fill
on
their
beings.
the
roles;
individual, that
Sociologisus
is,
have
sociologists
study
sociology studies made
their
the
people
greatest
in
comribn-
tioD to OB through their srudv of group behatnnr in organizations, {wr lieu lady formal and
complex
organizations.
stKiologists formal
include
Areas
group
organization
within
OB
dtnamics,
design
and
structure,
theory
that
have
of
received
work
teams,
bureaucracy;
valuable
input
from
organizational
culture,
communications,
status,
power, conflict, and work/life balance. Social txpes
Ps)ch<jlogv from
another.
psychology
One
chologists
Social
has
of
the
!>een
It
areas
dyaugr—how
measuring,
understanding, group
scxholog);
major
In
which
is
and
acceptance. in
psycholog)'
addinon,
social
aedvides
and can
an
focuses
receiving to
area
it have
changing.ittitudes, sadsfo
on
the
considerable
implement
psychologists
within
individual
and
pstxhology, influence
investigarion
how
made
to
and
jieople hy
reduce
significant
communicadon needs,
of
blending Micial
psyits
contributions
in
group
Aadwopulogy Anthropology' is the study of socieaes co lea m about human beings and char acovihe^. h includes their physical character, evuludonar)* history, geographic
ftu.
one
to
ptneesm.
.■H 16
on
barriers
patterns,
dtttrihucKin, gnxip rcladvtLvhipH, and cultural hisian* and practices. I’he work of whrnpologists on cultures and envinwunenC^ fir insunce, has helped us undentaod
con-
the
ways
decision-making
w
Chapter 1
Peril Pnilogve Toward an OB Discipline
EXHIBIT 1-1
Behavioral science
Output
Unit of analysis
Contribution Learning Motivation Personality Emotfons Training Individual decision maktng Leadership effecthrwiess job satisfaction Perfbrmarce appraisal Attitude measurement Job design Work stress
r
Indtvidutl
Group dynamics Work teams Communication Status Power Conflict
Study of Orgamzabona! Behavior
Formal organization theory OrganizacionaJ technology Organizational change Organizational culture
----- a
Behavioral change Attitude change Communication Group decision making Group processes Comparacive values Comparative atirtudes Cross-cultural analy»s
^Awhroptdoiy
Organizatio n system
Organizational culture Organizational environment -------------------- - ------------Conflict kitraorgamzational pofltics V Power
differences countries iHwal
in and
fundamental within
culture,
values,
organizations.
oi^anizarional
attitudes, Much
environments,
and of
behavior
our
and
current differences
between
people
understanding between
in of
national
differait organizaculwes
u the result of the work of anthropologists or those using their methocU. Pobrinl
Science
Although
frequentl)
overlooked,
die
vuntribuuons
soentHU arc ngnificani i<» the uiulerManding of behavior in upganujibore.. PvlitiMl
of
pulitml
Chapter t lniTixJacd<m u> Or^ntMttonal Pthjrhjt science i* the sciuiv of the behavior of in
COALS Ol- ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR WTrn dues OB seek to do? We know it’s concenied with developing people skills, but Mdwt predscl) arc its goals? The goals ol t)B arc to help you to explain, fnrdicty and human liehavior.
Explanation When we
we
are
three are
seek
pursuing
goals, to
use
answers die
from
a
understand
this
a
we
something
that
could
to
wc
determine
have the
5
a
muse.
to
know
for
group
a
of
probably
I>egin
prevented.
explanation
a
because
must
want
been
or
It
perspective,
undoubtedly
if
individual
objective.
phenomenon,
resign,
but
an
explanation
understanding
reasons,
why
management
enipknres
many
to
it
by
w
occurs
least
after
to
in
Obviousiv,
if
die
a
order
to
employees
quit-rate
is
did
somednng,
important
explain
example,
hy.
high
the
trying
For
individuals
fact. it.
of
Yet,
We
can
number
of
determine
if
quit
inadequate
their pay
if
the we then
valued it
was
jobs
for
or
boring
jobs, managers often can take actions that will correct this situadun in the future. Prediction The
goal
will
result
how in
of
prediction
from
employees
a
predk'Qvc
certain
a
given
will
on
action.
respond
exercise.
behavioral
focuses
to
On
resjxjnscs
A
the to
future manager
the
of
of
a
change.
It
a
installanrm
basis
the
events.
seeks
small of
Of
couro,
determine
factory
new
knowledge
to
who
rolHidc
of
OB,
there
what
attempts
equipment the
arc
to
is
manager
various
outcomes
ways
assess
engaging
can
predict
to
imple-
ment a raakir change, so the manager is likely to assess employee responses to several change generate
inicrwnrions. the
least
In
this
degree
of
way,
the
cinplovee
manager
can
resistance
and
anticipate use
that
which
approaches
information
his or her decision.
Control ■nw nMM>t conuovcRijI gwl „ using OB knowledge to control bchuvior. When a ran I do to make Dave i>ur out more eflbn on his >ubr that manager is ecwtxmcd w ith cvnirol. is conirol eonuxn'ersial? Most of us Jive in democratic societies, which are upon the concept of personal freedom. Therefore, the idea that one person J
uthers to behave in a certain way, w hen the subject?* of that evn, unaware that their beha>ior is fteinft manipulated, has been viewed in
A7* J
J* wn*?dikal and repugnant. Thar OB offers technologies that hiciJjate
p<x>pJc IS a facx Uliether those technologies should be used in ui^anian ethkal question. >hu should he auw howvser, that the axttnd n frcyiendy icen h> inanagm a.> rhe mcm valuable contribution chat OB toward theif efl^tivvness on the job.
in
will
mahng
fUrt I Prdngue CI-IAIXKNGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR OB: A MANAGERIAL PERSPECTIVE
Tile
abilin'
ni^e
ir^^portant
ing
to
place
getting
expbin. tS
in
manager,.
^ere
competition
cope
with
A
organizations
older;
global
predict,
rapid
more
look
and
bchav.o.
a
few
of
claim.
For
instance,
more
women
employees
innovation,
orguni^^tion.l
at
this
and
requiring
change
control
quick
supports
are is
.nd
to
the
and
become
an.l
the
Ins
draniaac the
changes
typical
minorities
more
bonds
u.
flexible
of
never
loyalty
now
tak-
employee
die
and
that
been is
workplace; to
i«n,
histoncally
tc, held
many cnipJovee^? to their employers are being severed, ' use
In
OB
fronting
short
there
eontepu.
in
arc
a
this
managers
for
lot
of
section, which
challenges
we
ll
OB
and
rcvww
offers
oppommicies
some
of
the
solutions—or
ar
today
most
for
managers
critical
least
issues
some
to
con-
meaningful
insights toward solutions.
Improving Quality and Productivity Wood
Peter
manager plant
manages
at
rhe
makes
Oak
catalytic
recognized
that
weren’t
M’illing
wait
Creek
given
plant.'
total
the
to
Creek
has
for
S weeks
systein. by
for
than
40
more
for
delivery.
were
quality,
So
svith
led
a
team
of
overhaul
worked.
Within
more
than
percent,
quality
products
complete
work
wasteful 2
The
In
1997
and
tlicy
overhaul
cells,
of
cjnployccs
processes
years,
has
Syljtcinb.
manufacturers.
customized
The
25
manufacturing-systems
Automotive
automobile
Wocxl
hundreds
He’s
Delphi
wanted
replaced
and
business.
plant
increasingly
lines
for
coinpetitivc
Wisconsin,
customers
Assembly
increased
verj’
Creek,
resjmnsibility
production
a
converters
Wood
Oak
in
the were
were
cut
from
productivity
at
Oak
delivery
time
improved,
and
has been cut to 4 days. More
and
more
managers
are
confronting
the
challenges
that
Peter
Wood
is
fac-
ing. They are having to improve their nrgani 743 ri on's productivity^ and the quality of die
prtxiucTs
and
implementing
sennees
programs
they
such
offer.
as
'I'o
impnivc
quality*
quality
management
and
and
pnxluctivity, process
they
arc
reengineering—
programs that require extensive employee involvement. .\s
Exhibit
ment
of
tional
processes.’
1-2
customer
describes,
quality
satisfaction
It
has
management
through
implications
for
is
driven
by
the
the
continuous
iinprovcmeni
OB
because
requires
it
constant of
all
einplovees
attain-
organizaco
rethink
what the)* do and become more involved in workplace decisions. In
times
improving things would
of chat
neenng. ^aluated
Wootl rernn
Entire
new
from
we
starting
\\ood
reinvented
training
w
ere
ia
It
making the
plant’s
do
were
from
Oak
the
lotruduccd.
enrirch
new
to
“How in
they
were
Orcck
plant
illustrates
production plant’s .And
in
most Rather
approach
would
we
do
essence,
is
the
how
starring
the
svstem.
pak
to
reconsider
if
changes
jobs.
necessaiy
That,
managers
incremental to
of
scratch?"
structured
whole
sometimes
perspective
asks
Delphi's
contribution
sptems to
at
it’s
the
took
merely of
change,
productivity-
their
of
dramatic
reengineering.
and
Peter
in
undergoing
if
process
Instead
processes,
and
and
here
done
be
actions
rapid
quality
around
approach
ou(.
of
over*
process basic
Every
work I’hc
reengi-
production
process
was
Ineffiaeni
processes
were
emplovees
fr>und
them-
than
unpnrvnneois in a sysicni that was uxi rigid and inflexible tn meet changing
tn
t/j
make
snull
Chapter 1 Introduction lo Orgunimitml Bctorior CXMIVT1-2 What U Quahly Management? I firmer•>!> fM«*iiwrr, The customer irthdcs nor only oumiderr who buy the * <»njaniz-«6<»n\ prrducw w M‘mc'' th qiMhr^ffy'W'ibin^ the nr^anizarhn fA?w. Tlie tet in applies noconk ir> (be hnal produce but also to how the organization handles deliveries how rapidh it rr-HponJ> ui n»fnphHnls, how pnliitly ibv phono are aiisweretk and (he like. 4, .-frewntf.' jwr^wwrrwrw/. Quality minagerocnx uses natisncal tcchinques to measure even mttral pcrtoniiancc vuriabk in the organizmiuns Operations '11)6^6 performance VAriAbks arc then cum pared npinsi stand an Is or h»cnch marks to identity pivjhiems. the probktns arc traced to their roots, and rhe causes are eliminated. i. Empi^'d-erynnu ufftfiiJarfts. Quality* ntanagement invokrs the people on the line in the improv*eTnent process. Teams arc widely used as coipowement vehicles Cor finding and sokuig problems.
tamer of
needs,
Wood
individual
help
completely
employees.
cshibtish
For
productivity
rc^anqK'd
his
plant's
instance.
Oak
Creek
standards,
and
actively
production
einployecs
mtem
now
participate
and
check
in
die
for
|ab>
quality,
inmjducing
work-
flow innovations. Today’’s ruanagei^ understand that the succcs.s of any effort at improving qualiU' and
producdniy
mu^r
nupM
force in carrying
ning
those
changes.
include
their
our
changes
OB
offers
employees. hut
Tlxae
employees
increasinglv will
important
insights
into
will
not
<^y
actively participate helping
be
in
managers
a
pbnwork
thmugh these changes. Improving People Skills Ue this chapter by demonstrating how impiirtant people skills .»rc to managena cffertjveness. We said that “this lx>ok has lx*en written to help managers,
and
potential managers, develop these people skUk;’ yxiu proceed through this textiMxvk. we”!! present relevant concepts and thethat can help you etplain and predict the bchavnnr of people ar work. In addition, ymiTJ alw gam insights into specific people skills that you can use on the job. For instaot'e, ysm 11 ic.^m a variety of ways to tin mt ate people, how to be a better cuinmumator, »rul h<.u to create more eftectivc team.
Managing Workforc
Divers itv mip<»runi and bnud-hased dullenges currently facing organizahnm different. The term wc use RM* describing this challenge ,—diversity means that organizations are becoming more hetero* cTim o gender, race, and ethnicity. The term encompasses women.
proloFK African
. Hispanic
Ainencans.
» I .k I A bin Americans. It ;,ls<> includes the anc J 5 Mcireovef. workforce divenity
. Ameruans,
phyMcdly disuhlcd ^Tuys «n. lesh...
as well as the Unite
is an i«uc ,n Canada, Australia, South States. Managers .n
'*’ , ,r’increasingly characterized bv
itrhinrmportaa^..^
^nanagerial jobs. Women, long
h J-parins tcHipomrv jobs in Japan, are now moving into managerial r«siaons. dl^reaaJn of die European Union, which opened up horden, throughout much of western Europe, has increased workforce diversity m organizations that operate m countries such as Germany, Portugal. Italy, and IranceOrganizations that
people
want
to
used
from
when
make
thentsefves
ferent
iifesq-les,
take
different
assimilate.
fM-eferences
to
But
a
cultures
employees
they
come
more
“melting
to
and
don't
work.
accommodating
family
needs,
and
The
work
approach
nacionaliries set
to
pot"
aside
diverse
would
their
challenge
The
differences, somehow'
culTin-al
for
groups
styles.
to
of
people
melting
automatically
values
organizations,
pot
assuming
and
lifestyle
therefore,
hy
is
addressing
assumption
to dif-
is
being
hut
they-
replaced by one that recognizes and values differences.'^ Haven’t were
.such
them. llie
organizations a
small
Moreover, bulk
i)f
it
the
always
percentage was
ot
assumed
prtf'l9S(Is
included the
that
uicmbers
workforce
that
nunoridcs
workforce
were
of
diverse no
would
male
groups?
one
seek
paid
to
Caucasians
Yes,
much
blcnd-m
working
attention
and
to
assimilate,
frill-dme
to
sup-
port a nonenipioycd wife and school-aged children. 'I'hat’s IHJ longer true. Currently, 46
percent
of
the
U,h.
bbor
force
are
women.
And
minorities
and
immigrants
make
up 23 percent.^ Workforce Managers
need
differences
and
retention
and
Diversity,
it
rions
w
lems.
us
divers
WTicn
tn
it)'
shift
as
philosophy
to
those
managed,
improve
divcRity
important
is
can
decision
not
implications
for
(rearing
everyone
from
differences
productivit)’—while
positively ell
rheir
rcsfxinding greater
has
at
increase making
managed
by
projserly
in the
ways
providing ±ere
that
same
crcariviiy
management alike will
time and
jxnenrial
recognizing
ensure
not
in
perspectives for
employee
di<;criminaring.
innovation
different
is
to
practice.
organiza* un
higher
prob-
turnover,
more difficult conuinmication, and more interpersonal conflicts.
Responding to Globalization Managenicm IS no innger constrained by national borders. Four of the five highest ^■Kssing McDonalds restaurants are in lions- Kong, Prentice Hall, the largest seller 'ti k-'r""*
eenTSfT*^”'’-
publisher of this IxM.k, is oJned hy a
F-«onMob.I
a
so-called
k “’c""
.American
company,
receives
aim.«r
75
p^r-
"•’■ch ‘’wns Mdvo. croASSr'^'Smrer’
working with
-
two ways. Pint, if liVeJy t.. find yourself in a foreign ^gntnent. Onu there, ytm II have to manage a workfoae that .s hkdy n. he'very^SS
J
Chapter 1 incroduvtion u> Or^antzaiknut Bvhtvior
,n
neck,
Serwwi.
.spinuions, even
pe^rs.
ami
,H„I
vour you
jiraightlunviird rtork
h«s
effectively
shapeii
discuss
them,
OB
who
may
and
att,t.,.k.^
coiifiiTy,
eniployees
i..oriv;.tcs
To
;.nd
y„L
out
with
these how
may you
adapt
your
throughout
rhis
vou
were
Gjid
raised
them.
people,
ro
..nci to
and
ate
diey
rhe going
bon.
lootit
open,
corceprs
re
were
noi
ai.d
A,,,,,
yourself
in
Or
diftcren.
your
style
find
this
sndc
11
need
to
management
book,
wem
used
to
working cultures,
of
frequently
or
and
their
tlieir
culture,
hots-
p'ffc
op
popular
busincs.s
periodical
nuw-aday.s,
yo.ill
read
about
die
resliap-
ing ol rhe relationship between managers and thrase iJiey're supposedly responsible for managing.
You'll
tors.
In
ring
between
down diwces 15
many
to
find
managers
organizations, the
roJes
of
kvei,
about
schedules
and
decisions.
woA-rdated employees
managers
hill
control
and
where
were
now
work.
are
and arc
An
Decision
solve
get
going
increa.sing
spuiLsors,
associates.
being
to
to
advisers,
called
workers?
encouraged
managers
their
coacl.es,
workers
proceduxes
Now, of
arc
managers
operating
agti,
called
employees
rhe
years
being
And
making
given
the
work-related
their
is
number
of
a
being
blur-
pushed
to
problems. to
facilita-
there^
freedom
eraplovecb
considerably
or
make
Ten
or
participate
in
Rirther
bv’
allowing
organizations
are
using
self-nun aged teams, where work era opera I c largely widiout bosses. W'hat’s going on? VATiatS uoiriK on is that managers are eTttpmvering enipivyets. They are putting employees in charge of what they do. .And in so doing, managers are having to learn how’ to give up control, and emplov’ees are having to learn how to take responsibility show
how
for
Acir
work
empow*erment
and
iS
make
chiiuging
appropriate leadership
decisions.
styles,
In
power
later
chapters,
relationships,
the
w'ell "way
work is designed, and die w ay organizations are structured.
StimuhTing Innovation and Change W’hatevcr Montgiiinrn* giants,
such
happened Ward, as
and Scars
to
VV. J.
and
1.
Grant,
Peterman? Boeing
Al!
Gimbcl's. these
implemenred
Eastern
giants huge
went
Airlines, bust!
cost-cutting
VVI^y
iirograms
Mted thousands of jobs? To avoid going bust] Todavs successful organizations must foster innovation and master the arc of rVwgc or 'they’ll become candidates for extinction. V’icton* will go to organizanous that maintain their flexibility, continually impnive their quahn. and beat t en compe* Wwn to the marketplace v-ith a constant stream of innovauve produc^ and semccs. DotnincA sinclc-handedh brought on the demise of thotwands of STnull pizza parlors •hose managers thought they could continue doing •a but they ba
Siuith
how As
cultural
Empowering People you
may
be
dirvauning,
ferences might require managers to modily their practices.
If
instance,
differences.
address
home. bosses,
co.iimuiucacion
undersund to
with l
unenmfortabk
sn-le
back
Corona,
have
oAer
and
climi-
it we dif-
10
employee
crwrivhy
^ntl
tolemnce
ft>r
riic field of OB pn>vide5 a wealth of
change,
itkas and lechniqoes to aid in rtralizing these
Coping with ”Icinporariness" Manaeine
used
to
alh
bv
as
long
peiiods
of
iiv’
Tlic
work!
that
•
short
lie
characterized
period,
leinpomniicis/*
ot
change.
ongoing most
The
by
periods
.Managing
change, jobs
today
interrupted
managers
actual
long
and
that
of
stability,
would
be
occasionally
employees
workers
face
jx-rRirm
interrupted
occawon-
aaurately
described
more
by
short
today
is
are
in
periods one
a
o1
of
subil-
permanent
permanent
state
of
fliLK. So workers need to continually update their knowledge and skills to perform new jub
requirements.
Careipilbr, tion
Tor
example,
Ford,
and
Akxia
equipment.
Thai
not
now part
production need
ot
ro
Uicir
employees
know
job
how
at
tn
companies
operate
descriptions
15
department,
cific erable
amount
and
of
has
l»ers
different
increased Finally,
been
use
of
replaced
employee
by
sell
with
the
wlw>sc
roUDoii
to
are
off
relatively
temporary*
and
dicinsclves
divisions,
w’aA
working
depaitments
organizanons
dieir\'arious
assignment
secunry in
predictabilin from
that
in
poorly
wnrk
groups,
members
till a
peqdc
stale
of
performing
'I’licrc
was
and
teams
that
groups
all
a
day
the
out.
time,
They
continually
downsize
consid-
include
work
businesses,
produc-
Work
changing
flux.
as
assigned to a spe-
day in
change
consrantly
ago.
WTTC
pcrmanetiL
same
coniputcrized
years
arc also increasingly in a state of flux. In the past, employees
such
That mcm-
and
the
assignments. reorganize
uperatiuns,
and
replace peraianeni employees with temporaries. Today's have
to
OB
managers
learn
can
to
provide
overcome
and
live
with
important
resistance
to
employees
Tiiust
flexibility,
insights
change,
to
s|K)nuneily,
into
and
karn
a
how
work
best
copc
wd
temporariness.
unpredictability-
world
to
with
of
create
continual
an
The change,
organizanonal
I'hey
study
of
how
to
culture
that
dirives on change.
Helping Employees Balance Work/Life Conflicts Tlie
typical
through
Friday
workplace of
employee and
and
today’s
in
did
hours
the his
were
workforce.
lybOs or
her
clearly
Employees
or
1970s
job
in
spedfied. are
showed
eightI’hats
up
or no
increasingly
at
the
nine-hour longer
chunks
uue
complaining
workplace
for
that
of
Monday
rime.
The
a
large
segment
the
line
between
work and nonw'ork time has become blurred, cTcating personal conflicts and stress. number work
and
of
fortes
pers<mal
lives.
have First,
contributed the
to
creaQon
blurring
of
the
global
tines
Ivtwcen
organizatioas
means
employees’ their
world
never sleeps. At any time and on any iLiy, for insuncc. ihoasands < »f ^>almlcKJln^kr ynployees
are
working
sonwwhere.
The
need
lo
conMdt
with
colleagues
or
customers
« or 10 umc-zones away mean*, that many employees of global firms are ‘ on-cair 24 hours
a
day.
Tab
in.
proksswnal asking average
Sect.nd,
jobs
ampUnees wni^eek
a>inmunjcadon
This do U)
lee
then put
insTcased
work
any
in
longer
from
4.1
technology
allows
many
|)eoplc
rime
and
hours. to
47
firim
For houA;
employee,
do
in
any
place.
insunct, anti
to Third,
1977
number
of
and
at and
organizations 1997
people
50 or more hours a week jum,Kd fn»m 24 pcrcxml to J 7 percent Finally, lues have <mly a Mnglc breadwinner I< Jay’s iiiarned empbs^ is typc^ pan of a
work
technical
Ixrween
the
their
are the
working
fewer bm-
♦* ♦
J
Chapter dMtlH'irecp the
ctnipk
time
n»
Kmplnyecs Jh’es ees
ing
give
similar
concerns?^
A
halancc M'ell
will
Bnd
a
it
ic.
addition,
jobl
of
life
hard
and
generation
work that
to
ncn is
attract
primary
help
and
their
retain
the
they
students
personal
that
can
say
goal.
people
achieve
that
’J’hcy
axid
As you'll see in later chapters, the fiehl of OB offers a nuxnlier of suggestions to managers
in
designing
workplaces
and
jobs
that
can
help
employees
deal
with
work/life conflicts. Dec'lliHTig Employee Loyalt>’ Corporate and
employees
good
work
with
beginning
in
leveraged
buyouts,
jub
scvuriiy,
closing down
used
the
and
believe
security
mid-1980s,
in
the and
generous
like,
employers
benefits,
to
and
global
cotporanons
operations
with
their
response
businesses,
enployccs
that
compensation.
moving
lcs&-prodtabic
permanent
job
•iemoriiy,
fectorics,
to
began
lou’er-cost
eliminating
temporaries,
entire
and
reward
steady
pay
competition, to
’ITicy sought
lc>
would
discard
to levels
substituting
unfriendly “lean
selling
of
loyairy
incrcxbcs.
traditional
become
countries,
their
But
takeovers, policies
on
mean”
by
and oft
or
management,
closing replacing
performance-based
pay
sys-
tems for seniority-based programs. Tris iTnp
phenomenon.
Barclay's,
^e
German
big
ITTIILS
electronic
European
British
have
bank,
trimmed
engineering
companies recently
their
eongiomcrate.
cut
are
doing
staff
levels
workforce shed
and
more
the by
same. 20
management
than
.^,000
jobs
For
percent. ranks: tn
one
instance, And
some
Siemens, year
die
alone;
and srcelmakcr Knipp-IIoeseh cut its ^ntifijgprnrnt hierarchy' from five lei^els to three. These Employees
changes perceive
have
that
their
resulted employers
in are
a
sharp lew
decline
coniniittcd
to
in them,
employee
loyalty.^*
and,
as
a
result,
ways
to
motivaw:
emj^yees respond by- being less committed to their companies. .An wooers
important
who
feel
OR less
challenge
will
be
coimnitted
to
their
for
managers
employers,
to while
devise
maintaining
their
organ!-
zations' global compeotiveness. Improving Ethical Behavior In an organtj^tional w
orld characierirxd hy rime pressurcs. expectations of increasing
worker producrix ity’. and tough cumpctidon in the marketplace, it's not altogether surprising that many employees fed pressured ro cut corners, break rules, and engage in edicr forms of questionable practices. Members of organisations are increasingly finding themselves facing ethical situations in which they are required to define righl and wrong cunducT. eaamplc. should they “blow the whistle** if they uncow illegal activincs taking plitfc m ihar company' Shixild they follow orders with which they don't person* Do they give an inflated pcrfi>rmance evaluation to an employee whom
to
attain-
want
wtirk/life
capable
man-
likely
employees.
guide
einpkiy-
better is
care:er
find
fnends.
out
suggest
most
t<j
parents
employees
university
a
don’t
studies
of
Kehiivior
cinplrj>xes
squeezing
schedulcsso
and
Opnpix.ational
children,
recent
work
to
n^arried
i>
dieir
college
Organizations
increasingly
work
example,
the
majority
frjr
spouse,
thai For
Introduction
difficult
home,
HexibilitvHn
personal
between as
about
diem In
as
ance
that
to
recognizing
happy
eonrtktsJ-
a
life*
jobs
not
incixasingly
comniitnicnts
work/life
ha>'e
it
increasingly
thev're
want
inakc.*s
fuJrtd
arc
and
age
l*his
i
“a bal-
motivated
12 Pirt» Prob
1
:”;=ii?x;S'£::— f mpla -ees dal! are utives
«e
.ndicted use
people
for
dl
padding
insider
around their
infonnatwn
rhem
expense
for
engaging
accounts
personal
in
or
finaiicui
ur.eth.cal
.
pracdce^le^
taking
bnlres;
gam;
university
otfi-
succes-ihil
exec-
administrators
“look the other way' when a winning coach verixitly abuses his athletes; and even the President when
of
the
caught,
advantage
United
giving
States
excuses
nowadays,”
“1
distorts such
never
as
the
truth
under
“everyone
does
thought
I'd
get
organizations
are
responding
oath. it,”
caiighi,”
They
‘-you
or
“it
hear
have
these to
people,
seize
every
depiends
on
what
problem
from
a
rhe
meaning ol the word is.” Manager? ber
of
dinnigh
and
directions. ethical
pre^ams
to
their
I'hey’re
wiring
ddeininas.
m*
They’re
improve
TO
and
distributing
offering
ethical
codes
seminirs,
behaviors.
to
I
this
of
ethics
workshops,
he}’’re
to
guide
and
providing
num-
employees
similar
training
in-house
advisers
who can he contacted, tn many cases anonymously, For assistance in dealing with cthical
issues,
.^nd
they’re
creating
protection
mechanisms
for
employees
who
reveal
intemd unethical fKaoices. Ibday^ manager needs to create an etliieally healthy climate in which his or her employees ityregarding discuss
can
do
wliar
ths
kinds
their
work
constitutes of
actions
pnxliictivelyand
right
and
managers
wTong can
confront
a
behaviors.
take
to
create
minimal In an
degree
iipttoraing
of
ambigu-
chapters,
we’ll
ethically healthy climate
and to help employees s<.»n through ethically ambiguous situations.
THE PLAN OF THIS BOOK C>^r V ’’'S Our appp, ach us„ i bu.ldmg-bl.Mik process. ilbistruied in Exhibit 1-1 d.ure are
EXHIBIT 1-3
behavior?
r Chaptwl Introduction w (hwmiationaj Beh«,w leeming 1 ncn *e nwve tm w wnsidcr rhe rul<> e.f {)rhAv'U>r. Wc ^nclucle th.. «c6o„ {)tr mjMv c»t inibvidiial decision making. The behavior of nenple m ffronne k individual acting in his or her own wav. Pcontp’^ k.f Afir Ix-hat wr when they an- alone, Chap^ 7 tlin.uvtTn We inmxluee a gi-oup behavior model,
».
IKIIMI
*” of mouvaunn issues and
discuss
WJV<
total of each different from address gn.up beljavior.
£on«iler a.nunujiication issues and group dcdsi.n.^malHn
efitttive,
imptmant topics of leadenhip. trust, power the fontul organizauon sysretn to our knowledge of ind' Jim <s groups are more tl.aii die sum of their indiriduaf^i”^ l^^havior,
‘"vesrigate the "c «id
not necessarily merely the summation of die behavior .,f a lu Chapters I .t ti.rough 17. we. disc.u.s how an or^SonV Lm? «chfio(i)gv aficcr behavior; the effect that an «,p™£« l,»e „„ .r«»,
f*'1 •• L *
people,
du, „„„.,ge„ can « ,o .ffee, beh.eio, foe *.
h-eX^o^^o™”.
and oXb
PART II: The Individual in the Organization
HAPTER2
Foundations of Individual Behavior After reading this chapter, you should be able to 1. List the domirrart values in today's workforce 2. Describe the relationship between satisfactior and productivity 3. Explain the theory of cognitive dissonme 4. Summarize the relationship between atthudes ar>d b^wi^ 5. Explain how two people can see the same thing and interpret it differendy 6. Summarize attribution fteory 7. Outline the learning process
A n understanding .if indivi
VALUES
•
■''
Is capital pimishmeninght or wn.ng'- If a person likes jKiwer. is rliat good or bad’ The answers to these qu^nons are value-laden. Some might argue, for exan^Je, that «pipunishxiKnt ,s right became it's an appropriaw retributi.Hi for erimessueh as Values represent basic convictions that “a specillv mode of conduct or end-state ofe^tence is personally or socially preferable m an ..ppositc .< c«wl«ct or end-state of e«stem.-e." ■ They conca.n a imiStlav.< in^^ W «
" ...«r .
Chaptef 2 Eoundaiions oF Individual Behavior g
Types of Values Can wc cln*'Si1>’ values? 1 be answer is: Yes’ In this .section, we’ll review ru'O approaches to developing % aluc cypnl«gie.s. Rokeach
Value
Survey
iMihon
Kokeach
created
the
Rokeach
Value
Survey
<WS)?
The R^'S consists of two sets u I values, with each set con tail ling 18 individual value items.
One
set.
called
terminal
values,
refers
to
desirable
cad-scures
of
existence.
The^c are the goals that a person would like to achieve durnig his or her lifetime. The other means
set,
called
of
achieving
instrumental
values,
6c
terminal
values.
studies
confirm
6ac
refers
to
Exhibit
preferable
2-1
gives
modes
common
of
behavior,
examples
for
or each
of 6csc sets. Sc'•'er same
ill
occupations
students)
tend
executives,
or
to
catcgvrie^j
hold
members
similar
of
the
RVS
(e.g., values.
values
vary
corporate For
steelworkers’
among
managers,
instance, union,
one and
groups.^ union
study
People
members, comparing
members
of
a
in
6e
parents, O’jqioratc
community
activist group found a good deal ol overlap among rhe three groups,** but also some very
signifieani
differences.
I
he
activists
had
value
preferences
ferent from diose of the other
two groups. They ranked
tant
and
terminal
respectively.
value;
executives
Activists
ranked
union
“helpfur
as
iiienibcrs their
rhat
were
quite
dif-
equaiic) as 6eir most impor-
ranked
this
value
second-highest
12
and
instnunental
13,
value.
The other ru n groups bo6 ranked it 14. These differences arc important, since executives, union members, and aciivises all have a vested interest in what corporanons
EXHIBIT 2-1
Examples of Termiral and Insirumental Values in the Rokeach Value Survey
Tentuiu) Values
Instrumental Values _________________
A cwnfona^lp^life {a ^*pefous life)
Ambitious (hardworking, aspiring)
A sense
Capable (cOTipcTent. eliieedve)
cuntribudon)
Cheerful (Hgbdicartcd, fOyfui)
A world of peace (free of war and cwiflict)
<dean
A wofid of beaury (beauty of nature and the am)
CotiMgeous (standing up foi your belief)
(hriMherhood. equal opporTunity* Fiir all)
Help fill (woridng for the welfwe (4*
Fwuh security luhng care of loved ones) Frcrtlmn (uvle|iendeiice. tree chokv) Hipfutc^ (utfiientcilnev.) te*er hannoov (frvmlofn tfiwn inner coA^ct) (an entuvaUev kriurei\ lifiei ^^*•**<■1 (Mved. eternal li^e) ^'*■1 nx'u^pwuun impcct. adnuraoon) Ta* IncAaUup (cluw esitnptiiHjnahip.)
others) Honest (sinctrt, truthful) Imaginxrive (darings vreadvc) Logical (L'onsrsitnt, mdonal) l.oring(afFa:t]onacc, tender) Obedient (dniifuJ, respec tful) PoUte (ccHineous. wdl mannered) Re^Msibte (dependable, reliable)
ft
H 1^’ Individual in the Organixatiun d„, -AMien corjx.raliuns jn.l cridcal
f^Xr
come together m negouanons or ctm cm
in dirterences in (wfsonal value pref-
pohaes, they are likely to beg.n -th ’’X « e o. erenees. . . Reaching Agreement on any -qteciiie ««ue oi pmiQ . value, arx- importantly implicated might prove to be qu.ic difficult Contempomrv Work Cohotrs Your author h» integrated
pX
of
tm.que
work
values'inro
cohorts
or
most
groups
generations
framework
would
employees
fi.ur
can
people
in
the
un.versaUv
IK
segmented
start work
in
an
U.S.
between
aeros.s
the the
wcapntre
workforce.''
apply l.y
attempt
all
several
the
[No
assumption
cultures.)
era
in
which
ages
of
18
they
and
where
23,
values ..
the was
analyses
of
made 2-2
the
perttnal
recent
Exhibit
cntere.l
the« H
different that
this
prt.po^
that
workforce.
Because
also correlate
closely
with dw chronolugival nt employees. Workers Andrews and
who
Sisters,
earlv
1960s
them the
grew
and
up
die
believing
influenced
Berlin in
hy
the
blockade
hard
work,
Great
Depression,
entered
the
status
quo,
the
World
worktrirce and
War
dirough
authority
U,
the
figures.
the
1950s
We
call
Once hired. Veterans tended to he loyal to their employee. In terms of fenninai
values
on
the
RV^,
these
employees
are
likely
co
place
the
greatest
importance ou a coinluruble lite and funil)’ security'. Soi/WfT/ .Members Beatles,
enrered
of
this
the
cohort
V'iemam
large
measure
deal
of
of
that
merely
as
aids
“hippie
on can
vehicles
their
from
influenced
and
ethic"
and
means.
and
the
by
the
compctibon.
distrust
of
inarerial
Boomers
careers.
mid-1960s
heavily
baliy-boom
achievement justih’
for
workforce
were
war,
the
emphasis
believe
the
see
Terminal
through
civil They
audiority’. success. the
values
rights
But
a
with
they
They’re sense
mid-1980s.
movement,
brought
organizations like
the
them
a
a
^rcai
pragmatists
who
that of
place
the
employ
them
atcompli^inenr
and scxial recognition rank high with them. A fry' lives Have been shaped by glohalizatitm, tw^o-carcer parenb. xAflV. AIDS, a^ compuie^. They value flexibilitj; life uptioiis, and the achievement of job satisbcuon. Family and rchcionshjps are ver\ imporuni to this ixihon. Thev also eniov important is 4n indicator of career perfo^nance, but
cs. Xen are less w.llmg to make personal sacrifices for the .sake of their etnptowr
EXHIBIT 2 2
Donttnant Values in Today’s Workforce
lateral the
Cubort VeterMU
Appmxioutc Wortdwee _Curre7it Age i^SOs IX early 1960s 60
Boonien
1965-1905
•MMiO
Xo*
19«5.2aM)
25-W
Nuaan
2Wt»pfww
Under 25
Pominant Worfc Valuei H»cd -Orting, conservative. Luofonran« ‘‘’Pleywthe.ffgjniution
A
Chaptar 2 PuiinAtium of Individual Rehsvior chan pivnous generations were. On the RV'S. they rate high on true friendship, happine^. *n
most
recent
entrants
f<)
the
workforce,
the
.Vritm,
have
grown
up
during
prrKpt rous times, so they tend to he optimistic abour rhe economy, to believe in tbem^Iv'es,
and
dhxrsit) of
to
and
thetr
lx*
Ac
lives
vt»nfi
with
about
generation
CD
their
to
players.
ability
take
VCRs,
to
succeed.
technology
celhitar
for
phones,
Nexurs
granted.
and
the
arc
at
ease
ThcyXe
with
lived
Internet.
This
most genera-
tion is very money-oriented and desirous of the Aings diat money can buy. They seek financial
success.
They tend An
to
Like
Xers,
they
emphasirx terminal
understanding
that
enjoy
values
individuals’
teamwork
sudi
as
values
but
they’re
Freedom and
diller
but
also a
tend
highly
com to
self-reliant.
to nah
reflea
I
e life.
Ac
societal
values of iJic periixl A which they grew up can he a valuable aid in explaining and predktiiig
behavior.
Employ’ccs
in
Acir
60s,
for
instance,
are
more likely to
accept
author-
itv Aan arc Aeir tx>-workers who arc 10 or IS years winger. .And workers in Acir 3Os are more likely Aan Acir parents to balk at having to work weekends and more prone tu kn'e a job m mj
Aink
drt
ime
ediical in
cAicaJ
Exhibit
2*2)
acQun
of
bcharior upper
standards
for
in
erode
perhaps
possible
explanation.
bosses
Aeir
to
standards,
a
their
t>cgan
is
Ae
most
organizarions.^
management
Aould
wc
a
die
should
lock
.After
all,
important
Given
have
in
this
laic to
our
managers
factor
fact,
significant
1970s.If
there
work
cohorts
consistently
inilucncAg
Ac
values
bcatmg
on
has
Aose
the
model
repon
cAical
of
been
m
entire
(see
that
and
a
Ar
unethical
middle
rtliical
and
climate
wiAin an organ izatiorL 'Ihrough whose
Ae
loy*alties
mid-1970s,
were
to
in
terms
sions
were
made
mid-to
late
1970s.
Ac
Aeir of
Boomers
managerial
employer.
Hlien
what
best
began
was
to
rise
ranks
w
faced for
into
ere
wiA
Acir
Ac
dominated
ethical
organize
iipixr
levels
by^
dilemmas. lion.
of
Veterarw Aeir
deci-
Beginning
in
the
manageincrn.
Uy
Ae
early 1990si, a large portion ol iniddlc and top management positions in business organuations were held by* Bcx)mcn>. The mary he
loyaltv
concern
of
is
consistent
Boomers
uiA
wiA
ib
looking
a
to
out
dcdinc
in
Aeir
for
careers.
“Number
cthiad
Their
One.”
standards.
locus Such
Could
diis
is
inward
and
sell-centered help
Aeir
values
explain
Ae
pri-
would alleged
decline in business ethics bcchimng in Ae late 1970s? The potential good news in ihis analysis is that Xers are now in the process of mosAg Since
into Aeir
unpheanons ward
lu
an
middle-management loyalty' uf
is
their
uplifting
to
and
relationships,
actions of
slots
on
ethical
oAcrs
soon
Aey
arc
around
standards
in
will
he
more
Aem.
rising likely
Tlic
business
Ato to
the
management.
consider
resuh?
over
top
Wt next
Ae
might
ethical
look
for-
or
two
decade
merely as a result ofchanging values wiAin the cunagerial ranks, \'^ues Across Cultures In f Juptcr 1. we descrilwd Ac new g1<»ba] village and said “managers base to become t>p*b4e
of
working
wiA
pexipk
from
different
cultures.**
Because
«j»ure>, an undersundmg of Aese differences Aould he helpful in explaining and
s*aiues
differ
across
tt Pa rt H The I nd K'MIU al in t he t )i pa r iza tion predicting
beb.vinr
nfeviployees
fr„.n
^.ntrics-
Acomparison
ind lao'inese cidtvrc trail help illiiStraTc this prdrtT. Eic.in c,..,tr3.t kam
Janinesc
to
are
L.gin
children
think
rccoonnne not
children
are
analyze,
facts.
surprisingly,
result
different in
rhe
question.
value. co
,.f
be
inriivrd.wl.ty
‘team
and
players,
ro
Thdr
Japanese
countetpa^
s.x-ialization
pracoecs
reflect
differeiii
tjpes
American
.
indoctrinated
and
These
early
..f
nf
tniployees-
1
I umqueness.
work arc
different
he
average
In
with.n
the
rewarded
for
tmitures U.,S.
and.
woiker
is
more conipetiiii e and self-focuscd than the Japanese worker. The obviotrs o.nclu.s.on frotJi ±c<e r»bsei-vnt5(Ui5 js thi^c prdicJonsof employee behavior, based on U.S. worker?,
are
likdv
w
be
qft-wfget
when
the/re
applied
to
a
popuhnoii
of
cniplcyceb—
.suth as ihc Japane^{c^ who prefer iird perforin bener in stahtlardiicd casks, as part of u work CG5in, ivirii gnjup-basvd decisions and rewards. .A Framework for Assessing Cullui’es One of the most widely referenced approaches for analv'zing variations among cultures \vafij originated by Geerx llofetede.^^^ He surveyed more dwn 116,000 TBM enijjloyecs in 40 countries about their workrelaced values. .\nd what did he find? He found that managers juid employees vary on five value dimensions of national ml hire. They arc listed and defined as fbllovr's: Power distance—I he degree to which [>ei»ple in a countr)’ accept that power in institutions
and
orgajuxaticns
is
distributed
une
Ranges
from
degree
to
rehrivcly
equal
(low power distance) lu exircrncly unequal (high power distance). Individualism
v^.
tolleetWOT
Individualism
is
the
which
people
in
a CQuuuy prefer to aiT a.’i individuals rather than as members of groups, Collectivisra is the opposite or the equivalent of low individualism. Quantity of
life
\3.
quality of
life—Qnanrity of
life
is
the
degree
to which
val-
ues such as assertiveness, the acquisition of monev and material goods, aod competirion prevail. (Quality of life is the degree to wdlich |x:oplc value relationships, and show sensitivin' and concern for die welfhrc of (ithers.** Uncertainty tured
ostr
avoidance—The
unstructured
degree
situarioiis.
In
to
which
coumries
[xeciple
ihat
score
in
a
country'
liigh
on
prefer
struc-
uncertainty
avoid-
ance, people luve an increased level of atudety that manifests itself in greater iiervousne.ss, stress, and aggressivene'is. Long-term countries values
look
the
vs. to
past
the and
short-term future
and
present,
orientatioa—People
value
and
dirift
emphasizxs
and
in
persistence.
respect
for
long-tcnu-orientation
A
short-tenn
tradition
and
orienratiim
fulfilling
social
obligations. Exhibit 2-.^ provides a summary of how a number of countries rate on these five cUmensions. than
For
instance,
individualistic.
On
not
the
surprisingly,
odier
hand,
most
the
.Asian
United
countries
States
ranked
are
more
highest
collectivi^ among
ccxintnes sun’eyed on individualism. ImplicatJons
for
OB
Mf^r
^owkdge we call ^nen^
s^.iects
of
all
** the
concepts
that
currcntlv
make
up
the
body
of
b,h
doraesne
contexts.
A
comprehensive
study,
for
instance
of
more
than I I MO articles pubiLshed in 24 management and organizational behavioi^ journals mthe
”’7“^ P‘--n''d r^ eal^ that approximately 80 percent of the sn«li« were done Lmted Stat«and had l>een conducted by .Americans.'- Follow-up studies coo-
tiAue to oaifinn the laci of cToss-culniral considenttions in management and OB
- ItL
Chapter 2 Foundations of Individi eXMltlT 2-3
Examples of Cutwrak Dknensions
P
Coanvry
Uncertainty
Individualim*
Quantity ofLtfe*’
Avoidance
ly>ng-tcm OtientatMm*^
Own*
High
Low
Moderate
.Moderate
High
France
High Low*
High High
Moderate High
High
Low AAiKleratc
High
ixkW
High
Low
Low
Moderiu
Low
Higki Low
Moderate
Moderate
High
Modevic
Miideratu
High Mudcrate
Low I.IIW
High
High
Moderate High Low
Moderate Low
Uoited Starr*
Luv High Low
VWtst Atriv*
High
Low
Moderatt
.Moderate
Low
German)* KtMig bukmeMi NetheHanrb Rusiia
Moderate
Low
• A low «o*e K synonymous with collertrviwn ♦*A low score » synonymoui with high quality of life. «** A low score ts synonymous with a short-term oflentatiori. Adapted fiom G Kofst»de< "C^hmal CAuaems in WAMsanerx FIIOKM.* Academy of Managenenv BreortM. Fabwv research.^' VVlut thi^ means is that (1) not all sally
applicable
work
s-alues
are
considerably
different
cake
into
consideration
cultural
should
tu
managing
people
around from
OB theories and concepu are unhrer-
the
world,
especially
those
in
United
values
when
die
trying
to
in
countries
where
States,
and
(2)
you
understand
the
behavior
of people in different countries.
ATTITUDES Attitudes
are
__ evaluative
statements—either
favorable
or
unfavorable—concerning
objects, {leople, i>r events. They reflect how one feels about something. When 1 say ‘i like my job."* Tra expressing my atbtude about work. A penon can have thousands of attitudes, but OB focuses on a very hmited number
of
idb-related
attitudes.
These
include
job
satisfaction,
job
involvement
(the
degree to which a person identifies with his or her job and actively participates in it), and
organizational
organization).
commitment
Without
question,
(an
indicator
however,
of
job
loyalty
r<>.
satisfaciino
and has
identification received
the
with, bulk
the of
attention. Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction refers to an individuars genrrd attitude toward his or her job. A person with a high level of job satisfaction holds positive attitudes toward the job; a person who k dissatisfied w ith his or her i
WIttt
Deumioet
Job
Satisfaction?
VMiat
work-related
variables
Mtiafxwm* ’Ibe evidence indkates that the most important factors conducive to lob
ileterminc
job
Individud in the Organix^rx..
supportive working
satisfaction are .uentally challenging wo.i. equ.ubk emtiitions, and supportive collea^es.
opportunities to u« their skilU j feedback on how well they’re
Kinplojeet rend to prefer frbs P and ahibties and offer a vanety ot tas ,
XiHenaing-Jobs that have too little
doing. These . ha. actensties ntake
and feelings of
challenge ™.» tacdom, bu. failure. Under conditions ot moderate chauenge, .UM K w!!,;™ °".x ’J’®"’ “"J p™”"-" unxnfeoo,. X line with
las,, on
job
likeh
demands,
to
result
indiwidnnl
Similarly,
.belt
still
employees will experience
expeetndons.
leeel.
indivi.luals
and
who
*'■ '’"“'7 “ S'"? pny » y., ns f.,t,
Wl-cn
eommumiy
pertxivc
pay
that
sUnJards.
pnunoucn
b.sed
satislaenon
decisions
are
is
made
in a fair and jus: manner are likely lo experience wrslacuon from i heir |ob$. Em ploy ee** are concerned with their work euvironment for both personal comfon and fadliuun^ doiii^ a good job. 1 hey prefer physical surroundings ihai arc sale, annforrahle, clean, and have a minimum degree of distractions. Finally, ments.
For
prisinffly»
people most
get
more
of
W'oil
chan
work
also
611s
the
friendly
and
employees,
therelorc,
luving
out
supportive
merely need
money
for
social
co-workers
or
tangible
achieve-
interaction.
leads
co
Nor
s«r-
increased
job
sadsfeoion. Satisfactioii students The
and
of
question
Prcwhicrtvity
Few
organi
rational
typicilly
ixwcd
is:
on
the
topics
behavior .‘Vc
have
as
the
satisfied
attracted
aS
much
interest
sadsfaetion/producoviry
workers
more
among
i-clationshipj'^
priiducdvc
than
dissatis-
fied workers? The
early
views
summarized
in
paternalism
shown
ing
company
sujwn'Lsors to
ny.">
TO
Ht^e
the
statemciii by
Uiwling
“a
managers teams
and
sacishctioii/productiviry happy in
the credit
worker I^JOs
is
a
relationship prmhicrive
rhroiigh
unions,
the
h.ilding
tan
be
worker.”
IQSOs—for
company
essentially
Much
of
e.sample,
pia.i«,
and
the fann-
training
be sciisinvc to the concerns of employees—wa> initiared with tlic intenr workei^ha^y.
Rtit
the
happy-wrker
thesis
wa.s
based
more
on
wishfol
thinking than on hard evidence. •A more careful analysis indicates that if satisfaction does have a oositive effect on productivity, that effect is fa^ly small The introduction of moderating vanabks, however, has improved the rcladonshio For incrun/> rk i L • stronger when employees' liehanor is not con.;L„ed o^S^ttn.He^ 00?^! f c' tors. An cmployxcV productivity on machine-paced jobs for eicani f ‘
way around. If you Jo a goml lob.y-o.i nitnnsicallv feel good about 7 assume that the organizati.m rcu-ards prcxlucmitv, y^uthfaher add.uon if we increase verbal retxignition. your pay level- and nro^Mbiliri^ 1^ rewards. turn. wil. increase yourleUl tnaior dctCRninant of an employ Satisfied emplmees would seem m.„.. bk'ely t- »lk pos,nvdy
should
**’'’“*J
*
Cha pte r 2 Founda n o nj o f Indi I'i d usi Behavuir help iichcrs. a»d go heyt^d chu normaJ expcciaaons in their job. Moreover, satisfied empkn’ees might he more prone to g<3 beyond the call of doty because they want to reeipnKatc
their
pKitive
experiences.
Consistent
with
this
thinking,
early
discussions
of <XJB issumed that it was closely linked widi satisfaction.^*^ More recent evidence, however,
suggests
that
satisfaction
influences
OCB,
but
through
perceptions
of
nwdese overall relationship between job satisfaction and QCBJ^ But sati.sfaction mcanr
unrelated
IN
Basically,
job
O('B when fairness is con rroiled forJ*^ What does this
TO
satisfaction
comes
down
to
conceptinns
of
fair
nutcomes,
treat-
Tncni. and pnicedurcs.^^^ If you don't feel like your supervisor, die orgaxti nation procedures or pyy policies are fair, your job satisfaction is likely lo suffer significantly. However
when
you
develop.
And
when
perceive you
organiMtional
trust
your
processes
employer,
and
outcomes
you’re
more
to
be
fair,
trust
willing
to
voluntarily
that
individuals
eng5ige in behaviors th ar go beyond x’our formal job re quire oieiits.
Reducing Dissonance One
of
the
seek
most
relevant
ron.q\tency.
findings
Cognitive
pertaining
dissonance
r«>
aninujes
occurs
is
when
the
fact
there
are
incynsistenvies
between two or more of a person’s actinides or between a persim’s Ixjbavior and amtudcs.
The
theory of
cognitive
dissonance
suggests
that
people
seek
to ntinimfae
dis-
sonance and ihc discomfort it ciuses.-’ Di the real world, no individual can avoid dissonance completely. You know tiiat “honesty is the best policy” but say nothing when fl store clerk gives you back too much
change.
how
do
Or
people
importance
of
you
cell A
COJK;?
rhe
your
children
person’s
elements
to
desire
creating
the
to
brush reduce
dissonance,
after
even'
dissonance the
degree
meal,
but
don’t
is
determined
of
influence
So
by
the
the
indi-
vidua! beliwcs he or she has over the elements, and the rewards chat may lx; involved in dissonance. If u»
the
correct
has
a
elements this
creating
imbalance
husband
and
will
setxral
the
dissonance
be
low.
But,
are
say a
children—believes
relatively
iinimportant,
factory’
manager—Mrs.
strongly that
no
the
pressure
Smith,
company should
w'ho
jM)llute
the air tir water. Unfortunately, because of the requirements of her job, Airs. Smith is placed in die |x»sinon of having to make decisions that would trade oft her company’s profitability
against
her
attitudes
on
pollution.
She
knows
thflt
clumping
the
coni-
pnys sewage mtn the local river (we’ll assume die praciict^ is legal) is in die best economic
interest
of
her
firm.
y\’hat will
she
do?
(IIearly,
iVlrs.
Smith
is
experiencing
a
high degree of cc^itivc dissonance. Because of rhe importance of rhe elements in diis exan^pie, wc cun’t expect Mrs. Smith to ignore the inconsistenev’. Besides quitting her job, there arc several paths that she can follow* to deal with her dilemma. She can reduce
dissonance
either
hy
changing
her
behavior
(stop
polluting
the
river)
or
by
CTjmIuding dut the dissonant behavior is not so iinponant after all ("Fve got to make a living and, in my role as a LXjrporaic decision maker, 1 often have to place the g<M)d of my company abtwe that of the enviromiient or society.”). A third ahernative w ould be .Mrs, nw.
Sitiiih I.
Sull
diss<*nanr
to
change
another txies
(“
her
choice I’he
attitude
would Ixncfiu
be to
fThere to
is
seek skKien*
nothing
out
more
fi\>m
•We dun offset the ci>st lu Mk.'iet)* of the resutrirw w*atcr pollution
wrong
with
consonant
polluting
elementx
manufacturing
our
lu
the out'
products
2t
•|W IndmJwl ii» iheOrfaftlKitiiMi c 4 u Udievt tbcv have over the cknunu will The dejrer of mftuciuv that mdtv.duah ^ive the disv,hAve an unpart <« how rh^ thinit alnnu which thev have IMJ choice— nance u. be an .mo^ntwllahk. -ulc-^-’h’nM a t d^son.ncc they're not likely to be reeept.ve to preswre tn reduce produdng behaviol is required as a result (»i UK n m^rilv Althniicrh di
also
I^e
iniluencc
tertsion
the
i.j
deercc
inherent
in
tn
which
high
individuals
diss-mance
may
are
be
nintnatcd
reduced
to
when
reduce ^oinpa-
nied by a high reward, l he reward acts tn reduce dissonance by increasing the consistency side some
of
fdnii
the
of
indnidual's
reward
or
balance
sheet
reniuneration
for
Because their
people
in
organiMiions
services,
employees
because
individual
often
are
gncn
can
deal
wich greater dissonaiKv on their jobs than off their jobs. These (lajice,
modemring
they
will
fflcrors
not
suggest
necessarily
diat
move
just
directly
toward
experience
consistency,
that
is,
dissotoward
reduction of this dissonance. If rhe issues uruicriy ing die dissonance are oi inininu! importance, if an individual perceives chat the dissonance is externally imposed and is subsundaily
uneontrolbbic.
or
if
rew
ards
arc
.significant
enough
to
effect
the
ol
cognitive
disso
nance, the indiindual will nor he under great tension to reduce the dissonance. H*hat nance?
It
are can
the help
ioral
change.
For
say
or
things
cheir say
do
anicude or
do.
importance,
in In
organizational to
predict
example, that
order addition,
choice,
and
if
implicanons
the
prupenUn*
individuals
contradict to
nuke
the
their
it
tu
the
the
personal with
dissonaiue
factors—the
theory
engage
required
compatible
greater
reward
are
of
in
b<xh
by the
attitude, ihe
demands they
the
ic
of
and their
will
lend
to
of
what
they
cognition
—after
greater
attitude
has
been
pressures
disso^ behavjob
to
mexlifr must
moderated to
by
reduce
IIK
dissonance. The Attitude/Bchavior Relationship Early research on (he relatiou-ship between attitiidcs and behavior assumed them to be causally related; (Jiat is. the ammdes people hold determine what thev do. Conmwn sense, tw. suggests a relationship. Isn't n logical itu.c people watch tclension programs .hey like or that employees tn- to avoid assignments they find discastefuP hehavSr?^ Ri‘"
relationship between attitudes and
ari^ X chall^ged by a review ol the research.-^ On the l«sis of an evaluI I .nvestigated rhe .\-B reiaiionship, rhe reviewer concluded that attitudes were unrelated to behavior or. at best, oniv sUghtly related More ^nt
research
has
demonstrated
that
there
is
indeed
a
measurable
r7h
J^W
modcMting contingency vanaNes are taken iim. consideration One A.ng that improves our chances of finding significant A-B relaoonshi« « the use of both specific attinidcs and specific liehaviors 1. i. .v
ywther moderator is social constraints on behavior r>i«cr««„,.;-. ««W1- beh„,„ .....
“
Chapter 2 hiundauons of Wividual Muvior K*ha**e in » vcrtain way hold cuxpunnal power. Gnxip pres^iurcs, fnr inaurKe. may explain why an cinpInyTC whn holds wmg anri-union attimdc!^ attends pnnunion oq^ni ring imn ings. Of tTmrsv. A and B may be at odds for other reasons, individtiak can and do hold amtradimory attitudes at a giv'cn time, though, toward
cxinsistcncy.
In
addition,
other
things
as we have noted, there are |>ressures besides
attitudes
influence
behavior.
But
ir is fair to say that, in spite of some arracks, most A-B studies yield positive resnJu— in other words attirudes
PERCEPTION P«rcq>lion
is
a
process
impressions
in
order
consistently
demonstrates
by
to
which
give
individuals
meaning
that
different
h)
organize
their
and
interpret
environment.
individuals
may
look
Research at
the
their on
sensory
perception
same
thing
yet
pen Give ir differently. 'I’he fact is dial none of us sees reility. Whai w-e do is inierprci what we see and call it reality. Factors InHuenung Perception How do wt explain rhe fact that people perceive the same thing differently? A number of fectors operate co shape and sometimes distort perceprion. These factors can reside ill the /irw/tvr. in the ubjeci or forger being pen:ei*ed, or m the context of the.t/nwnw in which the perception is made. W’hen 5e«,
that
an
individual
interpretation
indrviduai
perceiver.
looks
is
at
a
heavily
Personal
uiget
and
influenced
attempts
by
characteristics
the
ro
intcipret
personal
affecting
what
he
characteristics
pertc[Minn
include
tit
she
of
the
attitudes,
personality, motives, interesrs, past experiences, and expectations. Characteristics of rhe target being observ ed can affect what is perceived. T.xiud people
are
more
likely
citremely
attractive
or
isolatkm.
the
to
be
noticed
unattractive
relationship
uf
a
in
a
group
individuals.
target
to
than
Because
its
are
quiet
laigers
background
one*.
arc
inflornccs
not
So,
too,
looked
perception,
are
at
as
in
does
our tendency to group ckisc things and similar things together. I’he
context
in
which
we
see
objects
or
events
is
also
imponant.
The
time
al
which an oliject or event is seen can influence attention, as can location, light, heat, or any number of situational factors. Anribution Theory Mudi
of
cemed
the with
research human
on
pcrceptiiMi
beings,
so
is
our
directed
disnistion
at of
inanimate perception
objects. should
But
OB
fincus
is
on
cun-
person
pert eption. < fur
ix’rreptions of people differ from our pcrceptionv of inanimate obiecis such
as deUcs. machines, or buildings because we make inferences about rhe actions ol peo-
ple that wc don't nuke about inanimate objects. Nonliving objects are subject to rhe bws
that
when
we
obserse
people,
we
attempt
to
develop
explanations
of
why
they
behasc in certain wai^s, Our perception and judgmeni of a person s actions. therefiKe, «i8
hr
nal atau.
ugnifkandy
influenced
bv
the
assumptions
we
make
alxMit
the
person^
inter-
The Indieiduxl in d* . U k.u if-r-n i.rowKeJ VMleveh.pcxplnnatiotis ofhow we judge Attribution theoryrhiUKcn proppedu P |»ehavi<,r.2* people ddferen.ly Observe an individuS - behavior, we t
d
"tJS
Sdier
l«s
inb-lc
ii
internally or exten.aUy caused. That determn.a(p disb.ittivcness, (2) ronsens.is, and (3) CCMIdifference’ l>etween internal and external eausati-m,
attempt to
was
ihenebborateoiieachoftherhrcedeicnn.ningfactors.
,
eausetl behaviors are those believed to be under the personal control of the individual’-
eause.l behavior results from outside causes; that is, the per-
-sor is seen as forced into the behavior by die situation. If one of your employees was late tor work, you niitht attribute his l.itencss to his parrying into the wee hours ol the morning
and
then
oversleeping.
attribured
bk
road
regularly
he
arriving
laic
to
uses,
I'his a
thcu
wo.d.l
major yuu
he
an
internal
antvimuhilc
wuJd
be
interpretation.
.iccidcni
making
that
an
tied
Rut
up
external
if
you
traffic
on
artrilmtion.
As
obsen'ersv we have a i crulency to lu^ftunic dial others’ behavjiir is internally controlled, while we lend to exaegerate die degree to which our own behavior is cAtcrDaily determined, but Ais i$ a broad genera lira bon. There sbU exists a considerable amount of deviation in aiiribuiiun, depending on how wc interpret the distinctivem^ss, consen-
sus, and consisiency of the attic »ns. refers
tn
whether
an
individual
displays
different
behavaoi5
in
dif
ferent siruanons. Is the employee who arrives late today also (he source of complaints by co-workers few^ being a *gnof-off”? VVTiat we want to know is wheAcr Ais beiw'ior is unusual. If it is, ibe observa" is likely to give the behavior an external aiirihudun. If this action is not unwjiie, it will prolhibly be judged as internal. It even one why is faced with a similar situation responds in die same tray, we Our tardy cmjJtnxc’s l>chavior would meet
can say die behavior shows
this criterion if all employees who took the same route to work were also late. From an
attribution
pcr^^pective,
external
attrihiitioa
tt«k
same
ihc
to
route
if
consensus
the made
is
t.i
you
unliness;
employee’s ii
high
work
on
would
whereas
rime,
your
be if
expected uAer
conclusion
to
gis'c
employees
for
causadon
an who
would
be uitcrnal. Finally, an observer looks for awjiffoiry in a person’s acrioas. Does die person respond Ac same way over rime? Coming m 10 minutes late for stork is not perceived m Ac same way if tor one eniphn ee it represents an unusual case (she hasn't lieen late or several months) while for anodier ,t is part of a routine pAtten. (she is late tuo or consistent the behavior, the more the observer is inclined co attribute it to internal causes. I
he
behanors sinianonal course,
are
preceding not
amtett. the
It
explains
whar
,xr«.vedI
similarly.
you
a
instructor
have is
likely
you W’c
have look
reputation io
seen
is
al a
disregard
operaling
acnons good the
an,I
student poor
for
years
judge wt
exam
atinbute the cause <.f this unusual performance to external condiHnn ’ t
Aem
&il
one
M>hvS
AH
similar
uJthm
th^
test
in
a
IL
k
il
’u
your fault: (But the teacher is not likely to ignore rhe S '^rsl f has a cx.nMStent record of l«ing a |x»r performer.) Sinularlv. if eveTyX’iiTbTfT^) the test, the instructor might attribute the outuime to external causes under the students' own control He or she might coi.clude^r^" were p«.H, wr.nen, the n.mi was too warm, or that the students diS rtMiy prercqiuMtes.
'
Dcc«
Chapter 2 FoundaOons of Individual Behavior /\nt»thtr ittascs we
that
make
irnportanr
distort
iitrribuuons.
jtKlKiiinHs
esdntate
the
personal
factors?'^
finding
abmit
influence
of
from I’’or
the
is
instance,
bchfl^^o^
extern.11
This
attnbiirion
called
the
there
of
factors
theory is
people,
and
is
there
subsranttfll we
have
overestimate
fiioxiameatai
dial a
rhe
aic
or
evidence
that
when
tendency
ro
under-
influence
actritrution
errors
error
of
and
internal can
or
explain
uhV a sales manai^cr is prone to attribute poor pcrfoimancc of her sales agents to lazinew rather than to the in nova rive pr<xJact line introduced by a competitor. 'I'herc is also a rendenci’ for individuals to attribute their owrj successes to internal factors such as ahi I in' or effort while purring die blajxic for failure on external factors such as luck. This is c alled the self-serving bias and hugge?
performance
reviews
will
be
predicubly
distorted
by
recipients
depending
on
organizations.
For
M hether it is positive or negative.
Shortcuts to Judging Others Making
judgments
example, dves
managers
as<;e«
judennenes Some
about
nf
regubrlv
whether
about
others
these
done
ct’aluate
their
othen
is
the
co-workers
is
difficult
shurrcuis
are
all
the
performance
are
To
rime
jiurting
make
the
valuable—they
by
people
of
their
forth
task
allow
their
easier,
us
to
in
employees, fall
and
effort.
But
individuals cake make
ojiera* making
shortcuts.
accurate
perceptions
rapidly and provade valitl data foe making predictions. How'C\x*r, tiicy can also result in significant distortions. hl div i duals cannot assimilate all they observe, so they use selectivity. They take in data in bits and pieces. But these bits and pieces are not chosen randomly; rbey are selccovcly of
the
chosen
observer
depending
Selective
on
the
perception
interests,
allows
us
background, to
“speed
experience,
read’
others
and
but
aiiicudes
not
without
the risk of drawing an inaccurate picture. Its easy to judge others if we assume they are similar tx> us. Assumed similarity, or
the
“like
inc”
effect,
results
in
an
individual’s
perception
of
others
being
influented
more bj* what die observer i.s like dian by what the person being obscivcd is like. If you
want
challenge
the
same.
People
instances
when
and who
they
responsibility assume
iudge
that
in
your
others
someone
who
job,
arc
you
like
actually
maj’
assume
them
will
like
them.
is
be
rhar
right
The
others
only
rest
of
want
in
those
the
time,
they’ll be wrong. MTicn we judge someone on the ba.sis of our perception of the group to which he
or
more
she
belongs,
stable
wc
are
employees
using
than
the
singles”
shortcut or
called
“union
stereotyping.
people
expect
“Married
something
people for
are
nothing"
are examples of stereotypes, lb the degree that a stereotype is a factual geucralizarion, it
helps
in
making
accurate
judgmeiiis.
But
many
srcreotypcs
have
no
foundation
in
fact. In chest* latter cases, scereotypcs distort judgments. \N’hen we draw’ a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single duracteristic
such
ing,
unusual
ItX
hevcf an fact,
not
may
perceive
irrespunsihie the
happened
for a
pers«t
evulidatv n
intelligence,
that
may a
the
sociability, halo
sloppily whh be single
effect
dressed
an
or to
occur
candidate
unpnffesskinal
highl>*
appearance,
responsible,
for
a
arritude
halo
selection marketing
and
professional,
trait—appearance—has
the iuervicwer's general perception uf the individual.
during
a
effect interviews.
research
marginal and
overridden
is
other
An
inter-
position
abilities
competent.
operat-
when, VMiat
characteristics
as in has in
1
M
Part II
IV Inflividual >n the LEARNING _
..
,
The fin^l
.
If we .n explain, prj
= »™'S sin I
nV?^ew iat'its vs hal we
sSnuondv dehnX
>n.^r
of
IMXUTS
to
leaSai.
school." therefore,
Learning
is
.s
rekutely
any
going
on
helps
us
inodflte
.
do
wc
le^rn?
pAbihit
adjpt
ro.
nixsicry
chnneingcondidonSa
2-4
our we
,
siimmarixes
environment
become
the
permanent
as a ix'siilr (»f experience. How
all
A
change
m
more
that
, learningpnKess.
changing
responsible
acerate
l,ehav,or
. the
By
t.mc.
our
cai?.cns
hirsu
behavior
and
learning
to
accom-
prodnenvc
employ-
ees. But learning is built on ibc law of eftcct, which says that behavior is a fimciion of its
consequences.-^
Sclwtdor
that
is
followed
by
a
favorable
cunscqucncc
tends
to
EH;
re I >e a Led; behavior followed by an unfavorable consequence tends nor to be repeated. Consequence, (i.e.,
money,
approach,
in
this
praise,
you‘rt
temiincJogy,
promotions,
likely
to
a
refers
to
smile).
repeat
±ac
antihiiig
If your
boss
a
person
compliincurs
Conv’^rscly,
bchav-ior,
considers
if
you
you’re
on
rewarding your
sales
reprimanded
for
your sales approach, you’re less likely to repeat it. But the keys to the learning process arc the two theories, or explanations, of how we learn. One is shopsnjf and the other is WTien
learning
emfdoycc
takes
behavior
place
by
in
graduated
xweTnatically
steps,
reinforcing,
it
is
through
shaped. rewards,
Managers each
shape
successive
stepdiat moves the employee closer co the desired behavior. iMuch of our learning lias referring
to
’diaping- Wc try, wt fail, and wc irj- again. Through such series of uiaJ and error,
MX
been
done
master
by
skills
shaping.
such
as
M'hen
riding
we
a
speak
hicyxlc.
of‘"learning
plariug
a
by
mistakes,”
musical
w’c
instrument,
are
performing
basic
matheinadcal computations and answering multiple-choice qiiesmons on tests.' in addition to shaping, much of what we have learned is the rc:>ult of observing others process
and IS
modeling usually
our
behavior
after
slow,
modeling
can
them.
V^^ereas
produce
’""T
Xol nr?'
complex
the
trial-and-error
behavioral
learning
changes
quite
having aoubie in
doHTi pal. Then observe that person tn see what he nr she b doing that is diftrent from our ar^roach. If wc find some differences, wc incorporate S
EXHIBIT 2-4 The Leeming Process
.1
tha"
Chapte r 2 Vnun d atiens of Individual
Behavior
ior repcmiin*. If our perfonuanee impnives (a favorable t onseqiwnceh we’re likely to make » jK'niuntni change in our behavior tu reflect whnt we've seen w’ork for others. T he process i.9 tiie same at work as it i.s in school. A new employee who wants to IM? siiccesshil on her job Is likely to look for MJineone in the organization who is well respected and sijceesshjl and tlien try to imitate that persons hehavior. IMPltCATIONS FOR MANAGCRS
........ This ihein
chapter
together
;»n
introduced
several
dcinonscrate
their
psychological importance
for
concepts. die
Let’s
maniiger
now
who
is
put trying
to understand oF^aniz-aiis^nal behavior. Exhihir 2-5 suuun arizes our discussion of in dividual behavior. In verv siinplified
terms,
we
can
say
ih.li
an
individual
enters
an
organiz^uon
with
a
rela-
tive h' enu’cnchcd set of values and a tutu des, an
or
values,
she
attitudes,
enters
an
and
personality
organization.
I
low
arc
essentially
employees
ment (perception) will influence their level
“givens”
interpret
of mocivation (the
their
ai work
the
time
environ-
topic of Chapters 4
and 5). w hat they Icam on the job, and, evenmally, their iadiridual w ork beliavior. We’ve al«o added ahihry ni our model co acknowledge rhar sn in divid naPs behavior is influenced by die talents and skills that person holds when he or she joins the organization. Lcanting, of course, w ill alter this variable aver lirne.
Values Why
should
don’t
direcdv
So
know
a
manager
influence
ledge
of
seek
to
behavior,
an
individual^
know values
an
inditd
strongly
system
can
dual's
inllucncc piovide
values? a
insighr
Though
person’s into
his
they
atticudes. or
her
acQCudes. Given that people’s values differ, managers can use the Rokeach Value Sun-ey to evaluate job applicants anil tletemtinc if their values align with the
OCHIBIT 2-5 l^y Variables Affecting Individual Behavior
27
1
7fl Part II ITie todivirfual ir the OrparuMtinn * dominant values of the .tfgnnizanym.^ are likely m Iw higher XytL^^A^Xd and freedom is Iikeiy a S
m be
m
sive
satisfied dunng
4, ..mKirivet: s ncrfurm^Ticc and sanwction organization. For tance on imagination, independence,
with
an organization that seeks „ „„ ,nore likely to appreciate, evaluaie JKW-
if they perceive
the
selection
of
that they do
new
employees
fit. to
1 bs ar^cs for find
,ob
eon-
management
candidates
who
nor
only have rhe ability, expermnee, and mouvauor. (n perform, hut also J value system that is compaobk with rhe organization’s. In addition, while values are certainly not nnifnnn among individuals cl rhe same age the feet that people of toninion ages have similar experiences Translates into somewhat similar work values. This suggests tliat people of like gcneraiicms may find it easier to work together and help explain value conflicts among people different genera tii ms.
Attitudes Managers influence and
should
be
behavior.
absenteeism
resignations
interested
Satisfied tlian
and
hi
employees,
dissarisfiwl
alisences
their for
employees’ instance,
employees.
Given
down—especially
attitudes
have diar
among
lower
because
attitudes
rates
turnover
managers their
of
want
more
to
keep
productive
employees—they will want lo do diings that will generate positive job ararudes. Research on the sad section /productivity relationship has important ini plications for managers. It suggests that the god of making employees happy on the assumpaon that doing sc will lead to high productivit}' is probably misdirected. .WMgers would pel belter reMilts by directing rheir attention priinanlv to what help employees become more ptmlucrive. Suctebs-ful job perfonnancc shook! then lead ro feeling of accompJishmeni, increased pay, promotions, and other rewards— all desirable oi.tcoaies- -u^hicii then lead to satisfaction with the job, Atanagers should also be aw-are that employees will try to reduce cognitive dissonance,
More
required
engage
to
important, m
dissonance
activities
that
can
appear
be
inconsistent
odds with their attitudes, the pressures to reduce the lessened when the employee nemeive. ,k.. . beyond his or her control or if the rewards dissonance.
mana^l. to
If
employees
them
or^ibL
are
are
at
r resulting .l.ssonance are exremaliy imposed and sigruficani enough to offset the
Perception Managers need to recognize that reality. So whether a manager's appraisal of L, unbiased or whether the organization^ wa«e est in the industry is less relevant than what who perceive appraisals as biased or wage lev. k dmons acnially exist, regardless of reality mterprci what they see; inhereni in this proceJ dtsttirtion.
their
empt.„.c«
rear,
w. to
objective and ^t^tijally among the hifd»Individuals *'*^ ^**«'’«‘•’►if those cnorgumzc and '=* tl-e potential hw perceptual
Oiapter 2 Fnundarions of Individual Bchavi The message to mana^rs should be clear: They need t£> pay close attention to
hi***
emplovccs
perceive
both
their
jobs
and
managvment
practices.
Rememljcr,
Ac valuable employee who quits for an invalid reastjn is just as “gone” as one who quits r« a valid reason.
Learning The
issue
isn’t wheAer
employees
continually learn
on
the
job
or
not
They du!
The only issue is wdieAcr managers are going to let employee learning occur randomly
or
alkwate raises
whcAer
and and
Ae
they
arc
examples
pnunotions,
going
Aey
Acy
will
managers warn bchasnor
A,
but
find
to
employees
learning
to
set.
manage
If
learning—through
marginal
have
liede
employees
reason
reward behavior
engage
in
behavior
to
arc
die
rewarded
change
B, it sliouldn’t R.
rewards
Similarly,
rhcir
they
wiA
behavior.
sury>rue managers
Asm
pay If i«
should
expect that employees will look to them as models. Managers who are constantly late to w’ork, or take two hours for lunch, or help Aeinsch'cs to company office supplies
for
personal
use,
should
expect
sending and model Acir behavior accordingly.
employees
to
read
Ae
message
diey're
A a 4, * 1
CHAPTER 3 _________________________ _
Personality and Emotions After redding this chapter, you should be able to Descrioe inv eig^t cetegcnes m th? VBTl per$o
Orfferentlate from drsMyeO emotions
in
l^ttfy the six universal emotions Explain
differences
to
emotional
reactions
and
reacfing
otfien
Describe wys in which emotions influence work*related behavior
w
7.
gender
.npl..ye«
enter
the
orpnizadon
their personal,o« fave a
>tith
fairly
well-cstaWished
personalities.
.And
influence on their befavior « wort In this chap-
ter. wc mtrod^seAeral m^els for clasMhing p«^^sonaJiries <>t matching penonaijtv «ith |<>bs H) increase emnlnv^^ , to the topic of ent,U^.lc long
and
show
the -rc
importance **
behavior, we’ll show how etntfoons pit a I rrJe fo hl
*’! organizational “P*""
employee befavior.
PERSONALITY S,-ne
,w,.pk
are
quirt
and
passive;
others
are
loud
and
acBresatve
peciple in leni»> of chararteristitt such as quiet, passive Unal.,»
ouiaWc.
ue’re
categiHinng
them
»n.L
\
** d««ribe in
tern^rfL-^
’
ygieaMve.
uah p«>«.lity. ihercfurc. o the o^fanation yfy (hai twrvm
~
r’zwwigicU UWa wr lar tu d4»'
amhitMiin.
Chapt^ 3 PcrRonaliiy and K mo firms ITie Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
On thi; basis of’the aiisu^ers iiniivdduals give to the test, they arc clissified as extriH veruil or in cn> verted (K or I), sensing or intuitive (S or N), thinking or feding fl' or F), and perceiving or judging (P e»r J). These classifications arc then combined into 16 perwinalin* npes 7b illiHtrate, let’s take several examples. UsTJs arc risioouhes. They nsuallv have onginal mindK and great drive for rheir own ideasand purposes. They’re dnrartenzed
as
ricepucal,
critical
independent,
delerinined,
and
often
stubborn.
ESTIs
are organ iters. They’re praciieal. realistic, niaucr-of-f^r, wnrh a natural head for busincse- or mechanics, Thes* like ro organize and run acuviiies. 7'he F.NTP type is a conceptLializer. I le or she is quick, ingenious, and good Jt many things. 'This person lends tu be resource fid in salting challenging problems but may neglect murine assignments. A
snuf)-
MK’cesjsful
thai
finus
profiled
such
as
13
Apple
contemporary (Computer.
businesspeople
FedEx,
Hontla
who
.Morors,
created Abcrosoft,
superPrice
Club, and Sony found all I? to be intuitive diiiikers (NTs).“ I'his finding is particularly intcresoIig because rnniidvc thinkers represent only about 5 percent of ihc population. Wore than 3 million people a year take the AWTI in the United States alone. Organirdtions using die .MB71 include Apple Computer, AT&T, GE, Co., plus
The Big-Five Model
In recent years, an impressive bodv of research supjxircs that five basic personalin- dimensions underlie ail others. Fartr’in; in the Big Five Model are;
Cwfn«7rM/wB€.ty: This diniensiun is a measure olTdlability. highly consden-
Peoplc with peftitive emotional stabilit)* tend to be calm, self-confident, and secure. I hr we with highly negative scores tend tu be nervous, anxious, depressed, and insecure. Opmn^a tA exfffnenar. I'he final dimension addresses an individual’s range of inrerr
and
£ucinauon
with
noveln.
Ewemelv
open
people
are
ertadve.
curi-
ous. and artisdcally sensitive. Those at the other end «jf the openness categors’ are e<xivencKKial and find comftirt in the familiar.
iw Wkuto.1 in Ae <»rg»ni««.on
.
.
r^t Z nee^s architects, accountants, attorneys), pohce, managers, salesa„a s.,iea lr:S7>^xk
S
showed
Htat
ecnscenriousness
"'“"'iS otherp“?2.t'inv!L fomtance formance
occupations
involve
to
be
W^at
«asn
c
Intuitively, almost
and
managerial
found
it
all
occupational and
high
itnixiriant so
clear
tvould
jobs
job
perfor-
predictability^ depended on both the per-
criterion in
pre.hcted
in
whi'
Aat
people
people
who
who
arc
result
Similarly,
training
emotional
instance,
This
mteracuon.
predicting
was
For
positions.
social
seem
than
sales
group.
extrovcnion makes
sense
because
openness
to
experience
profiaency.
stalnlity are
anxious
which,
wasn’t
calm and
predKted
coo
related
and
to
secure
insecure.
seems job
would
I'hc
perthese was
logical.
perlomiancc.
do
belter
researchers
on
suggested
that rhe answer might be chat only people who score fairly high on emotional stability retain
their
whom
jobs.
If
that
were
is
true,
then
cmployeds
the
range
among
fcnil
to
would
chow
people
Iw
studied, ejuile
all
of
.^niall.
Other Kev Personalitv Attributes *• Six
addiuunal
penoiuUn
direct
relevance
locus
of
for
control,
axcributes
explaining
havY
and
.Macliiavcllianism,
been
predicting
idenrified behavior
self-esteem,
th^t in
appear
to
urganizadons.
self-monitnring,
risk
have I
nuire
hey
are
propensih;
and
*T>'pe A personalitv. Some
people believe they arc
masters of
their
own fate. Other
people see
them*
ticbes as pawns of fare, believing diar what happens to them is due to hick or chance, l/xnis of concrul in the first case is intcniab these people believe the>’ cx^trd their destiny.
Those
who
see
Hwir
life
as
being
conUoIltd
b\'
outsiders
are
externals.
The
cvi-
dence shows dur employees who rate higli in externality are !c« Mtisfied with their jobs, mure alienated from die work setting, and Ir-ss involverl in their jolis than are internals. I*
5
*J•
•
a pKjr pcrtbrrnance evahiution
on their bosss prejudice, their co-workers, or other events outside their control. Intern^ would probably explain the same evaluation in tenns of their own actions Machiavellianism (Mach) is named after N.ccolu Maduavelh who wTote m the sixteenth centun- on how to gam and u.sc power.
.nd>v.dualI cxhihicing strong .Machiavellian tendencies is manipulative
maintains emounnal dtstance, and believes that end.s cat, justify means Tf n worb use It is consistent with a high Mach pcispective. Not surnricT,„l. \ L t nii>re likely to engage in Iw-havi.ir that is cthicallv nu«M ^ki E Do Hgh Machs make good employees? That answX X^s on tJe n" f 1
1
whether you consider cihicai implications in evaluatinr^erfJin^ require bargaining skills (such as labor negotiator) or wL"^ " rewards for winning (as in commissioned sales), high Machs will “c the ends can't jusbf) the means nr if rhere are no ahsolum our ability to predict a high Mach^ perfoniiance wilt be i People difter ,n the degree to which they |,ke or di.slikTl* L'ullcd acK-e^teem. Resr-jnh finds dim
' ptoduccivc. But it performance. Tb«s trail i»
directly
chapter su
Pei»ple
with
sbiliA
rhn’
Aftxx
5Aisceptibilii5
external
need
in
from
and
are
arc
high
others
and,
terms
of
to
are
and
a
to
ai
therefore,
are
work.
with
SEs
result,
they
arc
low
likely
more
take
evidence
has
SK
arc
on
rhe
likely
will
tend
dwt
they also
ing
you
their
behavior
monitoring. enrh'm
High
dificrent
to
and
ever
They
nodec to
that
some
changing
situations?
.self-monitors
are
siniations.
hey're
1
people
Thu
sensitive
hide
rheir
true
selves.
On
display
their
true
dispositions
are
much
i-s
to
bciier
because
external
cues
chameleons—able
to
the
low’
other
and
hand,
actinides
in
score
and
can
change
co
of
those
they
respect
be
concerned than
arc
arc
more
at
adjust-
high
in
self-
behave
di
Her-
In
sclf-ninnirors
every
the are
hiniation.
'I
situation consistent.
hc
evidence
suggests that high self-monitors tend ro pay closer artendon to the behavior of others and
are
tend
to
more be
capable
better
at
of
conforming
playnng
than
low*
organizational
self-raonitors.
politics
because
High
self-monitors
thcy'ie
sensitive
also
to
cues
high
risk
and can put on different “faces” for different audiences. People propensity
differ
make
in
their
more
rapid
choices
than
individuals
tinn
align
employee
a
to
high
trader other
a
hand,
accountant
brokerage this who
with
risk
risk-taking firm.
personality jicrfonns
to
decisions low
propensity’
risk-taidng
in
willingne.ss
lake
and
This
lead
type
with
to
of
chaj-actcristic
auditing
use
less
propensity.
prnjiensiry
may
chances.
more
information
in
might
prove
rapid to
latter
might
be
job
use
a
making
their
this
infouna-
demands.
For
instance,
performance
for
a
job
effective
demands
This
with
specific
job
actirities.
Individuals
Alanaffers
decision
making.
a
obstacle
major
might
be
stock
On
better
the
for
an
filled
by
someone with a low risk-taking projjensjty Do you know people w'ho are excessively coinpennve and always seem ro be e.vperiencing a sense of time urgency ? If you do, ifs a good bet that those people have a
Type
A
personality.
Type
.As
are
characterized
by an
incessant
struggle
to
achieve
more and more in less and less tinte. They’re inipaiicnt. cope poorly with leisure time, and
create
a
life
of
self-imposed
deadlines.
Tn
North
AmcricaJi
culture,
such
charac-
teristics lend ro be Eighh’ prized and positively associated with anibition and the successful workers.
acquriiiion They
demonstrate
their
of
material
emphasize
goods.
quantity’
competitiveness
hy
In
terms
over
of
work
quality.
In
long
hours
working
beha^nor,
Type
managerial and.
not
2^
are
fast
positions,
Type
infrequently,
mak-
ing poor decision* because they' make them too last, lype .A^ are also rarely’ creative. Because of iheir concern with quantity and speed, they rely <jn past experiences when faced with problems. They will not allocate the time necessary n> develop unique srdutiuns to neu problems, li appears that the Type A personality* is more likely to lead to hi^
perfortoance
in
jobs
such
as
sales
than
it
docs
in
senior
executive
Personality and National Culture IXi personality* frameworks, like the Big Five model, transfer across cultures? Are dunensams such as focus of cuntrd and the Type A personality relevant in all culmres? I^i oy u> answer these que&uorw.
4
positive from
orhers
they
susceptible
approval
positions.
witli high
31 the
found
seek
SEs
than
Ix^en
of
their jobs than are low SEs. Did
Emoboru possess
more
receipt
stands
high
and
ti>
tn
unpopular
indicates
that
(SEj
behaviors
SEs
to
low
depend
torheheliefrand
positions,
the
People
Personality
believe
Self-esteeiTi
Low
less
sati^fjcrion,
instance*
SEs.
conform
managerial
for
influences.
high
In
job
Hutvecd
as
prone
SEs.
seif-esteem,
outside
than
more
others
order to
influences
uations
high
3
tn to eval-
others than pleasing
SEs.
sadsficil
In with
Ilic IndividuaJ in Gr^jniauor J . f J Hiff Five model appear in aJm*j« rhe five penonalir>'fACiors iden ic „( (.ulnire', --nuch as China. cToss-tulrural studies I his invutes a * Pakistan, and the United States. b,.d, Jup.n. Diflfinwccs rend tosurbte > t c tn p Ac c«ep.ry
Chine-M- fo. e»...plc, us. rateporv of agrccahlcntss h.gh amount of agreenwn,.
i^iiXSTirum dex^elopcxl countries. As □ «« m point a wrapre o%tudi« cmenng people from rhe l.-n.mn Etirope.n (^mun.ty found *« cmsc-ient.ousness was a vahd predictor of pcrfonnnnce across pbs and occutoriond eroups.^ Thts Ls exactly whar U.S. studies have found. There insanix.
are
find
infiuejiccs
nn
high
the
common
and
lou
dominant
pcrsonalit)’ in
n.k-takers
personal
ir>’
types
tar
almost
a
any
cbarattcristics
given
country.
cultufv.
Yet
a
You
can,
country’s
of
its
pnixilaaon.
we
can
terms
of
people’s
relationAip
Amenca,
people
for
culture
see
this
to
their
by looking at locus of control and the lype .A personaiity. There
B
environment/* they
can
Eastern to
evidence
that
some
cultures,
in
dominare
countries,
internal
portion
and
of
their
believe crtcmal
internals
cultures such
as
envirnnment. that
lite
IOCILS
in
differ
is
of
the
m
those
in
North
People
in
other
essentially
ixintrol.
American
We
preordained.
should
anil
societies,
Canadian
such
Notice
expect,
the
therefore,
workforce
believe
than
that
as
Middle
close
parallel
a
larger
in
the
proSaudi
Arabian or Iranian workforce. Tlie
prevalence
of
Type
A
personalities
will
be
somewdiai
influenced
by
the
cul-
ture in which a perMin grows up. There are Jypc As in every' country, but there v.'ill lie more
in
capitalistic
ued.
For
instance,
lation
Ls
(.anada stress as
Type
boih
countries, it
is
A<’
hai’e
a
and
estimated
pcrcenage
high
emphasis
and
France,
achievement
that
I’his
acaimplishfiKIlls
Sn-eden
where
about
acquisition
where
50
shouldn’t t>n
rime
of
and
percent
be
of
is
and
less
success the
surprising,
management
money
maierialism
inatehal
tvig+ily
American
United
efOdcncy.
material
revered,
North
The
and
are
goods.
In
wc would
popu-
States
Both
and
Cultures
cultures
predkr
val-
such
a
smaller
logic,
effriris
proportion of Type A personaJiiiei*. Matching Personalities and Jobs Obviously, have
been
personality «
individual made |ol>fit
employees
personalities ,o
match
Aeon,
,s
saosfeetion
with
Si:” Mx n
differ.
So,
personalities
too, with
do
the
the
mx-personality-types
and
propeasity
to
jobs.
leave
Following
proper model his
.<
this
jol«. This her
The
model job
Researched states
depend
on
that the
persondity matches his or her occupatio^l environ-
tarns
--
like or dislike, and their answers Ire used to fo^^ procedure. research suonglv supptnis the hesaXfd^Za lire shows that the doser L fieiX or trv highly dissiinihr Uliat does >11 ihw me*n? I he iheon argues nimover UiweM when fiersonaiity and iiccupatinn are in
‘"V'’ wxw rfiagonally ufip
Chapter 3 Pervonulity and F.mooona
EXMWf
Hofland's Typology of ^sonalily and Sample Occtnations
_______________ Rralbear: Pre fen phyticel iHriTies that require stcill. strength, ami c«H»rdjnaOoo Imxatifiim PrefiBn M*nM(»c> invoking thinking, onraniring. and umferstindjfig Social: Prrh pi acnriboihst mtTvkc helpiog and deteJopiiig others CnaventionaJ. Preten rule* re/ulaml, urderi); and nnambipHMK actirioes Enterprising'. Pre^n v’crhal aemme^ an which there «v oppcartii nines to influence others and anam pow er Arisbe Prefers ambiguous and unsy^matic activihcs diat allow creative evpression
Personality Charactcristk<
Sample Occuparioos
Shy. genuine, persistent, staWc.
Mechanic, drill press open ror, a«c(nb|y«1inc worker, fanner
CiiO6irming, practical i\fMl>*t)tal, originaL curious, independent
Djolfjgist, economist. fDJthenuQcUn, nei^'i r^orcer
Socialdc. friendly, erxiperaiivc, undemanding ^^vnfrjrmtng. efficient, practical, unimaginaiive. inflexible Self "Confident, amhiooua, energetic, domineering
Social work LT. tdcher. counselor, cbnical psych olcgist Accnuni am, rtr JH irai e mina^. b&nk celter, file dcrk Lavycr. real mare public rdaikfOa speualial. small business manager
I magi nah ve, Painter, musician, writer, interior liecnrarnr disorderly. idcalisQc. etnotionsl. imprachcaJ SMca BaM on J.t HoHan^. Uafcm^ UXMMMT Cnoees. A ^mry Qt incatroMi ^rsonMrMs and Ut* &?wlnxmePts. 2nd
M.
Saddle fine. NJ: P<Mce Hau. 19BSK
EXmiT 3-'2 Hexagonal Diagram tii the Relationship among Occupational
.5
(Q
ArtitPe (A)
Cemmionaf
Personality Types
-nKb„lkidu#llnthenrp»mr»t'.in In should
he
in
jobs,
jsric person in a realnn*.’
convmmn‘ ’
torth. A realsituation
J* . . •
an invfsripiivc job. A realistic pereon i ■. nonpr^sibk. The key points of tbs m.HJel
than
a
realiadc
person
ifi
^he most incimp-ucnt snua-
,j) there do appear to he intrinsic J,
personality di.ferences among .nd.«dna s. < J
,htmld be wore
”;S?."nlS:tardy -han pe.>plc in mcongmeo, io...
EMOTIONS (>n Dcceinlxr 26. 2(Klft, a 42-ycar-olil software tester al a Boston-are.i Internet ctinsulrinc firm walked into his place ,>f work. zVmed witli an AK-47 assatilr nfle, a sly.tgun, and a wmiatnomaue handfim, he killed seven of his co-workm. hor dus worker, anger had led to violence. Going on a shooting rampage ar work is in exirccnc example, but it does dramadmllv illusrraie rhe rheme nt this section: Emotions arc an important factor m « empJoyee behavior. Given rhe nbviwis role rfiat emotions play in our everyday life J t might surprise ^'ou tn learn that, until ver^* recently, the topic ol emotinns had been given little or no aucruion wirhin rhe field of OB J low couJd this!«? Wc can offer n**o possible e>pla[uuons. ITic fir-vt is the myth of rativfiulityy Since the late nineteenrh century, orgailira dons have been esscnnally designed with the objective nf trying to control
emo
tiOQS. It wax twlieved that a weU-rim organization was one thatsuccessfiillv elJniinavcd fruscradon. anger, love, hate, joy grief and similar feelings. Such emotions were seen as die antidwiis nf radonality. So alAough researchers and managers knew Aat emotions were an inseparaWe pan of everyday life, they’ tncil ro create organizadons that were emodnn free. That, of conrse.
not possible, llic second foelor that acted ro
WTIS
keep emntions nut of OR was the belief that rmoiionf of any kimi t’.vrr ihstuptiVf When
emotions
wure
considortd,
the
dix-u.'.sion
focused
on
strong
negative
eian-
ti.m.s- -«peaally anger-chat inierfertxl with m c..,p|oy-cc\ abilitv to do his .«■ her itJ, c^-nvely. Emonoas were rarely xiei^ed as hving conscnjoive or able ro stimulate penonnanr^-ejihancing behaviors. Certainly some enwuons.
partclariy
when
reduce employee pcrlormance. Rut this
exhibited
at
the
wning
time,
can
change the reality that^ mplovees
bnng an emoBona! component with them lu work ei-en- dav and rE« ,n IS complete without txmsidermg the role of eiuotioui in
wo^bce
J'n# Itehavior. ’
'
WTiat Are Emotions? Akhoi^h w donV want to obsess ^miit definiooiis he&w „ analysis, st need to clarifr three tern, and aniuiZt. Afffct b a generic terui that covers a broad ran«. f_« ence. Il’s an umbrella concept that erwompasses both PT * are intense feelings that are directed at .mXne ZT
that
are
. , clriLe^^le^“"t'"'T ,r^/, nwoMofl.'. people expen
fwlings that tend to be lea intense than ciiiotiorts, and th^U^jL^ ’ *^"**'>- •"ood* •'f' Emotioiisarereactiof»h>anobie«.niaatrai(
«‘">nlu'
ywir emotrnrs wlwn jtxi re “haRjy about wwnetbinif
. kbu sh. .u
S- ’WMsome.^c, .rfM.rot
Chapter 3 Persaiulity aad Kmotnu M<xMk on the other hand, aren’t directed Jt an obievt. Emotion!^ can him into moixK when \*
related
affect-term
chat
is
gaining
increasing
importance
in
organ!
rarional
behanur is emotiunal labi^r, E\ en* emploj ee expends phx’sical and mental labor when they
put
their
jobs
also
nonally
require
desired
tional for
bodies
labor
are
ex
with
“charge
the
that
co-workers. troops,”
tive
job
the
to the
expected,
component
see
devcloj^d today,
capaliilities.
labor.
during
petted
But
You’re
actions donal
emotions
neutral. job.
every
cognitive
emotional
originally
instance,
tiunall)*
and
in
rclauon
be
chccrlu).
conc*epr leaders
great
stirs
feelings
in
performance
importance has
given
into
their
employee I’he
service
jVrlinc
be
jobs,
counselors labor
expected
speech,
to
for
/\s
emorinnal
of
not
as
a
doctoi^ co
a
this
emoalmost
in
emotional
in
emo-
attendants,
hostile
contains
proceed
of
relevant
on
uisunce.
labor
understanding
draw
wx-
and
most
organita-
Hight
sad.
and
But
concept
seeiiis
courteous
job.
expresses
transactionsJ^
einodonal
others,
of
an
funeral
to
arc
every
increasing
when to
of
example,
Almo-U
that
is
interpersonal
for
And
This
respectively,
inter-
labor
to
strong
cmo-
section,
you’ll
key
component
of
a
heightened
relevance
emotion
effec-
within the field of OB. Felt versus Displayed Emotions Emotional exhibit
labor
creates
emotions
that
dilemmas
are
for
incongruous
employees w
ith
their
when actual
their
job
feelings.
requires
Not
them
to
surprisingly,
tiiis
is a frequent occurrence. For instance, you may find it very
at
work.
someone
Mayl»e
has
said
yon
consider
ncfidve
things
someone’s alwtui
you
personality behind
abrasive.
your
back.
.Maybe
yoo
Reganlless,
your
job requires you to interact with these people on a regular basis. So you’re forced to feign friendliness. It can help vnu to berrer understand emotions if you separate them into fch versus
Felt cmocions arc an individual's acTual emotions. In contrast,
emodoos in
a
are
those
job.
nicj-’re
givxn
that not
arc
organizatiunally-requircd
innate;
they’re
learned.
‘’The
and
considered
ritual
look
of
delight on rhe free of the first nmncr-up as the rww' Aiiss .Americt is announced is a prcxluct of the display rule that losers should mask their sadnes.s with an cKprcsswn of fi*
the
Winner."*
bimilarlv.
tDost
of
us
know’
that
wc
are
expected
m
act
sad
al
funerah regardless of whether we consider the person’s death to be a loss and to pre-
KwJ to be happv at weddings even if wc don’t feel like celebrating?^ Effri*tive roan•ftn
h«T
naluatHm
learned and
to
to
lie
cover
up
serious their
when anger
gning when
an ^ev’ve
einplo\*ec bwn
a
passed
negathx over
fur
pcrfuniiancc promotion.
And the salesperson w ho hasn't learned to snuic and appear friendly, regardless of his «»r her true feelings at the momenu isn't giing to last long on most sales jobs. The kev* point here b that felt and displayed enuitions are often diftcrent- I» freu mans peo^e have problom w*orinng with others simph* bet'ause they naivdy ••me that the onoonm thes* see ochen display is what those others acniall}' fret
Th» w pmeuUrH* true in oqtaniaatKau, in which role denunds and sicuatiofu dUB pcxiple tai nhdMt eniou«ul behaviors that mask their true feelings.
Individual in Orgiwratinn The Six l^nivenal Emotions Hniii and define the fundamental
or
basic set of
.ni^rsal emt.™ ange. fo.n
happ).
'JS T-t Sri that these six emotions can be conc^ahz^ « existing .
^n.u.,o Tile closet any wo emotions are to each other on this contm-
uu"m
irmore
“r^-cntlv
people
nnsuken
are for
likely each
to
eonh.se
other,
them.
whde
For
happiness
fused. bl addition, as we'll elaborate on later m
instancy, and
ihese
disgust
,
six
basic
emotions
-surface
and
are
suriinse
rarely
con-
tbrs secUon, cultural factors can also
influence interpretations. Do
happiness
in
the
,
workplace:-
,
.
.absolutely.
I
get
after receiving a poor performance appraisal, l/ear that 1 could he laid olf as a resuh of a company cutback. I'm ritd about one of my coworkers leaving to take a new job in
another
city.
Fti.
h/pp}
after
being
selected
as
I’m
cmployee-of-thc-month.
disgusted with the way my supervisor Ueats women on our team. And I'm sirrprisetl to find
out
that
management
a
plans
complete
restructuring
of
the
company’s
retire-
raent progmin. Gender and Emotions It's
wddy
that
they
issumed react
that
more
women
are
emotionally
more
anil
arc
*in
touch**
l)erter
able
with to
their
read
feelings
emotions
than in
men—
others.
Is
there any truth to these assumptions? The to
evidence
emotional
expression quently men,
reactions
than
express
women
does
men*^; both
also
confirm
and
abilih'
they
experience
jxisitise
repon
differences
more
and
to
read
others.
emotions
negative
coinfofi
between
in
more
emotions, expressing
men
and
Women
women
show
intenscl>';
anil
except
anger/'
emotions.
Fin
when
greater they In ally,
itcumo
emotional more
fre-
contrast
to
women
are
better at reading nonverbal cues than are nien.-^ V^'hat explains these difference^? Three possible answers have been suggested, One explanation is the different waw men anil wwnen have been socialued.’^ Men arc taught to be tougii and brave; show nig emotion is inconsistent with this Women, on the other hand, are socialised to be Jiurwring. This mav account for die percepuon rh« women are gcuerally warmer and friendlier than men For instance, women arc expected to express more poaiove ennmons on the fob (lor example, l>\ smiling) Aan men, .nd ihe>- do,-’ A second explanation is that women mav have morv innate ab.bnjo read others and present ilieir emoiion, than do
Thirdlv,
uxmHm ouy have a greater need for social approval and, thus, a higher pro,wn.sitv to mow |xjsit I VC emotions such as happiness, o r- i
EXHIBIT 3*3
Emotion Continuum
Chapter 3 Pcrsi>nd»ty and EmoGcjm KoHUkMis and National Culture C^uJiunl n<M*iiis in the U nited Si»u*s dkiatc that cniph»yee^ in seivice organizanons sKudJ Miiilc and
an
friendly when interacting widi
cusunneniz
this norm doesn’t
But
epph* wnrIJu ide. In Israel, •amling by supennarkvl eu^iien* is seen as a >ign of inevperi* eftce. sn caJiiers are encouraged to look somlier.-^ In Moslem cultures, stiiilbg is frequently taken as a sign of sextial attraction, so women are socializetI not to sinile at nwn.^ I'he above examples ilhtstrate the need to consider cultural factors as influeacing what is or isn’t considered cinotionally appropriate. VVTiai's acceptable in one culture iiwv seem exircniclv unusual or even dysfunction a I in aniither. ,^d cultures differ in terms of the iiiicrpretaoo:i dwy gn e to emotions. Inhere lends to l»e high agreement on what cmnrions mean C’lffewt cultures bur not Ixwrrn. For instance, one study asked Americans to match f^ial expressions with the sir universal cmoboiis. I’he range of agreemenr was l)crwecn H6 and 98 percent. V^Tien a group of Japanese were given rhe same task, they correctly labeled cmly surprise (with 97 percent agrecTncni). On the other five emotions, their accuracy ranged from only •“ to 70 percent. Tn addition, studies indicate that some cultures lack words for such standard emotions o-s aHX'kly,
or gt/ih. I'ahidans, as a case in point,
don't have a word directly equivalent ro ?ia
inteliigence
intelligence}^
{FT)
refersi
to
an
assortment
of
nuncognitivc
skills,
ca pa bill tics, and competencies th ar influence a jxrson’s abibty' to succeed in coping with enrironmenul demands and pressures. It’s composed ol fitr dimensions: Se^'-aiTtfrene^. The ability* to he aware of what you’re feeling. The abilitv to manage ime’s own emorions and impulscs. Solf-memvrim. I'hc ability to persist in the ^cc of setbacks and failures. Empathy. The ability* to sense how others are feeling. Saaai rkilis. The ability to handle the emotions of others. Several studies suggest that El may play an ivn|>orunt role in job performance. For inMance. one stuily liMiked ar rhe characwmiics of Bell I,ah engineers who were rated as stars by their peers, I’he vienrisw concluded that stars were better at relating to i
vrudy
of
Air
MOS
KI. not jvadexiuc IQ, that characterized high performers. A
Force
recruiters
generated
similar
findings.
T»j>-performing
texTuters exhibited high levels of FI. Using these findings, die Air Force revamped its vrfceikm ***•*
enteria.
.A
follow-up
mvesnganon
found
that
future
hires
who
lud
high-KI
T.6 rimes more successful than those who didn't. The anplntHJosi from the initial evidence on El as that eni|)l(nvrs shrmld consider
«»a
m aekvodo, cspeciaJly in i<4w that demand a high
of auaal imeracriofi.
« Partll 1T«lnd.v,.W,n«hcOrK.ni«u..n
nal .ppn«ch« to the nndy of
Dcn«(>n Making As you’ll dedsMin making in <)rgar«MtKJn>h.n
hean"
1
well
as
Xsses
in
making
“the
hea^i-’
decisiotxs.
rationality They have Awnplayu.l, fr|,^cradon», <>uln», «n
People
Failure
use
to
emotions
incorporate
as
well
emooons
as
raUonal
into
the
wd
.nnnuve
study
of
deca-
point,
wc
want
Son processes will result in an incomplete (and ollen inaccurate) new of the process. Modvarion
We
ourdy
inrmducc
to
ll
discuss
uiutjvatlon
idea
that,
in
like
Chapter*^ deasion
4
and
inabng,
5.
the
At
this
dominant
approaches
to
the htwly of moavanon reflect an uverrationalized view of individuals. Moavation
Aeorics
basically
propose
that
individuals
“are
motivated
to
the
extent
diac their l>ehanor is expected to lead to desired outcomes. The image ts dial of rational exchange;
the
fordi/’^But of
cmphivee
people
situations
essentially
aren’t
are
cold,
lilled
with
trades
unfeeling emodonat
eftbri
for
m.ichines. content
pay,
security,
Their
(hat
promotions,
perceptions
significandy
and
and
so
cakulurinns
influences
h(M
much
effort they exert. Aloreover, people w ho are highly motivated in dieir jobs arc eniod<mally
committed.
People
who
ue
engaged
in
their
wtjrk
“fieoKne
physically',
cognidvel),
and cmobonalh' immersed in the expcnence of activity, in the pursuit of a goal.”’ ' Are all people cinodonally engaged in their wx>rk? Nn! But many are. And if we focus only on radonal calculations of inducements and cemtributions, we ftil co be able to
ejqjbin l)eha\iors
such
as the
individual
who
forgets to
have
dinner
and works late
into the night, lust in the thrill of her work?^ Leadership nons.
We’ll
The
ability
discuss
the
to
lead
ioi>ic
others of
is
a
leadership,
hindaniental in
deiwh,
in
quality
sought
Chapter
10,
b)-
organiza-
Here,
however,
we bnefly introduce how cmouons can be an integral pan of leadership Effr^e leaders aJtnust all rely on the expressiou of feelings to help convev their messages In fact the expression of emouons in speeches is often die mocal element rTT h
or «)«dng a leader’s message. “When leaders fed
’ active, they may be more likely to energize nates and convey a sense of ethcacy. competence, optimism, and enjoyment ”
(.orporate execuoves know that cmoiiiKial content is^i.i.Il i buy into their vision of their comnunyk h,t.,r,. are offered, especially w hen they cult to accept. So when effective leaders warn rely on “die evocation, framing, and mobdizatir, mms and linking them to an appealing vi«on lead managers and employees alike will accept change latctpersofiAl Conflict Kew tMues are mure * tuple of uiterpcr»onal conflict. KS'henevcr vonflicu emuaofts are also surfacing. A manajter’s sutress w ofcm lane^y due to his or her ability to idamA,
tlieir
subordi-
/ if employees arc to new visioitf '* significant changes, they " * ’’x arousing eiwmvreasc the likelihiMsd that emcxions dun rhe certain ihJt resrdve conflicts, in Uvx enumunal elements m the am-
Chapter 3 Per&ucaJity and Emotions flirt
and
n>
pvt
ager
who
and
taxk-hxuseil
Deviant
thv
ipiorvs
vonOieting
the
em
oh
concerns,
Workplace
parties
on
is
al
work
elements
unlikely
Behaviors
tn
to
Negative
through
in
be
conflicts,
very
emudons
their
focusing
effective
can
einadons
lead
And
singularly
in
resolving
to
a
on
those
number
of
workplace Ixhanon*. .An\*onc who has spent much time in an organization rcalizet^ that people often engage
in
voluntary
organization,
its
actions
members,
that
or
violate
both,
established
’fhese
norms
actions
are
aJld
called
that
threaten
employee
the
deviancc.^^
'I "hey fall into categories such as pnxIucKon (e.g., leaving early, in tc mi on ally working slowly);
property
workers):
and
these
deviant
For
(e-g
»
personal
wutance,
stealing,
aggression
behaviors
envy
sabotage);
is
an
(e.g.,
sexual
can
emotion
political
that
(e,g.,
harassment,
be
traced
txturs
when
gossiping verbal
to you
blaming
abuse).
resent
co-
Many
negative
of
emotions.
someone
for
hav-
ing sontething that you don’t, and which you strongly desire. It can lead to inalicicnis deviant
behaviors.
“backstabbing”
Envy,
and
for
other
example, forms
has
of
been
found
political
to
be
behavior,
associated
negatively
with
hostilitv,
distorting
others’
successes, and posirivelv distorting one’s own accomplishments.'^
IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS
Personality 1 he major value of a manager’s understanding person a lit)’ differences probably lies
in
selecdon.
You
are
emplw'ces
if
consideration
ble
In
additic^i,
jobs.
likely is
there
to
given may
have to
be
high
er-performing
matching
other
personality
benefits.
For
and ttpes
more-satisfied with
instance,
compati-
managers
can
expect that individuals with an external locus of control may be Jess satisfied with their jobs than internals and al«) chat they may be less willing ro accept responsibility for their actions.
Emotions Emotions
arc
cn
ignoring
the
individual
behavior
as
It,
“You
can’t
emotions
from
is
in
a
natural
part
of
emotional if
divorce
it
an
individual’s
elements
were
emotions
people.Managers
in
make-up.
V^Tiere
organizational
completely
rational.
As
from
the
workplace
who
understand
behanor
one
and
yon
role
aptly
can’t
of
often
assessing
consultant
because
die
managers
put
divorce
emotions
will
significantly improve their ability to explain and predit t individual behavior. Do emotions affect job fwrformance? Yes. I’hcy can «speaalJy part,
tn
negative to
perfonnance. Mng
as
keep
emotions. emotions
Hou.*
modvatoni
That’s
out
Two
way's.*-
to
higher
of
the
First,
probably
workplace. emotions
pcrfonnance.
performance,
why Bur can
Second,
organizations, emotions increase
for
can
also
arousal
emotional
the
labor
most
enhance
levels,
thus
recognizes
the
tnanrational
conflicts. deviant
•.1 > *•<
1
CHAPTER 4 ___________________________________
Basic Motivation Concepts After resding this chapter, you should be able to 1. Outline the basic motivation process
wN
Describe Maslow s hierarchy of needs theory Contrast Theory X end Theory Y
4. Differentiate motivators from hygiene factors 5. list The characteristics that high achievers prefer in a job 6. Surnmanw the types of goals that increase performance 7. Contrast reinforcement and goal-setting drearies i. Explain epurty theory 9. Clarify the key relationships In expectancy theory
eferring to their son or daughrer oarrnr^ k.„.,
R
■. • r “‘’”7years char tr has
achieved the sums of a cliche' "1lc/«Es k him^K-rself^ Few of us .orkro, or Xjhut jus, won’t apply
to dur. riiitrnas tdisoii underxx>red his K-l’i -f '
ol us will admit
achievij,g success when he said that “Ecnin. k r. persptration.” The fact is that some woX 'nJividuals of lesser abilkv c pfted counterpam. For this reason, an individual52rf depjmds not only on abdity but on mtmvacion as Lp explan^ons of why some penpk exert more clW, .2^ • neat
chapter,
non techniques.
we
II
budd
on
these
‘"'P-irtance of hard wort fi» “^P'ration and W percent "•“« than othtl.dr more -«herwnse fmsiden vanous expiana.ions
tTd^^i
’•*"
othc«.
In
a vark-ty of apidied nwmva-
the
rz
Chapter 4 nasic Moriration CoueepH O \5’HAT IS MOTIVATION ? We
nught
dcGne
inohvation
in
terms
uf
some
outward
behavuir.
People
who
are
mori\*atcd exert a greater effurt to perform than chose ^vho are nut motivated. Bur such a definition is relative and Iclls us little. A more descriptive but less su bate reive definition would say that motivation is the willingness to do something and is conditioned by this aeaonk ability* to satisfy some need for the individual. A need, in oui icnninology,
means
outcomes
appear
unsatisfied
need
a
phv'siological
attractive. creates
This
tension,
or
psychological
motivabon
process
wliidi
mu
sH
I
deficiency can
IK*
arcs
that seen
drives
makes in
certain
Exhibit
witliin
the
4-1.
iudivid’
lul. These drives generate a search co find parocular goals that, if anained, will satisfy the need and lead to the reduction of tension. .Motivated einployees are in a state ut tension. In order to relieve this tension, they engage in acoxity. The greater the tension, the more activity will be needed to bruig utout relief l'herefr>re, when we see employees working hard at some acrivdty, wc can conclude they are driv'en by a desire to achieve some goal they value.
* 3 A
EARIY THEORIES Oh MOTIVATION
The decade of the 1950s was a fruiTful period in the development ot motivation eon«pb
Three
specific
heanly attacked known
and
explanations
theorie.^ their lor
were
formulated
validity called
employee
into
morivanon:
during
diis
question, the
period,
are
which,
probably st
hierarchy
of
needs
chough JI
the
theory,
now best-
Theory
X and The Of)’ Y, and the two-ft ctor theory. VVe have aiitce developed more vah
diev repre.scnt
grown,
(2)
and
practicing
a foiin managers
clarion
from w’hich con
regularly
use
these
temporary theories hav’e
rheoiies
and
their
temiinolo’
gies in explaining employee motivation. Hierarchy of Needs Theory lt\
probably
Maslow's
safe
to
hierarchy
say of
that needs
the
be
theory.’
st-known He
apprcjach
hypothesized
to that
mouvacion
is
witliin
every
beii^ there oasis a hierarchy of five needs. 'I hese are:
1 .
rtfedi-. Inchide hunger, th5nt, «liekcr. sex. and other bodily needs nttdf'. Include sccuritv and procccnon frnni physacal aud emotional harm
2 .
SoW n/ftif; Include aftection, a sense of beionging. acceptance, and ^enddnp
1 .
cuent and external fatxurs ^ch a» vuru», recognitinn, and anentiau
nttdf. Include intenuJ betors such a:» self-rc-^pecq autonomy^ and achieve-
Abvahaoi hinnan
Ttw lndi»*
,^mc what une '« capaWc o* HciorninK;
incliMlr.' (ftowTh. ach'c' H .As
eM-h
of
the«
Satisfied, the west n««d
^;i"'X7n^iidual
dommaiK. In
moves
up
the
hierarchy.
Fnm
the
would say that, although no need .s ever JJ ]„j,„er motivates.
standpoint of motivation, fully Ki-flf fied, □
orders. Physiological and
.,ep«..cd .he five need, »«" 1’^' ..fe.,- need. .er. de^^beJ »
riMab, “d- «re different.,ed ,.„ ,he
“'" ""S'l^lii.SrZjT.''.e iriefied fi..en,.Uy. .h™, lo.er-,.rder „eej, e!™« =» pe™..,* ewluy^l -k.-'-bl >»e their lower* order needs subs tan n ally met. M«loWs
M.ed
theory
has
..i
tecaved
wide
rowgniuun,
paroc^ly
aiuuiig
practiv-
in. manaiters. This acceptance can hr nrrributed to the logic and ease with which the th^^n
IS
validate
intuilivelv
the
structures
rheon'
arc
understood. For
organized
inswnre, along
Unlominately,
however,
research
does
hnle
is
for
prcdiclion
the
support
diiiiensions
found
p^|XRcd
by
the
Misiow
or
not rhe
generally that
need
prediction
that the subsljiitiil satisfaction of a given need leads to the aedvadon of the next higher need. So. although the need hierai chy is wvli known and tindoubiedly used by many managers
JS
J
guide
toward
inotivaring
their
eiupioycc.s,
little
substantive
evidence
cxisB to indicate duit fiillowing the theory will lead tn a more motivated workforce.
EXHniT 4-2
r~
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
V 1♦ *4 r♦♦4
SOGHJ
I
I /
1
Chapter 4 Hasic Mntiv»tian Oxitepxs 45 niiciiry’ X and J hwiry Y Piiugbs .MK (regnr propivsed tw't> di.stitict views of human heings! one basically negative.
hlnled
viewing
Theory’
the
way
X,
and
managers
the dealt
other
basically
positive,
with
employees,
labeled
McGregtjr
Theory
wmeluded
Y.^
rbar
.After
a
man-
iqterk view of the nature of human beings is based on a certain grouping of assumptiuiis ami that he or she tcn
Employe us inherenlly ibsiikc work anc, whenever possible, will attempt ro avoid ii.
2.
Since employees dislike work, they must bu courcud, uontroUud, or threatened with punishnient to achieve desired gfwls. Employees will avoid rcsporivibihties and scuk iorinid direction whenever possible. Most workers place security above all ocher factors associated with work and will display little ambition.
Under Theory Y, four contrasting assumptions are held by die manager: as being as natural as rest or
2» People will exercise self-
dir ecu on and selhconcrol it they are committed co the
■ o
L Employees can view work obKCtivcs.
'fbe average person cm learn co accept, even seek, responsibility'. 4. The ability to make innovative decisions is widely dispersed chroughouT the population and IS not nccessArilv rhe sole province of those in management positions. What are the motivatiunul iin plica dons if you accept -McGregor's analysis? The answer is best eitpressed in the fraTnewurk presented by Alaslow. Theory' X assumes that lower-order needs dominate indindiials. Theory Y assumes that * higher-order nced.s dominate individuals. McGregor, himself, held that
Theory
posed
ideas
jobs,
and
Y
assumptions
such
good
as
were
more
piirticipation
group
relations
in
as
valid
than
decision
Theory'X.
making,
approaches
chat
to
Therefore,
responsible
would
the
maximize
belief
he
pro-
«nd
challenging
an
employee’s
job motivation. Unfortunately; there is no evidence to confirm that eitlier set of assumptions is valid will
or
that
increase
accepting workers’
Theory
Y
inorivaDon.
assumptions As
will
and
become
altering evident
ones
larer,
actions either
accordingly
Theory’
X
or
Theon V assumptions may be appropriate in a parbcular situation. Two-Factor Thwry I
he
two-factor
theory
(suinedmes
also
called
mofnation-hygiene
ikeoty)
wJiv
pro-
pj$ed by psychologisi Kredcrick Herxberg.^ In die belief that an i nd ivi duals relation lo work is basic and that one^ attitude toward work can verv well determine success or tailun.*.
Herzberg
investigated
the
question,
“What
d«>
pciiple
want
from
their
iobs?”
lie asked people todescril>€, in detail, situations in which they felt cxceprionally good «< had about their jobs. These responses were then tabulated and categorized. From gave
when
the they
c'acegonzed fck
gxx^d
responses, about
Herzberg
their
jobs
concluded were
that
significantly
the
replies
different
people
from
the
replies given when dicy felt bad. As seen in Exhibit 4-3. certain characceristivs tend to be comiatcfitly related to job satis faction and uthvrs to job dissatisfartiim.
4*
FBrtN The IwtmdMl in the OrpniMtion Herzberg's Two-Facior Theory
EXHIBIT 4-3
MottvaCor focton t/ha Job tttbbetton J :
effect job dbsatxbctjon •
• Promotional opporomicks • Opportuniiies for persorkal • Recognrtlon ■ Responsibility • Achievement
of Miptrvision
• Pay " Corrtp^^ poNcfO • Phytol working conditions • ft^tions with others
i High
lob Satisfaction
Z
o
High Job OissAtisfaction
' I'
Soarce. Based (« f Henber^. ‘Oe Mor^ True: Hoi» Do itej Voirssate FPployBSS’’' Maaortf ^ustfiess «*«». JSflya ry^Hbruaiy 196&. D. S 7. I Intrinsic
factors^
ment
seem
work
tended
fied
to
such
be
related
rended
advancentenr,
to
attribute
TO
rcsfxjndenu
3s
job
these
to
satisfaction. factors
cite
recognition,
to
extrinsic
responsibility,
Respondents
themselves.
factors^
M'ho
fell
and
good
On
the
as
supervision,
such
other
achieve-
about
their
hand,
djsxiuis-
pay,
company
policies, and working conditions. rhe data suggest, said Herzberg, that the opp<»site of sausfaction is not dis^atisfaction,
as
was
traditionally
hclies’ed.
Removing
dissatisfying
charactcrisdo.
from
job
J
Joes not necessarily make the job sansfynng. Herzberg proposed that his findings indicated
the
existence
of
a
duiil
continuum;
The
opposite
of
•‘Satisfaction”
is
‘’\'o
separate
and
Saiisfecrion," and the opposite of “Dissatisfaction” is “No Dtssausfactinn.’ According distinct
from
tn
Aosc
Herzberg,
the
that
to
lead
factors job
leading
lo
diKsatisfaction.
|ab I
satisfaction
hcrefore,
are
managers
who
seek
to
eliminate factors that ean create job dissadsfacdon may bring about peace but not neccsianly dwm.
motivadon.
will
ere
poLcio,
jAy^cal
charaewnted
by
working Herzberg
W.1I
noHK-dt«3^ficd;
neither
their
lobs.
supgeswd
^outcomes tor
be
placating
6cir
workforce
rather
than
motivating
As a result, conditions surrounding the job, such as quality of supervision,
company w
They
Herxberg directly
personal
derive.!
growth
«ilJ
conditions, as
they
hygiene be
emphasizing
fr.«n
rt^gmuon.
it.
such
relations
with
factors.
VVTien
satisfied. factors as
responsiWity.
If
we
and
and
they’re
want
associated
promoti.mal
others, to
with
securin
adequate,
,„nrh-ate the
work
t^iportunities.
achievement.
job
I-hcse
pav. peopk
pe.Jie
nn
itself
<,r
opptmun.rie-s ar^e
char-
acienst3c*s Out pec^le find invinMCAlly rewarding
rhe pnit«lure Out Hcrebcrg used is binited by iu
pl., «n.
..a „ „„
evtnnsc eiivminmenc. 1.
I
ixx
' ^wtne rauure un
The ichabihh of Herihergs mvthodofogv u Qu«tH>hiiW> Da— t. inrerpretanons. »o they may conumiime the finXm u diffcfenrfy mterpreirtK lirndv
fl
1.
Chapter 4 Bask Moth'
aonConcepCB
ovci-all measure of aiosfiicdon was uulised. A person may dislike part of his or bet job yer soil find the job acceptable. 4, The I heor> i.< inconsisw nt with previ ous research. ’ I'he two-tactor I h cn ry iHerzberg gnorn si assumed ta rehicioiwhip between baa^facrion and produciiviry» but tiaDonal variables. his research medsodobgs' looked only ui saiishciion, not at producdnry. To make such research rekvant, one must assume a strong relaconship between saGsfat;h«i Regardless cfcriticisms, Herzberg’s thcon has been widely popularized, and fpw and Hianegers arc u nth mi liar with his rccomnicndjtiims. As a case in point, much of rhe producaviiy. inicial
enthusiasm
for
vertically expanding
jobs
to
alUw
workers
greater
responsibility
in planning and conuoUbg their work (which wc discuss in ( bapter 14) can probably be attributed largely to I lerzhergV findings and recommuidatiuns.
QONTjE-MPORARY'niEQRIES OF MQTIVATIQN
,
The previous thei»ries are well known but, unlorliuiucelv, have not held up well under dos.* exainhuTion. -"Ml is not lost, however. Contemporary dicories have a reasonable degree of valid supporting diM urncnUition. 7'hc following Theories represent rhe current state of the an in explaining employee motivation.
McClelland s Theory of Needs David iVicClcllanct and others have proposed three major relev'ant motives or needs in the workplace. Wc call this McClelland’s Theory of Need.s^: 1.
The need for achievement (nAch)—The drive to excel, to acbiCT’e in relation tc a set of suudartU, to strive lo succeed
2.
The need for power (nPow’)—The need to make others behave in a way thdy would not have oehaved oclicrwbtf
3.
The need for affiliation (oAff)—desire for friendly and duse inicrpcrsonal rclariein^hips
Some |)eupk ha\'e a compeliuig drive to succeed, but the)’ are striving for personal achie^eiuent rather chan the rewards of success. They have a desire to do something better or mo re efficiently than it has been done before. This drive is the need for achievement.
From
research
into
the
need
for
achievement,
McClelland
found
tlia(
high achievers differenoacc themselves from others by their desire to do things better. They seek skuadons m which they can attain personal rv.sponsibiliiy tor finding solutions lu problems, receive rapid and unambiguous feedback uii their performance, and set
moderately
chalivngmg
goals.
Tlicy
prefer
working
at
a
challenging
problem
and
Mcqfong the iiersonal rcs(Kinsibility for succew or failure rather than lea\4ng rhe ouicixnc to chance or the actions of others. High
achievers
perform
best
when
they
perceive
their
prohabilicy
ot
5»c-
ccstf ax being 0.5, that is, when they estimate that they have a 50-50 chance ot succcas. 'I hey dislike gambling with high odds (high probability of lailure) because succew io such a situation would lie more a matter of luck than of ability, Jiul they get
no
acHievuitcnt
satisfaetion
from
happensrance
success.
Similarly,
low odds (high probability of 5uccs*ss) because there is no challenge to their ddlb-
they
dislike
MU ’ITielndividiBllin theOrganizalit’n •ITiey like lu sei realistic hui difficult
"
tic. When there is ar appruximatdy eq«9 optim.l opportunity to from chtir eHorts.
.
J,, sucees* or failure, there is the
ir. onipi'^hiiient and satisfaction experience feel.np of ncu>.
,.
.
.mr^L't hi be influential, and to c<jn-
The need for power is die re to have an, tml odiers. Indi^nJuaU liigh in z/PfiTr enpy eing e«, prefer unnpeotive ond status-oncnted1 s.mn. with gaining prestige and influence over others fc„
...e'ntT
,frcscrch.™.
““”«a,i...v
rarhe-
Individual
than
».tl,
influence.ivxrinhj concerned j has received the
a
l..(h
cn.pandva
,a4(/
and
s.nve
„r
das.re
fnendsb.p,
„la,„.„»h,pa
J hiirh de ercc of mutual understanding. Horde motives
vou
are
find
nTic^Hy
out
if
prafa
n.v.dv.ng
< ...
someone
-ncasured
P
tiirough
is.
a
tor
instance,
projective
test
a
in
.
highJich.evcrr
which
All
subjects
three
respond
to
a set of pictures. Each picture is briefly shown to the sub)cct and then he or she wntes a
story based
on
the
picture.
For
example,
the
picture may show
a
man
sitting
desk He is inoking pensively al a photograph of a woman and two children th ar
at
a
SITS
at
rhe corner of the desk. The subject will then be a.sked to write a ston' deMTihing what is going on, what preceded this situation, what will happen in the future, and the like. Ihe
stories
hecotne,
in
effect,
projective
tests
that
measure
unconscious
motives.
Each
sior}' is scored, and rhe subject is rated on each of the three motives. An
wtensive
predictions and
job
needs,
can
to be
high
are
made
strongly
managing
positions.
Second,
make
typically
havx
a a
risk.
research
has
hi
large need
diose
dons
VVlien
need
managers,
high
the
ma
The
these
to
consistently
achieve
to
the
good
achieve.
too.
personal
within
are
High
nAch
power
as lead
in
a
needs
for
large
to
their many
being not
and
an
a
that own sales good
nece&sanly
organization
affiliarion
high
and
imstance,
and
do
a
achiev’crs
ninning
organization,
salespeople
with
high
for
need
affiliation
feedback,
prevalent^
such
supported
and
individuals
necessarilv
manager
well
achievement
responsibility,
large
not
the
on
First,
acdricics a
herwecn
demonstrates,
Joes
Third,
reasonably
done
characteristics
orgaiiizanons. and
been
entrepreneurial unii
some
relationship
areas
with
evidence in
that
of
self-contained
high in
sales a
si
indicates
basis
less
suLx*cj.sful
especially
g<xKl
the
findings
motivated.
business, meager,
on
job
of
are
research
fhough
prefer
degree
achievers
of
uinsistent
achieve
intermediate will
Iw
pcrfoniiancc,
there
need
amount
does
power
not tend
to be closely related to managerial success. The best managers are high in the need for povser
and
trained
to
low
in
stimulate
their their
need
for
achicveracQt
affiliation. need.
If
Last, ihe
employees
job
calls
for
have a
been
high
succcssfullv
achiever,
man^
ageraent can select a person wSth a high nAch or develop their own candidate thmueh achievement traimug.
GoaUSeTting Theory .■iih . conaderjbk igree of ranfidc,™'",?™"'
'of -do
1
""I*
"» ™
oS"
•/J
•• fl9 Th. indi^dual in the O.rani«don ” *®
Thc»- hke t« «t realistic bin de. When there is an approximately eq nprimal opportunity «n e.x,M.nence teeimjp. ol fi-oni Their efforrs. The ne«l for power is the desire to mil ixbci-s. Iiidividuals Itigh in » ‘iw eri|
actoinplishniciit an.I saiisfactinn | ........ in.oai l, lo he inflncnrial, and to coninfluence over oth'j| 1,^ moi e cotuxmed ,x.Tron«anee. with . high «,4yj strive .„■ fnendshtp, prefer
n of raOKhm. XrX
sKurtionv
rather
th.,,
..„es,
eop.pet.tive
anti
desire
a hich decree of mutual nnderstanding. Ilow^fo motives
are
a
set
of
a
siorv
desk the is
npically
based is
wraer
on
predictions and
job
needs, need
preceded
lie
there to
are
high
achievers
business,
managing
positions.
Second,
manager,
especially
gpod
ty-prcally
have
closely
power
and
trained
to
a
low
,n
M.intJatc
projective is
findings
in
sima
dons
risk.
VVTien I’he
successful
need large
managers need to
their
unit achieve
TO
the
need
for
aehievciucnt
s'“x rnlxr™” "* ’
First,
not /rA
The
If
the
needs
best
for
job
calls
to
not
arc
in
for
a
high
sales i?(Mkl
need
not tend for
successRillv
achiever,
‘nonvation. IVe can say, g™ls lead to increased {terhirtepted, result in higher perfonnance than easy
1-1 of „UT„, ,h.„ . g.„y* ««sl. 1 he speciRcity of the goal icself acts as an iatc^
a
own
power the
l>ceii
that
docs
Goal-Setting Theory
If
an
necessarily
" ‘'"‘-'"I’ "™ “’“I"*’"
with a considerahle degree of^onfid^c^re nunce and that difficult goals when ar - ' pak’ '
and
their
bcin?
and
have
high
achievers
organization
high
need
a
nianv
affiliarion
employees
Each
instance,
and
do
large
managers
Last, the
a
high
running
lead
salespeople in
with
for
organization,
necessarily
like,
affiJiadon
feedback,
as
what
suppexted
and
prevalent,
such
at
motives.
well
power
deinunstratcs,
sits
die
three
individuals
are
a
acluevcment
resj-Xinsibilit)’,
large
manager
affiliation. need.
a
High
Third,
success.
on
activities
does
good
achieve.
been
at
inouves.
the
herween
charactcristies
and
to
writes
describing
reasonably
done
that
future,
of
she
sitting
children
rclatinnship
too.
nun
storj’
diree
respond
or
unconscious
personal
wiihin
die
each
consistently
orginiizations
managerial
their
with
in
he
a
two a
All
sub,eels
iJien
write
measure
areas
entrepreneurial
to
and
has
achieterr
show
and
lo
on
the
those
these
self-coutiuned
high
that
and
may
happen
that
of
evidence
in
will
high which
subject
asked
indk'atcs
a
woman
rated
research
job
a
,„volv,„g
.
in
picture
hat
tests
test
the
be
w
less
high
related
situation,
Though
in
.sale^>
then
basis
a a
of
subject
iiiocivared.
are
photograph
the
of
Sttongiy
i
on
prefer
degree
be
be
made
to riie
research
consistent
achieve
unll
to
of
hhown
will
instance,
proiective
example,
this
the
for
For
subject
effect,
and
perfbnnanee.
intermediate
make
in
is
a
briefly
at
'I*hc
amount
can
is
picture.
desk.
scored,
extensive
someone through
pensivelv
become,
is
if
pknirc
the
what
stones
An
Each
the
on,
out
rel.t.onsh.ps
.
measured
looking
of
going
story
find
picnircs.
He
The
WU
'
man-
Chapter stimulus.
Fur
Ixnwern ci
instance,
Haiti
tic
more
tihjcc
specitic
tn
c
goal
when
and
to
will
a
trucker
Wtuhiugton,
reach
for.
D.
We
outperform
eommirs
can
his
each
to
week,
say that,
counterpart
all
making
this
being
operates
Basic
IH
intention
things
who
4
ruund-tnp
gives
equal,
either
Motivation hauls
him
the
a
spe-
tracker with
with
no
goals
a or
widi the gcheraliice
fecTora
state owe
rinev
that
ver,
an
such
as
the
it’s
more
logioi
cinpioyec
abihry
and
diHlculc
to
assume
accepts
acceptance
a
the that
hard
goals,
easier
(ask.
of
he
the
the
goals
goals higher
arc
are
held
the
level
more
or
she
will
to
participate
is
mixed
likely
exert
a
constant of
tn
high
wc
can
performance.
IK;
accepted.
level
But
of
effort
until
of
their
own
the goal is achieved, lowered, or abandoned. If goals,
employees
will
i|>ation
(liey’
over
elicited
try
by
of is
are
likely
more
g<jal
greatest to
some
individuals
rhus,
although
participative taken
A as
when
accept
advantage
desirable
a
more
a
given,
to
parricipation
su|x;nority
been
set
one
docs
best
when
in
As
we
noted
earlier,
panicipate
in
goal
setting
is
arbitrarily
which
superiority
have
be
that in
partic-
participahvely
performed
ard.
who
of
may
tow
choices
no
the
have
work
than
to
setting
parttcipatinn
People
goal
have
have
of
one
committed
may
the
individuals
difficult.
difficult
in
regarding
that
mafor
arc
goals
goals
cases,
a
even
cases,
other
goals
are
as
evidence
in
itself
becau.se
is
In
boss.
them,
acceptance
Ihe
goals.
their
the
resistance
opportunity’
performance;
goals
accTjwancc
rhe
harder?
assigned
superior
assigned
have
they
over
increase
assigned
have
assigned
the
increasing
to
a
voice,
goals
when
that
more
probability
difficult goals will be agreed to and acted upon. Studies and
testing
challenging
goal-setting
goals
as
theory*
motivating
have
forces.
demonsi
rated
Although
we
preferable
As
overall
an
t
assignment
conclusion,
of
specific
conclude
that
hanng
desirable, participation is
when
therefore,
superiority
can't
employees parricipate in the gr>al-set(ing process is probably
(he
you
we
expect
have
resistance
significant
to
difficult
evidence
that
challenges. intentions—as
ardculaced in terms of goals—arc a potent motivating force. rhe between
the
tradiction w
hile
is
no.
for
tu'o
on
the
theory
So
goals.
than
10
selling’s
Difficult
to
arc
wiH
based
percent
arc
still apply
lead
to
appears
those
sliiiiulatcd
of
any
to
those
higher
who
workforce
accept,
performance
it
a
are
congoals,
answer
The
high
connAcb^
naturally
majority
of
and
are
if
they
are
is
only
a
The
general.
have
the
Is
challenging
in
who
for
contradiction
goals?
people
country's
a
setting.
difficult
people
recommended
be
moderately
with
on
to
goal
by
deals
only
on
by
maximized
theory
20
conclasions
what and
is
goal-setting
goals
goals
is
luotivarion
motivation
difficult
goal
First,
noted
moovation
niouvation says
reasons.
less
have
achievement
achievement
probably
Second,
on
may
achiev'ement
gtul-setong
achitvers.
reader
findings
that
clusions and
observant
high
workers.
committed
to,
accepted.
Reinforcement Theory A
crjunterpoint
tive
approach,
remfcircement ment Rd
lo
goal-setdng
proposing theory
condiiions II
v^enis
h) arc
sequences
arm not that,
we
w
hen
the hcbavior will Ixe rex^eaced.
reinforcement
an
indinduars
have
a
lichaviorisdc
The
theorisLs
matters
is
that
behavior. ent
theory'
for
two
sec
iminediateh
VVTiat following
I'hc
former
direct
his
or
approach,
w
are
clearly
theories
behavior
lunccm.
purposes
tlxeory.
xs
environmentally
conrrols a
hich
behavior
response,
at
argues odds
caused; arc
increase
her
a
cogni-
acdons.
that
In
reinforce-
philosophically. internal
cognitive
rcinforcers—any
con-
the
that
prohahdity
►
■n-
tndie OffaBh-t"’ J.
the inner Mate of «*»« indhidoal and oMKriiirMM or she takes -Bne actkrtt. Becatne n docart n-.t, strictly speaking, a therxy »f mm*-
Reinfimwnent «dely on »har ha^M n» a
„,„cem .tself-th -''‘■r'"'‘-rrJ±r^sofe.,n«r. »h lx*havK<^ and „d,„. Bm .. d.«- I-o'd' ’ l“" "XVd in ^-usM.,™ .d nK„,-,n™,, it^ for that fc-aMtn
j of effect (Iwhavior K a funtt>«>n »1 its ame-
Chapter 2
^onsequ condition Uhav.or and help
qoenccsl and 'Hie law of :;if«xt anti the concept of remfcMccmenr also eiplain how people , rescaixh inilicates that people will eaen '"ft-T 7tTst "thti are"^mf<-n:^d than on tasks that are not.'- Rcinf.-rement u an imp.run. -nflnenee on work behasi-r UW people
their
and the amount of effort they allocate to various Wsks are affewd by the awqoences of their behavior. Bin reinforcement is not the sin^e explamnon for drffer2nces in cmplovee motnarion. (ioals. for instance, have an impact on moovaoon; so, too. do levels of achievement motivaaon, jncquiUcs tn rewards, and exjiectanons.
Equity Theory Employees
don't
575,000
year
for
and
report
the
a
offer
would
you
work
react,
bk
as
it!),
terms,
that
wdiai
yon
compare
work if
is
a
hir.
|(>b
issue.
inputs
out
age.
a
of
There
and
found
your
lot
make
gradiutinn
enthused
vou
the
They
on
S80,0(W
is
isn't
own
jub
graduate,
575,000
believe
their
to
getting
suddenly
vacuum.
first
however,
recent
absolute
a
your
worker—anothtr cullege—w
in
If
from
you’d
money for
a
The
now
is
ample
and
so
probabb
new
fur
with
to
of
job
that a
Even
make
around
us
those
tu
flow a
co*
compara* dtough,
(and
relative
you
and
in
kiKTW
rewards
conclude
others
ac
jray.
from
upscti
yog
grab
your
die
grades
graduate
offered
probably
with
into
be
centers
evidence
outcomes
or
cotn|>arable
You'd
scmcooc
sausfied
month
with
issue
college,
certainly
a
year?
tT(xn|wrison
and
thai
empknees
that
inequities
can influence the degree of effort that employees exert." Equity (inpuO
theory
against
w
sa^^s hat
that
they’
get
ratio
with
the
inpurouTComc
equal
to
that
of
the
relevant
equity
is
said
to
exisL
They^
ratios
are
unequal,
underrewarded
or
inequity
employxcs from
ratio
of
it
weigh
with
put
and
then
compare
±eir
inpucoutcoine
If
they*
perceive
their
ratio
that
their
exists:
chat
is.
UTien
others.
whom
feel
overrew^rded
they
(outcome)
relevant
others
what
they
situation the
compare
is
fair,
employees
inequities
occur,
into
a
job
themselves,
that
rend
justice to
a
to
be
state
of
pre-ails.
view
employees
situation
If
the
themsefres
as
will
attempt
to
correct diem. The tant
refvrenr
t^riable
in
that
employees
c<|inry
theory
“odwr/
“syMcm/'
and
"si
sunuar
M>bs
in
the
same
associates.
On
die
swnal mouth,
newspui>ers.
and
lf
choose
The ”
three
'the
orgamzauun basis
of
magazines,
to
cotnpare
rekrent
-other" and
on
such
categories
eitegory
also
mformaiion
tlicmsek-cs
that i-ssues
other
an
impor-
classified
as
individiuls
neighbors
receive
executive
is
l>cen
friends,
employees is
have
inclu
includes
against
through
salaries
or
or
with prufes-
wixd a
recent
unit in central t, employees can coiuparc their pav w-ith that of others The “^ij-siem" aiegory consider, organizational pay jwl.cies and prtKxdttres » well as the adiiuDistratJon of this s\>rcm. Ii considers organization-wide nwv mJieies both implied and expliat. Precedents set hy the organization m terms of pay would l)e a major determinant in this category.
of
J
Chapter 4 Bailc Motivition Co
4
The ‘leir' category refers tu fn|iut;<,Htciirnc rnti(« thst are unique to die individual. This caregtiry is influenced by friteri.i such as
family commitments.
1319
Tile choic e of a panic ular sei of i cfcrenM is rchicil to the information available alioiit icierciits as well .is lo their perceived relevance, tk|iiity theory purports that, when ciii|>l..yccs cinisioo an iiie.|iiiiy, they may make one or more of five chincc.*$ :
Distort cither their own or orheis' in inns or ouiconu-s
L
in soiiu w«v as h> induce ndwr?, u» vhjtngc tbvir inputs or cnncomes
2.
Hdwvc in Munc w.iy so as in tiinngv thdr uwn inputs ar outcomes 4. .1 iliHcicni canipiirisiin rckTem Quit their iiil» Equii)
theory
retogiiir.CsS:
absolute
amount
of
rcwjinls
of
amount
Cu
what
that
and and
cimipt’tenie other
relative
to
are
others,
they
When
s
is
tor
|Krceive ‘ITiis
but
such
as
as
salary
such an
concerned
effnrt:;
Inputs
outcomes
created.
are
their
receive.
with
people
tension
individuals
receive
othei
coinpnrcd
fiKtors.
thur
also
provides
only
with
effort
imbalance
tension
not
with
tlie
relationship
expenenccy
levels,
the
educaiiony
raises,
recognition^
in
their
inpurouteome
die
basis
for
ratio
motivation,
as
people strive for what they perceive as equity’ and fairness. Specifically, the theory’ establishes four proposi duns relating to inequitable pay: L
puyf/ffTtf hy fimv,
ewpiijycei wiii produce wwre fhan cquifMy paid
rmpioyffw I lourJy nnd salaried employees will generate a high quantity or quality of production in order to increase the input side of the ratio ind brina alM>ut equity. 2.
/wywewz
by
/jriafniry
pf
pitifi/tetion,
ovtncuwkd
CMpbtyees
proihice
hut
bigher-^uah'Ty unify rha» equitably (hitd e^iplnyfc^. Indivriluals paid on a pieex-rate basis will increase their efforr to achieve equitv. which can cesuJi in greater quality or quantiIV. Increases in quantity however, will only increise inequity, since every unit produced
results
in
further
ovorpaymeni.
'I'hercfcre,
effort
is
directed
toward
increasing quality rather dun quanuty. 3.
Gizvn ptfyfirfff by timf, tMdfrrruHirM frvpiiiveas wiU produff /rtf nr a poorer guaiity of otit» put. EfR»rt will be decreased, and the result will be lower productivity or poorer quality of output than that produced by equitably paid einployees-
4.
Giri'W ^z/ywenf by
ofpivdncf/oa, ftndetTewarded ewphyees wiH produce a iargf
jniffibiT of
units tn iftwpntiscm with erjuttab/f pit id ewphyecf. Employees
on piece-rate pay plans can bring about equity l>ccause trading off quality of output for quantity will result in an increase in rewards with little or no increase in Contributions. A
review
Employee absolute acsyn.
of
niotivation rewards.
Hie
result
the
research
influenced
WTien
be
co
confirm
significantly
by
relative
perceive
inequity,
they
employees
might
tends
lower
or
higher
the
equity rewards
M
ill
prodncnvity,
thesis as
act
to
improved
or
consistently:
well
as
by
correct
the
sini-
reduced
quality'
of output, increased absenteeisjii. or voluntary resignation, ory’
he
leaves
included
in
preceding
does
some
Ley
the
“other”
not
issues
mean
that
equity
unclear.
F<5r
instance,
referent
category’?
How
tbeoiy do
is
without
how
do
they
define
problems.
employees inputs
select and
The who
theis
outtuines?
'Cl '.:
1
5' *
How
The WMdiul io the Orgwii«»»on
has
an
impressive
amnwe
or
rcswvii
UKK^
in co
Expectant-v Theory -lire
most
,c«
comprehensive
ITas
its
expectancy Sen*
theory
on
come
cridcs.
strength
and
on
explanarinn
most
of
motivation
is
of
the
research
evidence
argues
that
the
strength
r rel="nofollow">f
of
expectation
the
an
aiimcriveness
tlut
of
die
that
a
act
expectancy supports
the
tendency will
he
outcome
to
places
on
theory?
to
theory,
att
by
individual.
it,
b.ssenually.
ma
folloM-ed
the
Though
certain
way
given
out-
a T
herefore,
it
includes the<* three vai’iabks: 1.
llie
unporrante
die
indisidual
d»v
p.rteniial
ouwomc
or
rew-axd dial can be achieved on the job. wriabk vousidei-$ the unsausfied needs of the individual. 2.
Pfijw’mana/reTMrd The dc^^rec to which the indivuhi.d believes that performing al a particular le^'d will lead to the acuuuucnt of a desired outcome.
5.
Pff.n/fu'rfvnfMwe
'ITic probalnliu perceived by the individual that exerting
a given amount of effnrt will lead to pcriorniance. Although
this
theory
may
sound
prett}-
complex,
it
really
isn't
that
difficult
to
visuali7€. VVlieThcr one has the desire to produce at any given liiue depends un one’s pardcular goals and one’s pereepticin of the relative worth of pertbrmance as a path to tike artaimnent of those goals. Exhibit major on
is
concentioiks.
how
giKil
4-4
strongly
a The
she
(perfomkanceX
organiuiion,
will
considetsible srrength
believes
will
the
she
simplification
of
she be
reward
a
achieve
adc<|uarehher
cxpcctancj
niorivation
pci-son’s
can
satis^
ol what
she
rewarded
individual
theory*
to
perform
arteinpw.
and,
goals?
but
if
she
Let
us
describes
(effort)
depends
If
she
achieves
is
rewarded consider
its
by
thk the
the
four
Outcomes
mav
steps inherent in the theory’ Kirsi, be
posiCvc:
or
skills,
ewnes
what
perceived
ontcennes
pay.
.security,
coinjwnionship,
or
is
congenial
negative:
relationship.^.
fatigue,
does On
boredom,
the trust,
die
)ob
offer
fringe
other
frustration,
the
benefits,
euiolovce? a
chance
hand,
employees
aikxicty,
harsh
nkay
n>
use
view
su|)eivision,
talent
the or
outthreat
id dismissal. Imporiandy, reality is not relevant here: the critical i.ssue is what the individua!
employee
[Kreeives
the
oiiteome
to
be,
regardless
of
whether
her
perreptions
arc accurate. Second. positivtly,
IK^W
negativviy,
anraedve or
do
neutraJU?
employees Thk
is
consider
th
obviously
an
and consiikrs personal attitiuics, iJersDiialin; and iicei
EXHIBIT 4-4
Simplified Expectancy Model
cse
(Hircuinus?
Are
they
internal issue ta the mdixndual h. rhe individual nho finds
valued
BMIC Mrnivatirm Concept!
Chapter 4 pardoibr
outcome
anwrtwc-that
ntwining it, Others others may be neutral.
iiuy
I'hint,
kind
these
nutniincK?
employee's she
what
Tht
find
do
in
it
nf
behavior
to
not
the
valued-^will
and,
must
are
unless
order
positively negative
niiicoines
perfnmiance
must
is
therefore*
the
tn
them.
For
any
whal
to
in
and
is
!t
attain
order
effect
dearly
example,
not
exbihit
have
knows,
cittaining
prefer
emplnytc
likely
employee
achieve
prefer
on
to
not
it.
Still
tn
achieve
the
individual
unambiguously,
“doing
well"
in
what
terms
of
performance appraisal? (In what criteria will the employee's performance be judged? Fourth and last, how docs the employee view her chances of doing what is asked (if
her?
Alter
control
the
the
employee
variaWes
has
that
will
some
<'f
considered
determine
her
her
own
competencies
success,
what
and
her
proliability
abilin-
dots
she
to
place
on suvee^sfiil attsiininent? Let’s
highlight
the
issues
rhni
exjK-miicy
thw»ry’
has
bn>uglu
forward.
Fh*st, it emphiwi7.es payoffs, or rewards. As a result, we have t<> l>clieve chat the rewards the
organization
is
on
self-interest,
wherein
faction.
Wc
requires
an
zational
payoffs.
Second,
offering
have
align
each
hi
be
individual
and
want
expectancy
what
concerned
understanding Wc
with
theory
seeks with
knowledge
to
the
reward
employee
co
maximize
the
of
what
value with
cxjwted
ft
his
attractiveness
individuals
cinphasiz.es
wants,
the
or of
the
is her
behaviors.
theory
based
expecced
satis-
lewards;
individual
things
a
aspect
on
organi-
puts
they
Does
this
value
the
j^witivclv,
person
know
what is expected of her and kmnv htjw she will he appraised? Kina II y, the theory is concerned
with
employees
the
own
individual’s
expectations
expectations.
of
What
performance,
is
reward*
realistic
and
goal
is
irrelevant,
satisfaction
The
outcomes,
not the objective outcomes themselves, will determine her level f,f effort.
DON'T FORGET: MOTIVATION THEORIES ARE CULTURE-BOUND! Most and
current alxiut
based
ualism
theories
So
we
theories
characteristics
inherent
quantity-of-life
emphasize
take
a
look
goal at
how
were
need
motivation
and
theories Lets
.Americans.
on
American
motivation
to
developed
in
he
alxjut
transfer in
across
For
instance,
bias
as
ha.s
the
United
is
affected
the
as
a few-
of
reeoininendotions blatant
emphasis
on
and
the
Americans
most
goal-setting
rauonai
by
chat
Lhe
strong
both
well
States
ussuniing
cultures.*^
theories
accomplishment this
carchif
theset
factors.
.
and
indhnd-
expectancy
individual
inotivation
pro-
thought.
theories
intro-
duced in this chapter.
level
and
social,
then
move
esteem,
an<]
aligns
with
ferent.
In
American countries
characteristics Countries Sweden, woulJ
hierarchy
are
that
predict,
for
theojy up
culnirc.
In
as
str<4ig,
other
Japan,
security high
Netherlands,
instance,
that
argues
that
hierart
hy
in
hierarchy,
if
it
the
self-actualixatjon.
such
the
needs
progressively
sc<3rc
Norway
of
cultures, (Greece,
needs on
the or
would
group
this
order:
has
IK
will
on
any
of
Me.dco,
at
the
appbeariun
importance
where top
of
have
motivate
swal
physiological
physiological,
might
iincerTainty' the
needs
characteristics—such
Finland—would work
siari
order
qualiry-f>f-life
and
people
needs
employees
safety* at
all,
l>e
dif-
avoidance hierarchy.
as
Denmark,
un
top.
We
when
the
more
country^ culture scores high on the quality-of-life criterion. An<«her m<privation concept th jt clearly has a U.S. bias is the uchievciBem need. The View that a high achievement need acxs as an internal motivator jircsupjxisestwo
«
.Maslow's
I
$4
Part H iTie IndHduil in OrginiMOon cvhural
chi.«cteristic^-a
excludes with
countries
with
performance
of
life
as
the
willingness
(which
characteristics). United
States,
to
accept
str-ng
uncertainty
applies
almost
Tliis
and
moderate
awndance
singularly
combination
Canada,
a
is
Great
Britain.
of
characteristic)
to
found
de^ce
countries in
On
and
wnih
other
fwbid.
a
concern
str.ing
quantity,
Anglo-Anierican
the
nA
countnw
hand,
these
such
character-
istics are almost absent in countries such as Chile and Portugal. Goal-setring United
Sutes
assumes
because
that
distance),
tainty
avoidance),
in
is
its
Goal-setting
countries
will
managers and
in
also
key
employees
power
of-life).
theory
certainly
components be
and
which
align
reasonably
employees
performance
theory's
culture-bound.
is
will
opposite
seek
considered
well
well
(not
too
not
by
exist,
such
U.S.
high
goals lx>A
likely
adapted
wiA
challenging
important
are
conditions
is
reasonably
independent
recommendadons
Ac
It
to
as
It
score
on
(low
in in
increase
France,
Ae
culture.
a
(high
to
uncerquantity-
motivation
Portugal,
and
Chile.
IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS Many ably
of
strong
employees
xhe
predictive
^pply
application,
at
least
are
differences,
perceived
mance,
and
as (7)
How
theories?
for
are
presented
value.
these
recoinniendarions individual
rheories
consistent match
attainable, check
die
chapter
a
manager
in
general North
with
die
people
to
(5)
this
does
C'ertain
managers
(2)
in
findings
individualize
system
for
(3)
m use
rewards,
equity.
These
demonstrated
cuncemed
suggestions
^America.
jobs.
hav-e
can
with be
insrance,
the
this
chapter:
(1)
(6)
(4J
hnk
ensure rewards
suggestions,
of
motivating
e.Ktracred
For
goals,
reason-
for
following recugnixe diat to
course,
goals perforwould
need to be modified to reflect cultural differences outside of North America. The the
importance
concepts
pre^red
here,
.Ti p,’’ ’
and programs.
r
4.
we\'e
of just
providing
motivadng offered. a
employees
The
review
next of
the
today
chapter more
justifies builds popular
on
more the
specifics concepts
morivacion
than wc’vc
techniques
Motivation: From Concepts to Applications After reading this chapter, you should be able to A
Identify the four ingredients common to MBO progr^ims
Ui M » A
Oirtlir>e the five-step problem-soiving model in OB Mod Explain why managers might want to use employee involvement programs Contrast participative management with employee involvement
9> Ul A
Explain how ESOPs can increase employee motivation Describe file link between skill-based pay plans and motivation theories
I
ts one tiling to be able to recite the principles of motivation theories; it’s anodier to see how, as a manager, you could use them, la this chapter, we focus on how to
apply modvatinn concepts—that is, how to link theories to practice. In
the
following
pages,
we‘ll
review
mouvadon
techniitues
and
programs
that
have gained varying degrees of acceptance in practice. For each of die techniques and pnigranis we review, we’ll specjhcjlly iiddrcs*^ how the)’ build on one nr more of the oiodvadtm theories covered in Chapter 4.
MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES Cfoal-scni ng theory hasan iinpresMVc base of research supiwn But as a manager, how do you make goal setting operadtinal? The besr answer to that quesdfxn is: Install a rnanagemenr bv ohjmives (MBO) program.
The Individual in the
What I* MBO? Management by objectives (.MBO) emphasizes paracipam-ely set gods dtat are tar,S ferihahk and measurable. Ifs no, a new idea, In fact, .t was or.g.naUy i>ropo«d hv Peter Drucker nearly SO years ago as a means «.f us„,g goaLs tr. ,n.,Usate people rather than to control them.' 'Id.lay. n... introduction to baste management concepts wouldbecompkwwihouTadisoissionofMBO. MBOs zational
ob.ecrives
members. which 5-1.
appeal
MBO
tion.
But
MBO
works
from
of
Each
to
her
unit’s
goals
will
be
’there
are
four
divisional,
up”
as
attained
organizational by
As
participate
specific
objectives
The
re.siilt
one
level
to
down.” those
specific
has
an
identified
specific
all
the
individuals
achieve
overall
at
the
the
goals, is
a
level.
performance
contribution goals,
objectives
for
organiza-
next
personal their
by
E.vhihit
own
at
organizaition's
in
their
objectives
the
tlcpicicd
selling
“top
and
process
in
the
If
a
individual
in
from
provides
and
organi-
individual)
as
MBO
units
into
departmental,
overall
dcvo.sing
organtzUion. translated
jointly
converting
well
therebire,
performance.
on
objectives
arc
employee,
person,
of
objectives
links
individual
objectives. or
that
for
the
managers
’‘bottom
objectives
for’tbe
his
the
emphasis
ihrotigh
is.
lower-unit
its
concept
down
flliat
in
objectives
the
overall
level
because
hierarchy .And
cascade
organization’s
succeeding
lies
.specific
oficrarionalizes
each
unit’s
into
objectives the
undoubredlv
will
to
make
then
their
become
a
reality.
pative
ilceiibion
objectives not
in
enough,
increase
ingredients
tnaking,
MBO for
should
example,
quality.
Such
and
evaluated.
measured
an
cutiinum
explicit
he
desires Tb
to
have cut
time
concise
merely
co
in
state
departmental
objectives.
EXHIBIT 5^1 Cascading of Objectives ---------------------------------------------
>1 Dwrsiorui 1 __
f Depa>'unei>ul _ obiecdves C Individual A 4 I I ^eah«* f
a
prograins:
period,
desire
be converted
increase qualit)' by keeping returns to than ! percent
. OveraH ■ W^aniwioral -----------------------. ob)e«kes
B()
statements
ensuring that all telephone orders are pnx:e.ssed
z
.M
costs
and of
cut
into fry
specificity,
performance
expected
to
goal
7pfzrr???,
feedback.
accomplishments.
costs,
tangible
partici-
improve
objectives to
It
is
service,
or
that
improve
The
can
be
service
by
24 hours of^'eceipft or to examples of specific
IF
4«
Chapt«r5 Motivation: From Cwcep
*
W MHO 1 he nunuKer an.J measured. Each ohK-cuve b-p.«lh
tliat
have
not
period only
imposed |...nrly cho,«e
employee has is
a
i
specific
specific
months,
nme
6
obiccuves
die
gonb
and
agree
penod
in
».hich
it
monihs
but
or
ako
1
year.
stipulated
So
on
they
Jie
completed.
managers
and
employees
to
accomplish
in
which
them.
' The
seeks
tn
monitor
find give
and
fonnal
sales
sales
ingredicin
m
LOiHinLiuu.s correct
periodic
well as jr all
wK
to
periods
i,
how
the hortoni.
own
each
repirhs
to
determine
managers
of
progress
nr
rakes
her
jirogress
fccdUuk
toward
goals
place
as
feedback,
at
the
pnxlucts.
toward
die
does
on so
top
tic
sales each
or
performance that
of
the
ba^
she
by
divnsion’s
organization moniror
the
as
over-
ongoing
objectives. in
can more
objectives for udll
salesperson
MBO
individuals
supplemented
sales, lor instance,
major
objecovcs»
is
Continuous
president of
his
have
program
actions.
The vice
for
sales
on
evaluations,
and
district
MBO
feedhdck
their
iiunflgenal
an
Similarly,
licid
Feedback
in teniis of sales and pcrfonnancc is provided to let all these people know bow they’ are doing,
.^t
formal
appraisal
meetings,
managers
and
their
employees
can
review
progress toward gnals and hircher feedback can be pronded.
Linking MBO and Coal-Setting Theory Goal-sectiiig performance fonnance feet
theory chan
than
(back
un
demonstrates
do
do
easy
no
one's
that
goals,
goals
perfonn
at a
hard
that all
nee
goals
specific or
the
lead.s
result
hard
goals
generalized to
in
higher
a
higher
result
goal
in
higher
of'do
performance.
level
your
of
individual
levels best/'
Compare
of
per-
and
that
these
findings
with MBO. AWO explicidy MBO
direct]V
states,
would
be
advocates
that most
goals
specific
must
effective
be
when
goals
and
perceived the
goals
as are
feedback. feasible. difficult
MBO
implies,
Consisrenr enough
with
to
radier goal
require
setting. the
Min to do some stretching. The only area of possible disagreement between .MBO and goal-setting rhe<jr)' is rebted to the issue of partieipanon—MBO strongly advocates it. whereas goal-setting theory demon si rates that a»ignijig goals to individuals frequently works just as well. The major benefit to using parnciparion, howe\’er, is that it increases the likelihood that individuals will accept more difficult goals.
MBO in Prattle Vou’U find MBO proicraim in manv business, health care, educational, and ni.nprofit nrganizauons. Most organiziiiions. in foct, make some use nf MBC features because managers find that goals give people d.reeuon sense to establish goals and then fail to evaluate whether or not they re being MetMedmX • ease/however, indicaics that the Uathcr the culprits tend to he fac-
arc 3 number of d<xnjmenied cashes in managciueiits expcetarioiis. .A close luo protileins rarelv lie with
basic coinpone •
u« such as unrealisric ejcpectations regarding
dim
comniittnent by top
per-
I M' «wt
ZSX
AlSnScs
m.n.Bcrs
uirh"^
'
vehicle for implementing giml-sctong thcor>’-
BEHAVIOR MOPItlCATlON
..
A nm. -da«ic ‘=ni.lv took place ainn.Q JO years agi, with freight Packers at Emery .Air Freight
(now
pan’of
shipments
into
Mamgemeni
believed
FedFt).’
freight
Enierys
containers
that
..sing
management
rather
than
containers
wanted handling
w.mld
save
many
money.
asked what pcn cntaKc of shipments they put in containers, percent 45
An
analysis^
percent.
Icslicd
a
Enwrv
In
order
program
of
tn
found,
howo
encourage
teedback
and
er,
th.n
the
employees posirive
packers
to
rate use
aggregate
separate
WTien
.terns.
packers
were
the standard reply was 90
of
container
conrainers,
rcinforcciiienis.
to
Each
use
w
as
only
management
packer
w
xs
esub-
instructed
to keep a checklist of his or her daily packings, bo± in containers and nut. At the end of each day. the packer computed his or her rare of conrainer use. .Alinosr unbelievably, container held
use
to
that
(umped les
el.
to
more
Eraen-
than
W
reported
percent
on
this
simple
that
the
first
day
of
the
program
program
of
feedback
and
the
of
behavior
and
positive
reinforcements saved the company millions ol dollars. TTiis or
what
program
has
at
IKCOIUC
Emery
more
;\ir
Freight
jxtpiilarly
illusirates
called
OB
Mod.^
use
It
represents
the
modification, application
of
reinforcement theorv to indii iduaJs in rfie work setting.
What Is OB Mod? The
typical
solving (?)
OB
Mod
model:
identily
(1)
program,
as
shown
in
E.thibit
Identify-performance-related
behavioral
contingencies:
5-2,
behaviors;
(4)
develop
follows (2)
and
a
five-step
measure
the
implement
problembehaviors;
an
intervenuon
strategy; and (5) evaluate perfonnance improvement.' Everything an employ ee does on his or her ioh is not equally imponani in terms of
perbinnanqc
ical
behaviors
outcomes, that
lhe
have
a
first
step
in
OB
significant iiiqMCt
M.xl,
on
the
therefore,
is
employee’s
to
job
ideiiriR-
the
jierformance. I
crithcsc
arc tl«e< 5 K> lOiKixent of behaviors iluit may account fur up to 70 or 80 percent of each
employees
pctfonnaricc.
Frcighr
packer,
at
Emery
;\ir
Freight
u-.ing
container
whenever possible is an example of a crincal behavior. The
seconti
information; Resent
that
step is,
umdioons.
requires
the
In
the
number
our
of
manager nmes
(re.ght-packing
to
the
develop identified
example
at
some
baseline
behavior
Emerv;
this
is
performance
.xrtirnng
would
under
have
Ixen
behavioral
con-
mat 45 percent of all 4^iptncni.s were pm in containers. nic
thini
step
Dngcficies
«
e,mt
^havior
the
is
to
consequences and
the
[lerform of
a
fonctional
performance.
ct.nseque.tces
Ibk
that
anaivsis
to
step
tells
arc
currently
ideniifrd.r
the
manager
mainmmii.g
which it.
At
cues Emcrv
Air Freight. ^ial norms and the greater dirtkulty in packing contafoei, were the the
1 hose facing encoui aged the practice of packing items se,«ra,elv Moreover, consequences for continuing this Iwhaviot, before rhe OB Mod inu-n’endon were
socui aoxpuncc and escaping more demanding work Once the functional analysis is complete,
rhe
manager
is
implement an intervention strategy to strengthen desirable ,wrfoniun« beSioTS
readv
to
develop
and
Chapter S Motirwoao: PnaConoepB EXHIBIT S-2
Steps in OB Mod
n.lmeJ ' ’a^JS /r V* I
s*«mi
z
2 Heasire: BMeAne the fr^tncy of retixMve
3
t
MMHX ensong behavioral eorttngendes * thrau^ functional analysis
|
L ----------------------------------------------------------4b Apply appropriate strete^
>
4c ' Mfluure Oarc the frequency of response after intervention * JiflwZ
J
MapM oy aermttuee of wt MH«h« Hw* flwcwi Juty-Aupet Red bCm AfagihM tiasi^n* Me. ««»■ WK. AD »0m leMTWO
’J
lu Indirido*! in the Organiesdon ,
.
behaviors. HIK appropriate strategy «4t1 entail changing »»«
*"^„7thXrforwance/rcward linkage struenKC. processes, technology, clement pwl oftnak.ng high-lcnd pcrh.mwnce ...orc rewarding. ™mplc, the wo'rk icchnnlogy >vas ahcred to require keepmg a checklist. ^l,c
plus cunpiranon at the end oHhc day oi the. rate ot container use
artol to reinforce the dearetl behavior of usuig containers. The final step in OB Mod is to evaluate perfonnance iinprovemciiT. In the Enierv inten-enrion, the immchate bnptovenient in the rate of container use demonstmteil Uiat behanoral change took place. That it rose to 90 percent and he >1 at that level further indicatv.s that learning nnik place, 'i-hat is, the employees uiulcrwent a relaQvcIy penn.incnr change in bclianor.
Linking OB Mod and Reinforcement Theory Remfi>n-emcnr impact
of
cepts
TO
rheon*
(lifferenr provide
relies
on
schedules managers
of with
}x>sii3vc
ranforccmcnt,
rcinforcxnicnr a
powerful
on
shaping,
behavior.
and
proven
OB
and
rca»gnizing:
JMCMI
uses
fur
changing
means
thc^e
the con-
employee
behavior.
OB Mod in Praetke OB
JMOII
has
absenteeism, Electric, OB
been
tardiness,
Cjeneral
Ahxi.
used
And
and
Alills, a
lo
improve accident
Weyerhauscr,
general
employee
review
of
rates.^
and
Aiajur
Xerox
numeruus
product
have
OB
iviry
and
cunipanies ha
Mod
to
reduce
such
as
considerable
progranw
hwnd
errors General
success chat,
using
on
aver-
age, the}’produced a 17 pcrccnl improvement in employee performance.'
EMFLOYi: E RECOGNITION PROGRAMS I .aura Schendcll nukes only 47.2 > an hour working at her fast-food job in Pensacob, tiorid.-i.
And
the
iob,
itself,
isn’t
veiy challenging
or
inKrcsimg.
Yet
Laura
talks
endiusi-
astically alwut her job, her boss, and die company that employs her. “WTiai 1 like is die fact that Guy Pier supervisor] appreciates die effort f make. I Ic cumpiiment.s me regularly in front ol die other people on my .shift. And I've Iwen chosen “Employee erf the iVlonth twice in the past 6 mondis. Did yon sec my picture on that plaque on the wall?” Organiraiions
aie
increa.singly
recognizing
whar
Laura
Schcndell
is
acknowl-
edging: Recognition can he a potent motivator.
What Are Employee Ristognition Programs? Employee
recognition
programs
can
take
nnmcroiis
forms.
The
best
ones
use
multi-
ple sources and recogniz* both indnidual and group aefomplishmenrs. Exaiuplcs in
pnvate
ing or
for
something formal
of a
recognition good
positive
award
ph. the
ceremonies
might
sendmg employee at
which
o’.'L-’lT*'"’ BMf.
Software,
include a
personally
handwiiiren
has
done;
rmphk-s
note
congratulatingor
a
write-up
in
and
plaques
are
the
an
nussaK company
handed
mit
emplovee acknowledginaunzine; to
indhid-
m
wtdelv
-'deluding NASA. Wait Disnev Imagineenng. and
Nissan-acrivcly
use
their
public
relations
pubhcMe the outstanding aehievemcnts of their technical and design teams.
capabilities
Chapter 5 M.Mivatiwi:Froni<:oncen,«f>App|je»6o«, Liiikin}? Rewgnitiott Programs and Reinforcement Theory A few jrars; havfc, 1,500 emphw'res were survewd in a variety- »f work settings to find out what they considered to be the most powerful response? Rccognidcm, recognition, and more recogniuim!^ Cnnsisient immediately
fbllowing
previously
that
don
potential
ents
arc
the
of
and
behavior can
and
m
likdy
take
many
rewarding to
best
recognized.
program.^
Prmlential
to
their
reward
process
in
t:ompany
detailed
to
to
motiva-
who
recipihas an
to
care-
promote
and
winner'*'
noted
the
encouraged
c-mails,
of
as
ix»r instance,
obiccovesi
nrwslcitcrs,
explanations
And,
coinmunicate arc
Their
recognition
inaxiinizc
Insurance.
departmental
w‘ith
repetition.
managers
rewards pwdr
its
publicly
Pnidemial
motivator.
behavior
However, to
and
publicly
a
encourage
forms.
probably
being
reeogintion
theory, is
it's
dicy are
recognition
nomination
sites;
that
recognition,
fiirmal
tailor
rcinforcemem
rccognirion
and wh)’
evrensive fijUy
with
workplace
on
both
Intranet
accomplishments.
Employee Recognition PrograrnH in Practice In
today's
cost
pressures.
most little
highly
other or
competitive
That
makes
motivators,
no
money.
^obai
economy,
rccogmtion
recognizing
Maylie
that's
programs
an why
most
organizauons
particularly
employee's a
ol
under
attractive,
superior
survey
are in
performance
3,000
employers
severe
contrast rdten
found
to
costs
that
two-
thirds u?e or plan to use .special recognition awards '® One of the in cm I well-known si nd widely used recognition devices is the use of .sijfffesiion
systems.
costs
are
and
effective
at
Japanese
Employees
recognized
making
plant
with
offer
siittgcstions
small
cash
suggestion
in
the
employee
a
year
and
contrast,
a
comparable
systems
auto
pays
awards.
work.
components
approximately
Western
factory
for
inipniving
Tlie
For
the
have
a
of
about
U
47
S.
one
$35
or
been
typical
generates
equivalent
generates
Japanese
instance,
business
priKVsscs
cutting especially
high-performing
suggestions per
per
suggestion.
suggesuon
per
In
cmplf>)*ee
per year, but pays out $90 per suggestion. *’
EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT PROGRAMS WTiat
do
the
assembly
following
plant
in
Durhani,
nine
self-directed
teams.
what
work:
to
make
the
slack
Phoenix, out
any
Sweden, employee these
how’
all
made
salespeojilc approval and
arc from
4iKTri^
groups examples
as
have
Nortli
They
balance
manufacturing are
examples
training,
within
the co
of
that
they
is
negotiate Finally,
companies
members
At
their all
a
Ciencral
Electric
170
employees
are
no
bn«.
Decisions
such
and
efficient;
ream.
management.
require
have
At
the
vacations,
more
allow^ed
common?
Carolina,
basically
process
In
overtime
and
how
Childress and the
of
to
have
elected
board
of
directors.
illustrate
to
Buick,
finalize
law’s
against
organized as
with
Ckrmany,
employee
he
how
dealer
France,
involvement
in
with-
Denmark,
from
common
co who
customers
reprcscniatives I
does
teammates
automobile
dcaU
into
who
workflow:
handle an
aircraft
r
element
eir in
programs.
^Miat Is Employee Involvement? Emplffygf mqutt.'-
has become a convenient catchall rerm to cover a varietyof tech For
instance,
it
encompasses
popular
ideas
or participative management, workplace democracy, empowennent, an empoyc
such
as
employee
1116 irdividwl In the Organiiation h™ un.,ue cha
o^tnership. Our portion is that,
* 1
Fart H
meTi.y employee involvement? We define it « . capacity of rn.ptoyees and is designed to e^uraTinf^ased commitment to the organizations success." The underlj^g
Sn hat speai >
loeiH that involving workers in .kosions that will affect them and increasing their rjsmv and coiuroi over their work lives will make employees more motivated, or^nmizahon, m.we productive, and more satisfied with their
Does that mean that paTt>al>^ti«» and empl
Examples of Employee Involvement Programs In
This
section,
we’E
describe
diree
forms
of
employee
involvement;
pdrtidpative
manapetnenr, repixscntativc participation, and employee stock ownership plans. Paiticipalive dvc
Management
Rianagemeat
actually
The
programs
share
a
distinct
is
the
significani
characteristic
use
degree
of
of
joint
common
decision
decision-making
to
making. power
all
'Ihat widt
participa*
is,
employees
their
immediate
superiors. Parriciparive morale
and
is
ethical
an
low
organization Qcipate, ees
management productivity.
imperative.’■*
or
the
every’
issues
must
has,
have
times,
been
audior
even
panici|iative
unit.
For
promoted argued
ii»
work,
there
which
eiuployces
get
involved
ability
(intelligence,
a
panacea
participative
is
not
must
be
imust
technical
xs
that
management
it
in die
One But
work
at
be
adequate to
poor
management
appropriate
rek^^nt
knowledge,
for for
lime
every to
then,
coiumunicarion
par-
cmploj'-
skills)
m
participate, and rhe organizadoa’s culture must support employee involvement.*' Dozens
o1
tionship.
The
folly,
ir
appears
such
as
clusion
findings that
employee doesne
under
Miidies
the
been
however,
that
conditions.
cuaducied
arc
participation
prt^uciivity.
mean
right
have
on
the
mixed.VV^cn
the
typically
mons'auoii,
the WTiat
use it
hxs and
of
says
only
is
modest
the
in
VVesrem
looked
Of
maiugemenc
that
forma
influence
satisfaction.
participative is
research a
job
however,
jiarricipationZpcr
use
of
rela-
at
care-
on
course, can’t
nee
be
variables that
con-
l>eneficial
participation
is
no
sure means for impmving employee pcrftjrmaiice. Rcpresentaiivr of That
Participation
legislaimn IS,
requiring
rather
OTall
g-^up
iKten
«
led
tlun
of
parti,
en.ployces
the
.nosr
.^moxt
everjr
country
companies .pare who w.ddy
.l.rectiv
to in
actually leg.slatcd
practice decisions,
panneipnte. fonn
of
Europe
represeniarive workers
are
Representative employee
has
narricipatiuo.
represented participation
involvement
some
a^unJ
by
a has the
world. ‘' 'Hie
goal
ofI
representative
parucipai.on
is *
I'hc TWO most common fonns of representative „p_. Wofks
.
to
redistribute
power
within
management >
an
orga-
Chapter 5 Monvauon: Froni Concq grout®
of
ncHiiinated
incnl
makes
Dutch
c(Hn>any
c.r
deewmns
elected
involving
personnel.
over
unoriuT
taken
K
employees
by
who For
n.ust
l«
e.^mplc.
Rrm.
die
consulted
in
the
finmeri
Hs to Apphcai
when
.nana«-
Netherlands,
works*
councii
if
a
must
he
mfonned at an early stage, and if the council objects, it has ^0 dat^ tn seek a court mMicUoa
to
board
componys some
:>top
die
of
countries,
takeover.
directors
large
Board
and
companies
representatives
represent
m.^y
be
are
the
interests
legally
required
emplovees of to
who
the
firm’s
make
sure
sir
on
employees that
a In
employee
represencaiives have the same nuniUr of board seats as shx-kholder representatives The
overall
influence
seems
co
bemmimat.
mated
by
managciTient
although hicliou
rhis of
ertecl
“die
peatest
changing
iekles value
employee
evidence
little
impact
invuivcment
who
are
doing
to
the
operating
down of
the
have
employee
xndivjduals
ti
representarive
insnim-e.
and
of
ft»rm
die
this
For
of
representative
altitudes
or
participation suggests
or
might
inci’case
the
representing, employees is
roving
w'orking
works
employees
die
imp
that
on
parucipatioo
in
on
whom
couiicik
the
there
is
If
organizational
are
doni-
organization.
And,
motivation linle
iJiey
symbolic.
cmplnvees
and
evidence
represent.
one
saris-
is
that
Overall,
interesicd
pcrfonnance,
in
representa-
ovc partiapiition would be a poorclioice.*’’'^ Employee
Stock
well
discuts
ship
plans
pan
of
window
Ownership
is arc
employee
Plans stock
benefits.
manufacturer
United
.^Indcrscn
11
ownership
company-csiablished
their
The
benefit
plans
plans
.’\jrlints, Corp,
mil
arc
(ESOPs).
in
Puliliv ft>ur
employee
which
involvement Employee
enipluyees
Supermarkets, examples
of
approach
stock
ac^^uirc
(.iraybar
companies
owner-
stock
Riecrric, that
arc
a^ and
more
than 50 percent owned by their employees th rough ESOPs.’*'^ In contribute
rhe
typical
either
empJojn^es,
ESOP,
sU^ck
Allbough
or
an
employee
cash
to
employees
hold
buy
stock stock
stock
ownership for
in
die
their
erase
trust
company,
and
is
created.
allncate
they*
Oimpanies
rhe
usually
stock
cannot
physical possession of their shares or sell them as long as they’re still employed at
to take the
company. 1
he
addition, instance,
research
they one
on
ESOPs
frequently snuly
indicates
result
found
that
in
that
they
improved
ES(*)Ps
averaged
increase
employee
organizational nearly
7
percent
satisfaction,
perfonnancc. higher
fn For
shareholder
returns over rhe 4 ve a rs after rhe ESOP was estab I Uh td than market rctiuns of similar companies without an ESOP.’*^
Unking Employee Involvement Programs and Motivation Theories Employee For
involvement
instance,
aligns
with
two-factor intrinsic
Tlieory the
more
theory, motivation
draws
on
Y
cx^nsistent
is
traditional
employee by
several
motivation with
autocratic
involvement
increasing
theories
psirticipativc
style
ol
programs
opporruniries
discussed
Tnanagenieni,
managing
people.
could
provide
for
in
growth,
involvement in the work itself.
Employee Involvement Programs in Practice ffcmwny, France, the Netherlands, and the 5k:andinanan countries have firmly established the principle of indastnal democracy in Europe, and other nations, including Japan and Israel, have traditionally pnitiiccd some form of represeuwove participation for decades. Participative management and representative participation were
and In
Chapter
4.
Theory
X
terms
of
the
employees
with
responsibility,
and
Tl«e Imftvkhal in the t*g4niMHnn much slower to «in tfn,und in North .Xmcrican organiMtions. But nwatfey,. employee invoivemcot proprums that str«s partidpauon have heeonw the norm. Some maniitfCR cnnlinuc m resist sharing dcviMon-niakm^ power. Init the pressure ts managers ui give up their riutocratit decision-inakrng style in bvor of a more parliciparhe. supportive, coaching-like rule. Uhai ment
al>out
ESOPs?
Ihey’ve
pnjgrain
I
grown
.
hey
are
Iwcoiiung
fnnn
just
a
a
handful
popular 50
years
turm
oJ
ago
to
einpkjyec over
involve-
10,000
now,
cuvenng jnt>re than 10 iniiliun cmplnyrcs.-^
VARIABLt-PAY PROGRAMS For
more
than
30
years,
Nveur
Steel
has
had
an
incentive
compensation
that pays Iximises of as much as 150 jKreent of base to employees. lated
on
the
with
Merrill
How
did
Lynch,
he
iwbilin-of his
not
so
company’s
$1.4
much
nxincy-
(k
prnfuabilily.
drop
his
pav
package
is
—
He
gets
performance
gixnl
yciir
for
AT&T
more
.Armstrong.
2’^ c
percent
losely
The
Benson,
2fl01
Michael
bonus
Rick
in
million
and
salar\'
a
the
department,
because
was
of
earned
nuke
his
annual
2000
basis
common
bonuses
to
$4.5’^
his
thread
in
on
of
to
$5.26
these
salary.
the
pinf-
AT&T
saw
million)
performance
of
banker
base
CEO
million
each
his
based
company’s
place
investment
times
and
in
Bonuses arc calcu-
an
six
Chairman
(from
Tied
than
plni
and
examples
in
2000
is
diat
are
all
they all illustj*atc variable-pay programs.
\Vliat Arc Variable-Pay Programs? Piece-rate forms
phns.
of
wage
inccniives,
profit
variable-pay
programs.
WTiat
sharing,
bonuses,
differential's
and
these
gainsharing
forms
of
conipensaiit^
from more iTiulirional programs is that a person is pn irl not only for dme on the job or seniority;
a
measure
ol
pay is year,
portion
of
an
iwrftirmancc
not
an
you’ll
or
annuity.
make
employee's
4
the
l-*odi.
here
same
is
pay
is
Unlike no
amount
based
more
some
tnKlitional
guarantee this
on
individual
basc-|>ay
that just Ixeause
year.
Wth
variable
or
urganiz.atinnal
programs,
you
made
pay,
earnings
has
made
variable
S60.0(X) last fluctuate
with
rhe measure of performance. It
is
precisely
atmeuve
to
management.
variable
cost,
when
pay
form
of
is
fluctuadon It
diercby tied
end
the
turns
Low'
of
an
expenses
performance,
dement.
variable
part
reducing
to
in
d^at
organizations
when
caniings
performers
pay
perfonnance
recognize
find,
fixed
over
labor
that
into
In
rndier
their
programs
costs
declines.
conirihiition
time,
these
addifinn,
than
pay
a
being
stagnates,
a and
high perfonners enjoy pay increases cunnnensuraie with their contributions. Four wages, for
production
and
of
workers.
paid
for
200
bags
T
In
what
he
have
a
to
the
van
gain'sharing. long
pay
been
plans,
sy^uiii
or
she
keep
game,
of
A
peanuts
get
used and
piece-rate
selling during
hey
complered.
only for
instance,
widely
sharing,
century-
ballparks
might, sell
a
more
proIn
production
IS
work
rhe
bonuses.
nearly
unit
ol
able-pav
Piece-rate popular
workers
in
which
an
produc
es
a
and
soda
pop
50
cents
(or
they make
$100.
is
If
a
paid
a
pure
bag
they sell
gets
of
paid pcanub
only 4(1
a mere $20 I he harder they work and die more peanuts they sell the more they
piece-rate
been
for
fixed
piece-rate
are
arc
have
means
employee
frequently every
wages
as
are
programs
compensating
sum nu
plan.
around
for
each
base
salaiy
People
who
this
way.
I
hey
they
sell.
If
they
bags’
their
»kc
u»
Chapters Mirtivation: From
Tti?
earn. Many organizations use a modified piece-rate nlm i„ -
,
a base hourly wage plus a piccc-raie diffcremi,). s>. a’zipper iJsuTkr'TT 1^ Strauss plant might be pai.l $S’ a,, hour plus $.10 per zippeTsuch n odifi d JSTa provide a floor under an employee’s earnings while still offering a pnXS incentive. * Brmnses
can
bonuses
lo
annual lions.
Steve
his
JOIK,
success
plan-s ees.
are At
paid at
on
Ea-snnan
of
the
a
net
Co.,
exeaitixes
or
are
uncommon
fkimputcr.
coinjunys
larger
Chemical
to
dollars
.Apple
ninnng
taking
exclusiyelt
millions
C.FO
in
nity to cam a
be
received
fuiimi.it
within
(or
not
a
all
SM)
all
emploxees. in
million
fortunes
onranization-s
e.-campie.
to
include
IH.OOO
American
corpora-
in
>000
Increasindv have
ba.s«l
for
bonus
lower-ranking
employees
bonus eipial to 10 percent of their .annual pay,
instance,
kmus
an.und.
to
For
employ-
the
opportu-
on bow
mu^ the
distribute
cumpen-
company earn> on its cosi of iinrsiA'd capiul. Profit-sharing sation
based
on
plans sonic
are
organizution-widc
csublisbed
tbrmula
programs
designed
that
around
a
company’s
profitability.
Thes»e can be direci cash outlaw’s or, parLieularly in the case of top managers, allocated as
stfxk
can
options.
cam
over
For
S200
example, million
in
eveciiavcs
such
one
Almost
year.
as
Michael
all
of
Eisner,
it
woultl
rhe
CEO
at
Disnev.
wmc
from
cashing
in
.stock oprinns previously granted on die basis of company profit pcrfiirmanccTTie variable-pay program that has gotten the iiuisr anention in recent years is undoubtedly gainsharing. This is a fornnda-based group incentive plan. Improvements in group productiviry—from one period to ainitbcr—detemune the total amount of inonej’ to be allocated. .And the division uf productivity savings can be split bctw’een rhe company and employees in an\’ number of wa)% but 50-50 is prettj’ typical. Isn’t same
gainsharing
thing.
rewards
By
specific
Fzmpkyees
in
the
same
focusing liehaviors
a
gain
on
as
profit
productivity'
that
sharing
thing
are plan
ICKS can
sharing?
gains
rather
influenred receive
by
They're than
external
incendve
similar
on
but
profits,
not
the
gainsharing
factors
than
even
when
the
and
productirin*?
aw*ards
profits
are.
organ!-
zaiion isn't pnifitable. Do The
variable-)>ay
answer
is
producavin* exjx^rr
found,
in
says
.American
a
qualified
nitrst
gainsharing
average,
work?
“yes.*’
cases
Management
on
prograncs
and
boosts
that
has
employee
grievances
they
intTcasc
for
example,
(lainsharing,
often
j\ss<x:iauon
Do
study
a
positive
pmdticrivity’ of
dropped
83 83
morivarinn has
impact
on
between
eoropames percent^
been
.5 that
found
employee and used
absences
fell
26
to
irapnwc
attitudes.
One
pen-ent.**
^\n
gainsharing 84
percent^
also and
lost-time accidents decreased by 69 percent.*^
Linking \ariable
Variable-Hay pav
is
shtjuk!
perceive
receive
if
compatible a
strong
motivation
is
Programs widi
expectancy
relaaonship to
be
and dieon
benveen
maximized.
their If
Expectancy
prclirtions. ^«rfo^nancc
rewards
are
Theory
Specifically, and
allocated
the
uidmauals
rewards
they
^.fdetdy^on
non-
performance factors such as seniority or job title, employees ate- l.tely to red..« their A strong case nowadays can be made for mcenoves-The)'reinforce and encourage emp oye *r hea inte.^ of their work unit or the orgamranon. (.ro«FHb«ied pe
goals ftw r^roup-bise** performance
irKvnnve. strong
dsn
MV
ream
a
ethic.
namral
extension
Linking
re«"jr.ls
for lo
nrganiz^rinns
team
that
performance
are
trying
enwunges
«
btriM
employees
. to
make extra effoi-ts to help their team succeed.
Variable-Pay Programs in Practice pav
\’ariahle
ts
rcawin,
as
rfons.
Bonuses,
a
rired
concept
alxive,
that
is
is
its
rapidly
replacing
motivari.itia!
gainsharing,
and
the
ptiwcr—but
other
annual
don
I
variable-reward
rtwc-of-ln-mg ignore
the
programs
raise,
cost
avoid
(inc
implica-
the
fixed
expense yJ periuaneni sabr>* honors. Pay-f«r-pciformance has been ’’in” for compensating managers for seven) decades. The new trend has been expanding diis pracUce to nnnmanagcrbl employ, ccs IRM, VVal-xVbn. Pi?Z9 Hut, Cigna Corp., nnd John Dccix arc just a lew examples ot comiKmics itsing v.nrhbk }wy with rank-anJ-flic employees In the Vnitetl Sutes, for cxainplv, 72 pcnx'nr of all companies ha
popularity
companies.-’
finxis
such
as
seems
to
It's
Iwng
&
Howell,
Bell
be
narrowly
used
in
focused
about
American
among
2,000
Safen*
Razor,
large,
unionised
companies,
including
Champion
Spark
Plug,
Cincinnati Alilacroii, Eaton, Firestone Tire, HtX)kcr CJicmical, and Mead Paper.
SKILL-BASED PAY PLANS Organizadens
hue
|x?ople
fortheir
skills,
then
n-pitally
put
them
in
jobs
and
pay
them
on the ba.sis of their job tide or rank. So the director of corporate sales cams S150,000 a
v^ear,
$70,000.
the
regional
But
it
sales
managers
nrganizatioiis
make
hire
$90,000,
and
because
of
people
the
discrict
their
sales
managers
competencies,
why
get don't
they pay them for those same cuinperendes? Some organiaarions do.
What Are Skill-Rased Pay Plans? Skill-based job
title
pay
is
define
an
his
alternative
or
her
to
pay
lob-bascd
caiegon^.
pay.
Rather
sldll-basecl
pay
titan
having
(soiiieciines
an
called
individual's iMnpttaicy^^
busedpuy} sets pay levels
they
annual its
iwn
do.-^
salaries
by
up
ctMnpCMsarion
for
For to
instance, $12,480
managers
workers
at
W
acquiring
to
their
xburriean
as
many
progress
Steel
as
in
10
Wire skills,
develop!Tig
can and
skills
boost
their
Frico-Lay
nes
in
leadership,
grfjup pnK-ess facili ration, and coirmunicaifons. Hhais flexibility. 'this
is
force.
a|i{>eal
of
Filling
staffing
needs
i$
easier
today;
as
many
pariieubrly Downsizing
encourages fits
the
to
liecause
requires
employees ski
people
‘•pfoieciion
of
less
to
likely
true
to
11-based gam the
more
acquire pay.
a
territory’* hear
sldJI-based
better
“It
s
not
of
instance, iny
where
job!’’
the
are
Rut
perspective:
interehangeable.
size
of
specialists.
skills.
cithers’
skills
cut
fewer
cumnmnicauon of
management's
employee
and
range
understanding For
From
organisations
facilitates
behavior. phrase.
broad
plans?
when
generalists a
It
pay
their
work-
Skill-based
there
are
throughout
the
oreanizadon
lessens
dvsfuneduaal
jtibs.
k
skill-hascd
Skilhbased
[wy
needs of ambitious employees who confront minimal advancement upportumOA
pav also
other
pav
exists, helps
bene-
you’re
meet
the
Chapter 5 Modv&don:
FWRI Concepts tu AppiicaoM
These people can increase their caruings and knowledge without a promotion in job title. WTiafs skills
the
the
downside
of
calls
them
program
tor
skdl-hascd to
pay?
learn.
People
Topping
can
out
"top
can
out*—learning
all
the
Frustrate cnipk»yees
after
th^v’ve beconie challenged by an environment of I canon g, growth, and continual pay raises. SLlIs can also become obsolete. Finally, skill-based plans don’t address level nf performance,
only
checking
qualin^
.Although
it’s
whcdier or
someone
leading
possible
co
can
a
perftrrm
rhe
team—level
assess
how
w«I)
of
skill.
For
some
performance
may
employees
perform
each
.skills—such he
of
as
equivocal.
the
skills
and
combine that assessitient wick a skill-based plan, doing so is not an inherent part of skill bjsed pay.
Linking Skill-Based Pay Plans to Motivation Theories Skill-based
pay
encourage
plans
employees
Maslow’s
hierarchy
are
to of
I
consistent earn,
needs
with
expand
rheont
several
their
motivation
skills,
.Vtiong
and
employees
theories.
Because
they
consistent
with
grow;
they
arc
whose
low
er-order
needs
are
substantially satisfied, the opportunity to experience growth can be a motivator. Paying achievement efficiently.
people need.
By
to
expand
High
learning
their
achievers new
skill
have
skills
levels
a
nr
is
also
compelling
itu
consistent with
drive
proving
the
to
do
skills
research
things
they
better
already
on
the
or
more
hold,
high
pay.
Skill-
achievers will find tbcir jobs more challenging. There based
pay
is
a
encourages
cross-rrain,
to
others
the
in
also
be
link
between
employees
generalists
reinforcement
to
develop
rather
organization.
To
than
the
theory’
their
flexibility;
specialists,
detrree
and
that
and
to
to
skill-based continue
work
management
to
leant,
cr»f)jjeratively
wants
to with
employees
CO
demons trace such behaviors, skril-hased pay should act as a rciaforcer. Skill-based in
put:
pay
outcome
may
also
comparisons,
have
skills
equity may
implications.
provide
a
When
fairer
employees
input
make
criterion
for
their
detennin-
ing pay than factors such as senior it)’ or education. To the degree that employees perceive
skills
as
the
critical
variable
in
job
performance,
the
use
of
skill-based
pay
may
skill-based
pay.
increase the perception of equity and help uptiinize employee motivation.
Skill-Based Pay in Praclict* .4
number
The
of
overall
expanding
studies
have
conclusion, and
that
investigated
based
it
on
generally
the
these leads
use
and
studies, to
higher
is
effectiveness that
employee
tion. hor instance, approximately 60 percent of fonn
of
skill-based
learning
exua
product
quality,
And
pay.-”
skills or
found
a
that
productivity;
to
Some
of
skill-based
performance
and
pay
is
satisfac-
1000 firms arc using some
survey 70
use
of
of
27
88
companies
percent
70
to
75
an
idea
that
reported
percent
pay
higher
employees job
for
sadsfacriun,
cited
lower
operating
has
conic.
As
costs
or low er Turnover.’* Skilled-based noted,
“Slowly;
pay
but
appears
surely,
to
we're
be
becoming
a
whose
time
skill-based
society
where
one your
expert market
value is tied tt) what you can do and w hat your skill set is. In this new world where skills
and
knowledge
are
what
really
counts,
it
doesn’t
make
sense
co
treat
people
as
lobhoMcn. 1( makes sense to treat them as people with s|*ciGc skills and co pay them for cboae skills."-'’^
The Individual in die Orgajiizfltion
Organizations employee
havr
moevanon.
imroduct^il
piXKluebvity;
a
number
anci
of
programs
Siuisfacdun.
designed
Impnrrantly.
tu
rh«c
increase programs
arc grounded on basic mad van on Theories. It’s easy h) criticize e< lues ton, nnd researcher’^ for tlieir focus on bid Id in g theories. or
Students
urelevanr
those
critics.
managers
in
ro It
and solving
practitioners real-life
iHustrates
countries
how
around
often
think
probletn.s. tens the
of
This
that
chapter
thousands
globe
are
these
of
using
dteones
makes
a
rebuttal
in
and
millions
of
theories
to
practical incentive programs. 'I be six mmivalion programs we discussed in this diaptcr arc nor applicable to every organization or every tnanager's needs. Bur an understanding of these pnj^iuns u-ill help you design internal systems tliat can increxse ernploj-ec producti'iCy and satisfaction.
unrealLstie
gfwid
organizations rnorivarion
are
build
CHAPTER 6 ___________________
____ ____
_________________________________________
Individual Decision Making After reading this chapter, you should be able to Explain the six-step rational decision-making model and its dssumptions
2.
Identify the key components in the three*component model of creativity
Vs --
1.
J. Describe actions of the boundedly rational decision maker 4< Define heuristics and explain how they bias decisions 5.
Explain escalation of commitment
6.
fderhfy (our decision-making styles
7.
Explain the implications of stages of moral development to decision making
Individuals X
their
in
organ
izu!
ions
organization’s
goals,
headquarters,
or
coqxirate
make
what
where
decisions.
products
or
locate
new
to
a
lower-level
managers
determine
production
decide
pay raises
are
allocated.
how
sole
province
their
jobs
of
and
to
be
managers.
rhe
they
managers,
sendees m
a
to
The
making
employees
work
for,
'The
for
offer,
nu
schedules,
Nonroanagcrial
organizations
Top
fa
cm
seleci
inswnue,
dctenninc
how
best
ru
ring
plant.
Middie-
new
of
decisions,
also
make
more
obvious
orgjinizxj and
cmploye€S» however,
decisions of
is
not
that
these
and the
affect
decisions
might include w-hcdier to come lo w ork on any given day, how much effort to put forward once at work, and whether to comply with a request mAde by the boss. So that of
all
is,
individuals
they
these
make
choices
in
choices arc
every
urganizatiun
from
almost
among
reflex
rcgniarly
two
actions
or
more
engage
in
decision
making;
altci-nadvcs.
Undoubtedly,
with
conscious
undertaken
little
many
thought.
For example, the boss xsks you in complete a certain report by the end of rhe day and you
a
imply;
being
made
liront
new
Wly.
assuming even
or
AJtemaaves
though
important will
be
the
request
they
is
don’t
decisions, developed.
reasonable.
require
they Pros
can and
much be
In
such
thought.
expected
cons
instances,
will
be
what |>eo|*ilc do on their jobs is influenced hy their decision proces.ses.
But
to
choices
when
reason
weighed.
individuals
them 'J’he
are
out result
still con-
thoughtis
that
I ♦file liaMdwI in the Orgmi^tio" In this chapter, we SKUS on two different approaches to understanding decirio#^ mating First^Xcrihe how decisions >haM be made, l-hen, we review a la^ body ' f Snee to show p.u how decisions dude
by
offering
are made m organizations. VVe con-
some
specific
suggesrions
on
how
n.aiiiigeis
can
improve
their
dccision-makiiig elfettivcness-
Let’s
bcKin
bv
describing
how
individuals
should
I
HOW SHOVW DECISIONS BE MADE. behave
in
ortkr
to
inariniixe
a
cer-
tain outcome’ W’c call this the rational dccision-nwking process.
The Rational Decision-Making Process optimizing
inxximizinc
decision
choices
maker
within
is
ratioaid.
specified
I
hat
constraints.
is,
he
or
I
hese
she
makes
choices
vonsistent.
value
rn
The
are
made
tcllowing
decision-making
model
are
six-step mtKk'l. Specific assumptions underlie this model. The
Rational
Model
J’he
six
steps
in
the
rational
in Exhibit 6-1J 'I he model begins by is
a
distTppanej’
innnrhly get,
between
expenses
you
have
and
defined
theprffbIrM, \ problem e-tists when there
an
find
existing you're
a
listed
and
a
spending
problem.
Many
desired $50
poor
state
more
of
affairs.
than
decisions
you
can
If
you
allocated
be
traced
calculate
your
in
bud-
to
your
rhe
decision
maker’s overlooking a problem or incorrectly defining the problem. Once dteisioTi
a
enreria
sion
maker
the
decision
Idenrifidng may
decision that
is
will
has
be
maker’s
Also
what’s
interests,
is
keep
defined
important
determining
criteria
not.
maker
important in
mind
the
in
problem,
sohhng
relevant
in
values,
and
because
what
that
any
the
making personal
factors
one not
he
or
she
problem. the
needs
to
identify
this
step,
the
In
decision.
I'his
preferences
person identified
into
thinks in
step
is
this
the
arc
decibrings
process.
relevant,
step
the
another
considered
as irrelevant to the decision maker. The requires
criteria the
identified
ducisiun-makee
are to
rarely weight
all the
equal pmifwffy
in
importance.
kkntified
So
criteria
the
in
third
order
step
to
give
a/ternain'es
that
them correct priority m the decision. TTie could
fourdi
succeed
in
step
rcquiics
resolving
die
the
decision
problem,
\o
maker attempt
to is
generattt made
passible in
this
step
to
appraise
must
critically
these alternatives, only to list diem. Once
the
alternatives
have
been
generated,
die
decision
maker
analyze and evaluate each one. 1 his is done by rating each ahernaiii^ on eiteb critfrian.
1.
Dcime rhe probkni
2.
Ideniifi* decision criteria
3.
Wei g ht ch c cn tcria
4.
Generate akerniuivcs
5.
Rate each alternatixT on each crirgtion
6.
<xjnqHiig the optimal decisiun
I
EXHIBIT 6-1 The Six-Step Rational Decision-Making Model
chafrteri ImU^du*! Decisis. MsWng
Lf in tai IIS J number of iiKSumpcinns.
briefly nutluie them
rhe possible con seep lenres of each alcernaijve. i. C7e/ir prefoiffices. RationaJin- a«unws chat the eritcria and alternatives ran be ranked and weighted co ccHecr their imporrance. 4.
h’s assumed that the specific decision criteria arc constant and
C«x<M«z
that the weights assigned to them are stable over rime. 5.
.Vo CMic or eorr eort^traiitfr. Tlie rational decision maker can obtain hill information about criteria and alternatives because it^ assumed that there are no lime orcostennstraifics.
6.
fia-voff.
'I’hc
rational
deddon
maker
will
choose
rhe
alternative
that
yields
the highest perceived value.
Improving Creativity in Decision Making The
rational
decision
maker
needs
crearivity:
that
is,
the
abilit>’
to
produce
novel
and
usehji ideas. These are ideas that are different from what’s been done before but that arc also appropriate to the problem or opportunity presented. Why is creativity
ahenutim. Creative Potential Most people have cread vc potential that they n use when confronted
with
a
decis
ion-ma^ng
problem.
But
to
unleash
that
potential,
they
have
to
get out of the psychological ruts most of us ger into and learn how tn tliink about a problem in divergent w’a^'s. Wc can start with the obvious. People differ in their inherent creativity.
ThreeXComponent
Model
of
Creativity
Given
that
most
people
ity t<j lx; ar least mcKieratclv creative, what can individuals and or^nizations o ro _____ I ............... - ...... T"k« iwv« -mcwiT rn this (luestion ties in the three*
have
the
capac-
,kitb
and
the
k^
intrinsic
el
of
each
FMertiit
IS
EinsteinX
knowledge
creative
usk
the
knowledge
UflI
for
of
these
foundarion of
contributions
mal
m.rtivation
of
to is
all
were to
enhanced
Exhibit
cT«dve .^n.l
i.e
u
conditions
indhnduals
«mfirm
higher
the
rtm
undcrsia^mgof
for
to
them
eM>e«
as
a
have
the
creativity
P.«ssr»s
w
creative
Studies
the
work.
you
vers'
hui
r»-2).
components,
necessary
fields,
their
programming
creatiWty-
three
of
phvsiw
(«e
».
artand
be
able
lo
make
someone
w,^
a
mini-
I
he
^ten-
so^are
enpneer.
abibaeSt
know
ledge,
profiaen-
cics, and similar eiipenise in dieir fields of endeavor. J'he
second
component
characterisrics
associated
ratenrni
the
traits
see
have
Itgcni-e,
for
of
through
steel.
a
I Our
the
bicker
a
be
assix
and
stronger
piece the
that
analogj*,
have
developed
their
skill
make
the
strange
hens
laying
eggs,
familiar hut
how
at and
in
and
being the
many of
the
the
which
apply by
of
them
a
tclephririe able
to
familiar us
have
sec
the
individual intel-
internal
locus
of
contrnh
tol-
he
effective
use
of
frustraiion?
chat to
from it
his
might ‘"talking
thin
be
problems
considered
context in
a
able Of new'
instance,
that
a
hen
a
be
to
He
to
wondered
course,
most
break-
a
some
us
only an
that why,
piece
They’re of
take
noticed
move
way
another.
creative
He
is
to
possible
IKIK.”
memlirane.
conceived.
For
1
one
resulted
shouldn't
strange.^
following
as
ideas:
analogy
was
die
well
creative
delicate,
membrane
as
of
idea
observation
analogies,
personality
development
an
an
encompasses
instance,
fate
apply
Bell’s
operated
of
in
to
are
with
This
use
For
risk-uking,
examples ear
to
light.
iaied
makers
the
sktUf.
ability
dift.rent
perseverance
Graham
in
ear
and
the
self-confidcnce.
famous
operate
in
in
to
j\Je.tander
that
craahe-fhfnkin^
creauvitj;
decision
most
was
bones
then,
allows
the
concepts the
found
ambiguity,
analogies
One
familiar
independence,
erance of
been
with
is
of
people able
to
think
of
egg’s way
of making another egg? 1 he final component in oiir model is intrinsk ffwtivation. This is the desire to work on .something because it's interesting, involving, excidng, satisR-ing, or per-
EXHIBIT 6-2 The Three Components of Creativrty
f
'\
S*wr TM AmaMta.-Ua»Mi« Cmnvitr tn &Bs<«jauoni.-
y
Chapters snnallv
Chdkngiiig
mto
aeafve
du-.t
vxperu^
This
Kle:ts. and
effect
on
that
can
found work
ks
(?)
external
facing
It
.ietc.'nnnes
creeuve
of.scennng<4wessed. i«nr
.nobvarional sldHs.
I.nporUntlv, mirii.Me
g.ung
co
the
So
an
your
be
individuars
work
Specifically,
ereatmn-:
evaluated,
(1)
(2)
situations
widi
is to
peopk
often
peers,
k.ve
can
ftiliy
en^
totht
noim
a
sLif-
have
been
have
factors
watched
on
while
rewards:
constrained
crearivity
work,
evaluaHon—tocuhing
tangible (5)
their
organiiadonil
expected
and
njt-ns
individuals
environment
five
external,
what
which
.simveillanco—being
mouvators—eii.phas.zjng
wm-lose
extent
creative
monvation.
.iiipwk
component
IndWchulDecisionM»k)r.
how
you’re
(4)
working
competition—
choice-being
given
on bow yon cjn do j’oui' w'ork?
HOW DECISIONS ARE ACTUALLY MADE
IN ORGANIZATIONS ,Ve
derision
idcnab’
alJ
painstakingly chev’ dve
do.
the
process. follow able
evaluate
ever>'
of
But
or
borhood
of
with
model.”’ a
more
when
soln makers to
the
current following
aaurate
to
find
to
their
nei^borh(x>d
alternative.
As
arc
by
section
des^ption
of
having
dcdsioiw
expert large
most
of
derision chan
l»y
and
situations
few
alxerna*
akemntives
is
decision-making
dxe
real
world
to
find
an
the
their
symptom
in
rather
in
the
chan
use
problem
of
content
rather
some
evaluating
description
Imiited
a
and
usually
judgment,
how
probleTii
Most
one
reviews
simple out
problems,
akemadves,
Ln
a
d^e
viable
c:hoice?
problem
of
all
assess
optiinal
arc
make
carefully
identify
accurate
people
generally
they
searching
exception.
instance,
made
the
of
fairly
rhe
to
with
cost
a
non
Do
creanvirv’
faced
rhe
arc
For
decLsions
The
are
provides
model.
confined
significant
and
rational?
their
alternative
situarions
decision
the
use
makers
model
reasonable
be
tive
i^ction,
rational
to
“Most
derision
such
Consequently, tend
organizations
criTens,
rational
the
in
relevant
When
courses
low,
makers
accept-
creativity, to
("hoices
of
evidence
to
derisions
in
organizaiions
neigh-
concluded:
defined
body
one.
the
making a
don\
optimal
and
prescrip-
provide are
you
actually
made.
Bounded Rationahty WTien
}-ou
Did
you
vou
es
considered
carefully aluate
each
which
identify
all
alcemarivc
college ihe
to
attend,
criteria
against
the
did
that criteria
were in
you
look
important order
to
at
evtty in
find
viable
your the
alternative.
decision? optimal
vour
Did
coUege-
1 expect the answer to all tlicsc questions is zfo. Well, don’t feel bad. Few people ma e their college choice this wav. Instead of optimizing, you probably “satisficed. UTten fiiccd w ith a complex problem, most people respond by reducing the pniblcm to a level at which it can l>e readily understood. The liniiw in ormaaon pnxessing capabilih of human beings makes it impossible ^aand all the information necessary’ to optimize. So people
tax
solutions that are satisfactory and suffiaent
, enkine complex
limits
1 TIK IndivKhuJ in the tXsaoinoon eomplexiv* IwdMdiwH can then behave ntionally within the limits of the «mp|.
"“‘’llow does lM>undcd rat.onalitv work for the typ.wl irniividuul? O.iec a pnWem
1
,s identified, the sear, h for eritena a.al ahemat.vcs begins. But the W of criicm «
1
iikeJv to l=e far from exhaustive. The decision maker will idennly a limited list made up J of
the
wnd
more to
ousk-
conspiininus
be
highly
mecUinl-true
decision
maker
choices.
nsiMe.
hi
4<jbdons.
l>egnn
These
are
ciscs,
thev
Once
rcviexving
the
choices
will
dik
liuiilcd
them.
But
that
are
represent set
of
the
easy
familhr
to
criteria
akernabves
re%new
will
tmd
is
and and
that prni-
identified,
not
he
the
c<wiprehen-
,ivj< ._n(,T all of the al rem a lives will he carefully evaluated. Instead, titc ikciAion maker will
hcinn
with
alicrnabvts
rhat
differ
only
tn
a
relatively
small
degree
from
the
choice
currently in effect. Following along familiar and well-worn paths, the deciMun maker 1^1 “g<MHl tive
review*
cniniu'h’^one
that
meets
alremartves that
the
only
meets
‘'good
an
until
he
or
accepuhk
enough”
criterion
sdic
level
ends
idcutiltcs
of
the
an
performance,
search.
So
the
akerwative
that
is
The
first
alterna-
final
solution
rep-
resents a sansficing choice rather than an "primal one. One which
of
inure
intere.«!ring
arc
considered
alternatives
selected. nially
Remcmher,
listed
the
initial
gets
a
we
Ulf
in
a
assume
the
in
rhat
a
problem
and
limited
ones
Solutions
that
sdutiun
to
he
to
will
critical
preferred
they
are But
has
bounded in
optimixing order
more
i.sn'r
than
one
is the
is
that
the
derermining
which
model,
altcrnaiives
Because
evaluated this
rationality
all
all
w
potential
are
are
Every
potential
ith
Ixmnded
solution,
the
in
alternative
alrematives
irrelevant. case
order
is ctxn-
consitlered, solution
I'stionalicy*.
satisficing
If
choice
one the decision maker encounters. Decision makers use
obvious,
likely
of
ratioiud
enluanun.
will be the first simple
of
which
andojinplete
is
fully
hierarchv
order
full
in
aspects
with
models, which
depart
rhe
be identified Intuition
they are
Irom
A
the
typically
begin
familiar,
and
those
status
quo
and
unique
and
but
it’s
unlikely
before
the
decision
problem, well
they
least
selected.
so
creative to
be
maker
by
identifying
not
t(x>
far
meet
the
decision
alternative chosen is
alternatives
may
to
an search
the status quo. “Sometimes TOU ve just got lo go with your gut feeling,” the manager said a^ he trie
the
status
criteria
present
bei?ause
required
from
that
are
an
quo. most
optimizing
acceptable very
are
far
stJiiriun hevond
Chapters -n.,.
time
the
ahou.
6
tyrret,.
fm,
u.
d.d
the
grand
ma.uer!
'I
gntn.
m.i.ier
d,dn
t
have
any
better
memory.
d,an
the
abilit)’,
k-tsed
pHterns
and
C.ster.
of
farther
sheov
due
rhe u
a«
n-«.gT,.ze games. more a
Studies game.s,
in
mt^crarcly
dtnons.
Ill
exjxrt with
p.««
were■
on
which
lower
the
of
ill
often
to
recognize
□
siruaoon
that
situation
n.
arrive
decision
maker
can
decide
and
quietly
be
on
playing
in
or
on
previously
decision.
the
longer.
he
course’
of
5<>
is
tournament
con-
allows
that
very
or only
infornution
result
to
to
exhibit
F.xpenenee
Icametl
haX
rained
play
and
under
«,|-
did
ehesb
seconds,
game
The
appears
he
simultaneously
one
draw
whar
chcsshoanls onlv
hour
widi
of
«r
dc.,vn»rraK«
What
ihowtands.
in
noviee
exercrise
novice.
can
made
rhe
setv,.ul
played
.in
a
Apin,
the
half af
vapidly
he
occur
when
take
hoard.
professionals
must
than
the
having
that
chess
often
on
of
pieces
sic
decisions
r,nd«.mly
exjx-neiKe
decisions
level
which
pbce.l
the
associated
the
limited
intuitive
information.
Identify ing Problems ProWems
don’t
bon’s
come
wrh
flashing
neon
lighc
to
ideiitift
tfwmselvcs.
.And
one
,>cr-
i.s another persons aatptabk staonquo. So how do decision makers iden-
ofo and select probiems? Problems that are
visible
tend
tn
have
a
higher
prciliability
<me5 that are impoitanL* ’ WTi)’? We can offer ar least tw recognize
visible
problems.
Second,
remember
Decision
makers
They
rhai
want
are
we’ru
to
mure
likely
concerned
upjxrsu
tu
with
cunipctciU
and
of
being
o reasons.
cacch
a
uiakii^g
“on
of
top
than
First, it’s easier to
det-aon
decision
selected
niakcrt in
attenbon.
organtications.
problems.”
This
desire
mebvates them to f(KUS on problems char arc visible ru others. And
(lon’x
ignore
conflict
between
that
is
importani
also
is related to
attack
selecting to
more
when
likely
to
decision
a
the
the
decision
issue of
the give
Tt
high
thni
maker,
\’isibility-
decision a
makers
problem
problems.
high-profile
Moreover,
the
rating
is
ter
k’s
to
someone
to
a
others
w
If
is ho
a
decision
the
tends
usually in
performance
to
cai.
important
self-interest
convev’s
maker's
self-in
to
det
organ win
ibon
maker^
things
later
reviewed,
been
itabcxi
out.^*’
that
has
maker
faves and
This
one
tendency
best interest
arc
under
die
ro
conmd.
evaluator
nggressively
a
attacking
is vwi-
ble problems than to someone whose actions have been le^s obvious.
Developing Alternatives Since
decision
should
expect
makers to
rarely
find
a
seek
minimal
an
optimal
use
of
solurion,
creanvny
in
but
rather
a
ibe
search
satislicing
fur
one,
we
altemaLi\*es.
.And
that expectation is generally on target. Efforts confined ior,
to
which
will the
be
made
to
neighborhood
includes
the
tn
lo
of
development
keep the of
rhe
search
current
process
altemaiivc.
creative
simple.
More
alTernatives,
IT
complex
will
IK
will
tend
to
search
rc'^orrcd
behavto
when a simple search foils to uncover j satisfactory alteriiabve. Evidence indicates that derision niiikiiig is incremental ratlier than compfc en sive; that is, decision makers rarely formulate new and unique problem dumatives and rareh- explore unfomiliar territory?' 1 hey avoid the considering all the imporwnt factors, weighing their relative loerits an raw ac , and calculating the value for each alternanve. Instead, they make (incremental) oxn^arisons. ITiis branch approach simplifies decision paring only alternatives that differ in relatively small degree from tec nice
be
I
o
}
The Indmdual in dw Orpru««ion in
effect
This
nuirlilv
ewinine
a^et-ts
in
an
which
Wliat
emerges
stfiJS
toward
Other
words,
never
approach
al5<^
alternaiivc
the
die
decision
It
its
unncecssar>'
and
m.ike in
its
is
acknowledges
wririen
for
ronsequenccs,
description
makers
and
»t
altenmtive
above
olijecuve.
forever
and
pro|»o«.-d
from an
made
make*
hut
decision
netd
ilccision
diffi
comparisons they
r
maker
noneoiiiprehcnsive
rather
tnakcr
investigate
cuMrijueiues
suece.wive
stone,
nne
a
the
the
who
those
the
stat«
takes
nanire
made
tho^
only
from
of
because
are
to
unal!
choice:
in
decisions
arc
remade
end-
and
lessly in small comparisons Iretweeii narrow dioites.
Making Choices In
order
mental
to
avoid
sliom'tit.s,
li*;s
inforaiation
in
availaliilitj
derision
anil
overload, making.'
decision
'
There
representativeness.
makers
are
Each
rely
two
on
heuristics,
coiitmoii
crcatc.s
biase.s
or
categories
in
judg.
ul
hcuris.
jinlgment.
.Another
bias that dcci.sion makers offen make is the lendcncy tt« escalate cotninirmeni to .1 failing tdiirsc uf action. Availabiliiy drivings of
Heuristic
car.
course.
mcrcidl
fhe
Wtli
airline
z\
lot
reason
is
apnlogies was
as
more
pec^jk
rhai
many
ahead
of
dangerous
Miffer
from
fear
people
diink
flying
uiiie
as
for
tliis
drinng,
of
graphic
ihe
flynng
is
more
example,
cxiuhalcnr
than
ol
tear
dangerous.
il
two
irom
flying
747*.
It
on
isn't,
a
filled
of
comw
to
capac-
ity, would have to CM^h e^’eiy week, killing all aboard, to match the risk of being killed in a car accident. But the uiedia give a lot more ahcntioii to air accidents titan co car accidenn;,
so
wc
winl
hi
oversale
’1'hi.s
illusrraiion
is
an
dency
for
to
base
them.
Events
people that
recently tend
to
cyaraple etctr
evoke
he
overestiinanng
tic
caJi
also
explain
to
give
more
weight
events
sucli
understarc
particularly
memory.
as
an
when
heuristic,
information
are
behatnois
anti
availability on
our
nmnagers,
recent
flying
the
thAt in
why
in
judgments
available
unlikely n>
risk
of
emotions,
mosi
to
the
A.b
of
a
an
result,
Mtiniial
we
driving.
the
to
be
prone heuris-
appraisal*,
those
to
occurred
availability
to
ten-
available
have
tend
The
than
is
that
pcrtonnancc
cmphiyee
in
readily
or
crash.
nsk
which is
nvid,
airplane
doine
that
rhe
of
rend
6
or
9
months ago.
Repi’csentativc in
the
they
Heuristic
United
have
a
States
talk
better
But
these
kid*
assess
Uie
likelihood
of
I
hear
about
some
ptofessional playm
are
basketball. like
them.
an
We
all
odui
success.
nut
lu
l>e
from
they
nous lumed
occurrence
poor
the Or
fioin
by
watdi
pcrfiimure,
inner-cit)’,
playing
to
j^ilty hired .so
of of they
do
NBA. of
a
wring
10
vears
on this
new
pre
ago
hcurtstii product
that
from a
ex
who
television
graduates
predict
with
went
rtn
by
relating .same
current
job
in
the
tend
to
rate
gon*.
to
]>Ly
that
the
on
think
times.
die
reality,
playing
m.nch
it
boys
In
They
using
three
they
the
heuristic.
games a
than
in
.American
representative
neighborhood NBA
African
baskcthall
d
a
ciy’ing
p
of
medical
their
are
cl
goal
becoming
Or
predict
the
suffering
boy
Irrqucntly rV
of
arc
exajujdc, pi
millions
about
chance
NBA. hey
Literally
Managers, il
lo
for
a
pre-
imiversiiy
who
applic.inr
from
that uni ver sky WODT be a grxxl etnplo^xc. Escalation
ol
Conunitment
jKuother
bia.s
that
creeps
into
deci-sions
in
practice
is
a
tendenp lo escalate euinmitment when a decision sn eain represents a scries of decisions. ' Escalation of comniitnient is an iiUTcased coninritmenc to a prcviowi decisiMi in sjritc ol negjove mhinihirion. for cxauipk, a friend of mine had been dating
Cl»frt«r6 tadkiJMl Drt*, /vukin, i»*uiiian fur about 4 yeai^. Although he admitted that things weren’t going too well in (he lebtionsbip, he informed me that he was going lo marry the woman. A hit surb>’ his decision, 1 asked him why. He responded. “I have n kn invested in the relauonship.'” Simibriy. another friend was explaining why she was working on a docrorate in education, aldiough a he di diked leaching and didn't want ri» continue her career in education She lold me she
wanted to he a software prngramnier. But
tlien she hit me with her esraliihon-of-conunitnient explajiaiion; “I dreadv have a master's in cdocarion and I'd have w go hack aud complete some dcfidencie^ if I changed tn w ork oji a degree in sottware prograinmiiignow'.’ Il has been weh
an
ban
of
conunicmcin
organization
prove
rhar
his
hxs or
has
saffered
her
large
original
resources to what was a lost
CJUM:
characterisne
with
often
appear
effective,
course
of
asstK’iatcd
may
action
may
ofnhous
iiupiicanons
losses
decision
because was
for a
right
manage
manager by
rial was
decisions. dcicrauned
continuing
to
commit
from the beginning. Li addition, consistency is a effective
be
rnorivaced
to
be
prefcrnhle.
In
leaders.
be
So
cotj?.istcnt
actualiky,
managers, when
effecrive
in
an
switching
managers
effort
to
are
to
Another
those
who
arc able to difFercndate between situations in which pvn;istciu’e will pay off and situatioiih where ir won't.
Individual Differences the same decision situation and Chad ahnerst alw’ays seems to
Pur (2had and Scan
take longer m come to a solution. Ch in Is final choices aren’t necessarily always better than Sejn’s, he’s just slower in processing information. In addition, if there’s an obvious risk dimension in the decision, Scan sccius consisieiidy to prefer a riskier oplioA than docs Cliad. WTiar thit illustrates i^ dial all of us bring iwTsunjility and other individual differences to the decisiexis we make. Iwo of these indixidual differences seem partimlarly
relevant
ro
decision
making
in
organizations—decision-making
styles
and
lend ol moral developmciH. Decjsjon*.VfakiQg
Styles
I’he
decision-sty
les
model
idcmiEcs
four
differenr
indi-
vidual approaches to makiiig dcci.skms.^^ k wuh designed lo be used by managers and aspiring
managers,
hunts general
framework ciin
he used with
any individual
decision
maker. I
hv
dinieiisioas.
foundarion The
first
of is
the their
nxidel way
is
the
Qithinl'ffig.
recognition Some
that
people
people are
differ
l«g«’al
along
and
two
rarional.
Thcy process infun I uri< in serially, tn ennfrasr. some jicoplf arc inniitivv arnl creative. The) perceive things as a w hole, Note that these dillerentes are above and beyond the general
human
charaercrisnes—specifically,
bounded
rauunahey—discussed
earlier.
d*hc other dimension aiklrcsses s |•^crson^ tnlerana’ ftn'n^/tbiguity. Some |»ccjple have a high need to structure infonnadun in way^ that minimve anibiguit)’; others are able to pAKcss grammed,
many they
thoughts fiunn
at
four
rhe
same
time.
stsles
of
decision
Ihrtw tive, AnalMical. Conccpwal. and Behavioral.
WTien
these
making
(see
nvo
dimcnsioiu
Exhibit
6-3).
arc
dia-
these
arc:
♦ t
<. S. 5 >* BXHrWT fr-3 Oeciswo-Styte Model
►
Htfh
<
Tolerance for Ambiguity
Amlyiicsi^
I
Rational
«
Intuiuv*
Way of Thinking SOSNK AJ. RM aao la aoui^ndes.
P«^lc ricmalicy. making
using
They
the
are
dccisioiib
dtreanv
efficient \mth
MrSIOft Mdfcnf lUwr RM<. Mt PienOce W. 19d2), p. 29.
styie
and
have
logical.
mininval
low
tolerance
for
ambiguit)'
fur
efficiency'results
B»r
their
concern
information
and
assessing
tew
and
sect in
altcmathes.
ntheir
Directive
types mate decisions fest, and they focus on rhe short run. rhe decision do
/ma/yncai makers.
directives.
type
They
has
a
desire
Analyut*al
much more
managers
greater
tolerance
infonnaiiun
would
be
lor
and
ambiguity
consider
l>est
than
more
characterized
do
directive
alternatives
as
(.*arefu!
than
decision
maters with the ability to adapt or cope with new- situations. Individuals with a eweeprua/ style tend to be very broad in tiieir uudook and consider many alternatives. Ilieir focus is long range, and they are very good at finding
355
creative solutions to problems. ITie
final
ers
who
and
subordinates.
meetings
work for
witii
category—those well
with
others.
I*hey*’re
They're
receptive
communicating,
a
'TJiis
to
/’r^/tvwryr/scyk’-^'haractcrizcs concerned
suggestions
type
of
with from
manager
the
achiescmenls
others
trieji
to
decision
and
avoid
of
nwk' peers
rely
heavily
conflict
and
on seeb
acceptance. categories mat
fall
into
more
dormnant
sty
le
on
eir
dominant
dian
and
his
style;
one. or more
So her
arc
it’s
probably
backup
flexible
distinct,
most
best
styles. managers
to
Some can
managers think
in
managers nuke
have terms
rely
shife
situauon. L
characteristics of
a
abnost depending
manager^ exclusively on
the
re students, lower-level managers, and top executives tend to score igncM in the analytical style. ’I hat’s not surprising, given the emphasis that formal education, particularly business education, gives to developing rational think-
Chapter 6 Individual r>«:uion Maldog ing.
For
instance,
courses
in
accounting,
statistics,
and
finance
for
looking
at
helping
ymi
ah
stress
rational
analysis. Ill
addition
focating
on
intelligent
to
decision
people,
providing styles
with
a
can
ncccs.'.
framework
be lo
useful the
tor
same
information,
individual
understand
can
differ
differences,
how
in
two
the
equally
ways
they
approach decisions and die final choices diey make. of
because
jMorJ many
Development
decisions
Moral
have
an
development
ethical
dimension.
is
relevant
in
decision
An
understanding
of
this
making
. 'U" r; r«
Level
concept
can help you see how different people impose different ethical standards on their
V♦
deci‘5100 s. A
substantial
dev^ebpment, moral
each
jiidginetn
body
nf
research
coinprising
gixw's
less
rwo
and
confirms
sfageH.’’
less
the
Ac
depenrienr
existence
each on
of
three
successive
oncside
levels
stage,
influences.
an The
of
moral
individuePs three
levels
and six stages arc described in Exhibit 6-4. The
first
notions
of
right
physical
punish
level or men
is
lal>eled
wrong i,
piecvfjvcnfiona/.
only
reward,
or
when
personal
exchange
of
At
this
level,
consequences favors.
individuals are
Reasoning
respond
involved, at
the
such
to as
ogwrf’nricJM/
level indicates that moral value resides in maintaining the conventional order and the
A
EXHIBIT 6-4 Levels and Stages of Moral Development
Level
S tage/Descr iption
Principled
6. Following self-chosen echlcai principles even if they violate the hw
A 4*
5. Valuing rights ol others; and upholding nonrelatrve values and rights regardless of the majoric/s opinion Conventional
4. Maintaining conventional order by fulfilling obligations to which you have agreed 3. living up to what is expected by people close to you
Pr«corwentional
2. Following rules only when iVs In your immediate interest I. Stkkinf to rules to avoid physical punlihinenc
I
■
MA*M h«n L KatHbeff. 'Moral Stages end Mouii/tfijon: the Ccgnitive-OMOpnienta]
AnxoacAZ in t Utivne MK OgMfepmgnt Mtwr; Tbeoo. WMAon. 1979).
w Sooa/ ijtues (Me Ifork Hott. Amolua ft
4■I ,
lie fndi«du.lin .he Org.niaoon
.1
Part II
. U r„ dw i,nm ipleJ Ic'd. itnlid
people pr<’K=>--ed thr.iugb .he six stages in a l.Kk-ste|. fashion. They
,
SuaHy ntovc ladder, stage by stage. They .iont ,t.n,p steps. Seu.n.l, there «no Sra, i oFconrinued developmen.. Development can terminate a. .any stage. Third, giunintec limited to oljeying the rules and laws ot M««y. jSh the stage a manager reaches, the more he or she will In- predLs^.sed ,o
mi
ethical
decisions,
bur instance,
a stage
.1 manager
,s likely Io
make
dccismns
,)n.t udl receive approval by h» or her |Ken.; a stage 4 manager w’lli -^ek tr. he a' g.xxS cornorale citizen” Iw
making decisions that respect the
orgam/at.on s rules anti pruee-
tlur'e-s; and a stage s'manager is likely to challenge organixauonal practices that he nr sbt believer tr? he wrong.
Orgadixatjonal Constraints The
orgjauation
cheir
(lecisjons
and
it^ulf ro
conitraiii?.
reflect
organizationally
the
imposed
decision
makers.
organi/ation’s time
Managers,
pcrfornuiive
consimints.
fur
evaluation
Prevdous
insunce,
and
shape
reward
organizadonal
.system
decisions
also
decision
mak-
art as precedenls to ton.strain current decisions. Performance
Evaluarion
Managen^
are
strongly
influenced
in
ihcir
ing by the criteria by which they arc evaluated. If a division manager believes that the inanufaciunng
plants
ing
we
negative,
part
of
Similarly,
under
shouldn’t
their
time
if
college
a
(wreent
of
her
should
vvpeci
his be
ensuring dean
snidenU—to diac
new
responsibility surprised
that
negative
heticves tail
to
in^cruclors,
operating
find
ihat
his
information
chai
more
are
an
reflects who
instructor on
want
the to
l>cst
w'hen
plant
managers
doesn’t
reach
should
never
instructors
receive
he
hears
spend
the
a
division
fhil
more
ability
in
favorable
nothgwd bow.
than
10
teach—we
evaluations,
will
decide not to fjil too many students. Reward
Systems
'fhe
organization’s
reward
system
influences
decision
makers
by
suggesting to them whai choices are preferable in tenns of personal payoff. For e.xanu ple»
if
the
decisions. out
organization From
the
promotions and
rewards
1930s bonuses
risk
through
aversion, the
managers
mid-19fi0s,
to managers who kept
arc
likely
(ieneral a low’
to
Moiopi profile,
make
exjnsemrive
cxmsistcntly
avoideil
gave
c’ontrovcrsy,
and were good team players. The result was rhat (LM managers became very adept at dodging lough issues and pKissing controversial decision.s <m to coininittccs. System-Imposed rime CoiiKrraints Organiiauons impose deadlines on decisions, or instante, dejvaruncnt budgets need h) lie coinplcied by next Friday. Or the report prrjduc'i development has to l)c ready for the executive conun it tee tn review by le
die munilb host ol decisions havx ro he made quickly in order to stay
ahead of the cx>mpeution and keep customers satisfied. And almo.st all important
come
WIT
explicit
mak^s
and
ohen
make
(leadlines. itdiflk-uk,
These if
not
might like iiefore having to make a final
conditions impossible, choice. 'I
ity' that, in oiyanizadons, decisions wme with cinic constraints.
create to
time
gather
alt
pressures the
on
decision
infonnation
they
he rational model ignores the real-
MMIMI OccWoa
Histoneal Precedents Rational detiMon making takes an unrealrsuc and inrabted pirspctiJve, It views decisions os independent and discrete events. But that isn’t the wav it is »n the real world! Decisiohs aren’t made in a vacuum. They have a context in hc(, tndtvidttdl decisions are more iueumvly characterized as points in a nrem Deewrons made in the past aic ghosts that continually haunt current choices. For insftmet’, commirrnents mode in the past constrain current options. Tij use a srxdal Mtuarnm as an example, the decision you might make after meeting “.Mr. (or Ms.) Right* IS more ctvmpbcarcd if you're married titan if you’re single. Prior ctHumit—in this case, having gotten iiwrrlcd-^onstrflin yowr options. In a business cttntcxu Kastman Kodak ii a guk>d uxainple of a firiii that has had hi live with its past ini^itakes.’^
Starting
of
silver
as
clectTonic
problem
halide
in
the
early
photography
photograjjhy,
deliberately,
M>7ds,
were
numbered.
woidd
K
Kodak’s
soon
management
They
replace
tiunagement
concluded
predicted
it.
But
panicked.
other
inste.ad
They
t(M>k
the
days
technologies,
such
of
that
approaching
off
in
all
the
directions.
Aiul tt>dav» viiTiially ail of Kodak’s problems can lie traced to the decisions made and nut
made
point.
since
It’s
then.
common
(Government
knowledge
budget
that
ihe
decisions
largest
also
offer
deiennining
an
factor
illustrabon
of
rhe
size
of
our
of
any
given vears budget is last years budget.'" Choices made today, ihercfure. are largely a resuk of cbnices made over tlic years.
Cultural Differences The
nitiunul
model
instance,
dorvi
rherefore,
wr
maker
can
docs
necessarily need
have
analysis,
the
decisions
should
to
acknowledge
make
decisions
recognize
significant
importance be
not
that
influence placed
made
rhe
the
on
on
cultural
his
Ingic
uiitocraiically
differences.
same
cultural or
her
and
by
an
terms
of
way
But
that
background selection
rationality, individual
for
Canadians
do.
of
of
or
Arabs, the
decision
problems, whether
manager
depth
of
organizational
or
wdlcctively
in
imporiar^ce
of
preference
for
groups.-^ Culnires, rationality',
for
their
belief
collective
decision
managers
in
than
in
countries
will
i
si
a
such
on
nectsjjan'.
Some
ing
situations
as
Thailand believe
and that
agers
might
would
chouse
much
more
mity cxdlcxt
and a
to
grtMip decisions.
at
a
problems,
orientation
help
us
undersund
why
and
more
deliberate
pace
much
slower
he
or
knows
that
i*^
highly
bui
fashion
because
where
rationaliry
a
atwHint
rationality is
emphasize
Vmtrd
fall
into
the
should it
as
such.
than
in
the
licforc of
nited
Japanese
infornution,
rheir
Decision L
I
make is
then
an
tn
appear
to
in
the
West.
In
appear
others
focus
into
the
rational on
furnier
benefit,
or by
Japanese
The an
Japanese important
used
in
acceptmanagers
American
Indonesian
arc
category;
problem-solving
hai
States.
make
to
their
making
CEOs
which
valued
Bccau'^c to
noghi
important
efforts
talk
^;ituations
l>efore
its
problems;
States
and
manager
deified,
latter.
change
long
not
solving
The
problem
So
she
ure.
and
gruup-oriented brge
decisions
rime
the
solve
intuitively,
recognize
Cooperation.
in
to
American
they
identity*
people
orientnnnn,
North
cultures
t*an
of
Differences
Indonesia they
ability
time
A
Iran,
noi
in
countetparts.
rational as
ihe make
American
dec
poK’eed
in
differ
making.
Egypt
their
important
example,
man-
coumerparts manager? value
decision,
is
conforthey
consensus-forming
The iadivWuel in the
«
— -- ----------
ETHICS IN DECISION MAKING xr .V enmhasirt vuou-h the im|M.rwnce today of consKkring vthifs in dedsinn L-HL' UVVC airtadv addressed individual differ in our discusmn of morel
XSnienr Wt c<>nclu
cnnnM. in which decisions are made solely on the basis of thei^
entenmes
or
for
ereatesi
the
consistent
omsequvnex.^s.
u
jnimkx
idi
soak
1
he
nis
goal
new
such
as
of
utilitarianism
tends
to
efficiency,
is
to
dominate
prcxlutiiviiy,
provide
business and
the
greatest
deaston
high
profm.
g^xxJ
making.
B>
In
maximizing
ptofits fi«r I usance, a business evenitivc can argue he is sccunng the grvatesi good for the
greaicsc
Another
ethind
decisions ments
such
he
criterion
consisted
respecting free
number-^s
as
is
with
the
employees
and
Bill
who
to
to
of
dismissal
fuctes
on
ngArr.
.An
process.
For
or
I
to
IS
his
and
calk
on
on
instance,
use
practices
by
his
set
in
of
of
to
make
in
d<x^-
making
meam
forth
decision
as
the right
this
criterion
their
employee,.
individuak
as
rights
individuals, such
illegal
ixtrcenr
privileges
emphasis
the Iwsic rights of
unethical
notices
libcnics
Rights.
due
report
out
ftmdamcntal
and prowcring
speech,
hands
to
privacy,
would
organization
to
to
protect
the
press
or govenuiient ageiides on the grounds of (heir right to tree speech. A
Uiird
enforce
criterion
rules
costs.
fairly
Union
is
and
to
focus
imparti/illy
members
typically
on so
there
favor
J’his
Jiutne. is
this
an
view.
respiiri's
individuals
equitable It
to
distribution
justifies
pay'ing
of
impose
and
benefits
and
people
the
same
w'age for a ^ven |ob. resaxdicss ot jxrrfrirniance differences, and it uses seniority as the primary determinant in making lay ofl decisions. Each ism
these
pniniotcs
some The
of
efficiency
individuals, use
uf
freedom ductivtity sented
and
and
as
a
privacy’,
and
criteria
tliosc
criterion
but
efficiency.
less
has
it A
powcriot,
advantages
pitHhictivicy;
particularly
rights
and
three
with
create
focu-s it
on
can
it
result
overly
justice
from
a
in
focus
the
sense
in and
is
workplace
rights
of
organization.
consistent
that
of
cnntlernent
utilitarian*
the
the
interests
of
on
ignoring
injury
legalistic
protects
encourage
A
representation
indhndiiais an
liabiliucs.
can
minority
protects
can
but
but
and
with
hinders
the that
pro
underreprereduces
ri^k
taking, innovation, and productivity. Decision
makers,
particularly
comfortable
when
they
use
fied
when
framed
as
being
ers.
But
many
change.
Increased
gesr
the
teria.
This
using
criteria
ties
critics
than
explain
need
for
why
the
in
sol
hl
as
individual
develop
criteria
managers
are
rights such
lot
of
to
as
arnue
that righis
effects
on
efficiency
involves and
themselves
be
and
on
and jusfi-
sKXzkholdneeds
justice
making far
criticized
cri-
decisions
mure
profits.
to
sug*
nunutilitarian
liccause
justice
can
social
based
ial
safe
perspective
and
managers
finding
feel
actions
this
soc
increasingly
to
organization''
standards
today’s
and
“^c
individual
ethical
tend
questionable of
makers
about
challenge
organizations,
interests
decision
to
a
A
best
society
utiliunan
I
ambipii'
This
helps
for
their
pnees. selling products with questionable effects on consumer
heaidi.
closing
moving
production
UQiitanan
in
managers
such
for-profit
utilitarianism.
business
exmeems
presents
uung
of
in
Umis.
down <
But
stofls Miould he judged.
manufacturing overseas that
may
to no
plants, cut
lay
costs,
longer
bv
ing
and the
off
siiniiar stnek
large
numbers
decisions criterion
can liy
of lie
which
emplovecS. pisrificd good
in
deci-
K* • Chapter 6 Individual Otci^iun .Making 91
IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS bhiivjJuak bow
people
thiak
make
and
decisions
rtdson can
k-ffirt
be
they
helpful
if
act
wc
Thus,
are
an
understanding
tn
explain
the
rauonal
and
predict
of their
behavior. Under nicest than the
people, the
some
dteision
si
most
rule.
rational
satisfice
nd Few
nonnuirinc
iiiip<»rrant
models
rather
siluaticms,
opti/niiC,
to
follow
decisions,
decisions
assumptions
than
people arc
upply.
inject
this
is
simple
So
probably oj-
and
more
look
for
prejudices
But
the
unambiguous
individuals
biases
in<xJel.
for
exception
enough
for
solutions
into
the
that
decision
process, and rely on intuition. Given
die
organizations,
evidence
what
can
wc’vc
desenhed
managers
do
on
co
how
decisions
improve
their
are
actually
decision
made
making?
in
We
offer
to
the
five suggestions. First, national uates
analyze
culture
and
ity,
don’t
try
to
in
situation.
which
rew'ards. feel
the For
your
to
if
you're
folfow
decisions
v^our
operating
instance,
compelled
make
you’re
Adjust
the
appear
and in
decision-making
to
a
rational
criteria
txiuntry
your
diat
Similarly,
organization
doesn’t
decision-making
rational.
style value
model
or
eval-
rationaleven
organizations
differ
to in
tenns of the iiuportance they place on risk, rhe use of gr^ mps, and the like. Adjust youi- decision .style to ensure it’s compatible w’ith the organization's culture. Second, he aware of biases. We all bring biases to the decisions we make. Tf you understand the biases inlluencing your judgment, you can begin to change the way you make decisions to reduce those biases. Third, approaches deewion ingly
combine to
rational
decision
effectiveness.
confident
in
As
analysis
making. you
imposing
By
with
using
intuition. both,
gnin
inanagerial
your
intuitive
pm
TTicse can
exj’ierience, processes
are
nut
actuaJly you
on
should
top
of
conflictmg
improve
your
feel
increas-
your
rational
anah'sis. Fourth, don’t assume that your specific decision style is appropriate for every job. Just as organizations differ, so too do jobs within organizations. And your effectiveness as a decision maker will increase if you match your decision sej'le to the requirements of the job. For instance, if you have a directive style of decision making, you’ll be more effective working with people whose jobs require quick action. This style, for example, would match up well widi managing stockbrokers. An analytical style, on the ocher hand, would work well managing accountants, market researchers, nr financial analysts. Fmallv, problems,
try
attempt
to to
enhance see
your
problems
creative in
new
tv.
Overilv
ways,
and
look use
for
novel
analogies.
uy to remove work and organizzatinnal harriers that might impede your creativity.
solutions In
CO
addition,
PART III: Groups in the Organization
CHAPTER 7 ___________________________________
Foundations of Group Behavior
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
M
Differentidie between formal arid informal groups Explain why people join groups
3.
Describe how lole requirements change in different situations
4.
Explain the impoitance of the Hawthorne studies
9 VI A
Describe the importance of the Asch studies
•
Identify the implications of sod a I loafing
CP P
Outline the benefits and disadvantages of cohesive groups
•
Explain the effect of diversity on group performarKe
*
Contrast groupihink and groupshitt
T
he behavior erf individuals in grou|is is .s
fcrendy
from
when
diey
are
alone.
This
chapter
intToduces
bask
concepts
about
groups and demonstrates how an understanding of groups can help explain the
huger
phenomenon of organizatiunal behavior.
DEI'ININC AND CLASSIFYING GROUPS A
groi^)
come
is
defined
togeJict
to
as
two
achieve
or
nioi’e
particular
iruhv-iduaJs,
nhjecrives.
intcraciing
(iroups
can
l>e
and
interdependent,
cither
formal
or
who infor-
mal. By ibrmal, we mean defined by the organixa lions struemre^ with desisfn^ted wcH'k assignments
establishing
tasks
one
engage
are
should
in
and
work
stipulated
by
groups. and
In
formal
dirwled
groups,
toward
the
behaviors
organizadunal
gitals.
that In
Contrast, informal groups arc all rances that arc neither smictured noi orgunizadonaliy
1
Chapter 7 Fnembtfooi of^oopBehtrior defermmed. In the work environment these groups form naniraHy as respomei to the need for social conracr. hV
possible
to
fortJier
sulK-h^ifo
groups
inioajmmand,
ship tategones. Command and cask groups are dkmced whereas interest and Iriendshtp groups are informal alliances. rhe the
cdftffihTftd
suhordinaces
is
who
determined
report
by
directly to
the a
by
organisational
given
task.
manager,
intercM,
the
fonnal
chart, ,’kn
h
is
or
friend-
organirjitjun, composed
elementary’
school
of
prin*
dpal and her 12 teachers form a coininami group, as Ho the director of postal audits and his 5 inspectors. Tafk together
groups,
to
intmediare
also
tompkee
a
hierarchical
(»rgarriracionally
lob.
Iloutver.
Miperior.
colkgc student is accused of di
nation
among
the
dean
h
a
caa
determined,
task
groups
crfxw
represent
boundaries
command
persons
are
rclabonships.
working
not
limited
to
For
instance,
its
if
a
a cunpiis crime, it may require cominunicadon and coor*
ol
academic
a^irs.
the
clean
of
students,
the
registrar,
the
director of .security, and the student^ adviser. Such a formaiiun would consutute a task P'oup. IT should be noted that all command groups aiu also cask groups, hut because task griHi(K can cut acniss tlic organization, the reverse need not he true. Pcojde w ho may or may not be aligned inu> common command nr task groqis may affiliate to an a in a specific objective with which each is concerned. This is an immft
grt/up.
F.mployres
who
band
togctlier
lu
have
their
vacation
scbeilule
altered,
to support a peer who ha> been lireil, nrn> seek increased fringe benefits represent the fiirrnation of a united body to fujxhcr ihcir cxnTimon interest, (iroups mon
often
develop
characteristics.
We
heenxse
call
the
these
individual
formnnons
members
fhcntisbrp
have
nnr
grotipi^
or
more
Social
com-
allegiances,
which frequently e.xtciid outside the work situation, can be bxsed on, for ex ample, similar
age
or
ethnic
heribigu.
support
for
Notre
Dame
football,
or
holding
similar
polit-
ical view s, to name jnst a few such characteristics. Iniomial
groups
protnde
a
very
important
luncuou
hv
sacislytng
their
niuiubers*
social needs. Because of inicractifwis thar result from the proriniity of work stations or tasks, ing
w’e
find workers
together,
recognize
and
that
playing
sperxling
these
types
golf
their of
lugctlicr,
breaks
riding
around
imcractions
to
the
among
and water
from
work
cooler
individuals,
together,
together.
even
lunch-
VVt
though
must
inibnnal,
deeply affccv dicir behavior and pcrfoiinajicc. I'here
Is
no
single
ixnsori
why
individuals
join
groups.
Because
most
people
belong to a number of groxijw, it s obvious that different groups provide differenr benefits to tlicir iuemhci*s- Fxlbbii 7-1 sunnuan/es ibe most popular reasons people have pining gnmps.
BASIC CROUP CONCEPTS .1 • The following review of IMSIC group conixpts builds on the lecognition that groups arc not unorganised molw. They have a structure that shapes the bchavitn- ol diefr ’•
members.
Roles bun CampbeU
ts
a
buyer
with
Marks
Spencer,
the
large
British
retailer.
Iler
job
requires her to play a mimher of roles: that is, tn engage in a bci of expected behavior panerm that are attributed to occupsnng a given piwiticai in a social unit. For
.
:Q,W«B io Ae Why Do People Join Groups?
EXHIBIT 7-1
Security lrd,«iun in . p.wp ri,a«.. .kwr
to
more her
the
committee
roles:
daughter's
Surrey
conflicts. from
die
For
(.an
to the
a
Manchester role
in
league.
recent
demands
Off
Aieth<xlist.
singer
soccer
instanre,
diversity.
mother,
schcx)l,
womens
London
Ixjndon.
vife,
on
the Many
offer yet of
of
the
job,
member St. of a
Laura
of
rhe
;\ndrew’s these
her
husband
her
job
be
and
T.aix>r
Chapel
roles
promotion
(Lampbell
would
Party,
choir,
are
and
require
a
with
the
to
to
roles as wife and modi er? Like Laura Campbell, we all are required to play a nuinl>er of roles, and our behavior varies with the role we're playing, The concept of roles can help us behavior at her soccer league match on .Saturday, for instance, IS irfereni from her behavior when participating in a meeting of her cost-iinprovemenc task force al w'ork—the groups impose different identities and expectations on Laura. T he undefiunding «jt role behavior would lx; dramaticallv simplified if each of i» Chose one role and pla.vcd i( out regularly and consistendv. Unfortunately, we are required in play diverse roles, both on and off n»r jobs. Different groups impose difterent role requirements on ^K•op^c. And we can better understand an mdividuafs ‘J**
person is plannp. the following conclusions’: 'he sdmul. around while ml.., ,.f
of
cTeate relocate
remain
demands
in
memlicr
lucinber some
Laura
want
herself
board
compatible;
daughter
reconciled
finds
of
in her
chapter? row’s or
lawyers
Thr
that
Pi-ame.
ihv
be
influenced
People
have
situation
experience another. that
will
n.le An
arid
its
conflkl
w
increasing
Laura
Campbell
by
the
ability
demands
hen
the
u,
of
with
as
a
result
atlwmew
rapidly
major
one
for
of
roles
require
people,
experiencing
actions
nhift
clearly
compliance
number
is
watching
Foundations
role
in
when
changes. arc
of
to
trying
tl.ey
MrBral
recogniM
People
is
at
often
odds
experiencing reconcile
Crroup
.d/Zy
(4)
requirement
instance,
of
the
work
with stress
and
ftiin-
you’re
deal-
ilv roles. So ing
it
with
you’re
employees,
idcntifinng
with
This
role.
a manager,
behavior
at
ii
helps
die
perspective
titne
guide
you
ever
notice
that
knowledge of
lo
of
d^ink
and
can
and
of what value is a what
often in
in
terms
l>ehaviori
allow
you
determining
wbat
would
roles’
group
be
Wien
thcv’re
expected
uj
more
accurately
how
best
to
predominantly
them
predict
the
hantUc
situations
partners
arc
in
that
employee’s with
that
employee.
Norms Did
you
green
or
norms.
that
That
golfers
employees
is,
there
don’t
are
don't
speak
while
their
their
bosses
in
eritidze
acceptable
standards
of
public?
behavior
putting
This
within
is
a
on
the
because
emup
of
that
are
shared by the group’s members.^ Each
group
will
establish
itv
dctcimine
appropriate
dress,
bers
lunch,
friendships
cat
spread
norms—and
with
the
explicit
ol
cues
output,
extremely
on
accepted
gi’oup
nicmbeTs
cases
in
forms
al
off
should
work,
thev an
nonns
with
a
minimum
employee
of
external
with
level
because
tend
might
whom
group
mem-
most
wide-
be
tlie
most
ger
the
the
their
job
like.
Tliese
influencing
of
and
fret,
it’s
high
overriding
level
norms
are
When
agreed
behanor
unusual
personal of
their
the
not
influence
members
done,
means Tn
concerned—deal
provide
performance.
a
the
norms
emploj'ee’s
abilities
of
group
probably
to
to
and
conrrols.
strong
with
typically
channels,
as
ofL
However,
how
individual
instance,
goof
managers
act
For
iob.
groups
affecting
modest
the
Work
group,
very-
and
to
processes.
the
an
norin*j.
acceptable
communication
in
of
which
hy
which a
on
hard
appropiriatc
it’s
sei
-with
how
pow’erftil
and
when
ones
performance-related
with
to
and
own
of
to
find
motivation
per-
group
norms
diat
discourage members from pro
key
bring
point
to
members’
remember
behavior
about
into
norms
is
conformin’
dial
with
groups
the
exen
groups
pres.sure
standards.
on If
members people
in
die group violate its norms, expect gi’oup members to act to correct or even pnni.sh the violation.
This
is
just
one
conclusion
directly
attributable
to
findings
in
the
that
full-
Haw-rhomc studies. The
Hauthume
scale not
Studies
apprecianon
uniil
the
undertaken
at
1924
1932.^
by
and Harvard
l*havior afiveting ing
and
of
die early
VVtsrem
generally iinportiuicc 19305.
Electric
Originally
professor
Elton
sentimenis
individual
individual
Its
worker
were
behavior, output,
by the
closely
pby
Western Hawthorne that
standards
money
w
as
bch^ivioral
in
scientists
influencing
grew
Hawthorne
related,
group that
among
enlighiciimciit
Company’s
Alayo,
and
norms
This
initiated
that
agreed
out
of
Work.s
in
Fleciric
Chicago and
influences highly a
factor
than were group standards, sentiments, and security. Ixri us briefly review the
behavior
senes
concluded
were less
a
officiaL
studies group
worker
were
eflcctive in
of
??rjdies
1
between
later that
overseen
a
worker^-
sigruficant in
did
in
establish-
deiermining
worker
Groups
m
the
Qrjaniiaaoo '1
1 I huth^rnc invx.ng.rio»s ...d d.mu»stn.u the tmpon-nce of these finding i, 4 beg.n hy ctaTiiining the relation I^W'een the phy^ iej envdronment and prrxinrtiviLy. Uhnnination and od.c^-orhng condinons were
beg.in
researchers the
same
In
no
case
unit
bewildering
the
was
been
nnit.
tlic
the
rose
tor
researchers,
continued
to
its
the
to
that
of
iiuHHiKgln.
intensity
was
onk
a
productivity,
but
they
to
the
the (he
in
in
could
illumination
dropped
groups.
In
only
Hawthorne
Hue not
when
the
among
the
eon-
results
were
explain
the
behavior
in
the
group.
But
expcriinenul
a
produccivix)intensity
concluded
many
that
they
researchers
or
rhe
(he
light
researchers
die
in
dw:
experi-
increased
fact,
nee
experiments,
An
experimental
was
at
increase
the
was
the
±e
while
^VgaiUi
ITie
while
group:
lIlumTnatum,
level
wotken.
thing was
to
control
and
both
group
Khc
a
light
level
one
propewtirm
of
control
experimental
minor
in
of
dnwward,
but
ilbininaunii.
the
light
and
vaned,
intrikhiced
-'\s
increase
in
follnw-np
output
of
groups
upward
Resiiltn
intensity
both
ri
varioiii
intensity
researchers.
obscivcd
employee's
in
waiving
constant
with
output.
researchers
with
a
output of
reduced
Asa
decrcaM.
Haw-thomc
was
niination
or
ui
productivity
dccrcasc
increase So
.
ilhuiunadon
group
presented
ihc
of
in
under
surprise
group,
intensity
worked
experimental to
rhe
cxpcnnients
ch.>ngcs
illuiniiiarion
group
trolled
the
nounc
was
in
mental
illumimrion
nunipukted time
detrease
mth
.
had
that
illu*
affected
had
an
witnessed.
began
a
second
set of experiments in the rrlav assembl)* test room at VVc.siern F.kctric. A small group of women was isolated from the main work group so that their lieha\ior could be more caixfuUy
obscrv’cd.
They
a
laid
similarly
room
out
went
about
to
their
their
job
normal
of
assembling
department-
The
small
telephone
rcl3)*s
in
only
significant
difference
was the placement In the room of a research assistant w ho acted as an obsenxr—keeping
records
of
cvcrt’thing small due
that
gryup^ to
ular
output,
rejeits,
happened.
ouipirr
sickness
production
working
Observations
increasud
were
conditions^
sieadily.
approximately
department.
What
nwering 'Hie
a
of
of
those
evident
a
daily
multiyear
number
one-third became
and
log
perirx!
jxrrsonal
recorded
was
that
sheet
describing
found
that
ab.scnces
by ibis
women
this
and in
group’s
those
the
reg-
perfomiiiiice
was significantly influenced liy its status of being a “special’’ group. The women in the rest room thought that being in the experimentd group was fun, diar they w^ere in sort of an elite gn>up, and thiU imnagemcni was concerneil with their in (crest bv engaging in such experimentation. the
.A
third
cftect
of
workers relate^ was
study a
would to
that
maximize
Output
was
hank
hy
not
did a
only
group
ohsen'ation
incentive
produccivny
T
not
bring
wiring
wage
their
rew’ards.
employees
controlled
rhe
sophisticated
economic
^camc
in
he
most
plan.
room The
when
imporrnnt
individually
maximize
norm
dciennincd
Unit
restricted,
hut
W’X$
assumption
they
saw
fuuling their what
individual
introduced that
coming
outputs. was
workers
was
that
it out
of
proper
were
ascertain individual
was
Rather, a
to
directly
this their dav’s
gii-ing
study output work-
enoneo«>
reports. 7 he total for a week would check with the total week’s output, but the daily reports
showed
was going on?
a
^teady
level
of
output
regardless
of
actual
daily
production.
What
* In^meus determined that the gn.up was operating well below its capabilitv *nd w« leveling output .n order to pn,te« icsell. Memhers were afraid that if the>- siifnifi-
Chapter 7 Founrtatiorw ofGremp Beha carri, incrca^ their -xitput thc^.t incentive rate would be cut, the expected d.Uy output would he ...creascl byo^ ,n,ght occur, or sk.wcr worker, would be repri^ 'f’ ■J'’* fair outpnt-neidwr too much nor too i.rtle, I hey helped each other .n.t to ensure rheir rcpr.re were .tearlv level I he nonns rhe group established included a number of “don'K/ IM= a rater, turning tmi loo little work Oari r [>f a squealer on any of your peers, bow did rhe group enforce these nonns? Their methods were neitlter gentle nor subtle. They included sai-casm, name-calling, ridicule, and even physical punches TO the upper arm ol mcniber.s who violated the groupk nnrnw. Members would also ostracize individuals whose Iwhavtor was against the group’s interest. I'he Hawthorne .snidies made an important contribution to our understanding of ^oup bchavior—panicularly rhe significant place tliat norms have in ilctermining individual work liehivior. Conformity
«md
acceptance
by
There
is
the the
Asch
group,
considerable
Studies so
you
evidence
As
a
arc
that
member
susceptible
groups
can
of to
a
group,
conforming
place
you co
snong
desire
the
continued
group’s
pressure.^
on
norms.
individual
members to change their a Lti tildes and behavioi3 to con form to the group’s standard. Group
influence
was
demonstrated
in
the
now-classk
Studies
undertaken
by
Solomon
Asch.** Asch made «p groups of seven or eight people who snr i n to
compare
other
had
three
two
lines
cards of
held
varying
by
the
length.
expcriirienrcr.
;\s
shown
in
One (*flrd
bit
tions,
/-2,
subjects
the
difference
made
errors
aloud
which
of
members
in
announce all
the
conform
result
in
the
the
in
line
less
the
than
three
group
length
lines
begin
unsuspecting
subject
quite
percent
matched
to
give
one
line,
the
card. Also. as sliow'n
was
one
had
Exhibit 7-2, nne of the lines on
die three-line card u-as identical to the line on die one-Iinc ExIn
chsaroom and wcw
« 9
asked
a
obvious;
of
the
the
single
incorrect
(LISS)
under
time.
The
ordinary object
line.
But
what
answers?
Wil
the
altering
his
or
her
condiwas
to
bapj^ens pressures
answer
to
if to
align
with rhe others? I har was what zKsch wanted to know. He arranged the gi’oup so that only
the
USS
was
unaware
that
the
experiment
“fixed/*
The
seating
was
pre-
arranged so that the USS was the last to announce his or her decision. The experiment began several sets of matching exercises. All the subjw^ts gave die right answers. On the third set, however, die fij5t subject gave an obviously
u
>
EXHIBIT 7-2 Examples of Cards Used in Asch Study
g5«*‘ _ iA Part HI
.is W
Grvuj* in the OrgtBioiOnn I jna “r" in Exhibit 7-2. The next subien gave until it got to the unsuspecting subject. He 1 evcreorie had said “C ’ The decision confrjmQng ,„hlicly that differs Irom the pteOr d„ .-.m give an answer that vou stn.ngly believe « group members? d„iUstrated that over many experiments and
wrong answer-fhr same wrong answer. an< knew “B" -Jv sme « ,he I’SS «as n > annonnved pos.non
^.nvSs'ubiccts cwtormed in about .» percent of the trials d.at is, the ..hvxts mZe;t. tho blew w ere w rong but that were consistent with rhe replies ol can wc cnnck.de Irom this snuly? The results suggest that .here ate group «m that pn.s us toward cnnformiry. We desire to be one of ±e group, a.ul avoid Iwuie visibiv different. We can generalize ftntl.rr to say ihal when an mdividual’s opinion of obfeciivc data differs sigiiifKanily from Utat ol others ui the gr.n.p, he or .die feels e.viensive pressure lo align his or her opinion to conform with those of ihc
olhers.
Cohesiveness Groups
differ
attracted
tn
work
in each
groups
togetiier,
and
ctihcMve
rhe
external
cohesiveness;
ixber
arc
nr
rienced
their
groups threats
ihal
are
mniiwed
heranse
the
sue that
the
tn
siaj
members
facilitaics have
is,
ro
which
the
group,
For
in have
higher
brought
degree
spent
interaction,
members
a
or
closer
members histance.
great the
deal
group
together.
are some
of
time
has
expe-
Cohesiveness
is
ini|)orant because it’s been found to be related to the group’s productinn'.Snidies depends sive
on
the
norms
consistrnth-
group.
But
low.
If
but
less
the
high
the
iiKire
(for
group), if
a
cnhcsivcncis in
pcrformancL'-relaterl
its
the norms
relationship
of
norms
established
by
lugh
c
is
the
meinliers
example,
cohesiveness
than
that
performance-related
group,
arc
outside
the
show'
w
ill
output,
group
quality
will
lie
is
high
and
low
and
performance
Idgh are
low,
there
more
its
norms
norms
group. goals.
arc
low.
high,
situation. he
If
than
arc
no
and The
cooperauon
productive
norias
will
rhe
work,
performance
cohesiveriess-higli both
follow
cohesiveness
productivity more
pertbmiancc-rckccd w'ith a
individual.*
less
cohesive
productivity
produerhntv
W^cre
cohe-
will
increases,
cohesiveness
significant
be
effect
on
and pro-
duerivin. These eonclusioas are summarized in Exhibit 7-?. As a manager, w hat can you do to encoui age pxmp cohesiveness? You might try one or more of die folknving (1) make the group smaller. (2) envxjuragc agreement wirh gi-nup goals. (3) increase the time members spend together. (4) increase tile status and tlw perceived difliculry of attaining membership in the group, other groups, (6) give rewards to the group rather chan to individual members, nr (7) physically isolate the group.
Size Dws
the
site
of
tasks er«UDse..t,sk?T,t”"'^’'
gh.up
affect
the
group^
overall
behanor?
The
anst»-cr
is
’ndicates, for instance, that smaller groups are faster at completing engaged in problem solving, however, large j
resuluinn ' ' tlieir smaller couiHerparts. Translating these J -Wilts mto specific nonilicrs is a bit bazardotrs, hut we can offer «>me parameWfi. J
a
definite
EXHIBIT 7-^3 Relationship of Cohesiveness to Productivity
Alignment ef group and organizational goals
CohosiveneM
LtJ^e
Hfgb
High
Low
Strong incrMse in produceHty
Moderate increase in producttvf^
Oocrease in produccMcy
Low
groups—with
a
dozai
or
more
'
No stgnifiant effect on productivity
members—are
good
for
gainmg
diverse
inpot.
So if 6c goal of dw group is fecr-finding. larger groups should be more efVecrive. On die
other
input.
lumi
Groups
smaller
of
groups
approximately
arc
better
seven
at
doing
members
tend
sumcduiig to
he
produenve
more
eftecrive
with
6at
for
taking
has
i>een
action. One labeled effort
of
the
social
most
important
losding.
when
Social
working
fuidiiigs
loafing
collectively
is
6an
related 6c
to
6e
tendency
when
size
for
working
of
a
group
individuals
individually.
to It
expend directly
less chal-
lenges 6c logic 6at the pn>diicti\'iry of 6e gr<xip as a whole .should ar least wpial 6e sum of the productivity of all 6e indinduals ui 6at group. A ommon stercoty|K! ual
effort
and
psychologist
enhances
Max
JIKHII
the
groups is that 6c sense of team spirit spurs individ-
groups
Ringclinnnn
overall
compared
piixluctivity.
the
results
of
In
6e
Lire
individual
and
1920s,
German
group
perfor-
mance on a rope-pdling rask.^ He expected that the gi-oup's effort would be equal co 6c
.sum
of
6c
efforts
of
individuals
within
the
group.
That
is,
three
people
pulling
together should exert three rimes as much pull on the rope as one person, and eight people
should
confirm dines
his 6c
exen
eight
cxpectadons. average
tinws
as
(Groups
individual
much
ot
pull.
three
jxrrfiinnance.
Riiigcbnann's
people
exerted
Group*
of
a
eight
re:»6tb. force
however,
onlv
cuUeviivcIy
two
did
not
an4-a-half
achieved
less
generally
sup-
6tn four times 6e solo rate. Replications
of
Rmgclmann’s
research
with
similar
ra.sks
have
poned his findings,'^ Increases in group size are inversely related to individual performance. More may be better in the sense that the total productivity of a group of four is
greater
than
6ar
of
two
or
three
people,
but
die
individual
productivity*
of
each
group member declines. Wliat causes 6is social loafing effect? It may be due to a belief 6ai o6crs in 6e grrw^
are
recMablnh
not
carrying
cquit)*
b)
6cir
fair
reducing
share. pmr
If
effort.
you
sec
Ano6er
others as explananon
lazy or is
Rspomibiiic>. Because 6c results of 6e group cannot be attributed to any single
6c
6cpc,
you
dispersion
can of
Gnwp'inff’eOrgani^tion . person, rhe
i,i« between an individuab input and the ^«ups output *^indtviduak mav be tempted to become •'free rider," effort.Lk ihar *d, « be ,„e..u.ed.
X
' ,
Composition .. KX . ,^.u.n acnviries require a variety of skills and knowle.lge Given this reqnirewent il wJul.l be reasonable ro conclude «ba. hcrcn.geneuus group^th.^e c«n. ; ^z^i«,n.iIar individuals--would be more likely to have diverse abilities and Ermation and should be more elfective than homogeneous gn.i.ps. Research studies generally substantiate this conclusion, especially on cognitive, creatnuy. demanding tasks."' WTien lional
a
group
specialiMtinn,
will
possess
may
l»e
assimilated, groups
rhe
promotes
and
of
personalities,
there
is
an
than
which
gender,
increased
complete
expedient
generally
effectively
conflict,
to
less
evitience
more
tcmis
characteristics
coiiHict-ladcn
but
in
experience,
nec.led
perform
diversity
dnxrsc
and
the
more
is
its
as
positions
rhe
condiision
those
that
are
stimulates
creativity,
tlut
effectively.
supports do
education,
probability
tasks
varied
age,
that
leads
group
he
group
intnxlucctt
a,Kl
heterogeneous
homogeneous.
which
Ae I
are
hint-
to
Ksbentially,
improved
deci-
sifffi making. Uui indicates short
uhiii
that
termJ^
viewpoints.
abuin
ihcsc
elements
Cultural But
divenicj'
diversity'
culturally
seem
to
dissipate
with
time.
fnrm
as
compared
wiih
newly
to
leam
about
how
and
tJiree
to
diversity
interfere
to
work
solving
racial
he
heterogeneous
wiili
after
other
by
seems
work
disappear
each
of
created
an
groups
fonned
on
culturally
months.
The
reason
through
disagreements
1
he
processes,
at
least
tasks
good
formed
differences?
group
have
The
newly
th
MT
asset
problems.
While
ornarional
(hat
for
a
in
variety
of
difficult
in
news
is
these
difficulties
groups
underper-
ciilturaliy
chat
diverse
chat
it
and
different
groups,
lakes
diverse
karning
dK
more
hcMUogcneovs
is
call
endence
the
differences
groups
approaches
to
a
to
while sohing
problems. An group
researchers.
demographic the
offslujot
oi 1
attribute,
organiiarinn,
and
the his
composition is
such the
the as
issue
degree age,
impact
to
sex, of
this
has which
race,
received
a
members
of
educational
attribute
on
great a
level,
deal
group or
turnover.
of share
length
\Vc
attention
call
a
of
ctwnmon senicc
this
group demography. r organizations are composed of cohorts, w^hich wc define as a group <jf indiv iduals who hold a contmon attribute. For uwtance, everyone bom in is of nieans they also have shared roniriion experiences. People bom in experienced the iuforinatjon revolution, but noi the Korean conflict. People l>om m 1945 shared the Viernam War, bin not ibe Great Depression. Women in U.S. organizations toiiay who were born before 1945 matured prior to the womcnV •‘'ubslantiaily different experiences from women bom after th nr nirn.*M
<’'tHOgraphy, therefore, suggests that attributes such a.s ace or the date ® ‘’pecific wxirk group or organization should help us to pmlie't
with dkiimir""’ *>H I’e greater among those ni.wer«ri..«,r liecaiise cuiniiiiinicaiion « more difficult. Ci>nHjci and I* ggles are more likely, and are more severe w hen thev occur, nie inereasd 9
,)
by* in
variable
Chapter 7 FoundauMs of Grnup Bebavi.w mal« group numl«rship less artracm-e, so employees B« more likely to nui, .Aoutnumber cnmirspng,' IKuTion
1-or
ot
among
members
is
the
other
,n
this
hand,
at
People
on
to
the
test
or
same
.AJso,
tune,
where
enter
a
are
more
likelv
group
or
discnntimiines
bulges
work
there
group
in
is
arc
or
to
is
qnite
groups
a
larec
large
an
and
in
which
consideraWv gaps
more
turnover
between
cohorts,
organization
associate
the
voluntarily or ,oX and the evidence
thesis,
there
organization,
or
di.s
separate
who
time, the
sought
depxn.nencs
cohort.
same
perspccuve
have
entered
higher.
jpptowmarely similar
sn.d.es
e.xaniple
th.,seoij«.dc
turnover
the
of
wiffi
thus
be
group's
together
one
more
another
likely
date-of-einrv
co
or
at
have
a
stay
On
distribution
are
likely to result in a higher nirnnver rate widiin chnr gruup.
Stiitus Status
IS
a
prestige
that
orgaiiizarionally
by
as
heavt-weight
champion
trappings
associated
with
the
carpeting, and
so
group;
position,
imposed “the
a
grading,
impressive on.
titles,
Whether
organizations
are
is,
of
tlie
high
pay
management
filled
with
rank or
a
‘‘most
fringe
aekiuiwlcdges tliat
group.
through
are
may
”
or
formally
are
ail
offices
such lamiliar
with
thick
preferred
work
schedules,
of
status
hierarchy,
existence
not
lie
ameniues
VVe
staras—large
benefits,
rhe
It
titles
congenial
organizational
and
mrienities
witliiii
imposeil,
world”
with
high
or
uniformly
a
available
to
eveiyone
be
informallv
and, hcncc, carry status v ilue. .More acquired
often,
bv
we
deal
with
characteristics
stiinrs
such
in
as
an
infonivdi
education,
seme.
age,
Status
gender,
imv
skilly
or
experience.
Any tiling can have status value if others in the group see ir as status-c on feiTing. Keep in mind that informal .sranis is not necessarily less imponant rh;in the formal variety. Status and
hxs
pressures
been to
shown
conlbnii.
given
more
status
people
peers.
An
individual
who
about
social
rewards
care
freedom also
to are
to
have
For
deviate better is
instance, from
able
no
to
highly the
some
eilecls
high-status mis
resist
valued
group
interesting
than
members are
conformity
by
provides
a
die of
other
power
group
but
doesn’t
particular!cable
to
norms
often
are
inenihcrs?**
than
who
of
groups
pre.ssurcs
group is
on
their
pay
High-
low'er-scatus
tniich
need
minima!
or
atten-
tion to confonnitv norms.* The perfonninff to
the
a
wider
prencus
findings
salespeople,
social
norms
range
of
and that
explain
outstanding
eonsu-ain
discretion.
why
But
star
academics
their
this
many
is
achkres,
seem
peers.
As
true
only
actors,
to
appearance
oblivious
high-scams as
famous
long
individuals, as
the
thet'
high-status
top-
re
or
given
persons
activities aren’r severely derrirnental to the achievement of rhe group’s Its cquitabk-
also V\Tien
important incquiti'
lor is
group
members
perceived,
it
to
creates
believe
ilint
the
disequilibrimn
types of corrective behavior. •
that
status results
hierarchy in
JS
various
i> i
The concept of equity presented in Chapter 4 applies also to status. People expect rewards co be proportionate tn costs incurred. If Dana and AJUIC arc e wo finalists for rhe head nurse position in a hospiral, and it is clear that Dana as more senioritv and better preparation for assuming the promotion, Anne u dl view ^he tion <4 Dana co he equitable. However, if Anne is chosen because she is e
t
tfHlaw of the hospiul director, Dana will believe an inpisrice has been cvmnutted.
* 1
fiml thcmselvvs in a critena
arc
different
backgrounds.
For
growth
of
may
<5»r«.Kion when They move between groups whose Matrix
rate
or
instance, their
use
the
size
automiinv
that
comes
seniority’.
In
gniups
are
group 8,
forced
this
can
their
reconcile
a
particular
be
us
whose may
tleterniinants
assignment.
of
heterogeneous
and
stilus
align
problem
the
differences
income
use
workers
may
we’ll
creates
the
degree
of
years
of
use
when
initiate
or
bureaucrats
the
may
or
hierarchies,
inanagcincni
hcierogenenus
(lovemment
may
individuals
differing
when
status,
Blue-colbr
have
personal
employees
job
up
members
use
of
Professirmal
interdependent,
to
groups
executives
budgets.
their
made be
join
business
with
to
ilwy
companies
of
groups
accempLs
when
heterogeneous conllict
as
sec
Chapter
teams
in
made
the
up
of
employe e A freim across varied tun chons wnthin the organization.
GROUP DECISION MAKING The belief —as embodied by juries—that two heads arc hertcr than one has long been accepted as a bask ixmiponent of North American and many other countries’ legal systems. This belief has expanded to the point that, today, many decisions in organ ira-
The Individual versus the Group
accountabiiity. the stren^
You
outcome. of
know
.Xccountahility’
individual
deciskins
can
decisions
of
who
suffer the
V.S.
decisions from
made b
more
is
chat
incragi-oup
Congress.
the
decision
and,
ambiguous they
jiower
Decisions
tend
with to
struggles.
can
therefore, group
convey This
vary by
as
who's
responsible
decisions.
cunmyent
effect
is
best
much
as
IHO
values. degrees
Now compare the above with rhe strengths of group
third Group
illustrated
one session to the next, reflecting the make-up of mcnilwrs and their ahilik* ro influ-
generau wore ampiftf
A
for
By aggregating the resources oJ «*•
by tnxn
Chapter? J-oundaaansorOnroj.BehavHw enl mdividuak. groups bmg njore input mro the decision pro«s,. In addition to ’'cwrogeneity to the decision process. They offS r.rrr so more approaches and alrematives «„ he eon^detvd ’’Jmost always ontperfornt even the l«t ,n.hv,dual. So groups genernte
de.;.io,., Einally. groups lead to
of,, sol„„^„ .Many decK.ons foil after the final choice is ma.Ic Itecanse people don r accept the solution. <,rot.,. members, who particpatesl in makine a dedsum. arc mote likely to enihusiastically support the decision and e«toura« others to accept It. So MhJeh IS Ixuer—indindxMls or groups? The nhnvus cr is. “It depends " l-here arc Uiiid M hen decisions ai-e best handled bv mdividnds. For exampk’ evidence indicares tbai tudividualA are preferred M-hen the decision is rclutivelv unimporcinx and doesn’t require suhorduutc commirmcnc TO its >ucre«. Siinilarly Jndividuak should make the decision when they have suHkient infonnadon and wkn subordinates u-ill be committed i<> the ouiCfitne even if they arrn’t consulted?’’ (X’erall. M-herhermdh’iduals i>r groups should make a decision essentially comes down TO weighing cflecdvencss against e£6ciciiiT. tn xcniis of effectiveness, gnnips arc superior. They generate more alternatives, arc more creative, more accurate, and produce higher-quality tlevisions ±aii
Grnupthink and Groupshifr Two
byproducts
attention
by
of
groiq)
researchers
Gruupchink
Have
mal
but
decided
may
have
group,
hand,
you
group
members
sensus
you
in
OB.
ever
like
against a
$o
mating
These
felt
been
Ix-come
(werridcs
decision
ii?
arc
enamored appraisal
expression uf deviant,
minority,
or
mental
efficiency,
ctjtu up
in
may
seeking of
a
epes a
the
c*onsi of
been
table and
shyness.
the
of
action
or
infor-
the
other
occur.s
when
norm
for
and
testing,
and
moral
judgment
as
a
result
con-
the
unpopular views. It describes a tie ten oration
reality
of
groupshift.
On
that
chat
courses
amount
classroom,
phenomenon
concurrence
akcnuitive
de
groupthink
meeting,
have
gmupthink,
of
realistic
received
reason
of
the
individual’s
the
speaking
One
victim
have
foil
in an
of
group
pressures?*^ How exhibit
do
four
y<}U
if a
characteristics:
assumptions
they’ve
tivp
h)’
favored
know’ made,
the
group
(1) (2)
iiiaiorit}',
is
Ciroup
members
members (3)
tt)
show’ing symptoms pressure
give
the
of
rationalize any
groupthink? any
doubters
appearance
of
to
It
tends
to
to
the
resistance support
group
the
consensus,
aliernadoubters
keqi silent alx Hit misgivings and even minim ire co themselves the inijxir rance of their doubts. (4) the group interprets members* silence as a “yes” \’orc for the inaioriry. The groupthink the
above
sun|Homs
occurs,
you’ll
problem,
dev’clopmeni
poor of
lead
find
infonnanon
alternatives,
one
to
a
or
more
search, incomplete
number of
selective
of
the
dccision-maknig following:
bias
assewnent
of
in
deficicnaes.
incomplete
processing alternatives,
assessment
infonnadon, hiilure
risks in preferred choice, anil failure tn reappraise initially rejected alternatives. Studies of deciM(.« making »n C-S. government agencies have found outcomes frequently preceded bv svinpioms of gn.»tiprhink. These outcomes inclutW unpreparedness at Pearl Harbor in l<41, the invasion of Nonh Korea in the 195(k the Bay of Pigs fiasco in the early I MWJs, the escalation of the Vietnam \\ ar. the failed
Ulien
to
of
timired examine
. .,„i,esiv«K-a. '« Jeader^. behavu.r, its insulauon ftn.^ j;,[|^„. pierhodical deoMon-nvaking pmecJeeision-nwking group, want to mmimize th« J ft p;,,, cohesiveness
Rwcairhen haw likely n. yi.rttw- the gf cMitsider^ nme pr«^ • dores. Managers ujto JhTdo ±Xs Zu
should
lie
smxc
for
d
^ur Lhesiveness can also discourage dissent, so vigihn.'whcn an
open
Zon
refraining
from
iing
dn-ergent
Opinions
reaching itself
a
from
Fourth,
external
time
false
pnx-ess
from
need to
Third,
in
style.
This at
should
avoid
time
derision,
to
they
resort
to
promote
constructive
group
group that
of
detach
ohiectivin.
mcmliers
feel
inevitably
kad
the
rational critirism
tn
and
encourage
the
c-ncour.
iinporunee
perspecQve
should
Eollnwng
lhe
shortcuts
pamci-
meenng,
the
WTien
managers
,ncn.lK-r
the
allowing lose
managers
procedures.
nt
emphasizing
constraints.
Finally,
will
tend
Second
enc.umging
hepnn.np
managers
a
6
the
groups
group.
includes
and
consensus
Clhapter
cohesive
members,
downplay
reach
a
group
Insulated
.lecisioo-inaking
descrilwd
with
opinion
aU
to
superficial
methodical
ones
sources.
pressure
or
leadenihip
slating
derision.
managers
severe to
wise
working
use
of
decision-making
and
a
full
analysis
of decision oprinns. Groupsbift
Comparisons
of
group
decisions
with
the
individual
decisions
uf
mem-
bers within the group siis^est that there arc difTerenccs. In some cxscs, the group deciricttis
arc
more
caudous
than
rhe
indindual
decisions.
More
often,
the
shift
is
toward
tu
significant
greater risk.-^ XVhat shift
in
appears
the
to
pHirions
coward
which
become
more
diev
happen of
were
cautious
in
groups
jnernbers alrejidy
and
the
is
coward
leaning more
that a
ihc
more
l>efore
discussion extreme
die
aggressive
position
discussion.
tvpc.s
leads
rake
on
So
in
a the
direction
consenarive
more
risL
The
npeS group
discussion tends TO exaggerate the initial position of die group. Groopshift of
the
group
can
be
reflects
viewed die
as
actually
dominant
a
sj^rcial
decision-making
case
of
groupthiuL
norm
that
The
deveJops
decision
during
the
groups discussion, XATiethcr the shift in the groupV decision is toward greater cauQi»n or more risk depends on the dominant prediscussion norm. The
greater
occurrence
of
the
shift
row'ard
risk
has
generated
scv’cral
cxpbna-
uons tor ibe phenomenon, b'or instance, ii’^y been suggested that the dtscussinn creates T’
members. As thev become more comfortable w’irh each
other,
they
nauon
of
also rhe
h«o,ne
^hift
cS
bolder
toward
risk
'"k
and
more
seems
to
daring. be
that
Arguably, rhe
rhe
group
must diffuse.^
pbuMhIc
expb-
rcspcmsibiliQ.
’•vcoonwbilitv for the moiips ti.ui
SX Md findings bers that the shift has whedwr a group will shifZrow^^^^^ prediscusaon inclinations.
on
groupshift?
You
initial position of the indhidiul men^^‘aution is a tunermn oi the members
Ui-wild
X Chapter 7 FnmMab ofCStciap ftnlBiru Selecting the Best Group Decision-Maki ng Technique rhe jiMJ'ii cVimmon form of group dcci^ior making lakes place m face-ui-fec< interxiing groups. But as our dtu ussbjn of groupihink defnnnsiraicd, interacting gruupv often censor chcinscKe' and pressure individual nxinbcrs towani conformity (»f opininn. B rd n si o ruling. the nominal group technique, and ck-ctrunic meetings have been proph cd as w’ays co reduce many of the prohlcius inherent in the iradiuonal interacting groupBrainstorming Brainstorming is meant to OVCIXHUTH? pressures for conformity in the interacnng group dial retard die develupaient of creative altcnutivc^. It does so b\*uuliring an idc.vgincruuon process chai s|xcific.jlly encourages any and all aliernatives, while withholding any eriucisin of those alteniati\*es. In a typical hrainsiorming session, a hah-dozen lu a duicn people sit around a table. The group leader suies ihe problem in a clear manner so it is undcrsuxhl by all l»rricipajiK.
.Memhers
then
‘'freewheel”
as
many
nlrernarives
as
they
can
in
a
given
length of time. No cririciMii is allowed, ami ill rhe iilfernatives are recorded for later dbcus^ton
and
the
biz-'irre
most
analysis.
‘Ihat
one
suggestions
idea
are
stimulaTcs
withheld
others
until
later
and
that
encourage
judgments group
of
even
nieinlx’rs
to
*ihjnk the iiniLsual." hoxveirr.
is mrrclv
process for generating ideas. The follow-
A
Brainsiomung,
ing tw’Q techniques go further by offering
methods of jctiully arriving at a preferred
sulurion. Nominal
Group
Technique
sonal
cominiinicaunn
group
tedmique.
mittee
nweting,
during
Group but
The
nuTiunal
the
decision-ma
members
the
are
nietiibers
all
are
group
restricts
king
process,
hence
the
present,
as
a
physically required
to
discussion
operate
in
or
interper-
lenu
nonunal
traditional
independently,
com-
Spcciftcally,
die follow ing steps take place: Members meet as a group, bur. before any dt^nusion wkes place, each meinlwr independently writes down his nr her i
2,
'rhis silent periext is tbllnwed hv each xneinbei *s preferring one idea to rh« group. Each member lakes his or her Uirn, E?ning round die table, preserring a single idea until ah ideas have liven presented and reconkd (ty pica Uy on a flip chan or chalkboard). No discussion takes pbr.e until all ideas have been recorded.
3.
The group then disaisscs tfie ideas for thinty and evaluates them.
4.
Each group nicmlicr sikndv and independencK* ranks the ideas. 1 he final decision is (ieternuned by the uka ujUilbe highest aggregate ranking
The
chief
advantage
of
llxii
technique
is
chai
it
permits
the
group
h>
meet
for-
mally hut does not restrict independent thinking, a.s so often happens in the rradiiioiul interacting group. Electronic the
Meetings
nominal
group
The
most
ctx'hnique
recent with
approach
sophisticated
to
grrnip
computer
decision technology'.
making Its
blends
called
the
cicctrofuc meeting Once
the
technology
is
in
place,
the
concept
is
simple.
I
p
to
50
people
sit
»—■ ->' - •••^ ''““■" ■” ‘ '^- ,,,etr,.nic mcetin-’s are ononymit>-. honesty,
rion «rcen in Ju ;
th/push
the screen for all W » nrtcj'toioi; .font diL-ress,
of
and
.1
kev
.^any
on
a
participunfs keyboar.l. It also allow, because chitchat is dinii. participants can ‘•talk" at once without
Stepping on one jiiothcrs rtx”^.
In
order
9Uidi>n
are
of
an
wort
inal
to
behavior
/ups
b
ha
look is
accomplish
npinHy
gnrt^ps
flgers
m
at
not
work
uniled
inh>
addition
to
nn
merely
rhe
as sum
the
individiKHs
departments, thebr
comnion
employees
tasks,
formal
wuub, groups
who
cr.niminees individuals
interests
or
friendships,
members
of
a
of
the
group
individual
make
h’s
or also
an
in
of
its
organi-
other t
fomis
reatc
infer
for
man-
imporUnt
because,
behaviors
up
reality,
group
members.
I'he
group Itself adds an adcliliimal dimension to its members’ Tichavior. How Maryland
b
it
woman,
Democrat,
relevant for
to
example,
councilwoman,
understanding has
and
tn
police
group
reconcile officer
heha\nor
her
roles
with
the
to
of
know
ntoiher.
cin^
of
that
a
.Methodbt. Baltimore?
Knowledge of the role that a person is attempting tn enact can make it easier for us
to
deal
with
the
person,
fcir
we
have
insight
into
her
expected
behavior
pat-
terns. Also, knowledge of a job incumbents role makes it easier for otliers to work with her, for she should behave in wavs consistent wnth others’ evpeciations. In other words, when a person plays out her role as expected, the abiitcy' of others to predict her behavior imftroves. Norms control group member behavior by establishing standards of right or wrong. Knowing the norms of a given group can help us explain the attitudes and be ha nor s of its members, (km managci^ conrrol group norms? Not conipletely, bur they can influence them. By making explicit statements about desirable behaviors, by regularly reinforcing these preferred behaviors, and by linking rewards to the aceepiancc of [xeferred norms, maxiagers can exert some degree of indue nee over grcxip norms. Should managers seek cohesive gi*ou|Wr The answer is a tpialiRed Jit The quailficabou lies in the degree of alignmtnx between the group and the organization s goals. M.uugers should attempt ro create work groups v\ hose goals are consistent with those of the organization. If this is achieved, then high gniup uxJicsivencss will make a positive txiniribudan ro the gt i>Np\ perloniiaiue. rhe impbeacions for managers of the social loafing effect on work aroups are signiheant. When managers usecolleciivc work situations to enhance inoraic provide means bv which individual efforts cm be identihcd. h ihry don't, management must weigh the potenrial fosses in producnvit) Irnm using groups against any possible i?ains in weaker .sadsthetioa.-- This conclusion, however, has a Western bias, h’s consisteni with individualistic cub res, sue as le ’ni^d States aiwl Canada, that are dominated hv self-interest. cwIJecdve societies in which individuil, arc i.u.avated b> gm p goals, her instance, in studies. otnparing eniphn-ees fn.ni rhe United
I
Chapter 7 Founditions of Group Swws employees lectivise snriecies),
from the Peopled Rcpuhlk of China and Israel the OiineF*.* and Israelis slujwcd no propensity to
social loafing. In fact, the Chinese and Israelis acnially group chan when working alone?’ J he managerial iroplicarions for group composition formal
gn*>ups
and
using
groups
to
make
decisions,
lb
purfonned are
increase
the
99
(both colengage in
better
related
BcH:ivi0r
to
in
a
staffing
pcrfonnance
of workgroups, yon •ihould try to choose is members individuals who can bring a dive Hie pcispective co problems and issues. But don’t be surprised if these difference
ncgarivciy
members
learn
affect rn
the
group’s
work
with
performance their
in
the
differences,
short
the
term.
group’s
Be
patient.
performance
As
I
will
iinprmx. Slams
ineqilines
witliin
a
group
divert
acrivity
nienr .ind direct it row a rd resolving the mei| agers
may
find
that
mine
die
activities
group of
dyshuictional
behaviors.
trements,
or
tendy
he
with
she
status
members
the To
should
equity.
reduce
members the
degree
ensure Inequities
that are
from
goal
accomplisJt-
4
ties. When inequities cast, man-
HI
their
work
with
higher
that
a
they
are
likely
away
I
status,
manager to
effort,
or
controls
distributed have
attempt
a
to
under-
pursue
similar
status
accou-
carefully
and
tonsis-
negative
niotivadonal
impact on the group. Finally, if managers use group decision making, they should particularly ot
-1
to minimi la groupthink. They <5hould encourage member input, especially from those who are less active m the discassion, and avoid expressing their preferred
4 " V >j .
solution eariv in the group’s discussion. Managers might also want to consider one or more of the techniques presentee), such as bi'ainstorming or electronic meetings, as a means to lessen pressures to conform.
•I*
Understanding Work Teams AftP*- reading this chapter, you should be able to
HN-
Explain the growing popularity of teams in organizations Contrast teams with groups Identity four types of teams
4. Describe riie role of work design in making effective teams 5. Explain composition variables that determine team effectiveness 6. Identify resources and other contextual influences that make teams effective 7. Describe process variables that affect team performance 8. Explain how organizations can create team players
heavy equipment, fn N94 tn ’iiimr ,v>. management ampkmented teams ro ^enl sometiuielbi-eTitpJoyeestoadn.sf-mxrfc’ are organized into more than SO team nr participau i„ decisions dut were once m rhf warns set iheir own scheduks spUre „. calls on customers and dis^ipiinc member team approach lu.s also hdped Beween IWt and 199V, resnonsp ti.„ produCTivitj- and manufacn.ring outpuXwl?^’*'”" accident rates dropped by mor^ih,,,, b.,|f
's U'ed m trucks, tranors, and other produetivitjz, E.ifnn-Aeroquip's assembly line, While ii took kl "’‘’'‘-’gPr'icnt—fur inscaixc. suppliers, make problems. .And the move to a achieve important conipain goals. Iftprote.l W pcrtx.-M; ’Hort; dun 50 (XMCVHI; anJ
Chapter 8 L nderBcanrling* Woti "Ifea WHY HAVE TEAMS BECOME SO POPULAR? 1 hin>’ >^4rs ago, die dccisicm of companies such «s \ blw, Tovota, an4 C^eneral FOCMIS roinrrociucc teams into their prodactnm procewes maik news because no one eke was doing It. roday, just the op^K>ske the oi^aniz^cicn that use teams diat has become new sworthy. Pick up almost -^ny business peri
such
xs
Cymputer, .Ijrlines,
Genend
Shiseido,
Johnson
IJeccric.
PtdEx,
&
AT&T,
Hoebg,
OaimlerGhn’sler
Johnson.
Shenandoah
I
lewktt-Packard,
EM
Life
Co.,
Insiuance
Motorola,
John C>>.,
Deere,
and
z^pple
Ausirahan
KlonJa
Power
&
Light. Evi.’n the world-famous Sail Diego Zoo has restructured its nudve habitat zoncis aroond
tearas.
cross-tleparcmeuwl
Tlic
Center
for
the
Stud>
of
Work'learns
say’s
that
Wfi companies now have half of their’ employees on leaiuk-
tiO percent of
jfew do we e.xpbin die current popnlajnty of teams? 1 he evidence suggests dwt [earns Q-pically outpertonn individuals when die tasks being done require multiple skills, judgment, more
and
e.’cperience.’
effectively
and
org'anj7.ations
efficiently,
they’
have
have
resn-uctuicd
turned
to
teams
ihcmsclves
as
a
co
way to
com|>ete
better
utilize
einployre talents. Management has found diat teams are more llexiblc and responsive to changing
events
ings.
'icams
Bur
don’t
have
are
the
overlook
discussion faci]irate
than
in
capability rhe
Chapter
employee
tnidiiional
5
departments
to
(juiekly
moTivationyl of
die
participatioQ
rf»lc io
or
assemble,
properties of
odier of
employee
Operating
forms
permaneiu
dejilny,
refocus,
teams.
Consistent
invuivcjiitiu
dccksion^.
of
For
as
a
and
groupdisband.
w'ith
motivator,
insrance,
some
our teams
assembly-
line workers ar John Deere are pair of safes teams that call on customers. These workers
know
Speaking
the with
products
berrer
iarmers,
than
these
any
hourly
traditional
w’orkers
salesperson,
develop
new’
and
skills
by
traveling
and
become
and more
involved in rfieir jobs. So another cxplajiaiion for the popularity of teams is chat they* arc
an
effective
means
for
management
to
democratize
their
organizations
and
iniTcase employee modvaiion.
TEAMS WRSUS GROUPS: WTiAT'S THE DIFFERENCE? Groups and teams are not the same thing. In this section, ivc dclnie and clarify the difference betwLx-n a work group and a work team. In Chapter 7, we defined a gfvitp as two
or
more
achieve
individuals,
particular
informabon
and
interacting
objectives. lo
make
A
woA
and
interdependent,
group
decisions
co
is
help
a
who
group
one
who
another
have
come
interact
perform
together
primarily to
within
each
to
share
member^
area of rcsponsibilin^ M’ork require bers*
groups
joint
have
effon.
indindual
So
no
need
their
contributions.
or
opjjonuniiy
perfonnance There
is
no
is
to
merely
positive
engage
the
sum
sjmergy
that
in
coliccbve
of
all
die
would
work
group
tTcate
that mem-
an
over-
Their
iudi-
all level of performance that is greater than tlic sum of the inputs. A '•idual
work
team
efforts result
individual
inputs.
generates in
a level
Exhibn
8-1
positive of
synergy
performance
highlights
the
through that
is
coordinateil greater
differences
chan
between
effort. the
sum
work
of
groups
those and
wurk teajus. These *4jric
defininons
help
chrifo
why
so
many
organizations
have
around teams. .Management is looking for that posibve stmergy dwt
restructured
fWt M G^w^ImheOrpnlttdwi
EXHIBIT t-1
Comparing Woric Groups and Wvk Teams
Work CMfiM
Work flroup>
► Collective perforrnerKe
Gaal
*
Share inforrnaCon
- _ ___
Neutral (sofYiednes negauvej
» Individual and muual Individual
AccounwOHiiy
Random and varied \ _______ will
allow
their
orgaruzadons
aiw die Notice,
cTcadon
calling larer
a in
of
however, of
gnatp this
acicrisncs. use
ro
increase
performance.
The
extensive
use
of
teams
ere-
for aa orgaaiiauon LO generale greater outputs with no increase in
inputs. the
—
_______ ______________
teams 2
it
must
“potendaL”
ensures
doesn’t
suAxessfu)
manageiucnt
teams,
siiid
diat
frrf/v
cliupler,
If
we
the
'I’here
achievcnienr
automatically or
hojics ensure
inerejse
high-pei
to
TYPES QFTEAMS .
forming
increase
that
is
their
nodiing
of
this
its
pertonuance.
teams
organizational teams
iniicrcnriy
posiuve
have
magical
synergs’ As
certain
well
possess
these
Merely explain
common
{.lerforruance
through
chai
in
chaithe
acLerisrits.
_
Teams can be classified on the basis of dicir objective. The four most common fiirms of teams you're likely to find in an organizadfin are pr(?Z*&W“r6i/i’/rtg itfttrk tfitw, iTvfs-fttncihrtal reatn^, a/tii vittaal teams (see Exhibit 8-2). Problem-Solving Teams If
wc
look
back
hi
the
early
IQSOs,
teams
were
just
beginning
to
grow
in
popularity.
And the form most of these teams t<x>k was simiUr. They typically w'ere composed of five to twelve hourly employees from the same department who met far a few hours
EXHIBIT
Frobkoi* solving
Types of Teams
S«lf-rTuna^4
Cross 4unc6onal
Virtual
Chapters
•»*
each week t- -'iscuss wjj-s oHn.pr..Mngqu.liry. cffidenq.. ami the nurk eiwiramrwnt. \Vc caH (hc^ pi*obleni*$ohdiig teams, ft, pn)hkrn^hf,Kj»tf renim. metnlxjts shiir,. ideas nr oHer Migg^tums on how ^ork
pnx'cwcs
an.l
nwihixls
cun
lx
improved.
Rarclv.
however,
w
these
teams
Si
pven
One
of
die f OHO*
the
most
widely
practiced
appliraaons
of
prohlem-solving
wains
* •
lhe juchonn* ec» imil.jirnilU nnjUfiiKnt any of their Miggexled actions. during
quahty circles. I besc are work teams of eight to wn employees and
supcHTMirs uho have a sharetl area of rcsptmMbility and meet regularly to discuss their qvabty
problems.
Afanagement,
Investigate
however,
tmpleiiicmatlon
of
ranges
npicaily
the
qua
of
retains
lit)-
the
problems.,
control
over
recouimcndcd
drdcs’
and
the
recoinniend
final
solutions.
soludnns.
decision
Ibday.
regarding
many
organiza-
tions use problcjn-sulving reams, es^wcially a.s .a means for wking oui wajs t«j improve qualin. deliveries, eliminate scrap, reduce accident rales, and ccnctalU cut costs.
Self’Managed W’ork Teams Problem-solving ting to
teams
employees
were
involved
eMperimenution
on
in
with
rhe
right
track.
decisions
work-related
truly
Inn
autonomous
they and
reams
duln't
go
far
processes.
diat
could
enough
I’hi.s
not
only
in
get-
deficiency’
led
solve
pnihlems
blit could also implement solutions and take lull responsihility for outcomes. Self-managed on
the
include
teams
responsibilities collective
orgonizarion managed each
work
breaks,
wrirk
lanceand
cono-nl
of
other’s
of
teams even
their
over
even
be
generally foniicr
die
anil
perfonnanee.
may
sire
sdect
-As
a
work,
own
re.siilT,
eliminated.
of
choice
their
1(1
of
al
inspection
die
IS
and
people
diesc
detenninanon
of
work
the
lake
uhe
assignments, Fully
members
on
Eacon-Aeroquip
who
rcsponsibditicH
procedures.
have
isory poaoems
teams
to
"lypjcaily.
members
supen
The
of
snpcTviMu^.
pace
collecuvc
composed
evaluate
decreased
plant
in
selfimpor-
Arkansas,
described ar the opening of this chapter, are examples of .self-managed work teams. Honeywell,
General Al&M/Mars,
implemented U.S.
VIutors. and
self-managed
cmpbycrs
now
use
Goors
Aetna work
this
Life
arc
teams, form
Brewing, iust
Esiimates
of
team;
a
PepsiCo.
few
fimiiliar
suggest
and
Hewlett-Packard,
among
names
that
have
that
about
30
percent
of
large
firing,
the
number
is
prolwbly doser to 50 percent? Recent applications
business of
manufacturer siblc lars
for in
For
high-qualifV
power
tools,
improvements
sarings?
Light
l>cen
teams.
significant
Industrial
haw
self-managed
of
cost
periodicals
&
in
Self-manatred
.Magic
has
had
diock-fuU
instance, say
jinKlnct teams
in
are
of
artides
executives
at
sdf-nunagcil qualirv’
and
given
credit
dominating
the
describing Power-Cable
leains
are
generating for
business
successful
much of
Corp.,
largely
rtsjxjn-
millions of
of
the
visual
a
dol-
success
digitalization.^
And W'L. (.iore & .Assex idtes. the people who make Gore- lex, attributes its continued tm»wth,
inno\*ution,
and
high
pridiubihcy
to
oiyatiizing
its
murr
than
6,200
employe-
ee* around selt-managed teams. In spite of these impressive stories, a word of caution needs to l>c offered herefX’irrall
research
witormly Inch
of
managed ^’•'phiyces
pKitive.^ iub Work
on
the
For
example,
saris^ciitin. ceaiits
working
in
effectiveness
But,
seem
to
traditional
of
individuals
self-managed on
counter
to
have
higher
w’ori:
determine the s|*xific reasons for these findings.
these
teams
conventional aliscniecism
smictures.
work
tcaiib
do
tend
wiMlom, and
Additional
has to
not
report
employees
tumnver re?»earch
higher
on
rates is
been
self-
than
tlo
needed
to
. w
Xerox.
YM Part HI Cross-Functional Teams
a
Rc««.rh I.Ha .Minneajw.hs-b».sea .narkct-rtsvarch firm, had h«n hi«ort-1 ;X r«,.iyx-d .n>und functional dcparu.w..«H but ^•mor managcnient cond„4ed thct functional .lepartmunB weren’t mevunf the ch^g-ng necd^ of the firn,^ X« So managentert reorganized fiusto.n Research s 100 miployeys into r.,, s ’ The idea Ixthin.l the teams was to haw every aspect of a cLents work handled Jit bin Otte tea.n rather tl.an by separate departments The goal was to .mprove com, municaiion and tracking of work, which would lead to mtreased producuv.ty and more saMsfte
are
teams
reorgflnuation
made
up
of
illustrates
cniplowes
the.
from
use
alwucthe
ot
same
cross-function^ hierarchical
level,
but from diffcreni work areas, who cornc together to accomplish a cask. Many decades.
For
empicjyees System
have
example,
cixi^icd
from
360.
ream.
organiz-niions across
?\nd
Sundarly.
another teams
IBM
a
taskforce
of
exploded
is
die
erj^—including
'Ibyota,
currcnrly
this
Honda. of
of
ocher
members
For
But
the
than
a
all
cotirdinatc
highly
up
of
succea-ful
departmenrai of
major
GM,
its
fot
temporary cross-fiioctidnal
aenws
the
groups
1960s—made
develop
popularity
B.VIW,
to
in
from
the
instance,
Nissan. tram
force
company—to
teams.
1980s.
form
the
boundary-spanning
task
really nothing
composed
htc
horizontal
large
in
cross-functional
in
use
a
deparcmenb
zottf/nitim
example
uj»ed
arc
cross-discipline
nutOTiiohilc
Ford,
and
complex
lines
work
manufacnir-
DaimlerChryslcr*-
projects.
Harley-Davidson
relics on specific cross-frnctional teams to manage each line of its motorcj'cles. 'I best reams as
include
Harley
representatives
cion
from
teams.
cross-functional senior
management technology
speed
up
selected
emp]oyce.s
pulled to
projects
outside
Between
sulf
because
kev
from
and
they
up
bring bad
21
1999
IBM and
employees
with
recorn
products
one
irnntifacturing,
suppliers.And
November
together
aunt
design,
to
common
still
use
2000.
for
among
dations
market
purchasing,
makes
June
from
men
and
on
its
The
characteristic—they
instance,
the
all
IBM’s
informa-
company
21
had
well
ten)|x>rary
100,000
how
fa.srer?^
oi
as
can
members
were
succcssfrilly
led
fast-moving projects. ’I*he Speed Team, as they came to be known, spent eight months sharing
experiences,
moving
ones,
and
examining
eventually
differences
generated
between
recoin
me
fast-moving
ndations
on
projects
how
hi
and
speed
slow-
up
IBM
projects. Cross-functional areas
within
tion,
develop
course, meiK
an
teams
organization
new
ideas
cross-fiuumonal arc
complexity
often It
arc
very
takes
(or
and
teams
an
effective even
solve
are
to
no
build
between
problems, picnic
unie-consuming
time
means
as
ti-usi
tn
allowing
organizations) and
people to
coordinate
manage.
members and
for
Their
learn
teamwork,
to
from
exchange
complex
e.specially
informa-
projects.
early stages work
diverse
of
Of
dcvekip-
widi
diversity
and
among
people
froni
dirtcrcnr backgrounds, with different experiences and perspectives.
Virtual Teams rhe
previous
ttchnolo^ mon
goal.
t<> •
types Ge I
of
teams
together hey
allow
do
their
physically pc’uple
work
dispersed to
facc-io-frce. memhers
collaborafe.
online,
Virtual
in
teams
order
regardless
co of
use
achieve whether
only a rrxiin apart or separated hy condnents. nwla? things that other teams do—share informauoit, J nuke dtciMons. complete ca.Hks. .W tho vun include member, all from the se« .J
Li'
computer a
cointhey’re
Chairter I l^pcknundiutf "Uaim «r link an orj^nizutionk mcmbeni w.th u,.,,k,)ves fwm other or«naamms (c.go suppliers ninl p^nt partners).
n ,h (5) the
.nd
ahtl.n
tioo.
,Kopk-
(eye
.nove.nent
These
help
teams
..hen
They
aren
Especially
O.U.
«
oricntnl
f.u.al
so
inernlK-rs
tn-frix
teams,
thousands
k>s
h.
menilx.rs rejx.n
less
miles
apart
aren’t
n.ppori
and
the
nor.nal
give
pers..nally
separau-d
of
teams
a
do
tend Not
dozen
or
to
memt.en diseussion
be
..Hire
surprisingly even
more
Virtual
among
pneess
uork
cueK
ittieraciioni.
laee-to-free
inu-raci.m their
nonverbal
langoatte)
intencuu.
t.tke
o.nverH?-
and
iMuly
online
direct
and
group
tn
by
in
inFoniution.
the
able
vnlome)
other
virtual
stKul/enioiional are
and k-.ss
,net.
u.,h
vt.ue
ovaiLhle
I
tc.ims
and
inflection,
gestnrv.,
ho,
satisfaction
virtual
a„d
voitv,
Jun.l
htiven’t
less
finally,
of
o
sou;,
dnpheate
exchange
team
(tone
vxpre.sston.
from
able
and
rime
c...nnn,n.eat,.^n.
er
hen
.Avretunv
^raverlMl
ebnfy r
,o
<-’’ '■■"'« J --text, „,nstn,int^. 1„ face.to.f.ce
time
than
if
taskvirtual
do
face
members
zones.
They
are allow
people to svork together who might otherwise never lie able to c
such
have
Califiimiii-lwstd
become
maker
mation.
Yet
the
around
the
globe,
sales
reiiuircincni.s
on
virtual
work Says
peojiie.
of
If
teams
a
virtual
on
person
tcairw,
its
S,tiIW
design has
VeriFone enjoys
Ford,
machines
allows
VeriFone a
Boeing,
.swijic
together
.Moreover,
iiidiicemenis.
users
aimpuienzcd
of
to
llewletl-PiKk.vrd,
heavy
of
use
prcseiitatitins.
recniiting
as
Verilhine, that
for
read
vice
president,
living
in
teams
“We
don't
(Colorado
and
arc
a
infor-
located
all
and
making
pnivide
s-mmg
pul
can
is
card
plans,
virtual
Royal
instance,
who
inarkcling
that
and
credit
employees,
pn.jects.
found
VeriFone,
do
relocation the
job
in
virtual space, we'iv not intimidated by tliat.
CREATING EFFECTrVT TEAMS Recent
studies
organized cunvnily
have
Utein kn.iw
taken
into alxiut
what
a
was
relatively
what
makes
once
a
venrabic
focused
teams
laundry
model.Exhibit
effective,
list
K-.l
.As
you’ll
can
he
ofcharactcrisrics
summarizes
see,
it
builds
what on
the group concepts intntduced in ( Jiaptcr 1. The eral
key
toinponciiLs
c.itegnrics.
(wnpfh-itioii. effective-
The
Third
Finally,
first
arc
making category
the
pivceis
up is
resources
variables
clfcciive v^-ork and
reflect
the
teams
tiesign. other
The
second
ioiirexttu/l
things
that
siilisiiined rclatc.s
influences
go
into
in
to
that
the
four
gen-
the
team’s
make
tetinw
team
that
inHu-
cnce effeclivcness, What objective
does measures
effMizenrsi of
the
mean
ttam’i
in
this
prodiicUvity,
model? managers’
lypically ratings
this of
mance, an.l ac^regate measures of member satisfaction.
Work Design The work-design category includes variables sucli as freedom and autonomy, the opportunity to utilize different skills and talents, the ability to eoinpleie a whole and 'dennfiabk task or product, and working on a task or project that has a subsiannd impact ,« others. The evidence indicates that these charade, .sues enhance men^ motivation and increase team effectiveness.'’ These '^te U«use they increase members’ sense of res,x,ns.bility and ownership over the *«rt and het-a«; thev make the work more interesting to pcrt«.nii. 4
tite
has teamV
included perfor-
many
and we of
M PWrtttI Gruune in the OrgeflizetMn eXHierr
c
B-3 A Team EffectiwneM Model VVoHc dewgn
r t•
• Aucenofnx • Tok identjcx • Tok slffWicance Compose don »AbJkty * Pertorulity * Roles and diversity * Size
I
I ♦ RexibiMty • Preference for teamwork ____________ _Z_ ___________ / Context « Adequate resources »Leadership • Performance evaJuadon
Process • Common purpose " Specific goaJs I * Team etfieaQ ■ Conflict < loa/jnf
Composition I
his
oou,
category includes 've’ll
address
diversity,
SIM
AbiUries
of
of
the the
variables
that
relate
ability
and
personality
team,
Members
To
member perform
to
flexibility, effectively,
and
dedshn-makinf^
tcants
of
team
and a
should
members,
members’ team
be
staffed. allocating
preference
requires
sktfb
to
be
able
ahematives, evaluate chose alternatives, and make need people with good listening, feedback, conflict
diree
to
identify’
this
sec-
roles
and
for
teamwork.
different
tjpes
problems,
generate
competent choices. Finally, teams re solution, and other ruterytTj^*^
skills. No team can achieve its j^erfonnance potcndal without developing all thr<* types of skills. Fhe right mix is crucial. Too tnuch of one at the expen.se ol od>er^ result in lower team performance. But teams don't need to have nil the cuinplemen* ury ^ills m place at th«r beginning. Ifs nut uniominon for one or more member to take respjn$ihi)it>' to I cam the skills in which the group is defleient, xherebt* alh’**’tng the team to reach its full potential.
In
€.s/)ert«e. Second, it needs people with the
of skills. First, it needs people with prebUffi-solving
how
Chapter I Vnderm^ng Worit Term in Ch.p«r 5 that pervvn.lit, Jus a Mgtnfeant mfluA,a,.Jbe
of
the
.vle^ant
d.men«on,
to
re«m
e^cnvene«.
ettro.crs.on.
aerreeablencss.
hi^h^r
manager
(ntcx-esongly.
the
uknnfied
m
tl.e
B.g-Fiv^
Spvat.eally.
tea,..,
consc.vnnousncss, J
aJ
evidence
and
pe.^onaUtj ,1.,^
that
the
„.e
stahil.n
fur
warn
vanat.t*
h.n.
higher
e.nodrmal
ratings
.ndiv-ates
nu^id
in
in
proved
.nvan
tend
to
kvek”
to
recenx
peiforjnajicc?*
personaliu
characteris-
tics ...ay he more unpomnr that, the mean. So, fi.r example, wldJe a higher mean level of
consaenuousness
«»«KiiB0M5 who
are
on
mcmUo.
h.ghly
a
team
ren.E
to
tonsc.ennous
.s
desirable,
lower
not
only
tuixinp
b,«h
conscientious
performance.
This
mat
be
.nust
d.eir
o«-n'
usla
perform
and
hewuse hut
not-somembers
abo
,KTform
or re«io the tasks of tess-conscienijous members. It mat also be because these differences
lead
to
feel.ngs
rs
peiMMMlin-
diac
of
“one
contr.buiion
had
apple
lacks a iniiunnl level of. say. fomuuicv.
So
ness,
cxtro.crs.on
or
including
just can
iftequity.
can
spoil
Another
the
interesting
barrel."
A
finding
single
team
related tnanlwr
to who
agreeablenea, can ticgaTivcIv affect the whole team^ per-
o.,e
person
result
in
who
is
strained
tow
internal
on
agreeablcness.
processes
and
conscietidoos-
decreased
otxraD
perfom>ancc. Allocating
Roles
and
Diversity
leaiiis
have
diffrreni
needs,
and
people
shtmid
be
selected tor a tcani lo ensure that there is diversin^ and that all various roles are filled, We
can
idcncify
nine
ix>tcndal
team
roles
(see
F.xhibit
K-4).
Successhil
work
teams have people ro fill all diese roles and have selected people to play these roles based
on
roles.l
.Managers
bring
to
their a
assignments ences
with
skills
and
need
to
select
team, that
fit
with
team
role
preferences,^* uiidtrstand members members'
demands,
(On
many
teams,
the
indiv
idual
w’ich
their
strengths
preferred
managers
strengths
styles.
increase
individuals in
By
die
will
that
mind,
each and
matching
likelihood
play
that
multiple
person allocate
individual the
team
can work
prefermem-
bers will work well together. Sire
uf
Teams
lite
most
effective
teams
are
neither
ven*
small
(under
4
or
S)
or
very large (over 12). Very small teams are likely to lack a diversity’ of views. Rut when tcanb have mt ire than atxmt 10 to 12 members, it beexjmes difficult to get much done. Group members have trouble interacting constructively and agreeing on much; and EXHIBIT S-4 Nine Team Roles
< ------------------------------------ Creator*Innovators: liiiudte itejuve ujeis Explorer* Procnoteru Chunpkm idvas alter they're inidatetl AsiCMor*Developers: .\nal>*zedeaiiian optiims Thrusier^Orgaftiiers; Priwirfc ’itfmmrt (Omtnaicr-ltupcctunu oodudcr-Producers:(‘hevk Provide direvti<wi and ftkrikiaiU Mliv**Khrough LphoUcr'.Mainuiaers: external betrles B^poeter-Advisers: Seek fell uifeniutkm tjikefs; Coord mate and iotegnir Sow. C M—BM» ma 0 MeCww. WWWSCB-lftCifl/i ton MfhWMn RHIMOMIV. 2001. WMW* WBWBpn P*«* "* «»•’«*
D| bndpenn««iOA
1 Qruops in dK Orgamraiioo . Urge
k.... ..f neoule usually can't develop the cohesiveness, tirniniitment, |,i^ necessorv to achieve high pertbniiance. So in designing efU^. ^h..uhl Kem dK-m in the of J to 12 people. If. iLiig unit is l.irger and you want a team efton, consider breaking die g,o„p
subtetms. Member Flexibilin Teams nude up of flexibk individuals have memhen who
Lximpletc e;K-h othe. \ tasks. This is an ohv.nvs phis ro a uaiu bccau« it imnwvcs it< ncUpwhility and makes i( less relianr on any single member. So scltscting menibgrs who rhem^lves value flexibility, then cTcwsarammg them to dr. each aihcft jobs shuUd lead to higher team perfomwiicc over umc.
Member Preferences Kot e\cr>’ employee is a team player Given the nptuRt many employees will sckci themsebes cwz of team pAW ci pation. VMwn |>euple who WQUIJ prefer\n work alone are mpired to team up, there b a direct threat to the team’s morale. This .suggests that, when selecting team members, individual preferences should IK: considered as well as abililics. personalioes, and skills. Iligh-jicrforTnmg teams are likely to be composed of jwopfe who prefer working as part of
A
group.
Context The three ixmiexiual factors that appear to be most significantly related to team perlonnance
are
the
presence
of
adeijuate
rcM.urces,
effective
leadership,
and
a
perfor-
mance evaJuadoo and reward system that reflects team contributions.
Adequate
Resources
Work
groups
arc
part
of
a
larger
orgamy.ation
system.
such, all work teams relv on resources outside the group co sustain it. And
A®
scarcih’of
H
resources directly red nix’s the a hilit\' of the team to perfonii its job effectively. ;\s one $ei
nf
r^earchers
concluded,
affcr
looking
at
13
factors
potentiallv
related
to
group
performance, “perhaps «vnc of the most imporunr vharactensnes of an effective w ork group is the suppirr rhe group receives irom the organize non.’'*** This includes support
such
;^s
administrative
timely
inform
jssiswnce.
anon,
'Icanis
technology,
must
receive
adequate the
staffing,
necessary
encourageineni,
support
frttm
and
nuna^v-
menr and die Int^er organization if tliey are going to succeed in achieving their goals.
Leadership and Structure Team members must agree on who is to do what anJ ensure that all mem tiers contribute equal I v in sharing the workload. In addition, the team needs to dcirrnxinc how schedules will he set, what skills need to be developed.
t
luAv the group will resolve conflicts, and huw die group will make and niodife decisions. Agreeing on the specifier of work and how they fit touvther to integrate individual
skills
requires
team
leadership
and
structure.
This,
incidentnllv.can
bepnAided
directly by manngemenr or by die ream meinl»ers themselves as they fulfill ]>n>inurcr. sirganizer, prcxlucer, nuiiuuaincr, and linker roles (refer hack to Exhibit 8-4 >, I leadership, of course, iui’i always needed. dut
sell-man
appointed ui
aged
leader^?*’
self-mamginp
work
reams
And
teams.
leaders On
often can
perform
obstruct
vlf-nunatred
I'or instance, the evidence irtliv^t^^ better
higli
teams,
team
titan
rcam.s
performance
wheji
members
absorb
with they nuns
furiuaHy inicrfe** afdi<^
dunes Upically assumed by managers. Perf«»iTOance l»e
both
EvaJuation
indo,dually
anti
and
Reward
jointty
Systems
atxountabk?
I
Tow I
hc
do
you
^ct
traditional,
evaluation and reward system must he modified to reflect team performance.
tcatn
nicmhers
mdinduailv
ro
orivnuJ
Chapters Understanding Work Team Individual l«rform»«ce evaluations, fixed hourly wages, individual incentives, and rhe like are nw consistent with the development of high-performance wams. iCj in addinnn ro evaluating and rewarding employees fcir dicir individual contributions, management .should consider group-based appraisals, profit sharing, gaii.sharina siiiall-gn>up metnuves and other system modifications tharwiU reinforce Kam effort nrid coimnitmenT.
Process The final category related to Kam effectiveness is process variables. Process variables include memlier coiTiiniTrnent co a common piiqjosc, establishment of specific- team goals, Kam efficacy, a iiiaiiagcd level ofconflicr, and the redtieuon of social loafing. A Common Purpose Effceiivc teams have a common and inctLningfiil purpose that provides direennn, momentum, and ciimmitmciii for mejiibcrs. This purpose i$ a Vision, h’s broader chan specific guab. Members of successful teams put a cremendous amount of tiiiie and effort inixi discussing, shaping, and agreeing on a purpose that belongs to diem both rollectivefy and
individually.
equivalent
of
TIiJs
what
coniinon
celestial
purpose,
ni^vigadon
is
when
accepted
to
ship
a
by
die
captain—it
team,
becomes
the
provides
direction
and
guidantte under any and all conditions. Spedfic
Goals
surable,
arul
Successful rcalistTc
ceanu
inuisiate
pcrfiirmance
goals,
their Just
common
as
we
purpose
into
demonstrated
in
specific, Chapter
mea4
how
goals lead individuals to higher performance, goals also energize teams. 'I Lesc specific goab
facilitate
clear
coniiminitration
In
addition,
they
help
leanis
maintain
dieir
focus
on results. Also, cousbtent witli tfie research on individual goals, team goals should he challenging.
Difficult
goals
hare
been
found
to
raise
team
pcrfoiinaiicc
on
tltose
criteria
for which they re set. So, for instance, goals fnr quantity tend to raise quantity; goals for speed tend to raise speed, goals for accuracy raise accuraev, and so on. Team
Efficacy
Effective
teams
have
confidence
in
themselves.
They
believe
they
can succeed, Wu call this tcaw ef^cacy. Succe^?. breeds success. Icams that have been suewssful raise their beliefs about future success. This, in turn, motivates them to work harder. What,
if
anyThing.
can
management
do
to
increase
team
cfFicacy?
Iwo
possible
options are helping die team co achieve small successes and .skill training. Small successes
build
team
confidence.
As
n
team
develops
an
increasingly
stronger
perfor-
mance record, ir also increases the collective belief chat future vlforrs will lend to success.
In
addition,
technical greater
and the
managers
should
interpersonal
likelihood
that
skills.
con^dcr The
providing
greater
the
team
vnll
a
team
isn’t
the
n*ainkig
jbilirie'i
to
of
confidentx
improve
team and
mcnibers'
menibers,
the
the
capability
to
we’ll
elahorace
in
deliver on that confidcn«. Conflict
Levels
Chapter
12,
flonflicr
teams
that
on
are completely void
necessarily of
conflict
bad.
.As
are likely to
become
apathetic
and stagnant. So ccmflici can acnially improve team effectiveness—but rot all types of conflict. won.
and
Relationship animosity
oinflicts—those tuward
based
others—are
on
almost
interpersonal always
incompatibNities.
dy'sfunctional.
team* perfiifming non routine activities, disagreements among members about task
However,
tenon
■w
1
G(WiHinthcOrf[>n.Mlion , I,rd rask ennflicu) is detrimental. In fart, it^: often t>eneficial beawe*-■ J , «roupthink. Task tonfticts suiiwlate divu«ion, pro.nott
wnteni
,
iZXns will IK charartcrized by an appn,prnKe level of eonflia. loafine We learned in Chapter 7 that individuals can hide imide a gnMip. can cnX in s«K.-ial loafing and coast on the group, etfort bemuse their individual o,nmbutions can’t be identified. Effeedve reams underm,ne this tendency by Sing dicmselves accountable al both the mdiv.dual and team levels. Succcsshd team’s
purpose,
teams
make
goals,
an.l
members
anu-oach.
individudly
They
arc
and
clear
|ointiy on
accouiuahlc
what
tlicy
for
arc
the
,ndivicb,li,
rcs|wnsihlc for and what they are joinrly rcsponsd.le fur.
WRNING INDIVIDUALS INTO TEAM PLAYERS To this point, we’ve made a strong case for rhe v^lue and growing popularity of teains. Bur
many
want
to
people lie
oTganizaiitw created
sue
not
inherently
receptized
for
their
that
have
competitive
organi/jjnuns
adopt
countries
differ
that
ux
what
they’ve
urms
of
do they
they
du
.And on
loners
or
people
who
arc
also
great
many
accomplishments.
They
hate
There
individual
w’hich
rate
They’re
achic\*emcnts.
in
created?
how
players.’'
nurtured
environments
teams,
employees
lor-nic”
indhidual
historically
work
“team
only
the
strong
about
the
selfish,
finally,
as
wc
individualism
survive.
these
“I-havc-to-louk-out-
discussed
and
If
in
C-haptcrl,
collectirism.
Teams
fit
* well co
with
countries
intrmhice
dut
teams
score
into
a
high
work
on
colkcrivism.
popuhtion
that
is
But
what
made
up
if
an
largely
orgaruzadon of
individtiab
wants bora
and raised in a highly individualistic socicT}-? .As one waiter so aptly put it, in describing
the
rok
of
teams
in
the
United
Slates'
“Americans
don’t
grow
up
learning
how'
tu
function in teams. In schuol we never receive a team report card or learn the names of the be
team just
of as
sailors
true
of
who
traveled
Canadians,
with
British,
Columbus
Australians,
to
and
America.This udiers
from
limitation highly
would
individualis-
The Chulicng
I T
tic societies.
1 he previuiLs points are meant to dramatize that one substantial barrier co using work teams
is
individual
resistance.
An
employee’s
siicces.s
is
no
longer
defined
in
terms
of
indindual performance. In perform well as team members, individuals must be honesdy. con front differences and resolve conflicts, and subhrnatc personal guals for rhe g«x>d of the leain. For many employees, this is a diffi’ cu t —sometimes impossible -tat>k. The challenge of creaiing ream players will be ^atest where (1) the national cultuiv is highly individualistic and (2) the leanu arc ing inircxluced into an established organization that has historically valued indi^’id" ua at lewment These condirions descril'w. for instance, the siniatiun that faced managtrs at AT&T, turd, Motorola, and odier large U.S.-based companies. These irnis pr<^|)ered by hiring and rewarding corporate stars, and they bred a compedd'’e
*
encouraged individual achievemein and recognition. Employ ees in ihe» <5 nns can be jolted by this sudden shift 10 the importantly of ream pla^. .A W eran employee of a large company, who had done very well by working abi*.
Chapter 8 Undenshinding Work Teams desenbed the experience of joining a team: “I’m
1r.
negative jjcrfoniunce appiaisal in 20 vears.”*^ * On the ^ler hand, the challenge teams
arem
Japan
or
trod
need
Mex:co^r
structuring
work.
.^nazon.com.
eBay
they
re
tion^
m
new
ergan.^tions
For
m.taiiee.
new
m
compares
d»«e
that
were
v^ere
strong
use
as
designed
hired
use
reams
with
iniiril
asl"
form
for
e-husiaesses^h
effective
around
when
values^uch
their
doc-com
rds-make
irunally
collectMst
teams
U.S.
bigw’o
and
companies
have
most
and
ni
.
«5Oii. |uac had my first management is kss demanding
for
employees
travdocity.com
rchovely
Even-one
where
.
the
of
as
teams.
from
their
buwvledge
But
incep-
that
th«
would be worfong m teams, and the uhilicy to be a good team player was « basic hiring qualincatmn insit an new employees had to meet.
®
Shaping Team Players The
swinraartees
following
the
primary’
options
already
possess
the
raaruguTs
ha\x
fo
^iduals into ream pfevers. Sekction
Some
jienpic
pla>^rs.
VVTien
hiring
team
members,
interpersonal
managers
should
skills
take
mnng to mm indi-
co
tare
he
to
effective
ensure
team
that
candi-
dates can folfill their team roles as well as having die technical skills required to fill the job?Many tions,
don’t
have
three
players." place
or
have this
team
approach
don’t
in
hire
teams,
and
may
isn’t
be
bleed can
possible
unit
widiin
candidate.
should
those
W’hcn
candidates
a
the it
especially
skills.
The
candidate
around
players
candidates,
options.
If
rhe
exists) jobs
job
be
untrainable.
with
the
doesn’t
work,
organizacon
to
the
other
organizanons
some
Unfortunately,
such
people
them
basically into
two
options
have
teams
that
employees
contribu-
managers
“niakc
doesn’t
that
that
individual
candidates,
training
established
expected
around
such
undergo
or
In
socialized
decide
will
to
resist
typically
team are
(if
to one
redesign
being
become
team
casual-
lies of the team approach. I'rainuig
On
imporlance Training tion
3 of
more
individual
specialists
that
oprindsiic
can
exercises
prosdde.
improve
their
pr(jblem-solving,
coaching,
and
group-development
in
Missouri,
workforce
for
not
instance, only
to
a
accoTTiplishtnenT
conduct
teamwork
note,
hxs
proportion he
allow
trained
employees
typically
offer
of
people
ro
become
to
experience
wwkshops
communication,
negouation.
skills.
Electric’s
achieved
accept,
can
that
'ITicy
large
but
Emerson remarkable
tn
siKx
welcome,
ess
team
to
raised
on
learn
players.
rhe
satisfac-
help
employees
conflict-managem Specialty
in
getting
uaining.
the
Motor
ent, Dirision
its
650-mefnl^er
Outside
consuhants
were brought in to give workers practical skills for wTjrking in teams. After less than a year, employees t:nAusiasnc:flly accepted the value of teamw’nrk. Rewards The reward sy'stem needs to be reworked to encourage cooperarivc efforts rather than competitive ones, hot instance, Lockhced-Alarrin’s Space Launch Sy^tetns Ojmpany ha.s organized its 1,400 employees into teams. Rewards arc structured tu to the team members a percentage increase in the bottom line” based 00 the M'hievemcnt of the team’s jjerfbmunce goals. Prejmimons, for
how
raises,
effetrive
they
and
other
ftirms
are
as
c^illaborativc
a
of
recognition team
should
member.
be
gix*en
m
indi-
Ihis
doesn
t
mean
r
^iduak
pay
dwt individual umiribution is ignored: rather, it is balanced with selfles.s contributiurw
i '.
Mt IN
/* Gpoopitn theOrginiMti”'’ to
Ae
tcm
Ua«er:h™
a
F.M»n,ple.^
ring
of
infnrmn.
behaviors
ion
-iA
A.t
shotild
reammates,
be
rcward«l
hdpmg
resolve
mebde
training
team
cnnflKi,.
newer*. ami
teAi new skills dull >-mir team needs bur in which ITS . ctiaentLastly don't foqjet the intrinsic tewanis dut employees tan receive fnwn tan,. 3
1 f
work Teaim prondc «wn«raderie. Its «c.tine and satisfymg to he an integral part of 7 a succes-stbi team. The opportunity to engage in jK-rsonai (ie.velopment and to hdp ceanunares crow can be a very satisfying and rewarding expenente for employees.
IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS Few duce
trvjut$
h^ve
influenced
into
d»c
workplace.
teams
teams
require
employees
to
jobs
as
The
intivh
shift
co<)pcrate
as
the
from
with
massive
working
others,
raovciiiunt
alone
share
to
to
intro,
working
infunnation,
on
confront
diffcreoees, and sublimate personal interests tor die greater good of the team. Effective that
teams
members
do
different
skills
task
product,
or
leains
ble,
Effective from
and
$
who
effective
to
12
prefer
team
common
are
to
be
and
purpose,
sjiecific
a
and
They’ parr
large
have
of
a
substantial
impact
high
Rnally, team
goals,
on
as
scores
too who
Ihcy
teams
members
fill
to
uti-
others,
The
prohicm-solving,
on
the
personality
and
emotional they
range
role
demands,
are
have
adequate
resources,
and have
who
work
identifiaMe
small—ty'pically
als
evaluation
effective
well
and
tvnscicntiousness,
members
performance
as
The
opportunity*
w-hole
nor
group.
the
a
expertise,
too
characteristics.
autonomy,
agrccahleness,
a
contributions.
common
complete
has
skills,
neither
people.
and to
that
interpersonal
teams
have
technical
extroversion,
leadership,
reflects a
of
ability
work
with
ro
freednin
the
doing
and
found
provide
individuals
characrerisrics size
been
talents,
and
deci
in
should
and
require
stability.
have
reward
system
members
believe
in
committed
the
flexi-
that to
team's
capa-
reward
indi-
these
envi-
bilities, a manageable level of conflict, and a minimal degree of social loafing. Because vidual
accomplishment,
ronments ^ouid players,
individualistic
to
than select provide
in
ii
is
organizations more
collectivistic individual
training
to
with
and
difficult ones. the
develop
ro '16
socicdc.s
and
create
team
plavcrs
make
the
conversion,
interpersonal teamwork
attract
skilE,
skills and
to
be
reward
in
management
effeenve individuals
ream for
cooperative efffuis.
I ** f
•{ f r < I.
4^^
* * * I* IJ
CHAPTER 9
Communication 1.
Define communication and list iu four functions
I
2.
Describe the communication process
1
m lA W
Contrast the three common types of small-group networks identify factors affecting the use of the grapevine Describe common barrien to effective communication List four rules for improving cross-cultural communication
90 M <•
Outline behaviors associated with providing effective feedback
Identify the behaviors related to effective active listening
probably rhe most frequently ciu-U source r rucation? Because we spend nearly 70 ing-reatling, writing, speaking, listening it st^' " of cKe most inliihidng forces to surcessttiJ gr p p coiTununicatioa, Xn gtor^r can exist without its members. It is only through transmitting mformatioft und idca?i can be conveyed. merely imparting meaning. U uwsi instance, that many of the worsi aviation dis rnisuBdersunding of insC-ucdoiiS between iiir-
thar one ]acfc (*f effective .
•
t,-nnsference nF mtaninga»nong from one person to another that -. however, is mure than documented, tor historv were directly due to the yjigrs and pilots.- Keep m transference and
niind» therefore, that communicarion mu»i uftdrmanJiiig of meaning. An idea, no matter how great, is useless unn others. Perfect communication, if rhereweresuci or idea was transnutted so char the mcnwl P’ceure pexC
. - j transmitted and understood by , thought ,,erccived by the receiver was
i7 .'
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
Groupsia th* OtganiMOon
elementary in theory, p^J
exactly the s.me »s that
tor reasons we will expand on 1
‘'seeming cornmutix-anon and problem, '*
feet comnnmicanon i. never
Before making ux. many generalize aminwnieating effectively tion perfonns and describe the emunumicatmn p
the foncaons that cmnumnic^ need m
we
rev.e
FUNCTIONS OF COMMtSNICA'nON ( , n.,i.,r functions mtliin a group or organization: conpo,, Comnumicition serves four maj< r
Communicauon acts lu rontrW
motivation eniotfona! „,™b„
Khazar"JXo
ee ..,
X h-e authority hierarchies andT^
.4f,.lltl.e,,
performing
fc.Uow.
rKreleud ph
a
^rieeapee
deseriprion.» tx.ntrul
'1
«>
foncnon.
comply But
b.
».>l>
informal
employees.
f„r l,„„.ed„.eb»,
-heir
company
polices.
comnaunicanoii
communKanoa
also
controls
n
behavior.
When work urroups tease or harass a member who produces nxi much (and makes dw rest
of
the
group
IcHjk
bad),
they
are
infonnally
communicating
with,
and
conrroUing,
the memlxrs behavior Communicarion done,
how
subpar. and
W'e
well
dicy
saw
this
reinforceineni
progress
toward
fosters are
doing,
aspect
theories the
m«lfvariM
goals,
in
of
and
what
clarifpiig can
he
communication
Chapxr
and
by
4.
The
reinforcement
tor done
to
improve
operating
in
our
formation of
employees
of
desired
is
to
performance
review
specific behavior
what
goals, all
of
if
be itk
goal-setting feedback
stimulate
on
nimiva-
liou and requite communk arion. For many employees, their work group is a priinarj'^ source for social inceractioiL 'I'he com m I tn i cation chat takes place within die group is a fundamental iiiechanism by which members show their fmstrarions and leelings of sadsfaccion. Coiniuiinication, therefore, provides an avenue for exptrs^on c/'emotiw t and fulfxllinent of social reedj^. The final funedon that cot nni uni cation i>crform5 is related to its role in facilitating decision making. It provides rhe iftfemnaiffn that individuals and E?*oups need to make decisions lv>’ transmitting the d;ita to idvinify and evaluate choic<^. No one ul these four ftincrions should lx: seen as being more important than die others, for groups to pcriorm effectively, they need to maintain snine fiirni of coniroJ over members, stitntilaic members to perform, provide a means for cinoUonal exprcjision. aiul make choices. You can assume that almost even* coinniuni«interaction that takes fdacc in a group or organization performs one or more erf these tour tuncnons.
*
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS .» »♦ « Before communieaTion can take nluce
a purpose, expressed as si message to be cun»
ycvcii IQ np^/U/1 T.. ru. K P purpose, expressed as si message to be con-•r' nel) to the receiver whn r •• i zj pj’ssed by way of sonic medium (dianT’-“'
IK
Exhibit 9-1 depicts rhiQ rnmm.L- " , seven
parts:
(1)
iinother. the
rfunnd, (5) decoding. (6) the receiver, and (7) kedS*’*
communication
s(.u^-rpl’’"^u*' <* **“
Oiaptart Cowmotuadt EXHIBIT H
The Communication Process
Feedback
The toitm laitiarcs a message by encoding a thiwght- I'be mfssag^ b the utual phy^l
prixiuct
from
the
source
miuiitig.
UTicn
we
speak
the
speech
is
the
mcaagc-
VShen we wrius the writing is the message. WTten we gesture, tlic inuvements »f our enns and the exprexAions on our facts are the message. The »AiWz/if/ is the medhim rfirough
which
whether
to
use
oc^aniz^noii members.
the
message
a
sind
formal u
They
travek.
or
ansmit
It
intormal
messages
traditionally
is
selected
by the
channel.
Formal
chat
relareil
follow
arc
the
authorin'
source,
channels chain
organization.
'The
m-eiver
is
tlte
ohicct
to
whom
the
must
determine
established
professional within
Other forms of messages, such its personal or social, follow the
are
the
TO
who
by the
activities
the
of
organization.
the informal channels in message
is
directed.
But
before the tn ess age can be received, the synibob ui it must be translated into a form that can he nndetstcHKl by the receiver. This step is the
the message. The
final lint' in the communication process is a feedback loop. Feedtank is the check cm hew suecessfiil we have been in transferring our messages as originally inrendcxl. It detennines whether understanding has been achieved.
DIRECTION OF COMMUNICATION Conununicaiion
ran
How
vertically
or
laterally,
'flic
vertical
dimension
can
be
ftirthcr
divided in IO downward and upward dircetiiiris.
Downward Communication that Hows from one level of a group or org'djxiiation to a lower level is
a
downward
communicarion.
WTicn
we
chink
<.if
managers
contmunieating
widt
employees, the downward partem is the one we are ii.AuaJly thinking of. Its used by group
leaders
and
managers
lo
assign
goals,
provide
job
jnstruexions,
inform
employ-
ees ol polieio and protredures. point out problems that need attention, and offer feedback
about
fece-iu-faee them
of
Bin
performancecontact.
the
V\*hen
org-anization’s
downward
inaiugemenr new
sick
communication sends
leave
letter.s
policy,
it’s
doesn’t to
have
employees
using
to
be
homes
downward
oral to
or
advise
communication.
So is an c-m.til from a team leader f<j the members ot her team, reminding them of an upcoming deadline,
Vpuard Vpuard communication flo*^ to a higher level in the group or organizaoon Jts us«l to pnnide R-cdhacl: to higher-ups, ro inform them of progress toward goals, to current ,.roblei,is. Vpu-ard communication keeps managers aware ot how nnpkntw feel about their jobs, co-»orkcrs, and the orgamaaoon in general.
I Part HI Croups in tl« Organiratioa pward communication for .deas on how things cm bj =1 Managers also rely on ,„niratior.al examples improved. SomeorganiMDon
u
of
opuani
communication
are
performance
rep,,„
management, sugeeshun . grievance procedures, superior/sohor.linate discu*. • .. sessionsb?wh)ch e.nplovces have die opjx.Ttumty- toidendfc ' I’” ” "Pre,=™,iv„ of higher „™ge,„e„,. gj ;
prqwred by boxes, ”'7^” ;'X» ImplTredEx
pndcs
it.-clf
on
its
cinnputerized
upu-ard
commumcaPon
i,rogran,.
A]| ■
its employees annually complete climate surveys and reviews ot managemem. I h.s ^tmLs
cited
as
a
kev
human
resources
screngtli
by
incmhcrs
of
the
Malcolm
Baldnge
Nationd
-
^lity Award examinci^ when FedEx won die htnior.
Lateral When
(ximmuricition
members
of
work
takes
place
groups
at
among
the
same
level,
the
among
same
managers
work
at
group,
the
same
amrnig level,
or
group
or
among any horizonoUy e<;uivalent personnel, we describe it as lateral communication. W'Tiy
would
organizations
vertical
commnriTtations some
cases,
informally eral
there
be
a
need
comniuTiications
are
arc
often
necessary
these
lateral
relationships
created
to
shoit-circuit
conuminications
can.
horizontal
communications
effective?
to
the
from
for
save
art
time
fonnalJy
vertical
The and
and
viewpoint,
h
More
good
horizontal
coordination. often,
expedite
he
a that
facilitate
sanctioned.
hierarchy
managements
answer
if
the)*
arc
So
lat-
action. or
Li
bad.
Since
srricL adherence to rhe formal vertical structure for all coiinnunieations can impede accurate transfer of information, lateral communications can be
me eilicieni an beneficial. But
they
breached, when
In
such
can when
bosses
cases,
creaie memhers
find
out
they
occur
dysfunctional go that
above actions
•with
conflicts or
the when
around
have
knowledge
their
been
taken
the
and
support
formal
superiors
vertical
to
get
or
decisions
and
among
of
channels
things
made
superiors. are
done,
withouf
or their
knowledge.
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION How i’re
do three
gi'oup
members
transfer
basic
methods.
People
meaning essentially
between rely
on
oral,
each
written,
other? and
TTicre
nonverbal
communication.
Oral Communication rhe chief means of conveying messages is oral coinniuni earion. Speeches, formal o^cW discussions, and the informal rumor mill or mpevine arc popular tonns of oral communication. satTi*
comnwiueation are speed and feedback. z\ verbal ines-
receiver i«
response received in a minimal amount of tune. If die
render
.nd,
hZ
for'Xly
' whcnevertl^^m'^ ’
‘I'^advanugc
of
oral
communication
surfaces
in
organizalkMiS
t*
^1- nmnt peop^ A P ugh, the greater rhe pniendal Jistortion. If you ever pbjT^ J|
CcamuiguiMj^ , ,«n>- > „U know .hr pn,l4cni,
rtK- p,nH-
imernrrt (IM
.n h'» ..u r wu>. IIK. enu-.u. when i« rSTit. riSi^ ..he. .-enr J.ft<-rc.u that ,4 ,hv ..rigin«|, ,« when.'
verifiaJile.
Typically.
IHJIK
'Ihe
rnrss;ige
cun
stored
tton.s
evnexming
ence.
11ns
be
the
the for
content
feature
is
sender
of
an
the
panicidarly
and
receiver
indefinite
iiwssage.
import.un
have
period
it
is
for
a
ni
rectml
time.
physicalh
vxmiplcx
niey’rc of
If
cfMnmuni-
there
are
uucs’
for
later
refer-
available
and
rhe
tangible
lengthy
ctxnmunicariunK
The marketing plan for a new product is likely to contain a iiuiulKr of tasks spread out over
several
readily
months.
refer
to
it
By
putting
over
the
it
lite
in
of
writing,
the
those
plan.
A
who
final
have
Iwnefit
to
initiait
of
the
written
plan
can
eommunicarion
cxMiics from the puKcss itself You re usuidly more careful w ith the written word than the in
oral a
word.
written
You’re
forced
to
think
than
in
a
mc^Ksagv
more
thownighly alxnit
spoken
one,
ITiws
what
wriocn
vou
want
to
anninunications
convey
are
more
likely in l>c w ell thought out. i(»gieal, and clear. Of Yni
cxmr>c,
could
writrcji
convey far
more
messages
have
informarion
to
their
a
drawhacLs.
college
insmictor
niey're in
a
linie-consuining.
one-hour
oral
exam
than in a one-hour w ritten exam. In fact, you owld probably say the same thir^ in ten to fifteen minutes that it would take vou an hour to write. So, although wTinng may he nxire
precise,
feedback;, what
he
feedback been the
or
it
alst»
Lick
chinLs
of
he
mechanism,
received, sender
consumes
and,
intended.
it.
<.)nd
a
W’l
itten
I'he
result
is
received,
The
latter
deal
communication
hears.
if
great
of
lime,
allows
n»rntnunication, that
mailing
there
is
no
|X>ini
is
also
a
llie
the how
receiver ever,
memo
guarantee relevant
other
the in
is
maior to
does no
respond not
wSIl
rapidly
have
assunnee
recipient oral
dbadvaniagc
a
that
lo
buili-iii it
interpret
conununiques,
is
has it
except
as it’s
easy in such cases merely to ask the receiver to summarize what you've said. j\n accurate
summan
presents
feedback
evidence
that
the
message
has
been
received
understood.
Nonverbal Communication H en* rime wv svrhnHy trivc a message to sonuume, we also impart a nonverbal niesMge. in some instances, the nonveriial o*npineiu may stand alone, l or example, in a angles har. a glaiiix. a staix*. a smile, a frown, and a prosxxarive hoily inovcinent a convey meaning. .’Xs such, no dixussion of commiiniearion would be ajrnpletc wimout consitivrariim of wnvaM
w hich includes Ixxh niovenKntsc the
innmarions emphasis we gix e tn wtrt-ds. facial expressions, and the physical disrance het ween the seiulcr and receh er. The M'ademic study of body morions has been labeled kincsies. It refers tn gestures, facwl cxmliguratiiHis. and other inovcnunis of the Ixxiy. But h is a V’Hiftg field, and it has been suNect m far more txmjeccure ami popuhnwng mn
and
f Hei.ee while we acknowledge that bcnly in.wenient , Jennimunicarior and bch;.vior, o.nd..«on.
„;«rch fuidrngs
•r
body m<«iyns
7»«i ef«r»r has a meaning and Uiai no mw-ement X thn,OKh bodv bnguagc we say. -Help me. I’m lonely-; is accidentd- for 5.,,, aepressed.” :Knd rarely d<. we send ouj ‘■Rke me, I of being wirh t.onvcrbal Ixidy langnage. mess^^cs ’ , 2 for disbeUvt We reb <Mjr noses lor puzilemem. We clasp oy, VVe lift one onnidves. VVe shnjg our shoulder, for mdifferwilJk ..ne q-e for intimacy, tap our fingers for impatience, slap m.r forehead for
uJ may dhagrcc **th the s|x:cifiu ..leanings of the nioveiiienis ,»st described, but we can’t deny that body language adds w., and olun complicates verbal com.nu.ucatioii A budv’position or movement does not by itself have a precise or universal meaning, but when it is linked with sixiken language, ii gives fuller meaning tn a sender’^ ine.«iii
you
words
UTiy* or
message, tor
the
in
way
you
of
of
is
mKsing.
'lb
iJIusuate
du
studenr
in
class
du tone
from
an
you
mean
of
the
inion
by
that
meeting,
if
pu
nonverbal huw
who
you
had
c
grasp
there
or
saw
been
baonntiftns
asks
die
'The
’I*he
can
a
Student’s A
abrasive
with
soft, sin
the
impact
of
meeting
on
given
tn
the
meaning
question.
The
instruc-
be
different
reaction smooth mg
the
emphasis
change
instructor
response.
is
wuuldn
rommunkation.
thtfit?**
inscrucn^r's
ation
a
would
recoid
the
meaning
jninutes
no
’What
on
tun
same
is
phrasc^t
replies,
verba
the
'fhcrc
consider
depending ferent
sard
w-a’s
video.
read
will
of
a
tone
creates
a
dif-
emphasK
placed
wi
the
last word. The meaning. along
yifw/ zV
widi
duracTci'ishcs
exprmtan
snarling
of
face
the
says
intonations,
can
dm
never
would
instructor sorncdiing
in
the
different
show
airugtncc,
be
commnnicared
previous
from
a
illustrarion smile.
Facial
fear,
shyness,
aggressiveness, if
you
rend
a
transcript
been said. The way individuals space themselves in terms physicaldbtanct ulso hits meaning. WTiat is considered proper spacing b largely dependent on cultural noims. Fur example, what is considered a businesslike distance in some European et>untries would he viewed us intimate in many parts of North America. If someone stands closer to than is considered ap|>ropriate, it may wdicatc iiggressiveness or se.xua] interest; if fertlier away than usual, it may mean disinterest or displeasure widi what is being said us wportant tor rhe receiver to be akn to these nonverbal aspects ofcotumumcaiiun. oy shouM look for nonverbal cues as w'efl as listen to the literal meaning a sen words. You should parncularly he aware of contradkrions between rhe ojessage.s. Your bans may My she is free lu talk to you about a pressing budget prubkni. nonverbal signals suggesting that this is nut tin tune to discuss d* wrkht
^’hai is being .said, an individual w'ho frcquenrlv glances at her ’’he message that she would prefer to tcrminuie rhe conv'ersarion.
verbalk < HW.” ratcly) than words ”
e.’cprcss one message verbal I v, such as trust, but nunthat reads, “I don’t have confidci« i« char “actions speak louder (and more accu-
abo
coiivuv*s
express and of
what
ions, odicr had
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION In chix MHlion „,we h en ...lerpersonul .■..uimunicatiDn to orpnizitional ,.i«uon. ()«.r focus here will lx; on turm.l nctu-orks, the grapevine, and aided nif chnmans used by organuaiions co facilitate tnmmunicadon.
cooum*. comtwr-
Foniwl Sinall’Gmiip Netu'orks Fonnal
orgnni«don
indudv
hundreds
our
discuNsion,
fi\x
people
diannel
J
of
networks
jx^uple
we’ve
can
and
a
t\»ndcnscd
each
(see
h
Although
these
very
hdf-dozen
thi?sv
xhibii
thixx-
he
9^2).
complicaud, or
more
nerw'orks
T1K*SC
nerwr^-ks
have
'they
can,
hierarckical
into
three
three
nctworb
been
extremely
for
levels.
eonunnn are
in<jtance,
Tn
simplify
small-groups
the
whecL
simplified,
they
and do
of all-
alltw
us to describe the unique tjiialiries of each. ‘I’he mau^s 1
he
cbatn
die
follows
coiiunuiucation
relies
on
cation.
k
strong
leader,
nicate
rigidly a
with
rhe
d’hc
each
channels
central
simulates
the
figure
act
communication ’The
chain
might
\’ou tn
/?//-
other.
fonnal as
find
the
all-chajmel
rominand.
in
wu
all
a
conduit
network
i>crniits
of
for
is
network
chree-level
group\
find
on
a
members
to
actively
most
all
often
approsi-
organiiation.
the
would
group
network
rigid
This
coramuiii-
ream
with
a
commu-
chanicterized
in
prac-
tice by self-managed teams, in which all group members iirc free to eoutributc and no one person takes on a leadership role. As criteria the
Exhibit you’re
emergence
9-5
demonstrates,
concerned ol
about.
a leader, the
the
For
effecriveness instance,
of
the
all-channel netu'ork
each
striuTurc is
best
if
network
depends
of
wheel
die
you
on
die
facilitates
arc concerned with
haring high member satis fa cd on, and the chain is best if accuracy is most imporant. Exhibit
9-3
leads
us
co
is
not
the
conclusion
lhac
no
single
network
will
be
best
for
all
occasions.
The Grapevine The There
formal is
syuem also
an
uiformal
the
only conirnuiiicatinn
one—the
grapenne.
network
While
die
in
a
group
grapevine
or
may
tliis doesn't mean it’s not an imjKjrtant .snurxx of informariun. For instanee, a leccot
EXHIBIT 9*2 Three Common Small-Group Networks
Chain
A .1
Wheel
All-Channel
organizjition. be
informal,
MR
OottfB in the OntenlMtiaf
small-croup Networts and Effectiveness Criteria
EXHIBITS-^ Networks All Channel
WTiccI Ftft High
Chain M<*krsce AitHlerece Moderate
Emerc^rtKe of a lc*
Kime
Higb Low
Hijh
son vy found that 75 percent <.(employees bear about matters lirsi through rumors on ^Thc grapemc has three main charaweristks. h inl, it is not controlled by management Secoful, it is perceived by >nost employees as being more lielievable and reliable than foniiil communiques issued by top management. .And third, it is largely used to the inrercbts nl the people within it. One
of
the
most
famous
studies
of
the
grapevine
invesdgated
the
communica-
tion pattern among 67 managerial personnel in a small manufacturing bask first
approach
used
was
given
pietx
received
a
found
that,
while
centof
the
more
(han
enter
the
the
executives one
learn
of
acted
was
as
each
For 81
and
an
liaison
jxTson.
business,
from
information
grapevine
other
insurance
fn
comminicarion then
trace
important
individuals,
example,
percent
that
the
it
source
when
of
"The
is,
one
recipient back
of
tn
its
the
executive
only
or
she
It
was
10
information
decided
knew
he
source.
information,
passed
executives
how
about
co
it,
jseron
to
resign
to
but
OoH*
II
percent transnutted this intormarion to others. 'Iwo events
of
duction, one
other
conclusions
general
sales)
group
interest
rather
this
tended
than
consistently
from
within
acted
to
swtly
fiuw'
diem.
liaisons;
this
stud\'
also
worth
noting.
the
major
functional
benveen
.Mso,
as
are
no
evidence
rather,
surfaced
different
types
to
Infomiatiiin groups
suggest
of
(pro-
that
infonnarion
on
any
passed
through different liaisons. An office
attempt
also
esting,
mat a
sure
to
replicate
that
only
the
well took
as
consistent
informed contrast
gi^up
of
radicr
be
to
workers.
and m
due
than
the
thus
spectrum
individuals
the
niltivaie
acted
as
catcschat
the
outside
original
liaisons
This
of
study,
hv
government
finding
information groups.
in
It
was
their
feel
gmcni-
proposed
against
one
greater
inunediate replication
traasmirting
inter-
indudii^
the
sample
might
the
is
einplovees,
executive-only example,
state
pres-
ftincbonal found
information
that
in
the
'
infomiadon
about
an
others ihe
of
functional
for
government office. Is
flow
between,
Managers,
of
small
wider
comparing
findings
a
individuals.^
Kut
within,
in
liaison
personnel.
place
employees
as
managerial
operative
in
act
a
included
Also,
percent
contained
might
suy
10
among
replication
(hscrepancy
so
group. a
as
office tffis
at
found
because
operative ment
to
;5
that
(wreenr
of
flows what
along is
the
carriul
grapevine is
accurate?
accurate.^
But
The
what
evidence conditions
mdifoster
in active grapevine? What gets die rumor mill rolling^
•’t
Thk i. " ’ha. rumors surt because they make titiUaling gossip. Xre cxse. Rumors emerge as a response ,o situations that are os. where there is an.l under conditions that arouse
»
Chapt^ 9 CotnmunxaQcn -^rk situations freqiicntlv contain these rhre^ /
».
<,rgunu.Hon5. s«r«y and ro.njxdbon gruunri such issues JU the apiwinirncnt of d”;,»u,g .i».„„, „d d,e rf„renenumgc and
p«vaihn large orfaniza*
rumors die grapevine, A^or will peSteX^S -mor
WTuc
can
we
i,
nnpornnt
,dl
wrxh
insider
parr and
inechanism.
employees, into
rhe them
frnn,
of
nnde^ndm^I
important
feedback rions
conclude
the
g-up
or
.denafies that
grapenne groups
.s
the
It
communicaden issues
thon=fnre,
-as
that
cmplovecs
valuable
Maj-be
for
more
Ceminlv
confusing
acts,
issues
particularly ,argon.
OUT
managers
anx-etve
up
discussion?
organ.«tions
for
cearr.
picking
preceding
fulfilled
the
K««vine
nedvS^^ that
both
fdter
aS
relevant
formal
again
is
employees
a
consider
translating
important,
ne
a
For
eommunica-
from
a
managerial
petspreuve, It seems possible to analyze graiKnlne informanon and to predict its flow given that only a small set ot individuals (around 10 percent) actively pass on ir.forman-H. to more than one other person. By assessing which liaison individuals will consider a given pietx of informaoon to be relevant, we can improve our ability to explain afld predict die pattern of the grapevine.
Cornputer-Aided Coitutiunication Comtniinicadon
in
today’s
technologies.
These
conferenong.
Electronic
memos,
lecicrs,
org-anizadons
is
clcccrnnic
mail,
include
and
mail,
for
phone
instance,
calls
chat
enhanced
and
enriched
by
intranet
and
extranet
links,
has
dramatically
employees
reduced
hisrorically
computer-aided and
the
used
video-
number
to
of
communicate
among themselves and with suppliers, customers, or other outside stakeholders. E-xVlail
Electronic
puter-generated
text
(or
and
c-mail)
uses
(Ifxmments.
Its
the
Internet
growth
to
has
transmit
been
and
receive
spectacular.
Most
comwdiite-
cdlar employees now regularly use e-majl. In fact, a recent study found that the average U.S.
employee
receives
31
c-inail
messages
a
day.'
.^id
organizations
are
recognizing
the value of e-mail for all workers. Ford Motor Co., for instance, recently made a eompurer, modem, printer, and e-mail account avaliable for S5 a month to all of its more than 300.000 employees worldwide.^ As a commujiication tool, e-inaiJ has a long list of benefits. E-mail messages tan be quickly written, edited, and stored. 'I’hcy can be distributed to one person or thousands with the click of a mouse. They’ can be read, in their entiren* at the convenience the recipient. And the cost of sending fonnal e-mail messages to employees is a fraction of what it W’Ould cost to print, duplicate, and disndbute a comparable letter or brochure. E-inail, of course, is nor without its drawbacks. Al the top of the list is inforroabon werload. It’s not unusual for employees to get a hundred or more e-mails a .lay. Reading,
absorbing,
and
responding
to
such
an
inflow
can
literally
consume
an
emplovee’s entire dav. In essence, e-mail's ease of use lias become its biggest negative. E«nployees
are
finding
jwk mail and irrelevant
it
increasmglv
messages.
difficult
.Another
to
distinguish
drawback of
imponant
e-.nails
from
e-mails is that they lack
emo-
ttOMl content. The nonvcihal cues in a face-io-foce message or the tone ot voice from * phone call
im|>ortant information that doesn’t come across in e-mail. Finally,
1
122
con,e»^
part nt Groups in the Orf»ni«oon e.mail tend, m be
or oAer messages that might evoke em^ l
O'diAil .1 inks /n^nro arc private. organ.z-au...vwide mfunnatioft Intranet and Extranet l-.nks r „„1, p^^pk- m an org.uuxation networks that look and ac t i KC preferred means for employees within have access. Intranets an. o’) cnnipanics to comrnun..m A^corw
-
organixanons .ire cre.
nm ,
„p|
sirarepe it, «ccl and rubber suppliers as well as coumv.mitronic mes'sages and d ,.c„d..rs arc linked into us cxlr.inet syscaw wid. '.vbri iHU-CTt; to easily commun.cate with its suppliers and for .he mvcHtory s.an.s of its products at Wal-Mart stores. Mdctx.'onfercneing r7^<sh<;»AcrttdZ«g is an extension of inaanet or extranet sysutm. It permits employees in an organization to have meetmgs wi A peep e at different loa tion.s Live audio and v.lco intages of members allow Acm to see, hear, and talk u irh each oAcr \-idcocontercncing technology, in effect, allows employees to conduct interaenve meetings wnthout Ac necessity of all phy.sically being m Ae same IncaAin. In the late IWOs, videoconferencing was l»asically «>nductc6 from special rooms equipped with trlevisioo cameras, locared at company facilioes. More recently, cameras anti microphones arc being attached to individual eomputers, allowing people to paAcipate in sidcoconfcrcnccs without leaving their desks. As Ae cost of Ais technoli4
Summary*
Computer-aided
commurucahnns
are
reshaping
the
way
we
communicate
in orgaiiizanons. 5pcvifi«lly, it no longer necessary' for employees to lie at their work station or desk co be “availahle? Pagers, cellular phones, and personal communicators allow employees to bu reached when they’ix in a mccdng» during n lunch break, while visiting a cusumer across town, or during n golf game on Saturday morning. The line betwtxn an employees work and non work life is no longer dlsrincL In the clcclronic age, all employees cun dicorrcically l)c ‘‘on call* 24 hours a day, 7 (bys a week. Organizational communications. Widilt,
Ac
ofKrated other tice
boundaries
Networked
organization, by
an
Resident
j^.p e
of
m iKtv-een
coiiipucers
work
full-rune
orgaruzati..n.
organizations.
The
iieXcd Or iS woA^l i C^iu«^ot
and
market
markenng and
become
less allow ar
send an
is e-mail
as
nr
who
message
.hu n»d.d. d„,d,„g 6. d„d„™
to
up
directly.
jump
vertical
other
dian
discuss
in
die
And
computer-aided
an
with issue
hierarchy), in
so
doing,
a
levels facility
nei.ple
in
with
the
can
htT**
Ac
tradi-
deteriTunwi by level and acccM, heeomes essentially ’? researcher may choose to bve m d,e Caymtan IslanA than do his or her job in the company^
tmerreom^ rh As a «se
to
of
cominunicmons
wants
levels
result
someplace
ongoing
three
a
employees
home
condua
researcher
(who
relevajit
to suppliers' and cus"nfanuanons become ArAer blurred, :“■>-» - '."‘ed, r™. aX™
“
Chapter)
BARRIhRS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION n
A numlxr of harriers can rcurd or dKhjrt effectrv
coTaniunication In this scetioiL we
highlight the more imporunt of chese liarricni.
filtering Filtering refers to a sen.kr’s purposely manipulatiiig jnftwubon so it will be seen more hv-rahly by tb- receiver, i or example, when a manager tells his boss what be feels his boss wants to hear, he is filtering information. The MTULiuru. njties are
nujor J
he
there
arc
scants
please
detenrunant more for
vertical
filtering.
differences.
one's
uf
boss
levtE
But
Factors
ofren
filtering
lead
in
you
such
is the
can as
the
number
levels
organixationk
CX|H:CT
fear
employees
of
of
co
some
conveying
rell
hierarchy,
filtering
their
to
bad
an
Ln
die
occur
news what
btjofc.
appears
more
oppom-
wherever
and
superiors
organization’s
the
they
there
desire
ihmk
to
those
scperiiirs want w hear, thus distorting upward communicaoons.
Selective Perception We
hatx
the
roenrioned
receiver,
based tens
in
selective
ihe
communication
an
bis
needs,
tics.
*ihc
receiver
as
he
decode.s
to
put
family before
perception
motivations, also
thciu.
riie
before
process,
his
eniployment
caj'cer
is
this
sees
experience,
projects
in
and
hears
background,
It
things
and
other
interests
and
expectations
intervicw^cr
who
expects
likely tu
sec chat priority in
in
a
again
a
selective
j>ersonal into
because
ch
way, ante-
communications
female
job
candidate
female candidates,
regardless
of whetlier div candidates feci that way or nor. As we said in Chapter 2, we don’t sec reality; wc interpret w'hac we see and call it reality.
Information Overload Individuals sion
have
of
a
e-mail,
finite
when
capacity;
the
result
meetings,
anti
the
capacity
the is
for
infomiadon information
need
processing
to
kcej)
we
data.
have
overload.
current
in
.As
to
w^ork
/And
with
one’s
field,
noted
tn
with
previous
exceeds
e-mails, more
our
and
our
discus-
processing
phone
calls,
faxes,
more
managers
and
professionals are complaining that they ’re suffering from information overload. VVhat use? off
happens
They tend further
when
to weed
proccs.sing
individuals
out,
until
ignore,
the
have pass
overload
more over,
information
than
they
can
sort
and
or
forger
information.
Or
they may put
is
over.
Regardless,
the
result
situation
is
lost
information and less effective communication,
Gender Styles .Men
and
women
use
oral
communication
for
different
reasons.
Consequently,
gender
bcajmes a barrier co effective communication betw*een the sexes. Research
evidence
indicates
that
men
use
talk
to
emphasize
status,
whereas
women use it to create connection.’^ That is, men speak and hear a language of status and
independence,
So,
for
many
and
men.
women
speak
conversations
arc
and
hear
primarily
a a
language means
to
of
connection
preserve
maiAUin status in a hierarchical social order. For many women, conv'ersations are
and
intimacy
independence
and
Part 1(1 Groups ift the Organizenon k-k «..onle m-to seek and give ennfinnation and sup. '' neguriatjons for<'ln.«nes^in w i ■• women talk on and im about rheir port. For example, X^'hat's happening is that when men problems. Women ennozx men indepe-ndeoce and c.mtrol 1^ hear a problem, they want to th >
geuhe mens adx^ce.
Emotions now Sec
receiver
Che tow
i>e
distrauehc
or
is
feek
She
often
such
xs^ubibtion
such
instances,
at
the
interprets
it.
interjneted
or we
time
receiving
a
anunmnication
The
same
message
differently
from
when
depression arc
of
most
received
you
are
most
likely
to
prone
ro
disregard
our
people.
Age.
re
.t>e«age
when
happy.
hinder
ww
1
re
in£l„.
angry
.xrreme
efleenve
rational
will
or
emotions
cnm.n.mifanon
and
ob,ective
1„
thinking
processes and sukstiluxe emotional judgments.
Language Words
mean
ground
are
differcni three
of
things the
to
more
different
obvious
variables
that
eduouion.
influence
and
the
cultural
language
a
backperson
uses and the deliniliuns he or she gives W wordsIn die
an
organizanon,
grouping
of
(arffon
or
widely
dispersed
employees
employees
technical
into
language.
usually
departments In
large
geographically—even
come
from
creates
diverse
specialists
organizations^
operating
in
backgrounds.
who
members different
develop
are
Furlher,
Aeir
also
own
frequently
countries—and
individ-
uals in each locale wIl use terras and phrases that arc unique to their area. The existence
of
vertical
levels
can
also
cause
language
meaning with regard to words such as
problems.
For
instance,
differences
in
and have been found at differ-
ent levels in in anagen lein. Top managers often speak ah out the need for incen fives and
quotas,
yet
these
terras
imply
manipulation
and
create
resentment
among
many
lower managers. The
point
is
that,
although
you
and
T
probably
speak
a
common
English—our usage of that language is fiir from uniform. If w'e knew modified is
that
the
language,
members
in
com
an
HI
unication
organization
difficulties
usually
don’t
would know
Ite how
how each of us
minimized. those
language—
with
Lhe
problem
w'hom
they
interact have modified the language. Senders tend to assume dial the w’ords and terms Aey use mean the same to the receiver as they do to them. T his assumption is often incorrecT,
OROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION Effective
commuiiicarion
is
difficult
under
rhe
best
of
cundirions.
Ooss-culniral
ftc-
.
process of tneoding and decoding messages into symbols is based on m
individu^s
cultural
^wer
the
backgrountl
differences
tn
and,
«
backgrounds
a
result,
between
is
not
the
sender
and
same
for
rece.ver,
OJtterenccs in meanings attached to particular « onls or bchasiors. People fnim differ-
aU
people.
The
the
greater
the
Btl* ,•
tors clearly create the potential for increabed coinmunication problems.
culnifes wc> interpret, and evaluate thinv, them differently
*-Wwr> ‘I'ffwwidy, nd cnnnqoently act on
Cuftural C^oiitexl Abenerunden.andmgofcuhwalbaprieriandth across cJnires can be achieved by considering cdmr«‘ Culnirc^ and n, differ
fommunicating ‘^"*'^®'‘^high-and1ow-contci the importance m whJ.k OQS for communicating
in
ing that individuals ukc fran what IJS actuallv said
influences the mean-
other person IS. Oiuntrrcs such a$ China V’?«i
whom the
‘‘*8^-
cultures. They n=Jy hens ily on conynuTurating u jth others, What
-id may
said. In these cultures, a person’s ofiicial status olac
s’ffi'ificam than u-hat k
considerable weight m communk-aticns. In America
relfeci
their
low-context
cultures
'^P«taiion earn Th
•
*
P^>plc
in/m
Eurupe
and
North
meaning. Body language or formal titles are secondan^™u'’ spoken and ’^Tiiten words
(«c FjchibitM—^). W'hat do these contexnial differenccis Actually,
quite
a
lot!
.
Cfommunieation
in
high-cntextluh™*
more trust by parties, What may .appear to an outsider fnh
communiwtinnWQ-siderably
eonversarioii is imporiaiii because it reflects the desire to bn1ld?’’''l a«
n..,.
±r
,.ra]
agreements
r“-nrgani«itionL.,e
^tX t concc.«
imply
s.ong
hi.hlv
eomnS
Xd
wd
«n^g. precisely worded, and highly Jcgalisiie. Similarly, lowcultures
convemgintcndyl
value
directness.
meaning.
It’s
Managers quite
arc
expected
different
to
in
he
explicit
high-contX
and
precise
culfrX
m
where
m
EXHIBIT 9-4 Hi^- vs. Low Context Cultures
Chinese Korean Vietnamese Arab Greek Spanish lulian English North Ameriaff ScandinavUn Swiss German
•••« Oft «it Wk «r 11HW »om R1 We*. J99I. p. 21
•M J.& M. • wnslwiW CenwWMCton *• &eoM*
k RlrtHl Groups in Orf*"*"**^
A Cultural Guide
jifferent culture, what can yoii do |^! -** .nisevaluauons? Mlowrog th«e (b« 1
S::
rules
can
he
helphil”:
• Mi«t of us assume that nihcrs are more ’ JiFcrtut countnus <Jten are vm to u. th.n
1.
,r, it >
d,u-npti«" r.„btr rhax
Interpreting or evaluatnig S .onu^nc L. said or done, in entrust to deuT.puon, is hated more on 2. oiliure .iml luckgroi.n.l dtan on the observed siniaiion. So -Way ,«dgn,en, until you've had sufficien. time to observe and interpret the stlnation from the per. spwtivci ol all cultures invokeil. /v«nzr Before sending a tnessage, put ymirtelf in rhe receiver's shoes, WI''''
HK 3.
4.
arc his or her v.ilucs, experiences, and frames of reference,' What do you knoiv ahem his or her educatic.it. uphringine, and Itttkground chal can give p.u a«idcd insight? rr> to see the other person as he or she really is. Treat y^urmtcrfnxfati^ii a wot hug krpaMs. Once you’ve developed aii explaiwtion for a iww situalion i»r ihink ymi cniptht?c with sometine fmin a foreign culrwe, treat >‘our inKfpretation a^ a hypoThesis dut needs hinhcr testing rather th,w as a certainty. Carefully assess ±c feedback provided by reed ven to w if it confirms your hypothesis. i or inipoTTflnr decisions or comm uniques, you can HIW.I check widi other foreign and home'COuntn' colleaoio
ETHICS IN COMMUNICATION: IS 11’ WRONG TOTELLALIE? W'Tien
we
were
children,
nrr
parents
told
‘‘h’s
wTong
cn
tell
a
lie.”
Yet
we
all
have
told lies at oiic time or another, li most of us agree that telling lies is w rong, how do we
justify
continuing
lies*
and
*liuk
swal
interaction.
tion,
lets
look
to
while Since at
an
do
it?
lies”—the
The
answer
latter
lying
is
so
issue
many
being closely
managers
is: an
Most
of
us
acceptable,
intertwined confront:
with Docs
differentiate even
necessary,
interpersonal a
sound
intenoonally distorting information? Consider the following sinianon. An emplcnee who works for you asks you about a nimor she’s heard rfint vour department and all its employees will lx transferred from New York City^ to Dallas*’ Vbu know the rumor i.s true, bur you would ratlier not let the information out just yet OU re ear IT cu urt deiurtmcnral morale and lead to premature resignadon^ ±er or'.;; s
probkmrr„d'L!X’^ ^on.,nun.cati,.n, whac «n manager, .Io ro nnn.o.izxpxupiems anci attempt to overcome th<«c hirrin^t -ru r n ,hoUJ be helpful i„ ea„„,u„.eub„„
between
“real
part
of
coinmunica-
purpose
josrify
o»p«»9
L’se Multiple Channels U-hoi J-ou use mulnple channels lo convey a n>e«a.« hfKxl <)l clarity fi.r tux. reasons, kirst, von srini,.i,. seiises. An e-inaiJ and a phone call, for eii.nnl
the hkeli-
Repeaang a message hy using a different eha^nnel’*'^'^'^'^^ and .sound, aecreases the I.kelihc«>d o. distortions. Sec^^i ^k ’‘’’i?!* ‘®
absorb mlomaaon. Some understand hesi when a however, prefer oral ..'onimunications. The latter tend T *" » ........................ ........... . “-i -iph-
““
Use Feedback Al^y and
communicai^n inaaaracics-
feedback
loop
probli^s
Fhese is
are
uobzed
c^,
less in
he
likely the
attributed to
occur
if
corrununicadon
directly the
to
manager
proews
(see
misunderstandings ensures Exhibit
tiiat
the
9-5)
lliis
said^”
the
can
defi-
feedback can IK* verbal, wnnen, or Qonverbat. h response nitely
be
message
a
manager
represents improved in
order
asb
a
feedback. ujMtn. to
The
receiver,
‘'Did
you
But
"yes”
or
can
ask
the
manager
determine
whether
the
understand “no” a
set
message
type of was
what of
1
feedback
questions receivwl
relating as
to
a
intended.
Better yet, the manager can ask the receiver to restate the message, in his or her own
words.
If
the
manager
then
hears
what
was
intended,
understanding
and
accuracy should be enhanced Feedback tan also be more subtle than the direct
EXHIBIT fi-5 Improving Performance Feedback Skills The foUvwing spcvific siigge^rions can help managers co be m<*re cHccnvc io proviJuig performance fetdheck to others /tfs'itf 9n fptafif MiTCKtri Feedback «hnnUl U: specific raiher than general. For example, instead of saying:. “You have a bad aiiifniie," a itidnager nu^i «yi ‘’Bob, Xm concerned with your attitude u»ward )Xkur work. Von were a half-hour lais’ ro yesterday’* staff meeting, and then you cold rnc vou hadn't read the preliminary report *c *ere dhc.issing. Today jwtdl roc you’re ukmg off lliree houn rarly for a dental appwmtracnt.* This tells Bob why he is being vritivi/erl. iwper^nai. Kxtiback should IK’ iob related. S’ever critidte *mncot»e 2. henwK- of an .nappropriaw action. Telling people thej.’rc ‘•incompuent, ..r the like u almost always coimtcrprf’diicHvc. uMb Uftf fnJhti ffial antnud If a manager hts tn say something negaU'S. J, wre direct^ toward the rs, ipie«-s gnals. .\ manager shouldask pused tr, help If the answer is essentially that Tve g.U srm.eth.ng I jmt want to get □« «»» chm,” then he or she should not speak. , 4. n,^. feedhaek is most inu.nmgfnt n> , n-«>ient who. intend between hrs or her bchanor and ,he n ceipr of feedback J. hmm uHJtntMiag. Is the teedbaA cunew and rhe redpicni replw 1.
the cnotTni tif die feedback ui sec *hethur it 1 u> *■ Dma nrgtmr frfdhutl'/vtnl
'nwrtk little «l<* n^^trol. .Srpave fcadhKk.
•r rt ««I« of *
rviuii-«n m 4 nusssgc, bi t
hiTs’nlf^irdnnga^ monthk Failure- of some of the sale-s|H-oplc f
fkXk'
It
should
directive Simil.nh. their
vtinr .m
ines.sagc.
smianon
audience-
to
« hen you
nx-’mmvments
tmg ers
suggest
Immesliatc
that
she
nenh
h.
clarity
tunher
gixe a sj^ccch to a group ol ix-ople,
.md
other
I'his
Ix-iu-fit
ixnncdx
her
"‘'i vwni ui the new rqmd ,s . ty,,.
nonverhal of
shows
laughter
fec.ihack
prefer
and
clues
to
whether
may
explain
ininM
y.xi can tell hy
gn.up
meinlx-rsan-
w
television
|wihnn.
trom
a
live
the
ptr-
hy
rape
their
pnigrams
or
their
alwence.
applause,
her
m
convey
of to
gut-
tiirmers whether they are getting their mes-sagc acros.s.
Simplify Language Bcvau'*’ Mjvs
can U' a harrier, a manager should seek to strucnire messagoi in
ihiU
will
rarehdlv.
Ilie
audieiHv
to
with
the
sage
is
the
a
them
manager
neeiU
whom
both
used
gii*al
shtxild
admissions
is
in
and
IK*
Jargon
nKmlKTS
that
to
who
the
s^xak
or
her
lanpiage
and
directed,
so
that
(he
language
will
communicuion
is
Vndersianding
audience tn
language
that
should
his
always
is
tor
conveying
(hat
understanding but
This
it
used
he
it
can
cause
a
for
example,
and to
used
easily
the
snr-
in
the
employees
is
mes-
siinpldying
dear
with
the
coinpahble
In
menus, in
chosen
when
messages
when
he
consider
improved
eommunicale
trom
language,
achieved
intciuktl.
n*
used
differv‘nt
faeilivate
Words
simpht}*
the
puq^isvly
can
undershimbhle.
M/j^/rrrrcrxA
relation
and
and
clKvnve
administnnorshoukl
tenns
start
to
message
receivexl
hospital
dear
Remember,
undersbMKl
group
a
rewver.
bnphigx*
that
make
with
innnmerahk*
other
pn4>leins
when used ounsidc that group.
Listen Actively When
someone
aetive
search
talks,
for
we
heir.
meaning,
But,
whereas
tixj
ohen,
hearing
is
we
[wssi'
don't e
listen.
(see
Listening
Exhibit
9-6),
is
an
When
yfxi
listen, two people, the meiver and the sen.ler, arc thinking. Many of us are [uxir listeners. V\ hy? Bceausc itk difficult and liec.nise it’s usually
more
denunds
saus-ijnng mtdieenial
to
talk,
eftorr.
l.isteiiing,
Unlike
in
fact,
hearing,
is
often
aenve
more
listening
tiring
than
denwnds
talking-
toral
ft
etuieen-
traaoii. 1 nc average person .speaks at a rate of alx)UT I SO wonis |icr minute. >vhcn?«» we have the t^^cin listen at the rate of over I .(XX) words ix r minute. I he dirtvrence t^Muudy leases idle hrain time and oppuminities l<.r the mind m wander. Acns-c «ndcr.
that
Beewuse ^es
It
listening is.
when
senders easier
to
is
enhanced
the
difter
receiver in
undersund
w
tnes
attitudes, the
hen
actual
to
the
letriver
place
interests, cnnient
hinwelf
needs, ot
develo|e.
a
in
and
empathy
the
sender's
expectauon.s.
,nes.sage.
tener reserves (udgment
.\n
with
the
ixwlion. emp-thy
empatheoe
lis-
Chapter 9 EXHIBIT
ri h.
Cottumaiindoii
9-6 Improving Active Listening Skills
<««xe»uon.v.n hdp f. Wc Jiwun »ich our but .nxr eye ., zM^kiiig eye er.nuct xiih the x,>ciker dtsiNiiions. 4hil rfiiMui nifus the ^|x .iker.
tn b. nxre effetnve Imenrr,. iudffc uSnrSz.. i « L . ’
“ reduces rh< pounu^l ter
’
eM m * h.a .. Ixing suU tKm^nonverk.l vpuk Aftirn^uvr head nods .ui 3pp.o1X‘ 4epnss..xis. when u. good cy. ornPH. ^-onrej. tn the jp«kcr tlu,r one .r 11K .«hcr s.de of showing interest ,s th,it su^gcM inwagers mind ts somewhere eJse, Acncn, ruch as linking ai one’, watdi. shLifning jHpr.x .ir pUying w.th a |xncil make die speakvt Ud Ac is l.ired or uniiinTcsicil. ri .co,liL.l listener ^.i.k-zeSHlni. he or shtbwr, .nd isk.,,uR,Q<>,.
A
Dwf > ffVfrtalk. Alos: ot us U’ouM raAer 1,-0our own Mets than bscen tn srhat somwme e. sjy%. Ton msny oriv< b*Tcn only because i|> Ac price vre Iwve to pay to get people to let us talk. Talking may be nxire fun and silvnte may he nnnRnfbrtable, hut itV impossible Io nik and IM7. un at the samv lime. IK good IwtciKr m ugni«s Uw. fact .ird doesn’t oscrtalL
being said. The goal is to improve ones abilin^ to receive the full meaning of a communicauon, without havnng it distorted by premature indgments or interpreudons. I . I
Constrain Emotions It
utjuld
tional
be
naive
manner.
Yet
rrjnsterence
of
misconstrue
incoming
our
outgoing
tu
assume
wc
know
meaning.
If
that that
we’re
messages,
messages.
What
a
emeu
we
the
always
ions
crnotionjilly
and can
manager
can
severely
upsci
may
fail
manager
communicates
over to
do?
an
a
cloud
and
issue,
we’re
express The
in
clearly
best
ra-
distort
rhe
likely
and
approach
fully
TO
accurately
is
to
defer
further communication until composure is regained.
Use the Grapevine You
can’t
eliminate
the
and
make
it
for
d<wi
rapidly,
□on,
and
work to
as
a
test
grajKvinc, them,
the
valuable
What
Managers
reaction source
to of
managers an
various feedback
use
should the
therefore,
grapevine
decisions when
do.
hcftirc
the
is
lo
h^nsinit
their
final
managers
t
emse
use i
ic
urma-
consumma ^es
are
grapevine mcmbcn.. Of course, the grapevine can cam reduce the effectiveness of formal communicarion. To lessen t doarucrivc
force,
managers
should
make
good
/ use
dut they reguiariv carry the relevant and accurate information t at emp ,
of
fonnal
channe
s
J • it
/•
4
6»
CHAPTER 10 __________________________________
Leadership and Creating Trust After reading this chapter, you should be able to 1. Summarize the conclusions of trait theories 2. Identify die limitations of behavioral theories 3. Describe fiedter's corrtingency model 4. Summarize the path-goal theory 5. List the contingency variables ir^ the leader-partidpation model S. Explain gender differences in leadership styles 7. Differentiate rransformahona/ from fzansacf/ona/ leadership 8. Identify the skills that visionary leaders exhibit 9. Describe the four specific roles of effective team leaders TO. Summarize how leaders can build trust
I
t has been accepted as a truism that good lcaden,hip is essential to business, to gt*eminent, and co the countless groups and organixadons thai shape the way w^ Itve,
work, and play. If leadership Is s\n:h an important factor, the critical issue is: 'A’hat makes a great leader? h s templing to answer: Great followers! Although there is truth to this response, the issue is far more complex.
WHAT IS LEADERSHIP? . Leadership
is
source
this
of
managerial degree
of
the
rant
abilit)'
influence in
foniially
an
to may
influence be
formal,
organization.
designated
a
group such
Because
audioricy,
an
toward as
the
that
provided
management individual
achievement
nuv
by
positions assume
of the
c
goals.
Th*^_
possess^'" with leadership
o*
som^ n't
as a result of the |x»sitmn he or she holds in the organization. But n
•4
Qiapter 10 Lud«nhjp and CmnafcTniR manigers: nor, for that nutter, arc all managers leaders. Jusi because an organizarion prov-idc-s irs maiugers with cc^m nghts is no assuranex they «tU be able t« lead effevovefy. xVonsancnoned lcader?h}p-ihat is, foe ability tn influence that arises outside of formal structure of the organizatio.,-is as im(K.rtant a.s or more important than fopnal influence. Tn other words, leaders can emerge from within a groun as well as hein4( ff^niiallv nppoinred.
*
■ Ihe leadership literature is i ..lnniinou.s, atid much of it is confosing and contradicton- In the folJoumg pages, n^c attempt t«i pro^-idL• you with some insights into jar m a an effecdve J ea der.
JRAIT THEORIES If (Uie were to tlcscribe j ieaifer ox> the basis of die general connotations presented in today's
media,
cnth'tsiasni, the
streiigdi,
conclusion
Chrwt.
one
The
that
search
mighr
list
brai
cry.
effective for
qualitic.s inregrity,
leaderti
as
iindJigwice,
self-confidence,
must
characteristics,
such
he
one
such
as
part
and Boy
those
charisma,
so
on—possibly
Scout
listed,
Jeeisiventss,
and
that
two
eliciting
pans
would
Jesus
differentiate
leaders from nonleaders otcupieiT the early p.sychologists who stuiiicd leadership. Is
it
possible
acknowledge John
f.
Wemay
as
individuals
isolate
one
leaders—VVmston
Kennedy, agree
co
that
with
Nelson these
utreriy
or
personality
CHirchill,
IVlandcla, indinduah
differenr
more
Mother
(lolin meet
traits
Teresit,
Powell—diat onr
characteristics.
individuals
Martin
chc
of«leader, concept
of
wc
Luther
nonleaders
definition If
in
generally king.
Jr\
do
not
possess?
but
they
represent
traits
wa.s
to
be
proved valid, sped fie characteristics had to he found that all leaders possess. Research efforts at isolating these traits resulted in a number of dead ends. If the search was to identify a set of traits that would always differentiate leaders fmni followers and effective from ineffective leaders, the search failed. Perhaps it w'as a bit optiniisric to believe that a set of consistent and unique traits could apply across the board to all effective leaders, whether they were in charge of the iMonnon a be macle Choir, f4enerdJ Electric, Ted’s Malibu Surf Shop, the Brazilian national soccer team, or Oxford University. f attempts
However, been (I)
more
drive
mtegriry,
successful.
to Six
and
ambition,
(2)
(4)
self-confidcncc,
identify traits the
traits on
desire
(5)
consistently
w’hicb to
lead
intelligence,
associated
leaders and and
differ influence
(6)
with
from
nonleaders
others
in-depth
Vet traits alone are not sufficient forexplaining leadership. Their primary failing IS dut they igiKjrc situational factors. Possessing the appropriate traits only makes it Ji’urc likely that an indiridual will }>e an effective leader, lie or she still has to cake the ght actions m one wtuatiun nre not necessarily rignc right actions. And “the ri differcni situation.
BEHAVIORAL THEORIES •■he inability to strike gold in the •‘trail mines" led researt^hers to look at the behanore
*»> effective leaders behave. For example, do tiiey tend to be more democratic dun *W(HTatic?
(3)
have include
honesty
technical
related to their area of responsibility.*
specific leaders exhibited, nte)’ wondered if there was .somethtng uruque in the
leadership
and
knowledge
RirtRI
Groiipiin tbeOrpininOon
apprMch provide more
Nor only, it was hoped. ^h.\, if successful- it would have rive ansM-cn. »b«’ot t*"" , .h«..e of the trait approach. If trait reseat^: cal implk-.tiof^ quite differcnt f„r selecting the nghr pemnto had been *“tcessft.l..t woul«l have P that required leadership. |, 1 assume a formal turn'up critical behavioral determinants of ; contract, if behavioral studies ue j^ajers. The difference between trait and leadership, «c could tram J , • |jes jn dieir underlying assumption,. If behavioral theories, in " X"" re'l^ hom: You either had or yo« trail theories uere valid. behaviors th.it ide.iufied leaders, didn’t. On the other hand. P programs that implanted these then we could teach leadership-^^-hrdesked to be effective leaders. This behavioral
w?,
it would mean that the supply of leaders could be
Z-nded.“'f
n-„ninB
.orkid.
we
n.uld
have
.n
infinite
supply
nf
effective
kflderfj.
Ohio State Studies The
most
research to
wmprehensive
that
idendfr
began
at
Ohio
independent
sand
dimensions,
tially
accounted
and
.State
eventually
most
of
of
the
University
diiuciu>ioiu>
they for
replicated
of
leader
narrowed the
in
behavioral
the
late
behavior.
the
leadership
list
theories
1940s.-
These
Beginning
into
behavior
two
resulted studies
with
over
categories
described
by
from sought
a
that
thou-
substan-
subordinates.
They
cnilcd these two dime ns ions inifiarif/g structure and cemi'idiTathn. Initiating
stnicfurc
structure
hi:s
includes
(behavior
that
characterized
as
group
niembcn
leader ‘‘assigns
or
her
refer> role
tu
and
the
those
attempts high
tu
in to
extent of
to
^’hich
subordinates
organize
initiating
work,
tasks,"
in
leader the
work
structure
particular
a
could
is
search
likely fur
relationships, be
“e-vpects
described workers
to
goal and in
define attainment goals.
terms
to
and II
I
he
such
as
maintain
definite
standards of performance,” and “eniphasixcs die meeting of deadlines." Consideration relationships for
their
being, one
desenhed
characterized feelings.
status, who
is
he
treats
This
by
as mutual
type
of
and
satisfaction.
p-s
subordinates
extent trust,
leader A. with
all
ariiu,
the
to
respect
shows
leader
which
personal
tor
concern
high
in
person
is
subordinates’ for
his
is
likely
could
friendlv
and
comfort, be
and
job
regard M
ell-
described
as
approachable,
as
and
equals,
leader) tended to achieve high sefn
Xr o, inS
fr^^Aucntlv than those who rated
Xyv?^rin
I'oth. Bur the high-high sty le did not I’t^havior characterized »
high on inibatiug strucmr7*lcd"w^hiJh and
lower
levels
Other studies found that high considfradon "" ratings of the leader bv his superior In cond
of
ioh
satisfifgrievances,
absenieeisni,
Performing roudne tasbrelated to perfonnance
that the high-high style geneS resX^^^•' WMis were found to indicate that siruadonal outcome.s, but etUMigh etceF i theory. Mtuat.onal fan.H, needed to be integrated into d* J
hl >
have
based on these definition^ found that leaders hieh in ima-
ordmau
lumnver
to
ideas,
followers'
consideration
problems,
siilxirdinares
a
and
• *■ s Chapter 10 Leadenhip tod Ociihng: lhi«
Cniversitj'of Micliifian Studi<»s I,„d.r5h.p
undertaken at the LTniversny of Michigan’s Suney Research
Center, at about the same tone as Aose be,ng done ar Ohip Suce. had simiL research nb,cct,ve.:
To
locate
measures
of
pc^,-manc-e
two
dunensions
behavjorat
oi
productjon-oriented. iHg.ntcrpersonal
characterisrics
clTcYveness.S
leaderdup
Leaders
relafions;
they
The
i>ehav,t,r.
who
were
took
of
leaders
Michigan
which
they
that
appeared
«,
group
also
came
labeled
rv«y,/c7rr-0Fjc«Zr,/were
a
personal
interest
in
be up
with
cmplowe-oricnieJ
and
described
as
needs
of-Jieir
the
related
emphasitsubt.rdi-
Mies and accepteti indrculuaJ deferences among u,embers. The
Vi •••
lea.Iers. m coiicrast, rendwi to emphasise the technical or task aspects of rhe job—tfidr main concern u-as accomplishing tlicir group’s casks, and the group members were a jncans to th IT end. The conclusions anived at by the Michigan researchers strongly favored the leaders who were cmpJoycc-orieiite.l tn their behavior. Employee-oriented leaders were associated with higher group productiviry and higher job'satisfaction. ProducrionorienTed leaders tended to be associated witlt low giiiup produenrity and low worker sacisfacnon.
The Managerial Grid A graph ic portray al c?f a nvo’dimensiorwl Robert
Bbkc
Styles sent
ot
iuid
Jane
“concern
the
Ohio
Mouton.
for
'
people”
State
They
and
dimension.'^
\new
proposed
“concern of
nf leiidership styles was dcvclqicd by
for
managerial
production,”
consideration
and
grid
l>ased
which
ini
on
essendally
dating
strucnuc
the
repreor
the
Michigan dimensions of employee-oriented and production-oriented. The
grid,
each
axis,
does
not
depicted
creating show
81
in
Exhibit
different
results
10-1
on
page
I?4.
positions
in
which
die
produced
but
radiet
die
has
9
possible
leader’s
dominating
style
(actors
positions
may in
fall.
a
along
The
leader’s
md
think-
ing in regard to getting result. On that
the
basis
managers
(task-oriented) better
die
perform or
best
the
framework
new
of
1,9
for
information
findings
from
under
9,9
a
in
clarifying
the
research,
style,
as
ty’pe)
(country-club
conceptualizing
their
leadership
contrasced.
leader.
leadership
Blake
style
and for
cAampk,
Lnlbrtunately, than
quandary;
for
since
Mouton the
is
with
grid
prc-j>cnring there
concluded a
9,1
offers
any
little
a
tangible
substantiye
evidence to support the conclusion that a 9,9 sty le is most effective in all situations.'
Summary of Behavioral llieories We
have
described
ship
in
tle
success
terms
behavior
of
the the
in
and
group
factors
that
Martin
Luther
King,
die
group
19S0s had
<^nncctKui?
popular
behavior
identifying
tional
in
most
and
exhibited
Jr,
success
would
1960s.
Uliat
have
Would
been
born
in
1854
It
seems
quite
unlikely,
rhe
w'as
Nader
rather the
Tor
great
to
Unforninately there
was
1934.
consideration
of
behavioral
to or
was of
cx-imple,
risen
explain
patterns
dvd-nghts
have
than
attempts
between
missing
a
the
leader.
failure.
been
yet
of
relationships
or
Ralph
he
impurtanl
by
consistent
performance, influence
and
it
seems
leader lead in
in a
approaches
very litleadership
die
wc
situa-
unlikely 1<>00,
yet
consumer
(k»ta
leader-
Rica
he
activist
rather
have
chat
ilun
desenbed
w>uld ntrt clarify these situational factors.
I
hut Hl
Tbe Managerial Grid EXHI8IT 10-1
r
M»dcJ4o-oF-tKe-roa
&A Y m
Concern Ker people
1 I
Concern for production riMpovertebed fWmgernen^
maawcemcot J
Based w ai-nersinns tfesomed k R ft. B akeand J.S. MowWrt.Su-Wi"gfl OWnlcCwp^^ fttf Pe-v/wneji' (Head ng. W. AcM«on W^sir; 1SC9)
CONTINGENCY THEORIES it
became
that
increasingly
predicting
clear
leadership
to
riiose
!5uccess
who
was
were
more
suidying
complex
the
than
leadership
isolating
a
{d>eiwmcQ0<» lew
traits
or
preferable behaviors. The failure to ohmin consistent results led co a new focus on ’flt uationa! gested mtffc
influences, dur
siyk
suiuldc
for
I
x
he
rebdonship
would
im-nlinon
be
herween
appropriate
ant,
st\4c
i
leadership
under
for
style
condition
condirioi'i
c.
and
whereas But
what
effectivene^"' style
y
were
the
sti^
would
be
condioo*^
n, h, (, and so forth? Ir was one thing to say dial leadership effectiveness w-as dtpendett^ on the Mcuadon and another to be able to isolate those siniatiunal condi lions. Three goal,
and
gender that
contingency
theories
leadcr-pamciparinn.
as
directly
a
ccmtingcncy addresses
female leadership styles.
Wc
have review
variable.
gender,
an
received
the
bulk
each
this
settion.
Although expanding
in
tlicce body
Is of
no
of
arteation: We
also
sjKcific
research
Fiedler,
rake
a
ctmtuigency compares
path-
look
at
thc<>0
male
and
C’wpfw 10 Lewknlilp tnd O«Min, Thw
0^
The Fiedler Model
«.tx.r
bcl.evcd
riut
s..cc«s.
So
began
enh.p ated
an
instnunent,
rionnaire,
tor
rh.s
unplca^nt.
s^hcdier
ask<
docribe
Ae
the 1
what
respondents
the
to
the
rdamch*
a
one
of
ested
purpose,
S
Inr
pers<jns
poitive in
good
|»erson
tw
abonr
unfavorable
terms
(a
duebvin-and
thus
individnars
leadership we
situabon
requires
rebb(mshi|wirienred.
she the
16
others
high
LPC
work
contrast,
if
die
LPC be
laiiclcd
style
show
is
below;
this
either
the
Hut
in
die
assumpbon
situation
and has
is
to
is
lie
to
person
on
a
believed
that
h
tells
di^scribcd primarily
essentially
Fiedler
inter-
label
in
vou
rebtiveiv
pnmarily
interested
in
Fiedler
assumed
that
in
that or
it
the
proan
or
means
task-
that
leadership leader
in
desenbed
would
seen
•I
to and
than
wxs
because
modified
nl«Lnt/
had
was
k
(LPC)
quesuon-
relationship-oriented
important person
he
Fialler
you
diat
either
rhe
that
resjK»ndents
co-workcr
Nobce is,
rauog
lenns.
respondent
that
ever
if
F.«ller“e-
pu^ns
ha>
rc
lead-
as
or
co-worker
favorable
task-oricnieii.
(such 1
the
the
as.
and she
in
co-worher
adiccrives.
least-preferred
n
hip-oricined. by
about
IrasC-prcfcrrcd
leader
he
contrasung
then
factur
sn-le
adjeebves
with
more the
fi^ed,
task-oriented
of
with
score),
kev
basic
lions
orfcen,
co-workers.
co
a
least-pr^-fcned
reb
vo-u
score),
relatjons
low
or
working
tells
*at
contrasung
.sets If
hni
.s
suppornve/hosuk)
rhe /«xr
able
would
a
aU
describing.
least Io
.As
of
personal
rebbonship-oriented.
oriented.
or
theyre
are
of
sale
the
!ft
usk-cnented
chink
hr
(n
u
called
conta.ns
is
each
terms
out
ope.i/guardcd,
ro
said
Icadersbp
hnd
he h
person
pcrMin
basic
«,
wh.ch
re.}x>rnlvnt
sc-Jc about
liAnng
cftc.cnr/.ncffic.cnt,
measure naire
he
^mditnduals
if
a
posibon
is
replaced
if
upbmat ctfccdreiiess is to be achieved. After is
an
oeucssan*
indiriduaPs to
m.)t(.h
basic the
leadership
leader
w’ilh
shde the
has
been
sicuadun.
assessed The
through
three
the
situiioonal
LPC,
factors
it or
contingency dimensions idendfied by Fiedler are defined as fiillows: 1. Leader-member
rclatiotis:
I
he
degree
of
wnfidcDce,
crust,
and
respect
subor-
dinates have in their leader 2. Task
structure:
I
he
degree
co
which
the
job
assignuients
of
subordinaics
are
structured or unstructured J.
Poadon
power:
The
degree
of
influence
a
Ir.tdcr
bu
wer
power
«ria».les
»□<*
is
hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salat)* iDcrcases The nest step >» the Fiedler model is to c^■flluatc the situauon in reniis of these coniingencY variables. Lcader-memher relations arc either goixl oi ^usk «nxTure either hitrh or low. and position power either strong or weak Fiedler stated «bat the better the’ leader-member relations, the more highh stnimred the ,.>b, and wronger the posin.m power, the more control or mfltjen« the leader h^^ For 'Wnpk * ven- fak
of eTcSr-
b« amfidencr m him or her (good leader-member «o be d.xK-«M* as * age a-mputatiuo. check w ntmg. report filmg-are sp«hc
♦7
.» • •. ^nd iV.e H.b pr<wiJ*--s cousderaWe frccHoin to rev^ .„^r). On the othtr hand, an unfavorable J f voluntary Lnitcd Way ftjnJ-rai,j^ «ntro!. .Xhogvther, by nuaing the *2 •.
Grouw m th* and clear wsk and punish subordinates (s^ng ..tuadon might be the
W
ss+ich a leader could j^^ l ^^LPC and an abscssmcin of the three canbnUich Jmonded,^ J ' ,o^oi tnaiching them up to ad.Kte maxin,a« genj y «nab^, the F research, Ficdkr mnehtded that task-orientoj leadenilup erfecuteno - situations that were frry f/ii'oraMf to Them and in leaders tend .o perlonp.hihit 10-2). So Fte.lkr -ould predict ih« “I”" A'"d"'^eon I II 111 ■^‘U orVinsiniati<«n,ask-onentedlea.krsperLm Si'‘Rcladon.HT rel="nofollow">:<.;iented leaders, however, perform better -J nxjderatek Lomhie siruaduns-^aretrories TV through n. In densed these eiffht situations dotvn to three.' He nowjiays that wAmneniwI perfurmbest inriruwidi..*ixb high attdlow control,wdttlerehtmitslup-onentedk«J. cr® perform best in moderate control siiuadons. As Kiedler
a
whole,
mode)
evidenev
lu
lead
support
reviews ro
a
ar
of
(he major
generally
least
studies ±at
positive
sul»cainial
tested
conclusion.
parts
of
the
the
That
overall
is,
mtxlel.^
model use only dircc categories rather than the original eight,
If
dierc
validity of is
considcralik
predictions
from
the
there is ample evideoLt
in support Fiedler s coflclusiuiis. Bui dicrc arc problems tidth the LPC and the practical use
CXHIBIT 10-2 Findings from the Aedler Model
•“ Performance
A
— Task-oriented
Retaxionihip-orlented
Good
%
Pavorab^e
Category 1 « (IH teaderMviembe Good Good Good r i At ft relations High Low atruCTure Shortt ^VSfetf PMCiOn 1 c] power
MQ derate
Unfavorable
IV
V)
VW
Good
Poor
Poor
Low
VMak 1
Low
Wwlt
Sow
$
Poor
X
/ /
kJ 4bA Chapter 10 l-i'adw^ipandCwaWThin stable. Also, the c-xianRency variables arc mm, i to r.>tten diPficuk rn p™s^ce„z:sr/"^R>r pracfstioner^ rebtinns ^ircs bow stniciured theusk is and h.«. tbt’ leader-member nou much position ponx-r the leader has. Leader-Member Exchange ITieory
^avc you ever noticed that leaders ciften act
.1
have favoriu-;- That, in es.^ence, is the fouiuiatirm nf rhe lea
people and »^*uhange theory? •
the leader’s in-group.-people wlu.m rhe leader amount uf his nr her lime, and why art mnre likdv tni r^ri,-.
tnists u.h,.T .'"‘J'J'"'’' / ‘J‘^T'''’Portionate
followers foil inld die nut-group. Tlicv get lew iif th.? le M
Oilier
fcn-ed r^Y'.^ that die leader cnntrcis, and have fjrmal iiuthonry interactions. The Y<-n' pr< that early m the history „f the interaction between a leader
rwstn on
and a itJveai follower, rhe leader imphc.tly categorizes the folloaer as an “in’or an “one and that die re ationsh.p ,s relatively stable over time. Just preaselv how the leader chooses who falls into each categon’ is unclear, but there k evidence tJ^at leaders tend to
* . K .
chofKC in-grnup memhers because they have attitude and personaliT>*fhardcierisdcsthat 5»re sunifar co the leaders or a higher kvel of competence than out-group members. Scudie’i confirm several l.MX theory predicnon^; Leaden du differennate among followers; these disparities arc hr from random; and followers with in-group 5wnis have higher performance ratings, lower turnover intentions, greater satisfaction with ±eir superiors, aud higher overall sausberion than those in tlic out-group. PathXSoal Tlieory Currently, one of the most respected approaches to leadership is the path-goal theor\'. Developed
by
Robert
House,
path-goat
theory
is
a
contingency
model
of
leadership
that extracts key elements from the Ohio State lendership research on initiating siruclurc and consideration and the oxpuctancy theoiy of Tnorivacion The essence of the theory’ is char its the leader’s job to assist his or her followers ill attaining rheir goals and in provide the direcuon or support or both needed to ensure
that
their
goals
are
compatible
organization. The term
with
the
overall
objectives
of
the
group
or
is derived from the belief that effective leaders
clarify the path to help their followers get From where they arc to the acluevement of their W'ork goals and make the journey a king the path easier by rei ucing roa blocks and pitfalls.
..
According to path-goal theory, a kader^s behavior is the degree 6at it is viewed bv ’hem as an immediate source o satis °
to .*
of 5a«l.cu„„, .,1 1.0
makes
subordinate ,he
need
,
t®"' satishiCtion
contingent
on
e
ccinc
goidonco, suppo^ o„d
Ovc performance. To test these statements, House rhe Jfrrrru’e Zwrfer lets subordinates know' what H expe l« done, and give, ,pacific guidance
^fthem. schedules work to , dimension
^ly parallels the Ohio State studies initu S This dimension is essentially ^’^dly and shows concern for die nee
|
tartIR &oup in the OrganiMtj"”
W
• u .h. nhin State studies’ consideration. The synonymous with Oh suegesrions befr>re making a lieasion, Th,^ ) insula «W«-r«r«.-«r«««erfi<»dfrse.-sfhal^ng ng^^ behavior, Mouse assun,"
.,H=ble, rh« .noderate *, fader beh™or-oafa»n= rehnonsb,,. fh,,,, in die
are outside the o.iitrol of the leader (task strocttire. formal auihori^
system, and u^rk group). Factors tn the second class are part of the personal characterisucs of rhe
(locus of c-ina-.)], esjwricnce, and percxi\-cd ability). Essentially,
dK thcorv proposes tlun leader behaviors should coinpleraent ihcsc contingency variables. .So rhe leader will be ineffective when his or her behavior is redundant with sources of enviroiuneiittl structure or incongruent wirh subordinate characteristics. The following are examples of hypt.-theses that have evolved out of path-g,)a| riieorv. • Djrecnv’e leadership leads lo greater sausftiction when tasks are ambiguous or snetful dial I when thev’ arc highly strucnired suid well laid out.
Supportive leadership results in high employee performance and sausracuoii when sub* ordijutes
are
perfonning
structured
tasks.
(Lxadership
complement
■ Directive leadcrsliip is environment.) likely to be Ledundanl ajiiong subordinates wiui nigh ability’ or with considerable ^perieace.
■ The dearer and more bnreaticradc the fornxal au±ority rcladonsiii|K», the more leulers should exliibit supportive behavior and deeiiijihasizc tiireceive behavior.
■ Directive leadership will lead to higher employee sadsfacrion when there is subsian' tivc conflict within a work group.
EXHIBIT 10-3 The Rath-Go a I Theory --------------------------------------------
A
/• ------------------------- -X Environmental contingency Factors • Task structure • Formal authoney system • Work group
Leader behavior ) «Directive ' • Supoorrrv# •
Participative
L
f ------------------------- s Outcomes > • rorrormanco • Sedsbetion i
J Achievoment-orlgfned
V, ___________ [ Subordinate contingeficy factors^ :
* Locus of control Experience Ptreerved ability
J
Ch^ir 10 LvidcnhSp and Creathii T Siib-»rdinateswirh Jin internal locus of cnntml/rh 4. OW’D destiny) will be mott satisfied with a Relieve they COOTTO) their ’ Ptninpaovp st\ic. Suhordinaws with an cxccml locus of con&nl u • Achie^TinenT-onented k-jdershin will incn>^o. -,.u 4 u. "»«« wiA , Arectiv. Je3d to high perfonnance wfc.„ Rc^arch rn validate hypotheses such as tK^. ^„.x.
supfxtm .re
^asfentou d^gs
Che
logic
likely
lacking
m
ro
either
underlying
be the
rhe
,»s.uvely employee
u theory
influenced or
the
That
is
when
work
"npio
the
setting.
^X^t^fncel^S
leader
Hwem.
?o.np««t”
the
leader
S w5^
.peuds time « x,.laming tasks w hen tht«e tasks arc- alrea.ly clear or when the employee has
the
ability
and
expenence
lo
handle
them
without
interterence
is
likely
as redundant or even insulting,
to
be
seen
'
Leader-Participation Model In
J973
Victor
that
related
that
task
leadership
smitTures
researchers Vroom
and
should
be
makings
Vroom
in
determined
incorporating
leader
IIKHICI
followed
seven
and
varying
that
Yettnn’s
Phillip
behavior
have
argued
as
ind
behavior
was
developed
participation
demands
for must
norruadve—ii
determining by
Yerton
the
different
cy-pes
contingencies
of
{whose
routine
and
adjust
to
and
a
situations.
making
J
nonroudne reflect
the
sequential
amount
rcleviUive
leader-jwrticipation
decision
in
provided
form
a
of
The
task
set
IK
was
Recogniimg
activities,
of
jKirricipacion
model
could
‘
model
a
identified
these
struci-ure. rules in
chat
decision
decision by
tree
malnng
‘^es" or “no” choices) and five altemaavc leadership styles. More model.The
work
new
the
by
model
making
leaders with
recent
the
group
V^ruom
retains
decision
and
and
the
Arthur
same
completely
developing
a
Jagu
five
by
resulted
altemaDve
himself
consensus
has or
in
a
leadership
hei’scEto
decision—but
revision
of
this
swles—from
the
sharing
expands
the
the
problem
contingency
I'ariables to 12. These arc listctl in EKhibii 1fl-4. Research been
testing
encouraging.
manager puter
to
use
program
both
But» on
to
a
the
original
unfortunately, regular
guide
the
bxsis.
managers
and
In
model fact,
through
revised is
Vroom all
the
Icadcr-parricipation
far -and
too Jago
decisi<m
complex have
for
models the
developed
branches
in
the
has typical
a
com-
revised
niixlel. VVe obviously can't do justice to the moclcfs sophistication in this discussion. What’s important, however, is that Vroom and his associates have provided us wit **ne solid, empirically supported insighw into contingency variables that you should consider when choosing your leadership snle.
(lender As a Contingency ^nd Females Lead Diirerently?
Variable:
Do
Males
extensive review of the liter.cure suggests two c<«ci™ •^dership First, the similanhes between mens and womens ieadcrsh.p «"d “> ***r»ciph the differences. Second, wh.t differences dtere •«>*n
prehT
’ Arectn^ >n4e.
a
democratic
leadership
style,
whereas
n.en
feel
more
comfortable
w,th
•<
Gnrtfw «cbc Ofwiiatiw EXHIBIT 1(M
CantingencyVaiiabtes in the Rewired Leader-Ranidpatk>n Mwbt
Immwtance nflhedewiiHi 1 11H mlinate crtmm i wnr niio t he ikcwwr . suttiouin inl^rf’maiinn ui c«*aU a |«xl decwnn 2. ehc Impona«eo/n)»»imnp« 3. i Hnu *i.ri tiiwniml die ppyblom ts 4. Whether ail wwcntk- dcc-.siun would rc
prising.
zAlmosc
being
all
^yiiunyiiioiis
cnil
populauoii
the
swdies
with
leadership.
don't
tend
co
organization
selection.
Just
as
engineering
have
People
wiili they
lol
rraits
sociabiiin*—are which
a
can
to
organizations
pie
project
who
achieve
people
with
to
gender
’Tins
is
The
posiuuns
and
in
co
is
that,
organizations
to
or
civil
careers.
of
be
and
careers
regardless
leadership
tend
and
confidence, pursue
regartlless
gen-
lection
managerial
intelligence,
into
lhe
enforcement
choose
nowadays
posinoits
in
self-sc
law
who
promote
result
career
in
as
managerial
apparent
encouraged
true
and
of
careers
-such
leaders
used
differences
individuals
leadership
recruit
have
Be<.*ausc
choose
do
as
issue
Why?
who
attributes.
leadership
this
such,
so
leadership. tend
at
cvideni.
perceived
leadership
formal
As
common,
be
exert
Similarly, who
in
he
associated
likdy
Inoking
of
m
gender.
positions
pco-
gender,
those
more
alike
dun
in
the
different. Despite inherent
previous
leadership
share
power
prefer
to a
st)des
and
lead
interpersonal u.e
the
directive
lo
p^inon
Inr
ever,
t
ndings
more
demot
App^arent pre
ereuces
rheir
rauc
y.
group so
and
indusioa infiuence
ai
than
in
norms women
rely
others.
style.
and
their
their on
7
when
Women
the
followers*
other
rely
hand, onr
.styles
.ire of
leaders
in
such
of
override
jobs
and
how-
leaders
male-dominated
to
to jobs.
personal act
more
’
m
^y7or«
likely
authori^
female
autocratically.
between
mure
and
conclusion,
for m
They
contacts,
formal
first
lendcnttv
women
are
the
participali(Mi,
self-w'onh.
expertise,
on
with
he
differences
encourage
charisma,
stereotypes
feminine
some
enhance
Consistent
masc'oline
abandon
to
They
ijualified.
declines
indicate
men.
on
.Men,
ba.se.
l^e
males
and
attempt
and
influence
need
f^iudies
women
command-and-corurol
their
esc
of
information,
through
skills
conclusion,
hisioncaliv held the great majority of leadership position* rnfn^
J
tanpting
to
assume
that
ihe
existence
of
the
noted
automatically work to favor men. h doesn't. In
today s orga,uzatmn.s. ficxibihty. teamwork, irusi, and informauon-sharing are repb>
difference*
10
npd siruu^rcis competitive individualism cmw, i □ fi’^Tcn to. motivate, and prm',
Ciwirw' '•B
*omen seem use of cixw’’’UM ktome skillful “ "jr -
TTtAJTTHEORfES
UPDATED:
CHARISMA riU LEADERSHIP ,U.«,
o(
tade«. p«,,s
the J
k;..krsh,p
hes^
by
c
lowers
ho,.
who
and
followers. VVinsKm this
latter
bj-
raising
to is
1
nr
By
and
transcend
capable
Churchill, the
gt.idc
role
hew
type.
di«
people
anfy.ng
j„,p.reUn
(heor.e^
of
...s<.
task the.r
own
having
a
chansmatu
(.eneral
Doughs
sense
he of
force the
of
this their
reqv.temenrs.
arc
i
in
have
hdlowen
in
There
self-.nterests
profi,un<| or
and
their
is
fdr
personal and
value
the
the
abilities of
their
.hrection
of
effect
D.
they
leader'X
the
oreanwa-
his
or
Jes.se
“I’d
ihcir
walk
her
Jackst.ii
R.Kjsevelt
transform
tasks.
oXui^
of
on
leaders
Franklin
tntnsactiond
npe
good
extraordinary
and
involved
another
transformational
MacArthur,
iniporrance
chapter
are
of
followers
through
fire
if my boss asked me” is the kind of sujiport th.ii eharismatic leaders in.spire. W'hat characteristics differentiate charismatic leaders from noneharismattc ones? Five artrihurts seem mcist inipomnr^ ^ Se^-c^nftdefh'f: I hey have complete confidence in their judgment and ability. -4 i7J7OTir 7'his is an idealized goal that proposes a future lx tier than the status quo. The greater die disparity between this idealized goal and the status quo, the more likely that followers will attribute extraordinary vision tu the leader. Ln//v/ctio/f.f sinmgly
efjinniitted.
in
rhar
'fhey
i^hfon:
are
(Charismatic
ptrcei\ed
a.s
leaders
willing
to
are
take
perceived
on
high
as
personal
being risk
incur high ojsts. and engjige in scIf-sacrifice to achieve their vision. Evm/ort/wf/n ceived
as
bchifviQr: novel,
Leaders
ujKonveniional,
with and
charisma counter
engage to
in
norms.
behavior VVTien
behaviors evoke surprise and admiration in tollowers. /wj(p iti a chitfifTf agenr. (;harisminic leaders arc perceivetl as agents of radical change rather than as caretakers of the status quo. WTtat can we sav alxiut the charismatic leader’s impact on bis oi her fidlowattitudes and behavior? One stmly found that followers of charismatic leaders *prc more self-assured, experienced more meaningfulness m then work, reportei supp,»n fr„n, their leaders, worked longer hours, saw thc.r leaders as nK.ru ;?’»m.c, and had higher performance ranngs than rhe followers of nonch n nc vffaine leaders^- Another study found that people working were more productive and satisfied than those working - J ‘^a^d on the more traditional transactional behaviors of ^^Mderation.'- Two studies, of c.iurse, provide unly luw^iJ .o generalize. V\e need m.n e research on this sub.cct, but the carh • ^'tiuraging.
chat
is
successhil,
perthese
------------------------ ——1
'W*'' m
i^cBr*. aftJ f^xMtfCO M nukx st happen.rSL^ Affcs tn-n odKf Rxms a«eu<*-«ung m several wa>v kKdar »>< ct-Rwatns inw^r. dut ofler- m oa^aij diX?L t^J«M«>. *nd c««n«-o »
«> improve. MEKII
aJ^X tatbiisiasm «h»t pwiJe ha« h* spornng ev««s an*!i other ktant Ba« Miriries, hmwins the c«w «<» commitnwit «» J*? »x«tpb«,-Ibe Ln is««>erties of a >-i«« seem to be mspiranonal possiUhties that arc «h.;-«fitcnid mJ reabnlJe mJ ha« superior imagwr and aniaJiQo^ VKW« JMIUM be able to create ptwabihucs that are mspiraboiul and unique ami oftw a «
seUn^
onptfiy.
Jidin
voris
can
prodoers
dur
Oiamber^
trausforiii
improre
CEO
busines
their
of
Cisco
hnrr;.
And
sebF-image
Sj’smns. Steve
is
ga>*e
impetus
creating
Case*
the
a
CEO
to
\T$ion ot
her of
AOL,
eosmetia how
oct-
envisioRS
hs
frtn leading the tnittnnation ncsoluiion b)* merging .AOL with Time M anter. M*hat
skills
do
visionaA*
leaders
exhibit?
Oniv
rhe
vision
is
idendfletL
these
leaden appear to ha* e three qualibes (hat are related tu effocti* eness in their viMociarT Fwsr
is
the
abdin
to
aq)laiii
the
vision
u>
others.
Ihe
leader
needs
ro
make
the
vision dear in terms of required acticais and aims through dear oral and uTitten cunimtuucatKNi. Second is co be able to es^mss die n$i4Xi not just \*
behavior.
fcree
the
\iskin.
ship
amun^
Ths
This The s
requires third
the
behaving
in
uav-s
still
is
being
able
to
abihty
to
order
acth'idcs
rfut
extend sn
Ae
conti&ualK* Ae
nsicn
vision
njn*xy to
can
and
different he
re®’
leader-
apph^
*
*
raricty of snuanom.
TEAM LIADERSI UP uxretiiAgi) ukii^ fdice wtrhia 3 team conreiL L’nfonunatvh*. an.. n<w cqwppcd ro h^dte the dungt to teams. .\s one prominent consuh* flR rh^
^fwbk Qunagers ha%e tnxible nuking the tran^noo heo®^ en«x«^ to Jo hefurt *
, ij , 4nod>er 15 percent could never lead a team be«u«. . rrhcy’re unable to •rt,e,i dicres ihax huge group io the iniddi,.. Te^./i ..T
MptWIO LeadershtpandCreatiiia
sublimate
their
Iriisc 143
doniinatinr. W””!-
to dien't ^ndership dciesift conw nucundly The chnJ kngv Ixkr mosi nianaffcrs, thvn i. r^dfit leader. ’They hdKe to karn skills such as th/^ J*' to h^txinw an effccuvc -'‘^nuation, to
SM others, LO gn-e up audutrity. and undeimXX
‘’"u^ ‘"'‘^tvene. Effeedve
leaders have mastered ihc difficult bahncbie act of I,, XS
ond
when
flomer M
to
int.-rccdc.
New
team
JdeS
aKinbcrs need more initonomv
Sav^'
w>ntrol at
X w^en rhe tea... needs s„p,vvrt and h^
■
«
A snidy of 20 organizations that had reorganized tbe.melvcs nround teams «nam common responsih.l.ttes that all leailet. had to assume. These inX.S coaching, (acliMring. handling dBapi,nary problems, reviewing team/individt.al ue,fonnance, traimng and commuucat.on.^^ Many of these responsibilities apply to managers in general. A more meaiiingftil way to de^n-ibe the team lender's job is to fpcus yn rwo pnoriries: managing the team’s exienial boundary and fadlitating Ac ream pjx»cess.' We’ve broken Aesc priorities down into tour specific roles, first, ream leaders arc //flirow tivr/; nwnagement, die honi
team rtf
odier
ccn^tfni^netes, These invUide tipper
internal
teams,
to
odier
constituencies,
the
team,
gathers
eustnincrs. secures
inibrinatitm
and
suppliers.
needed
resources,
from
Ac
outside,
‘I
hc
leader
clarifies
and
represents
athei-s'
shares
this
e.^pectainfonnacion
u’iA team members. Second, ream leaders are frrrwWt’'.?Z»'?r?r
assistance, rarclv
hpically Ac team
lalk
stituencies. its
relates
know
leader
team
is
to
more most
ihrough For
leaders
.sir
technical about
likely
Ae to
problems,
instance,
when
team
leader
took
to
upper
management
case
in
on
meetings
or
operation
tasks
being
contribute
is
and a
by team
responsibility and
for got
issues. done by
an
try
Why? than
approval
resolve
Ac
problems,
the
team
members
Because rhe
penetrating
needed more
to
does
team
firm
staff.
from
(ound He
through
leader.
questions,
resources
aerospace
getting the
help
asking
getting in
and
helping
external
itself
Ac con-
short-handed,
presented rhe
Where
die
team’s
company’s
human
resources depariineni.
.iui
Third, team leaders are cor/fiict nidtMirar. WTien disagreements surtace, tJicy help IXGccss the conflict. W’hai’s Ae source of the conflict? Who is involved? What ai e the issues? VVhat resolution options arc available? Wnt are the advaniitges and tapes of each? Ky getting team members to address questions such as these, „
minimizes the disniptivc asirects of intraieninfonllicts. Finally, team leaders WP«n;,
cheerlead,
They danfy expecmtuins and
whatever
else
is
necessary
to
help
team
their work perforniaiiee.
IS LEADERSHIP ALWAYS RELEVANT? <-'nttrarj to the emphasis in this chapter.
"XmaX'sin.ationi what-
Ihia from numerous studies collectively demonstr
organiza-
2... .. *
behaviors leaders exhibit are ?L±J± Z’che’ffinnal leader’s “«»l 'iriablB. can a« as sulKtitutes lor leadership, neganng
tatW
1”'”“ •" -1 effectiveness.-'’ .^-eristics of ^uix.r.linatcs sudi » experience, training, ’ c '?Tenrari?.n or need for indcpenticnce can neuaalizx; the effect
rigid
X nd proe'edur'es. or cohes.t e work grou,« can act m the place of formal leailcnhip. Thc^rcccding
comments
sttbsequen;
chapters,
roented
have
of
to
the
an
leadenhip
explaining
guided
leader.
It’s
another tions,
goal
it
may
he
independent
employee
tended
behavior.
sorpHSing,
to
too
siiuphstic
therefore,
recognize
variable
contribute
in
a
on
explaining
lol
and
an
solely
toward
ail.
variables
place
It’s
to
Alter
performance
accomplishment
important,
iiidependenr
on
have
predicting &>
not
introduced
impact
concept
and
being
wc
should
undue
the
to
have on
of
the
and
been
d,^
siipp.nen
vanahle
fee
sulwrdirwa
as
behavior
leadership
Itehavior.
employee
2
Yet
this
consnler
that
organizational
(.hapter
satislaction.
l>asis
explaining
that
htink-n
explicitly
.n
of
is
In
their merely
some
productivity,
situa-
absence,
turnover, and satishteuon; but in other situations, it may contribute litde toward iha
end. Even die
media
zadon
think
tliroiigh
ordinarj' the
chirismatic k
a
now’
autocratic,
and
than
merit.
they
is.
ends,
conditions
cri.sis
kadcrdiip
but
becomes to
These
noi
Charismadc
return.
given
xnay
thev The
be
leaders
often
liability.
thinking
that
l>ehaviors
panacea
may
pcrfc»nn
forceful,
a
ihc
be
Charismatic
then
tend
many for
after
the that
managers
are
have
drive
a
good
in
the
pulling
behavior
opinions to
ideal
pxirly
confident
their
that
a
cnsis was
people
gruup
subsides needed
often
greater
public
or and
during
self-possessed,
degree away
and
of
and
certainty can
lead
their organi^aticms dow n dangerous paths.
TRUST AND LEADERSHIP Trust,
or
reiudinder
lack of
of
this
trust,
is
chapter,
an we
increasingly define
what
important tmsr
is
issue and
for
today's
provide
you
managers. with
some
In
the
guide*
lines for helping to build credibility and trust
Miai Is Trust? IriMt is a positive cx|)ectatian that another w ill nor—through words, actions or Sinns act opportunisiicallyz' The two most imfxirtant eleinencs of our defifti6oo>> that jt implies fomiiiariiy and risk. The phrase f^in t apectatiun in our definirion assumes know ledge and familir' 1?™’;*!“'
« a bistory-dcptndeni pnx-xss based rm relevant bet
I o experience, fr takes rime to fbnn, building incrcmentallv and actumuiatingi Most of us find it hard, if not impr«sihlc, to trust someone im^ediarcl) i/
matures
we
gam
confidence
tn
our
ability
to
tiwrii ™ng reboonship. frust mvolvcs making oneself vulnerable as uh.„
have
a
pr^itive
ttsk anT^er^khiv in «>
expecution
ClM0crlo we nnunatc in.bnnanon ..r on BUS. pr-v-Je' the opi’t’rtuniiy fo,
»»KKhep^ pfWWM. Hv i-
■»«,
tni« n<>( fating rist per sr rather someone, 1 expect that they will „<>[ ,1'' ® Unaf arc the tci
’*5'>e« to>
.
dertce has i
jxnxrpuon
,,l
®”‘
M
ai<=
others
co,”
^
’noOier's
trust Ijnl mcanmeicss.
en
indivuluars
technical
••Mrth"*
Wsry^vnhine^s
h.mestj,-
encompasses
con<^
’’’ dimensions .k
charaV^'''^
-mor,!
the
and
dimensi .tTf
inrerpcnsonal
knowledge
and sblh. Df»es rhe person know what he or she is talking abouir You’re unlikely
TO
listen
to
lo
or
depend
helie'*^
on
soinc«»ne
whose
abihhci»
you
don’t
respect.
You
need
person has rhe skills and abilities to earr)* out what he Of she says
ihc) mil do. Ctznfnfwc' in
handling
This
relates
situations.
dimension
qoickb*...
than
is a
TO
an
indisiduafs
’’Inconsistencies
particularly
discrepancy
predictahilit),
between
words
for
managers.
relevant
between
reHabilirv.
what
and
executives
and
acnon
“Nothing preach
and
good
iudgmeiu
decrease
trust."^^
is what
noticed dwy
more expect
their 3.s!Kx;iaic.s to practice.*’^ LoM/fv
i**
the
willingness
to
protect
and
save
fece
for
another
person.
requires that you can depend on Mimeonc not tu act op]xtmmjsucall>; The final dimension of trust is the full truth?
EXHIBIT 10-5 Trust Dimensions
Can you rely on the person to give you
Trust
tart Bl Grooptir the Orgmiw^rion
Ihist and Leaderslup
,
with kaderslup. - WTwn fi.llowe„ willing w be vulnerable t<) the Iwder’s uvuuns^unfid.-nt n^si he abused. People are unlikely to bok up u. or fo|l.« their nxhL'pereeise- as dishonest or who is likely to take advantage <.f them, h , ...imiA- iltrihute
^"v kJ .n.sumi,^-..si.srendy ranks at Ute r-tp of ntost people's kst of c^.ra^ oes UieJaihnire in d.eir leaders. “Honesty is absolutely csst-.t.iai leadechip. II S arJgouig to foMow S'«ueonc willingly, whether .the into l«tUe or^to rhe b.«rdnioin, UKV Lt want m assure themselves that the person ts worthy of the.r
Tliree Types of Trust There
are
three
i;r«i7eJw-bajed, are
enrenng
thev're
npes
ami into
tn.st
in
new
about
relationship.
each
other,
organizao.tnal
‘^The
;JeflZ»/?w««»-ba.scd.
a
vnrerniin
of
They
they
rdationshtpsi
following
have
no
believe
analysis
preenons
they’re
rkrerjrw.-f.lwsed.
asst.mes
two
ex(KTiences
vulnerable
if
ro
they
panjc*
mcrewne;
dtsclosc
too
much roo qnicHy; and Uicy’rc uncertain about the longevity of die relationship. Dcterpcnce-Based based
trust.
Trust
One
The
violation
most or
fragile
relationships
inconsistency
can
are
destroy
contained
the
in
relationship.
deterrenceThis
tnrmof
misr is based on fear of reprisal if tlie trust is violated. Individuals who are in this type of
relacionahip
do
what
they
say
because
they
fear
the
consequences
Irom
not
fbllow-
iiig through on their obhff^fions. Deterrence-ha ajnsequencc-s
air
irusi dear,
To be sust^ained, weigh
the
profit
daJly harmed
uni and
I
work
die
only
lo
puiiishiiiem
the
is
degree
actually
ihni
punish
imposed
il
mem
die
is
crust
possible,
is
violated.
the potential loss of ftinirc intcracdon with ihe other party must outpotenrial
part)’
must
that
comes
l>e willing
from
co
noJadiigcxpcctadotis.
introduce
harm
(for
aVtorcover.
example.
I
the
poien-
iiu
qtialins
haxe
about speaking badlv of you if you l^efray my trust J to the person actins disirustiagly. A'losi new relationships begin on a base of deterrence. ’lijke, ab an ill us tn linn, a situation in M’hich you're selling buyer.
You
the car car
be
morivated
that you know
and
share
might
securing
the
cars
the
flaw^.
your car to a friend of a friend. You don^ know to
refrain
from
telling
this
buyer
ahour Such behavior would increase highest XYhy?
price. Probably
But
yi>u
don’t
because
of
ynur
withhold
fear
of
all
the
problems
chances of selling iiiformarion.
reprisal.
If
You
die
the with Ac
openly
buyer
later
rfiinks you deceived him, he is likely to share this with ynur mutual friend. Ifyou knew Ail
the
to
take
your
buyer
would
advantage
inunul
friend
of
never rhe
would
say
any^iing If
to
nppoi
runity.
chink
considerably
the
ii’s
inntudl
clear
less
of
dur you
friend, rhe for
you
buyer
might would
taking
be tell
advantage
tempted and
that
of
this
buyer-friend, your honest)’ could be explained in deterrence tenns. Anudier example ot deterrence-bxsed tniM is a new manager-employee rebritwf shi^ A« an employee, you typically mist a new Ixss ev cn A< nigh Acre is liltic experiviK^ to Aar trot on. The IJOIHI that creates Ais trust Hes in Ac anthonn’ held b Ae and Ac piiniAment he or she can impose ifyou fail to fulfill vour job-related oblipdons. iOiwIedgc-B^ Trust .Mow oi^izational relationships are nKXwJ in LncMt'ledge* Aat is. ti^M ,s bas^ on Ae lx:havioral prcdiaabtlitv Aat comes from i I' when you have adequate .nfonnabon abtxut someimt lo untieretand them well enough to he able w a«^rately predict their behavior.
• < »
,, . . Knt.wledge-based trust reli« „„ • , ,;n,«vle
Chapter w LoderAip .nd party and predictahilitv arrangumejns nv.re n?” *’r
•| h»^ drvel(,pi» over dint, hrgeiv a« « 0)ftfidcn< c of trustw<»rthincss .md prcdictabilkv
Ihii
of r‘'««’Ten«. 7\replaces the
ueUTrence-basvd Wu«. ’'^€’|*ncnt:e dut builds **’««**•
ntopc acnirau-ly you can predict what he w she wil! .fd.c otherpredictably violate rhe it ustcin be predicted! The niore i n™,. voc have with Mmicoiie else, the more this forn jepended on. InrtTx^stjnglv, jt dw krH>viedce-ba^d b.i-ri . ■
untrustuoX-i
Prcthetalnlity ’^ai thf'>6er mterac’■« develope.l and
enhances
,„^ns..em bebav,or. If yon hc.L yon another, apparent colaco,,, you can accept it. forgive the person and move cut in the Har».nsh.p However, the same inconststency at the deterrence level is likely tn inev4k.'ahly break the trust. 'In
an
organ,rational
knowlcdge-bH^ed. th.ir
the)’
Both
knnu-
what
context,
parties to
most
have
expect
A
manager-employee
enough
long
experience
history
of
relationships
working
consistently
with
open
and
are
each
other
hon«r
inter-
flcrions. for instance, is not lihck to be jxrmanrntly destroyed liy a single violauon.
Idcnrification-Based cmuiinnal the
other
xdefid
conneetion and
Read
intenliuib
Trust
I
betueen
Mih.'juniie
on
and
he
"based
highest
the
fur
piirnes.
that Trust
the
other’s
of
h
person
trust.
appreciate
level
trust
allows in
exists
one
achieved
party
iinerpersonal
because
wants
is
and
ihc
lo
act
there
as
an
uiulcrstand
This
mutual
is
an
agent
tor
This
transac-’tions.
parties
dcsire.s.
when
k
each
called orher’s
understanding
is
developed to the point that each cm effectively act for the other Cnntrob
are
minimal
at
this
level.
You
don’t
need
to
inonuor
the
other
party'
bnause there e.visrs unquesrioned loj'alcy. The coupk'.
best
example
A hiisbiind
of
comes
id to
cnufication-leased learn
whafs
trust
important
is
to
a
long-term,
his wife
and
happily and
man
cipaces
led
those
anions. She, in curn» trusts that he will anticipate what’s imporf.ini to her without having
to
ask.
Increased
idenrillcation
enables
each
to
think
like
the
other,
feel
like
the
□(her, and respond like the other.
who
You
sec
i
have
worked
together
for
mist
long
occasionally
periods
of
uine
m and
organizations have
a
among
depth
of
people
expenence
dui allows them to know each other in.side and nut. This is also the type of trust that mwagers
ideaUv
seek
in
teams.
Team
members
arc
so
comfortable
and,
trusting
ol
-^ch other that thev can anticipate each other and freely act m each odiers ahseiuc.
How Do Vou Build Trust? M-gets who have learned to build trusting Prauttces. The following suminaiires
what
y«.u
can
do
to
cmuLu
these
'tuiugers.*’ „ Pranue opennra. Mistrust comes as *hat
they
do
know.
So
keep
Vi #r„.n what people don’t iotow as from [^rrain the criteriahow people
•fceisums- are ma.Ie are overtly clear. candid about pn.ble.ns, and fully disclose relevant
into
,
rationale
for
vour
decisions
be
Groups m the Or^iuQon
S^crivc
an.1
imp^rdul
in
JK.
fcn>i.mce
appr.-.als,
.nd
pay
attenunn
to
eq,u,y
'
?;XS'S^Sl-S'XS>nv.^ only h.rd fact. con. acn^ as col^, St Ll-'you share «,«r feelings, others w.ll see you a.s and hu.aan. Thtjwill kn..« who vHu are and their rcs[*« for you wjlhncrcase. Tell rhf mub. If integritv is critical to trust, you otust be {.rceived as someone who tells the truth. People are geneiaUy more tolerant of learning somcthlog they “don't want lo hear*’ than finding out that their manager lied to them, SZ-ru n-zwtrfeno- People want predirtahiliiy. Tate the ume tn think about your values aiKi beiiets. Then let them consistently guide your decisions FtdliUya»r So
ii-ust requires that people believe that you are dependable.
you
need
to
ensure
lhat
you
keep
your
word
and
commitments.
Promises
nudv must be pn)nuscs kept. Mfji/ft/ffjf can fit
iwfiileaees.
rely. fence,
People
IfiKople I
hey
make
need
trust
those
themselves
to
feel
who
arc
vulnerable
assured
tliat
discicct
by
you
and
telling
you
n
diseuss
will
uptm
whom
something it
they
in
with
con-
oihcrs
or
hvti’ay chat confidence. [kwfirjmuf srr^mnff
C0»rpefme. technical
Develop the
and
a dm i rati
professional
ability'.
on
and respect
Pay
particular
nf
others by dcin^ir-
atreniion
to
developing
and (iisplayinff vour conmuinication, negotiating, ami other interpersonal skills. IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS
The
topic
leadership
pers-peedve.
ovcr\’iew among
of
the
what
leadership
certainly
does
dieories
it
all
and
doesn’t mean?
anempt
lack Let’s
to
for
theories.
cry^
to
detenninc
But
idendfy*
wdiat,
from
an
commonalities
if
any,
practical
value the theories hold for managers. (Careful often
examinaiinn
expressed
in
ing—permeate
most
Fiedler,
bur
it
group,
“directive”
Michigan people
task
nf
by
Clearly, and
gets
name
and
leadership
people—Inn ewn
ends
other
not
on
both)
the
concepts
diat
hold
I'he
task
dimension
of for
treatment,
“initiating
can
going
shi-unk t,,
ot
voiirinuuni
(you
or
two
independent
and the
called for
same just
the
Blake
and aliases
mean-
that
dowm difter
to
State
by
the
Mouton.
The
ns
a-;
could
be
dimensions
(vou
two to
high
•\onsidct-
ctnild
'
Jute ^en shown, over tuiic, to be modest predictors of leadership effectiveness. But the ra« that a manager possessed intcUigence. drive, self-confidence, or the like would no ^ans assure us that his or her siibonlinates would IK- nnMlucQ« le.den4.lp .
lead-
dimensions— whether
on
by
Ohio
“relationship-ortentcd”
How iJiould we interpret rhe findings presented ,n dii.s chapter? Some traits
X’"*-"
‘‘people’’—
orientation”
such
ur
uomiiiue
single
is
by
under
ixscarchcrs a
substanuaiiy stmciLire”
production”
be
“cask'’
“production
“employee-oriented” behaviur
of
terms
.supporters,
“concern
similar
arc
Inw on bodi).
the
path-goal
oncntarions but
theories.
and
siipponive.’
that
elaborate
the
by
researchers,
arion. ership.
more
goes
dinicnstun
discloses
one he
the «r
the
hieh
«>r
Chapter 10 Leadersh^ wd Cresting Tma The early lask/peoplc anor,«..k„ , , ri*l grid thoM-iw,) al»> ..ffer us Utrlc
•'^’'chiMn and •‘’’"•ge-
make on the basis of these theories is >l t"'*' sirongesr tanonshouW end up with satisfied *
'‘’ho ra J h; i
ean
Jnuluccs in- and san^hicX;-or the iho ,,<.,..1 ,,. do„l„p o-ono„B,„^"i7
''’‘''»>»P 0,0.0 when „ A, e^enr. ,h. erido,,., i„di/,,,?,~*«W «n.,u.„i
d.,r«ten»„, snob
Md^S"'’ '"«»«■ «< follower
J we dhvussed the role ih,« tn.s/n? I ^• ^rs tnday z«u«t tk-veJop trustingrdariondnps S d' Bwause organrzanons hare heeomc Ic® suf, WW« are replacing bureaucratic rales iti definin?
nan««k to lead. Why? strong bonds of “etuTwg expectations and relationships.
4 . 1
CHAPTER11
v.
1 « ► s.
Power and Politics
*<
Abe' reading this chapter you should be able to Define power Describe the five bases of power Explain what creates dependency in power relationships Describe how power is central to understanding sexual harassment
A
•1 *1 ■
Define political behavior
•
Describe the importance of a political perspective
!
1.
Explain the factors contributing to political behavior in organizations Identify seven techniques for managing the impression you make on others
JjmifiT may he X
even
want
it
sex Uy
ihc last dirty word.
than to
u
appear
is
to
not
talk to
be
It
is easier
about
power.
seeking
it;
for
most of
People
who
and
those
its to talk
have
who
it
are
alxjut monq*
deny good
it; at
people
getting
setTetive nbouc how they got it.’ In this chapter, we show iliar pr)wer detennines what goals a gr<’“P pursue and how the group’s resources will be distributed among its members. Further, ’^^einbers wiiJi good political skills use their power to influence the djstnhutUHi of reMjurces in thek favor.
A DEFINITION OF POWER Hower refers to a < that z\ has to influence the behavior of B so that B A** tha ’«•« -lefinition implies d) a pvrr««-/ that need not he actuiluxd to Int effutive. (2 > a ,/.pe.de»ee rclarion'h.p, and ( b lha» »
it
or
who ate
Chapter n p
h« some over his or her own liehivior Leti, 1 more closely. powxr may exist bui nor be used. It is, therefor^ have puwer bur not impose it. Pn,^iWy the most important aspen of power • • dence. 'Hie grvflter R’s depcntlcncc on A. the greater i v'
look at eadi of these (xiim, ’ ‘•’"picny or ixitendat. One can of depen-
PcpeiicJt^H’f^’ in lum, i.s based on idiernativcs that B
^ * Pf>*cr in the relationship.
DC
B pbces on the iiltemncves tliar A controls. A oerson
unponance that
he ,ir she controls something ym, desire. If you wanr
you only if
a certain course lo gel that degree, and vour cun-ent member m the uinversii y who tenches that course lie or shr h' jlrernatives arc dcr.nkel,. limited, and you place a 5-cr you. Your
'''
olitaiiiitig 3 passing grade. Similarly, if youn. attending umve^sitv im entirely by your purems v-ou probably recognize the power thev bold over yor^bu^e dependent mr them for financial supyx-rt. But once you're out of school have a ?ob are
making
:i
.solid
income,
your
parents'
power
is
miuced
sigmficamly
\ko
among us. though, has not known or heard of the rich relative who is able to control a lanje
number
ol
fanuly
members
merely
through
the
implicit
or
explicit
tlircat
of
writing them out ol the will? For A to gel B to do soineching be or she nrherwise wodd not do means B musr hai’t
the
discretion
grainincd
that
he
to
is
make
choices.
billowed
no
At
room
the
tu
extreme,
make
if
choices,
B\ he
job
hehatdor
ohvimisly
is
is
so
pro-
constrained
in
his flliiljiY co do something other than w'hat he is tiointt. For instance, inb descriptions, group
norms,
nrganizarional
rules
and
rcgulaiions,
as
well
as
coniniunity
laws
and
standards cons I rain people’s chokes. As a nurse, you may be dependent on your super^ riser
for
comply sand
continued
with
her
dollars
employment.
request
from
to
petty*
Bui,
perform
cash.
Your
in
spite
of
this
heart
^surgery
on
job
description
dependence, a
and
patient laws
or
you’re steal
against
unlikely
.several
stealing
to
thou-
constrain
your a bl I it)' to make those choices.
CONTRASTING LEADERSHIP AND POWER A
careful
the
comparison
prerious
intertwined.
of
chapter
Leaders
our
should
use
description
of
bring
recognition
power
as
the a
way
power
to
with
our
that
attain
the
group
description two
goals,
of
concepts
and
power
leadership are is
br faciliuting dicir adiicvcmcnt. differences relited
to
goal
cktsely a
j..
are
there
compatibility.
between Power
leadership
does
not
and require
powerr goal
One
in
meins ..
diherence
compatibility,
is
mercy
dependenc-e. Leadership, on die other hand, rejuires sonic polls
of
the
leader
and
those
of
the
led.
The
other
difference
deals
withL
the
dn^^
that research on the ru’o concepts has taken. Leadership researci, or ^tnphasizes
style.
It
seeks
answers
to
questions
g such
as:
How
,upp
Ittader he? How much decision making should be share wi the research on power has teinled to encompass a for gaining compliance. It has gone beyim c ^n ^’’■»vr can lx; used by groups as well as by individuals to tonm.i ntnu
c-,erciser because ' i„jividuals or
1
<• **
.. A
hrtm Cirom ia d«
A
BASES OF POWER WTterc docs power come from? '' Hm is it that gives an individual or a group tnfl,«„cj V\-hcrcdocs p< t q„esn
Coercive rOM’cr l-he etavreive power base is delmed by^ French and Raven as being dependent o„ tear One reacts n, this power out of fear of the neganvc results that might oenir if one fiaded to comply. It rests on tlie appiu ai ion, or the threat of application, of phy^ ital sanctions such as UK inflicn.in of pain, the gencn.tion of frustration through of movcincni. or the control ling In force of basic phy’siological or Mfcty In die 19305, when J<jhn Dillinger went into a bank, held a gun to a teller’s head, and
asked
requesL
for
His
money,
jxiwer
tec
be was
was
incredibly
coercive.
A
successful loaded
gun
at
getting
gives
its
compliance holder
power
with
his
because
others are fearfo! that they will lose something that they hold dear—their iKes. Of all the bases of pos^xr available . .. , the p<wcr tn hurt others is possibly most often
u«ed,
most
often
condemned,
and
most
difficult
to
control
.
.
The
state
rehes on its military and kgal resmircrs to iuiiuiidate naliut»>, or even its own citizens. Businesses rely upon the contiol ol ccojiojiiic resources- Schools and universjdes rely upon their rights to deny studcab fonual cducarion, while the church thi catena individuals with loss of grace. .Ac the personal level, iadi vidua Is exercise coercive power through a reliance upon phi'sical strength, veHial fa ci liny or the ability
to
grart
or
widihohl
emotional
support
frtirn
i.ithers.
Ihesc
bases
provide
the individual with the means m physically hanii, bully, humiliate, or deny Invc to odtcrsc At the organizational level, A has coercive power over B if A can dismiss, suspend, or demote B, assuming that B values his or her job. SimilarJv, if A can assign B
EXHIBIT 11-1 Measuring Bases of Power Does i have one or more of the five bases ..Pposirer’ Affiniiative responses to ilic suRinvnts cin answer rhia question; ■ The pcR<m i-an make (hio^ tiifficulr for people, and you want to avoid ceding him or her angry (aieaivc powrr, ■ The |iri^ is able to pvc special benefits W fewa.O. to people, and v.w find U adv«itags<.»« r<> rratle favors wirh him or her (rv^ anJ power> ■ 1 he person has the right, etrnsidenng his or her p.skion and «.ur sob re.potvsjbilines. to expwt pm to crxiipfy wrh legiuniate requests (leptimaic power) ■ ^K- p^ has the experience and knowledge K> eui, war r«pe«. and W« defer to b» of htr judgment in some matters (c«pen power) a V.IU hke the persitn and enjoy d.«ng dunp K>r lum or her (referent power) Ae^ye«tB(,, Me IWl. p. an, Copynrit ©199l b, m. Menc.r, ^ychoKtgicai tesocMtM H«nnw -• >
Chapter 11 P«>weT and Pnlitx*^ activities dwt B finds unpkasunt nr treat B in a maiwer that H Ing. A possew.*! coercive power (»vcr B.
The
e
..pi-s-
aireu.vcs
L
B
Reward Powe of
ol
embarrass-
n.eravc
power
an<,thcH-cc3Usc
.s
rewani
domg
so
prodoces
.hsmbotc rewards othe.-s as can dismb’itc rewards chat thaco(hei> view view as valuab rewards
can
think
be
of
anything
money,
assignments,
rhat
another
favorable
friemlly
power.
colleagues,
e
pc-rson
will
values.
with
benefits; have
Tn
appraisals,
iinp.irtant
comply
positive
valuab
perlonnancc
People
over
and
one
The»
ontext,
w^
interesting
preferred
„r who
them
organizational
promotions,
information,
wish«
therefore
power
an
the
work
work
shifts
or
sale^ rurniorics. Oiercivc thing her.
of
and
prisitive
you
positive
have
reward value
coercive
value
or
power
are
from
another
power
over
remove
atnmily or
that
something
counrerpam.
inflitT
sonwdiing
person.
of
If
If
negative
you
you
of
negative
can
value,
csin
give
you
remove
value
on
somwme
have
reward
scmehim
or
something
of
power
over
that person. As with coercive power, you don’t need to be a manager to be able to exen influence
through
available
m
rewards.
everyone
in
Rewards
an
such
organization.
as To
friendliness, die
degree
acceptance, that
an
and
praise
individual
are
seeks
such
rewards, your ability to give nr withhold them gives you power over that individual.
Legitimate Power In
Formal
of
the
groups
power
and
bases
organizations,
is
one's
probably
structural
the
most
position.
This
frequent is
access
called
to
legitimate
one
or
power.
more
It
rep-
re sc nth the power a person receiver as a result of his or her position in the formal hierarchy of an organization. Positions however,
is
nf
authority
broader
than
acceptance
by
principals,
hank
dewed
he
to
members
include the
coercive
powers
to
of
an
organization
presidents,
or
ariny
within
the
authoring
reward
coerce of
captains of
and
and
the
their
reward.
authority
speak
powers.
of
Specifically, a
(assinning
positions),
Legitimate
position.
that
teachers,
it
includes
\ATien
their
icJlcrs,
power,
school
directives and
first
are lieu-
tenants listen and usually comply.
Expert Powder Expert
power
Expertise hecotnc
has more
increasingly expertise w
too
is
become
wielded
one
of
technologically
dependent
and do
influence
hence computer
on expert
the
as
a
most
oriented. “experts”
tax
of
[powerful .As
to
power—most
specialists,
result
jobs
experose. sources
of
us
of
become
achieve
goals. follow’
accountants,
special
Influence
more So,
the
solar
as
or
know
the
specialized,
ledge.
world
we
as
physicians
advice
our
doctor
engineers,
Referent Power last category' of influence that French and Raven idenofied w as h« »identification with a person w ho has desirable resources oi’ pe™ m I admire and identify with you, you can exercise power ovt^r me because I want
industrial
has
become
just
and other specialists.
fdcaae yim.
skill,
gi\es
have us
psycholo-
MM
Gfoaps in the Orfaoiution . 1 . .^yJmiraiion of anoth
3 Cin.lv Cm. lord, .nd M.choel.|..rdnn h..e .he ^x.wcr to mflu.ncey..^
choice of pharm.cxuticak, he.kh clubs, and .thk-t.c sh.KS, or
I
wwid
jnil.lir
pn.hjblv
.tocsn'i
nccriug.
dt
i.knrik
i.vvr
.vid,
physically
ns
smooth
vou
and
imposing,
or
4
inc.
s,.lv> In
y«.
pitch
as
du-sv
organizations,
charismatic,
you
il
hold
c.khntits.
you
.ire
personal
hut
he
articulate,
1,,^ dotni.
charatter.st.cs
th«
may lie iistit to get others to do what y«Mi waiU.
DEPENDENCY: THE KEY TO POWER Earlier
in
this
chapter
wc
noted
the
iru|x>rtain
relationship
between
power
and
depen-
dence. In this section, we show ht>w an uiiderstimding of drpe*n
The General Dependency Postulate I>ets
begin
Vkidi
a
general
postulate;
Thedeffernkthy
rui
.1,
the
gf'ftftcrpirwtrA
bat ViH-r IT When you |Kksscss anything that orhers require hut d’lat you alone cniiccol, you
make
them
De|>endency;
dependent
then,
js
soiiK*thmg
is
intelligent,
intelligence
on
you
inversely
plentiful,
and.
therefore,
proportional
possession
of
gives
special
no
ii
to
will
the
not
you
gain
alternative
increase
advantage.
power
sources
your
power.
Simibrl)^
among
over of
If
them?
suppH.
If
everyone
is
the
super-rich,
money is no longer power. But, as the old saying goes, ‘in the land of the blind, the one-ey’cd
man
is
tige,
or
anything
more
yuu
This
principle
can
ting!” thai
If
you
can
others
create
crave,
cx|und
your
options,
explains,
tor
example,
a
they the
monopoly
Iwcome
less
power
so
many
why
by
controlling
dependent
on
you
in
the
aspire
to
of
place us
infnrmaiinn,
wu.
pres*
Conveisely, hands
of
financial
the
olhers. indepen-
dence. Financial indc|K*ndence reduces rhe power odicrs can have over us.
VVTiat Creates Dependency? Dependency
is
Importance Ju
If
create
tant,
Its
should,
been will
oonsistently critical
^ggest
that,
greased
power
^MXer
&
for
u'hat
that
die
ytju’ve
you
in
understood
as
resource
to
found most
that
vidua
the
powerful.
Tr
firms
during
labor
strike,
the
fiamhie.
1
engineers, hese
as
a
inferences
not
groups
wus
who
appear
to
can
avoid
their
the
he
more
generally
imporWc
organizations
these
a
study
firms
were
researcher
the
might
represenbutves
have
valid-
This
that
fact
powerful
do become tnore powerful within rhe pcrMmnel area and the organization as a wlw^
an
instance,
products,
negotiaiiug
as
uncertainty*.
atvsorb
in
jn/nt?
dependent'-
perceived
deparonents by
and
create
For
selling
be
to
are
to
concluded
would
important
resource.
organizjjrion's
group,
that
seek
iniporuat
was
i.s
going
things
markedmr
these
that
or an
facing
or
its
control
Is
uncenainty a
control
organizations
control that
jvu
gut,
nuist
instance,
organizations raced
the
therefore,
expert be
when
wants
found,
rlierefore.
industrial
most
nobody
de)xrndency,
uncenaints’ of
increased
at
Intel
Labor
than
at
negoriau**
during periods ..f fehorsmfe. .An otgani^tion .uch as l . driven company, is dependent on its engineers t„ „ at bH^'arc clearly the most r,nwe?M
" Power,nd Pohu« " ' is a tcchnologv. ‘‘‘'‘■'’'J! *erc-
nwrkenng is rhe name uf rhe ga.„c, anj
'^t I’ructer & Gamble,
These examples support not only die viess' that th ‘"'tr
f^werful group, "’’“ntinty
iijcreases a groups miponancc and, hence, its power h L° jguational. It varies witlun any gii’en organiMtion. Spuxity
-\s
among
organixation.s and undo ubtedly also vanes <jvcr rime
pi
noted
cvioasly,
if
something
?
i.
is
nkntifi.i
V“ „
increase your power. A resource needs to be perceived as This
rehniuiship
c.m
help
n>
explain
how
l^-raiilrin
need
to
m
k?”dependency
ttho have important knowledge not available to high-ranld^rm" p,w^r
over
the
.mportam
high-ranking
mrmhen.
The
im^-fedge-.uukes
,anbng
member.
The
relanon
behavKirs
ot
low
destroying
the
procedure
people
their
m
job
language
and
ating
secrecy
in
rankrng
that
scarcity
member,
even
terminology so
of
manual.s
or
the
to
that
that
u,
dependcucy
show
others
exactly
that
inhibit
others
from
the
activity
will
also
might
how
appear
a
«
h,gh.rankmgt;:di:;;^;::::^:,^^
otherwise
describe
obtain
a
seem
job
what
is
helps
make
of
illogical,
such
as
done,
they
do,
understanding
reusing
creating
to
spccialited
iJieir
jobs
complex
and
difficult
seen
die
|xiwer
more
train
or
oper-
than
it
reaDyis. The
scarcity-dcpcndeiuy
padonal
categories.
relative
lo
ove
than
Individuals
demand can
UnnersJ5'
can
those
for
demand
high
puter-science
in
in
computer-science and
the
faculty
allows
no
in
them
ami
problem
limited. to
in
The
be
in which
which
instructors,
supply
furihcr
compensation
occupations have
van
octnjp^atiuns
ncpjtiatc
adniinistrainrs
market
relationship
the
today
is
result
negotiate
personnel
packages
far
an
finding
contrast, is
is
that
higher
of
supply of
benefit
there
in
abundance English
extremely
the
bargaining
.salaries,
lighter
occuis
nicire of
low
awrac-
candidates.
instructors. tight,
The
wnth
power
of
teaching
the comloads,
and other benefits.
POWER IN GROUPS: COALITIONS Those “out of power” and seeking to be “in” will first tn' to increase their power iadindually.
Why
spread
the
spoils
if
one
doesn’t
have
to?
Bur
if
this
approach
proves
ineffective, die alternative is to form a coalition. There is strength in numbers. The natural wav to gain influence is to become a pi wcrholder. There orc, ose who want power wnll anempr to build a personal power base. But, in doing so mav be difficult, riskv. cosdv, or im|>ossiblc. In such cases, e o nude ,o form a coalition of twa. or more "outs” who. by lomnig t-^ther. can each hetwr themselves at the expense o1'those outside the coalmon., Historically, blue-aillar workers who were unsucce» u m •^n
behalf
w
ith
management
resorted
to
reccut labor
unions
to
^'’8^
white.„,llar emplovees and professionals have
greater
finding „ difficult to exert power mdividually to attain higher wages and gre Wh« predicthms can we make about ««« m cKganiaduns nhen seek to nuxinuxe their size, m po
ninied
^Sl^en^^ibeoty,
to
unions
Crmip> in the OrganiMtion .. „>abti«ns W'e "rSmrn from
u,- ..ther »-av—6ey rrv h> minimize their size. They tend to he RwW ntcess^rv to achieve their obiccuvcs. But Icgislaijj W organizadons in that kpslarors make ite p.l.cj.
th
out
a
-n
cSned
im
"
Son
docs
must
niinnent
ests more
controlled
are
merely
at
in
so
the
occur
decision
least
as
from
to must
about
coalitiims
of
w
in
itself.
than
in
coaiitionS,
Its
size
is
com-
support
as
many
of
course,
the inter, is
cuminimknt,
and less
T,^
necessary,
cooperation,
autocratic
organi.
a„d
to
cnttmipass
which
.n
of
wnsanientv
il«t
alternative.
consensus-building,
coiturcs tlic
set
decision
broad
expanded
valued
a
making
impkmemamn
ihc
facilitate
highly
maximizing
a
be
to
where
as
seek
Densn.n
among the
important
organizational are
managers.
organizations,
expansion
making
organizations,
fn
coalition
in
or
scicermg
organizalions
Coaliiion
to
shared
with
decision
possible
ad.moiaimtnrs
implemented,
nsilidons
likely
and
end
obiccrives,
as
separate
<
tiic
for
coalition’s
not
also
to
therefore
hv
decisi<m.
hierarchically likely
t„
l,,
«)nghT. Another within
rhe
deal
of
dence
prediuion
organization.
task
and
among
More
coalirions
resource
subunits
is
related
will
likely
interdepcntlencc.
and
le’is
In
to be
the
degree
created
contrast,
where
there
coalition
formation
activity
will
influciK\:d
by
of
mterdcpcixleiKc
there
will
be
where
is
a
less
great
interdepen-
subunits
are
largely
self-contained or resources are abundant. Finally, perform.
workers
uaduns. see, to
The
more
the
p-eater or
i<>aliri
are
offset
dardized
u
thus,
high
adirionally
grf>up,
will
fonii.
can
more
c>T)CS.
Of
relative
to
jobs,
or
be
their we
nmtine is
where
to
demand
or
expect
of
that
individual
in
non
resort
to
a
jobs,
w’here even
of
tiiemhets sir-
coalition.
We
workenihaa
skilled
and
organizations these
the
routine
lionprofessional
supplj’
workers
p’Oup
than
and
the
tasks
situations,
greater
low-skill
would
actual
work
expected
to
course,
the
the
In
dependence
they
appeal
unique
a
their
dependence* unions
is
of
coalitions
pndessional
emplo)'ccs
he
task
table;
this
that
and
the
thut
‘^uhsrini
therefore,
sional
routine
Irkelihfiud
To
skilled
fi>rnuiiior^
profes-
have
inciimhenis
stan-
to
find
unionization atiractive.
POWER AND SEXUAL HARASSME>JT The issue of sexual harassment has received increasing attention by corporarioiis the media liecause of the growing ranks of female employees, especially in noniradb U on al work e nn rn n n icn ts. legally, ual
hivors,
sexual and
nfher
nature.
But
sexual
hara-ssiiienr.
years
there
recurrmg
«xuai
pniprismon
face
around
ments;
sexual
is
verbal a
wdl
the
great overt
reques-n rc«.
more
ani^cxs,
in
subdc si,ch
defined
physical deal
as
as
unw'elcotne
conduct,
whether
of
have forms
lor t
is
or
Org.mizatiuns
Imuiing
tms-ard
rmichmg.
harassment
disagreement
made of
dates
after
losing
one’s
forms mi.
of e
a
overt
about
consi.ierable
sexual
advances,
job. sexual
calendars,
in
problems
of where the kne tierween “be,ng fncndlv" ends in,l “k
rhe
a
ihre.ats
today
are
work-plate-
coiisanittS past
that
or
fe"’ phw«‘
refusing^
likely
looks
sex* sexual
imwantcd
harassment-unwanted in
of
'the
including and
for
spccificallv
progress
refusal,
The
subtle,
what
harassment, clear
or
requests
to or
surC.MU-
misinterpretation
•« i
M<«.t studies confirm that rhe concept oft^ h^«mein ' begins. hanssraent.‘’This seems tube true whether thrharassm'’^'^'^ coworker, or even a sulmrdinaie. 1 he sa|R-n ,M,r‘m
, T"''" i I" rx'Mir-employee dyad lH;st charactennS*^
ChdpUrll Powerpnlltiei
unequal P«e«relationship, m which position power L rcM^nJ and nxirre Supervisor,, give subordEs capacity perinnna"'*- make rccoinine.nhaons for sabrv „|i.^ evaluate their Jecide uhi'fltei an i-mploj-re retains his or her ioh Pnimotions. an.1 even ■xiwer. Becaiisc subordinates want favorable perform^ dcasi.ns give a su,Knisor
important
and
scarce.
Its
also
I' •V * ***. r^:
“'ary increases, and
rhe like, It* clnir that supmwm lonrrol rUon.ees worth
notin?
thit
"‘“’^^^"'^ordinaKs
inU-
„.|«s (inanagv.iK-in i»osirions, for Sample) sonieiimpThr ’' v”
consider
h.gh-status
subor
harassing
Sclty tor .he person being ha^sscrl^TX; ,,,nl agains. another’s. Are there odim this Inss has ham^efoX " " "P; fonrard? Be.aiise of the supervisor’s control over ixisout.^ many who ’ to ‘ rtur oi reuJiation Iry- the supemsor
arv
art*
C<>workers don’t have pcisfoon power, but tl.ey can have influence and use it to ,„uallv hat ass peers. In fact, although co-worke. s appear to engage in .somewhat less severe
fonnj,
perpetrators
haiassniefic
of
power?
Most
sapjwn.
For
support
from
teams.
of
By
sexual often
by
die
co-workers,
threatening
do
hanissment
it’s
example,
chan
to
supervisors,
in
providing
vo-workei-s
organizerions. or
are
How
snthholding
the
do
coworkers
informarinn,
cffectivx
j>crfonnaiu’e
of
most
jiilw
especially
nowadays,
as
work
increasingly
wnihhold
or
delay
[Konding
most
exercise
ccHipcradon,
requires
infbrrnauon
freuiKiit
inccrachon is
that’s
and and
assigned
co
ncce?>sar>
lor
harassment
by
the succcWiil iu hitfvement of your work goals, co-\\ork’ers ran e xert power over you. Hanissmcnt
hy
subordinates
doesn’t
get
nearly
the
;ittention
that
a supervisor docs, but it ilocs wcur. Persons in positions of power can be subjected to sexual Usually gender
harassment die
sufHirdinate
[lersons
.suljordinate
sterconpes
orpassivin*
from
if
char
will
reflect
the
victim
is
eattage
in
such
a
in
less
dcv^alue
powerful the
negatively on wonwti;
superior
die
person
impotence
practices?
lb
positions
gain
or
through in
if
(such
a
power
rhe
organiMOon.
highlighting
power
timidity
some
within
as
man).
over
the
traditional helplessness
Why
would
a
higher-ranking
person or to minimize pow’cr differentials. 1 he topic of sexual harassment is about (tower. It’s about one indhidual^ wntrolling or threaieiiing anofoer. It’s wrong. It’s illegal. But you can .iiukrstand bow «tual harassment surfaces in organizations if you analyze it in terms oi power.
POLITICS: POWER IN ACTION '^htn
people
get
together,
power
will
be
e-xertefl.
People
'^‘’"’1^*’.^^“^'^
^When
from which utexen intluc^Ke. earn rewards, and advance employees in org.mi/.atioiis convert their (xjwer iino a>--nnn, Those with good political skills have the
ability
to
use
batts^f (Mwer thc.r bases (xiwe
effectively.
A Definition of Politkal Behavior pierc have been no shortages of dcHnitions they have fiKused on the use of p>we ‘‘T^non or on behaviors hy members that ****»«ed.’ hot our purposes, »c define pohticaf
, Essentiallv. iingi" tbeorganorganiMOonalty non,n yrganizJiion-s as ttor
’'' •'••V '
MM
11 U
“^^’T^definiQtw ciMXtnpasses A el«TOcnii of „ik about orpm«o<.Ml pobm.- PoIuK-il belw.-.or u requirements.
The
behanor
require,
most people ii^ ones ip«^ j
some
attempt
to
U«
/«rer
nidon erKompasKS eff.wu to influent the goais, enrem or
makme
b«e^
O*
det
used for duii.,
when w« «ate dial politics is cuncctncd with the ai^nbuooii of adv-am^p,
and disadvantages widiin the organizaticm. ()ar definidon is broad enough m ind,^ such varied political behji iors as wirfihoUing ke> iaformaatm from denswn makrre, whtsde-blou'ing. filing of gries-ances. qjreaibng ran. .rs, leaking ainfideniial inform uon about organizarional acnxiocs to the media, eichanging favors uith others m o^raniranon fi.r mutual benefit, or k>bb)ing for tw against a paiucubr indisTdittl „ decidon.
The
Importance
'Ibosc arc
who
fail
political
could
rooperarive.
ahra)^
actiow
nTOms.
mpinixanons or
to
behave
of
It be
ledge
would
political be
nonpolidca]
in
w
as
perspective
consisrenr
«*ith
Political
behavior
nice
described
A
a if
all
supportive, can
the
It
rcMrict
output,
tires, hr
distort
activities
can
help
to
anciupt
explain, to
for
lead
"build
empires?
one
to
of
the
why
publicize
figures
to
make
diemseh'es
that
to
at
odds
with
be
rhe
or
that
formal
organization
groups
trusting.
believe
that
vidcB
c\>ll^ioramt
empkn-ecs
oiyanization.
In
w®
onntnsu
a
to be irrarional (behavior in otgaar-
performance appear
reality
harmonious,
interests
in«;tan<x.
the
o^anizadons
political new can explain much of whar may seem zations.
ignore
Perspetlive
emplcn’ces tbeir look
w
iihh<j!d
successes, better,
organizadons
and
inforaatioo.
hide
their
engage
in
desire
for
Wdmi*
effetmeneg
and cfBdencs'. Factors Contributing to Political Behavior RecetiT research and obun anon have identified a number of factors due associated
vith
the
qualities
unique
pkHtical of
the
bchanor.
Some
people
whom
are the
individual organization
characteristics, empio\*s;
othas
appctf to be derived are
a
fc® resub
of the organs oon*s culture or internal cnvirunmenL Individual Factors Researchers ha*c idenulieii rgrtajp personalit}' charactcnsocs. neeik, and other indiridual factors that are likelv to he related to pnlidcal heharior. Fmplovres who arc authoritarian, have a propensity for high risk, or possess an citerual locus of control (believe that forces outside thefnseh*es cuntrol their dc^liny) poliucally with less regard for the consequences to the orgapjzad*^* A high ncAl for power, autonomy, security, or starus is also a mai<M* contributor to an empjorre’s tendenes tt> engage in political behavior? Organuatxmal Factors Political aeririn' zaiion’s culture than of indiridual dirtercoccs.
is
pnihabh* more a hineriun Because <w>gmbahons ha»*
of
the
a large number of employees with the eharartcristics prcriou&h listed, set the ence of polidcaJ behavior varies widely. Although we acknowledge the role that indiridual differences can pbv in fo«sring politicking, the evidence more Htrcmgl)' supports that certain culture proa**
Chapter 11 Pouer a nrl P< iht ia politii's. Culrurcx characU'rized hy l„w trust role sy.tcnu, reward allo,an<«, eng. prc:^surc> for performs,K% and se1^scmii» ’ rtj>iX)minitics tbr puli tic JI avdvjties to lie nurtured
• »ty, unclear pcrff»rmaiwe ucv.sion niakKKraric decision niak'iiaiwgcrs will vreatc
behjvior. SH high trust should suppress th; level of palJkal hX Role
ambiguity
that
-ne.ns
ti,c
prescribed
beh^X^!
’
fI'''"'-
cle^t. There ;iie few limits, tbcrvloic, to the scooc in.) P •
,
are not
poltoal aetions. Since poliuc:,! at-cinties are deUncd'as thos^^TT " «"iplt>yee's Hrmal role, the greater du- role ambiguity the m 'c on ^erivity Hith little chmne of its hemg visible Pertbriniiiice evaluadun is fer from non-s
...SV
sllow
sigilihcant
lihood
siib)et'tive
an
create
time
enter.a to
employee
.imhiguity.
pass
can
The
.n
lue
the
ol
an
away a
perfected
appraisal,
henveeii
get
a
emphasize
aciiun
with
single
"" science. Tlu-
nnd
a
its
politicking.
outcome
single
more outcome
appraisal,
the
Suh]ectivc
measure
that
or-nizA-
measure
greater
the
performance
encourages
or like
criteria
individuals
to
do
whatever is nreessary to look good on that measure, but often at the expense of perfbrniing
well
on
other
iinportam
part.s
of
the
iob
that
are
not
being
appraised.
The
amount of time that cia|vses heiwecii an action and its appraisal is .also a relevant factor.
The
longer
the
time,
the
more
unlikely
it
is
±at
the
etnplovee
will
be
belli
acc(>unti»Hle for political behaviors. rhe more an organizacion’s culrure emphasizes ilir zero-sum or win-losc 3[^Ji\meh to reward alloeauoiis, die more employees will be motivated to engage in |x>liliiking. rhe zero-swn approach treats the reward '*pic'’ as fixed so that any gain one person or group achieves has co come at the expense of another person or group. 11 1 win, you niu.sl lose! If 520,000 in annual raises is to be distrihiiTcd among five empiovees, then any empkn ee who gets tn ore ihan $4,000 takes money away from one or more of the others. Such a practice encourages making cthei’S look bad and increasing the nsibility of what you do. For toward
several
making
decades
organizations
niore dem (jcra lie ally. decisions
and
process.
Such
individual
ihev
moves
managers.
Many
tu
make
sonal
costs
lu
achieve
against
their
Thcyhe rdv
toward
jKwer
there
less
should
mate
directly
now,
told they' to
a
desires.
should
sought
The
ral
result
extent
positions. that
in
being
group not
input
hard
into
order
and
often
Sharing
their
power
managers
may
use
America
to
advise
necessarily in
Norih
asked
subordiniues to
positions
fought
move
are
on
are
their
They
is
general
alkm
however,
decisions.
influeni
a
Managers
greater
democracy,
unilateral
been
autocratic.
managers
their
has
behave them on
the
dedsion
embraced
by
to
legm-
paid with
the
have high
per-
others
rubs
required
teanv,
eomniirtecs, conferencc.s, and group meetings in a superficial way as arenas maneuvering and inanipiilaiina. rhe inure pressure that einploy'ces teel to perform wcl, l morL '
„ . lu.j,. rE..v-ire
m engage in pidiiicking. Holding people strictly accountable or pressure on them to ‘‘look gooil’* A person who perceive.s tliar is
t^eer —oorr will
riding on new quarter's sales figures or next months plant prn< “ highly mottvat^ to do whareXr is necessary to mate sure the numbers come
Finally, when employees see the people on mp «P«««y when they do 2 succes-sfuUy and are rewarded Ibr it. a chma
a
i^created
Gro«p» In the Oganizibon , *’S-kX?in
- -.jiUrlcTftff Pfilirickinc h>* top mtfttgemcnt. in a sense, gives peniila||tf .he nrB.niz.non K, pby polinc b, implying rh..
.nd,
hch^
impression
ochen
acccpraWc.
Impression Mnnagement We that iKopk have an ...igoing interest in how others perceive and thetn For exampk- North Americans spend billions of dollars on diets, health duh memlierships. c.smetioi, and phisric surgery—all intended to make them more attractive to others Being perceived |«.sitively by others should haw benehts for people in orgaiiizittions h migl.i, for instance, help them initially to get the jobs they u-ant in oi-ganizanon and. once lured, to get favorable evaluations, supennr salary increasw, and more rapitl promotions. In a political contcvi. it might help sway the distribution of advanuges jn their fevor The form
pnjcess
of
them
impression
by is
which called
niaiipgeincnt
individuals
attempt
impression
(LM)
to
control
management."
techniques
and
In
aux-rtain
the
this
section
whether
wc
they
review
actually
work
in organiiations. Techniques verbal
Afost
self-pres
of
the
ent
a
attention
lion
given
behaviors
to
that
LVl
lecliniques
individuals
use
has
to
centered
manipulate
on
seven
inform
a
dun
abourrhemselves?’ Let’s briefly define them and give an example of each. Statements tics
such
as
Job
applicant
traits, to
made
abilities,
interviewer,
by
a
feelings, *4
got
person
that
destrilK*
personal
opinions
and
personal
lives,
my
Harvard
M.B.A.
even
charactens-
jkn
example:
chough
1
suffer
from dyslexia.” Agreeing
Confarmity. approval.
An
ganizadon
event
example:
plan
ACCCHM'.
widi
FA
for
aimed
at
else’s
opinion
m
to
boss.
‘^You’re
absolutely
Manager the
coses,
someone wesrern
justifications,
minimizing
rhe
regional or
office.
other
apparent
I
order
of
gain
right
couldn’t
explanations
severity
to
on
a
or
your
agree
of
the
his you
her reor-
more.”
preilienncm-creating
predicament.
An
exam-
ple: Sales manager to Ixiss, “Wc failed to get the ad in the paper on rime hut no one responds to those ads anytvay.” Admirring
Afifkgicr.
responsibility
for
an
seeking to gci a pardon for the action.
undesirable
ex’ent
and
simultaneously
An example: Employee to boss, “I’m sorry
1 made a mistake on the re(x>rr. Plexse forgive me.” Acclaiming'. the
Explanation
desirable
of
implications
favorable for
that
events
by
person.
someone
.\n
in
example:
order
to
maxinuze
Salesperson
co
peer,
“The sales in our division have nearly tripled SIIKC I was hired,” I’httery. appear dled
C-omplimcruing perceptive
that
client^
and
others likable.
complaint
so
about .An
their
example:
tactfullv!
I
virtues
in
an
effon
XCM’
sales
tminee
could
never
have
to
co
make
peer.
handled
oneself
”You
that
as
hanwell
as you did.” tavarr Doing something nice for someone to gain that person’s appn>val. An exajnpic: Salcs|)erson to prospective client, “Ew got two uckett to the theater or tonight that I can’t use. lake them. Consider it a rhank-vou for taking the nine toulk with me. ’ *n mind lhat nothing in IM implies that the iinpressiims peottle cinvey tst CMan y hlse (although, of course, they sometimes are). You can. h>r instance^
fieheve tliwt ads contribute link to ,a|„
QwpUill P©w«r««dpo6iia ,
"' 'he fripbng ot y..iir diviMoi.^ sales R ''?'™’®’‘h«ynu«»thekey utsi- If the image dain.ed is false. vo„ „uv be dk i^Voften, no .me . liU-ly to belietx yon J.d U ’ ^-jutiou' not to he petxeiv«l as insiiH-erc ,,r nijnipulub ’ Arc individuals moix hbdy to niisrcpri
can have a So one must he sent them
some situati.Mis lhan ■» others? Yes. Highiv uncertain oM.'X"^ ^-lauveb i.rtk .nt..n.u,o,m (or challenging a fraudulent
" “»
tnisrcprcseniarifin. Effecth eness <^n>y « hmited mimher of studies have eftatirtitess of LM iechm«|ues. and these have l>ecn cssenualk-
'l
reduce rhe j.
tthedier or n.it I.M bebat lur is rcfatc.l to job intcrvacv s. t- ' T’ „e»s ntaU- a pamt olarly relevant are,, of s-mdy s.nc. aiTtlie^.^are Sl^aSinp'ng ptvsent posinve .mages of themselves and there are relatively ohjeefrT^ Xme (untren assessments ^d typically a hfre-don't hire reenmnindabX rhe cadences iliar I.M behanor ut.rks,'> In one study, for ...stance, intenaewers felt that the .ipplicanu lor a position as a customer-service representative who usetl {M rrtJiniqucs pe. harmed better m die interview d.an tht.se who didn’t use LM and they seemed somwhai more inclined to hire these people.'* Moreover, the researchers nuttidered apphrancs’ tTc.icnt.als and concluded it u.r. the IM techniques alone that influenced the inter, wwers. That is. it didn't seem tn matter if ajuflicants were well or poorly qualified. II they used IM techniques, diey did better in the interview. Of course, it could be argued that since the |ob for which applicants were being ninsidcred—customer-service representative—was a public contact position, selfpresentation may be a job-rcievanr skill and more imponaut rhan qualifications such as college or university major, grades, or prior work experience. Nevertheless, LM technique* u» work in intvniews.
The Ethics of Behaving Politically We condude our discuss inn ul politics by pn.>' ijing soni€ eibical guidelines fr>r political hchavinr. Wliile tlivrc arc no clear-cut wavs to diftereiniate ethical from unethical * politicking, there are some questions you should consider? *' Exhihrt 11-2 illustrates a detnsion tree to guide ethical actions. The first quesOiw you need to answer addresses self-interest versus organizabonal goals- Ethical actions are consisteni with the organization s goals. Spreading untrue rumors about At safeu’ of a new product introduced hv your company, in order to make that ptt^desiim group look had, is unethicalHowever, there may be nothing
it
a 4epanment head exchanges frvors with her division s purdwsmg manager m orfler a critical contract pnxvssed quickly. llic «cond quesaon c<,ncxn« the right, of other ‘**1 dneribed in the previous |aragraph wei.i to the matirexin. though the Ln direkedm the purchasing «meth.ng on hhn" so he would expedite a
n L i ,v>rtmHU F* h the -nt of
h She would have violated the purchasing manager g whether the political iw final questio.. that needs to «»faeTltt to mndards of equity and |U' nd deflates the evaluation of a n aluauon of a favored employee and deflate.
9;
GrowM in tbc Orpotimion EXHIBIT 11-2 b a PoHtkal Action EthkaP rTT..^ ______________________________
{ Quwtfeo 9 ' Is the political I action motivated f by self'serving interests to exclusion of the organization^ i goaJs?
Unethical )
i I
7
jhe ui Orpinuaifcnal Poi>ecs;
AdBved im* G.F cjiaAigr. ua^ohtie, i^nd w v>i3sqL IJewe*. Jolv 19« t ft. 3M. ftesihrw by pw niww disfavored
II. Is the polrtkal 1^^ activity fair vxl equicable’
Question 2 3t>l Does Che politick action respect the rights of the individuals affected?
I
i
44
employee—then
uses
these
evalvatiuns
to
justify
giving
the
fnrmer
a
big
raise and nothing to the latter - has treated die disfavored employee unfairly. Lnfortunarelv. ways
to
Income l>e.st
make
very
who
at
Our
arc
likely’to
be
an
ethical
dilemma
Exhibit jxiwer
11-2 to
cxpluining they
point
able
to
And,
with
you it’s
a
lot
easier
io
for
example,
ran
the
orgiinizatj
of
chat
unfair
actions
are
really
almost
any
behavic»r.
arc
most
try
the
vulnerable
successhilly. to
pow’er
for
argued
tenns
practices
strong
often
in
juscily
polilics,
are
people,
can
persuasive
have
a
argue
unethical
11-2
Powerful
people
organizarionot
if
Remember,
con-upt.
immoral and
Exliibit
behaviors
persua.sively
away
in
ethical.
self-serving
articulate,
gei
questions
seem
that
regarding
truthfully.
tlic
can
is
iMiwcrful,
arc
to
practices
.Similarly,
equitable.
Those
answers
uneilneal
good
interests.
and
the
base,
the
recognize
powerless
to
because
UTiea
answer
act
lair
they
faced
wiih
questions the
in
ability
ethicnlly,
fir
of no
oihrr reason ihau that they nqiically have vcr\ linlc political discretion to exploit.
IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS If power.
you As
increase
not
to he
be
will
a
to
get
manager
things
who
dependence
your
boss
perceives
bt'
no
ready
and
peers,
will
continual
battle.
WTule
seeking
to
in
is
to
you.
You
developing
in
be
done
wan on
alone
employees is
a
other*.*
relation which
want
be
minimize
to
build
seeking
co
you
seek
yoirr
group
to
or
organization,
maximize
your
can.
instance,
for
knot*ledge
suhstiiiite.
attempting
a
But
or
a
power
your ftiake
skill is
a
power you
uiaxiini/zr
dependence
power,
on
you
increase thai
he
two-way bases.
dependent others’ others.
assessing Iwhanor in a political framework. \’ou can better predict the actions o^ers and use this infonmnon to formulate political straicRics that will g*®
tn
will
want
co
your
power
in
needs
and
for
Others, on
And.
The effective manager accepts the political nature of organizations- B)'
helps
street.
them.
dependence
you work with ^4 ill be trying to do rhe iame.
ad\*anrages for you and your work unit.
it
of
on
have
You
will
particularly The you.
course,
result v'ou others
Conflict and Negotiation Afier reading this chapter, you shouid be able to 1. Define conflict 2. Differentiate between the tradibona). human relations, and inifiranionist views of conflict }» Contrast functional and dystunctioral corfikt 4s Outline the conflict process S. Describe the five conflict-hdndhng orientations $• Contrast distributive and integrative bargaining
1 Identify decision biases that hinder effetthre negotiaten *. Explain ways for individuals to irnprovc their negotiating skills
iHjvn
said
that
conflict
is
a
tbi^inc
that
has
occupied
iwnians
more
iha
oihcr—with the exeepiion of (iod and love. But what dii wc mean by the
e
I
ts
any tenii
emiflifi:
A DEFINITION OF CONFLICT While unikrUc
there
has
been
no
shuriage
nJ
hirst, confliu inus f
ennflirt CHSts is a perception iwue-
n is ^^veiveJ ituv not be real.and. ex»n-
•grwd that w* crmflict exists, enursv. co
jeserihed as eonflii
hetauae the group nieinlie.s. ino.lvet! do
and
ddwnaufts <>t umflki include the c<>ncc|
‘'‘-’f'"’Whether
CreBp5ind«Org>»i“’**’ a«u,n„rion there arc wn or more parties whose intcresw «.r Roals a,^ar togl Re«.urccs-.noncy, juh., prrsnfft. and p-.wer for Seed and rheir sc-arcity entourages bhx-ku.g behasnur. The paioes .n
opp«K?«r«.-
'oSerentes flict
is
W'hc
Iwwccn a
term
une
parn-
definitions Jiniite.l
only
birx.-U tend tn
ihe to
nean.
ro
tenter
acts.
The
a
goal
aronnd
intent
are
ol
ano,her,
iniem
and
issue
is
a
therefe^
a
:
.,ate
ofeo^
tehether
eon.
debaie
over
wh«h„
blockage behavior itr.ist be a deiennined actum or whether it euuld occur as a resu|, of fomiitnuscireuoisiante..
A-s
initions,
require
for
ctampk.
tn
whether signs
cofifiict
ol
can
nianikst
refer
fighting
only or
to
oixni
oven
acts,
stn.ggk
as
some
def-
criteria
fw
the existence of conflict. Oar definition of conflict aekiiowkdges awareness {perceptiun), nppofritH„|^ scarcir)’. And Wnckjgv. Furrher. we assume it co be a dcteniiincd actinn, which tan exist at either the brcni or overt level. We define conflict as a process in which an effort is purposely made by A co offset the eftbrts of B by some form of blocking diat will rcsuic in frustrating’ B in attaining his or her goals or furrbering his or her inttrescs.
TRANSITIONS IN CONFLICT THOUGHT IT is entirely appropriate tn say that there has been conflict over the role of conflicc in groups
anti
nrgannations.
One
school
of
iboughr
has
argued
that
conflict
must
be
avuided, that it iiKlicaces a malfunction wiuliiji the group. We call this die Another school of riiougln, rhe hufrrav n'lations weu’, argues that conflict is a natural and inct iDhlc outcome in any gniup. It need not be evil, but rather has the poteii* rial
to
be
a
positive
Inrce
in
deienniiiing
gT<»up
perfonnancc.
The
third,
and
most
recent, perspective proposes nut only that cun flier can be a positive force in a gnwp, but CAj)li<-itly argues that some conflict is /iMntefy
for a group lo perfonu
effectively. We label ibis third school the intrractitmisr virdK Let’s take a closer lout at cadi of these view s.
The Traditional View rhe early apjiroach to conflict assumed that conflict wa-s bad. Conflict was viewed negatively, and it wnv used synonymously with terms such as vioJew. ikstr/tetiftn, and hyoTfonffihy in order tn reinlorce its negative connotndon. Conflict, then, was to 1H‘ avoided. 1 he traditional view wa»i consistent with the attitudes that prevailed alniur group hehavior in the 1930. and 19-|Gs. From findings provided bv studies such diose done at Ihwdiome, it was argued that conflict M’as a dysfunctional outcome resultuig from poor commiinicaLion, a hek of openness and trust heiuecn people, and the failure of managers to he rcs|ymsivc co die needs and aspirations of their employees. pc
view
that
all
conflict
is
had
ccminly
offers
a
simple
approach
tolookinsf«
the behavior of people who create conflict, .Since aU conflict is to be avoided, we lU-ed merely
dircvt
.wr
attention
to
the
cause.s
ofcontlla
and
correct
in order n. improve group and orgamzari.,.,;,] j^rformance. .Mihough studies no*
these
,nalfitncti..mnr
r Chapter 12 provide’‘O'ong evidence tn dispute that this aDnr.«..-k .. high group perfcirnwhce. most of us still outmoded standard.
.. « situanons on the haws of iHis
The Human Kelarioiis View The human rclarions position argued that conflict wac a nor.,..,i and organizations. Since conflict was inevitable fh? h of cont],«. l-hey even rimes when conflict may benefit a nev JoT.unatcd conflict theory from tite ktc
'Kciincnce tn all groups *’’?«190.
thiough
the
mid-19-Os.
The Interne tik>nist View
The
current
human flict
v.ew
rebiums
on
the
likel)'
to
tion.
The
group
toward
ajyt.ach
grounds
become
leaders
i»rrep/c^
that
staQc,
major
conflict a
conflict,
apatheuc,
maintain
the
hamionious,
concribuoon
to
,s
of
an
and
interacrionisi the
inretacdodst
peaceful,
tranquil,
nonresponsive
the
intcractionist
ongoing
perspective.
minimal
to
level
needs
of
the
em,ge,
con-
approach and
approach,
Whereas
cooperative
for
change
thcrcfoi-e,
and
is
conflict—enough
Joup
is
innova-
encouraging to
keep
the
group alive, self-critical, and creative. Ciiven btjconw naive.
rhe
evident Wliether
tnreracrinnisi diac
a
TO
conflict
view,
say
that
is
good
which
conflict or
is is
bad
rhe ill
one
good
depends
we
or
on
hjkc
all
the
in
bad
type
is
this
chapter,
innppropriace
it and
of
conflict
Specifically,
good.
Rather,
some
ids necessay co differentiate bciweeii functional and dv^funcdonal conflicts.
DIFFERENTIATING FUNCTIONAL FROM DYSFUNCTIONAL CONFLICTS rhe
intcrattionisT
view
does
not
propose
that
/?//
conflicts
are
cuo-
flicK Support the tfoals of the group and improve its perl nrmance: these are functions], consCTUCUvt forms of conllici. 'There are also conflicts that hinder group performajice: these are d vs function a I or destructive forms. What differentiates functional from dysfnnctioiial
conflict?
'l
he
evidence
indi-
cates that vou need to look at the type of conflict.^ Spccificall); there are three tyi>es: cask, relationship, and process. Task conflict relates to the content and goals of the work. Relationship con ct
.
focuses on interpersonal relationships. Process conflict ichces tn how the work ge<^ done. Studies tkmonsTratc diat relationsliip cunflicts are almost always dys uncti '\’h5' It appears that the friction and imcnjersonal hostilities inherent in ■XKiflicts
incTease
personality
clashes
and
decrease
1 mutual
unt
erst^‘
dering the completion of <)nrani2ational tasks. On rhe other ham, omfiKt - b. ‘*<-'»ne
and
low-to-modera^e i,
djTifuncrional
levels
of
task
ng*
conflict
conflict
are
ftmcnonal.
For
pi-
Kep, Intense when
they
create
uncertainty’
tymplew tasks, and lead to members working •^elof Q4 conflict conststenriy demonstrates a fMisintc l^tausc it stimulates discussiiMi of ideas that help oop'
about
usk
roks^
.
„-fno.k’rate
1
Gmu)H iu rhe OrpanizaUnn
progressing
through
four
stages;
f
C:ONFUCT PROCESS rtlE
T r
't ♦ • *nv*-«* ♦
potentiaj
, i>e!u'.n
The conflict process tan be chough r of a$ cogniUon and perMjnafizuiiori di'agrainEied in Exlirba 12-/.
Stage I: Potential Opposition
The first strp in the conflict process is the presence of conditions that create oppoco,. nhics for conflict to arise. They n,^dnoT SOMI directly to conflict, but one of these diuons is necessary if ex inflict is to arise. For strnpiiciry^s sake, these con di nuns dsn niay be lookwi at as causes ur sources
semantic
'fhe
communicative
difficulric5>
tn
i
source
sunders
tan
represents
opposing
dings,
“noise”
and
forces in
the
that
arise
communication
channels. Much of this discussion can be related to our comments on comm uni cation and cominunicadon networks in Chapter 9. One
of
rhe
major
poor
ronuiiunication
able.
given
to
the
reason
the amount of time
communication evidence
is
inisconceptions
is
certainly
suggest
dial
not
for
each the
problems
that
conflicts.
of
us
source in
most
the
of
us
Such
carry
a
around
conclusion
spends communicating.
of
all
conflicts,
communication
tliough process
with is
us
not
is
unreason-
But,
of
Cour:5e,poyr
there
is
considerable
act
to
rcurd
oration and stimulate misunderstanding.
EXHIBIT 12-1 The Conflict Process
Stage I Potential opposition
-> Stage II
Stage
Cognition and
Behavior
HI
.
Suge
4V
Outcomes
personalization ---------------Increased
-------\
Antecedeni conditions * Communication * Structure
Perceive d conflic t
* Fftrsonai variables Felt conftci
group performance > ____ y Overt conflict
I
Confiict-bandfing behaviors
* Competition * CclUborauon * Accommodation * Avoidance t • Compromlu
that
— ....... \ Oecrease d group ^performance
collab-
A review of rhe research sug^sR that sem • ofinfonnation, ^.jtion and
arc
pmennal
^P»w 12
antccedeni
cwl Negoriscion
‘’’sufficientexchange J^'"’’fovrs co
cndiiim,.,
JenKHistrarcs dial semantic ditficnloes arise as a res.,l?‘i".
Uy, evidence
Ort pvn-eption, and inadequate iiifomiatio,, .h,..,. u a surprising finding: The ix.untid f„,. pjo
firtie
or
too
much
a.miinmicanon
comn.uni-
cniining.xjlechas Further
takes
place
An
i
’^creases
when
either
'’/'"J"'"’''''''
nicariiMi is functional up to a p,int. whereupon it puking in an .neieasc-m rhe potential for conflict Too',nt,ch JOO little can lay the foundation for conflict. Further tl.P rh Sung cn h;ive an .nflne.K, „n a.i™,™.,
as well as »™“-
„OT,s »> informatinn ,s passed bem-een mmibeiTnd rhe dbcTCMc"’'?
Struewre size;
ITic
degree
K,
group
ihe
degree
tion
act
its
tern, oi
of
as
to
forces
to
the
of
between
stuinilore
greater
inversely
m
tins
spcc.ahzauon,
heterogeneity
dependence
be
used,
rouniuzation,
.nenibers.
acQvitics,
found
sm.etun
the
groups.
The
to
leadership
Research
The
larger
of
the
for
variables
in
and
Tenure
and
tends
such
task
reward
that
group
conflict
iJ,e
steles;
indicates
conflict.
potential
include
standardization
group;
likelihood
related.
and
the
conflict.
eontev.
size rhe
assigned
systciiLs^nd
and
specialisa-
more
specialized
conflict
tci
as
be
hnve
been
greatest
when
group members are younger and when turnover is high. There
is
.some
observation
continuous the
porenthi
participation ipation ages
may
w’hen if
also
conflict one
on
that
with
conflict,
promotion
dependent or
for
and the
flict
indication
a
restrictive
but
the
stimulate are
of
dose
style
control
evidence
eon
correlated,
differences.
Reward
gain
is
another
group
(ill
interdependence
allows
one
at
leadership,
of is
flier.
highly
niember's
of
the
noi
others’
strong.
Research
another’s
to
are
expense,
contrast
to
the
two
group
to
gain
ai
much
tight
ina-cascs
that
Finally,
being
to if
mutually
another’s
encour-
create a
on
partic-
participation found
and
reliance
confirm
because
too,
is,
behaviors,
Too
tends
apparently systems,
th-it
con-
group
is
independent)
expense,
opposing
lorces arc siiinulated. Personal lems
Variables
and
r*r«jnalit\'
The
individual
who
“id
prohablv
example,
demonstrate the
most
important
idiosyncrasies
n-pes—for
^nd
most
low
and
personal differences.
individuals
who
self-esteem—lead
overlooked
variable
variables
in
are
to die
The
are
eviilencc highly
poTcinial study
of
individual
value
indkaies
thar
aurhontaiian, conflict.
social
is
certain
do^mane,
Most
conflict,
sv-^-
important, rhe
notion
'■f differing rafoe sv.Mems. That is. people differ in the imporrance .hey give to va freedom,
pleasure,
hard
work,
setf-respeu,
honesty,
ohed.eiice.
and
eqn
differences, for example, arc the host evplannuon of such diverse disagreements over one’s contnburion to the ^oup .md cherawa^ds^c - assessments of whether this particular book Hn dislikes blacks and Dana thinks thinks he is worth $-U),00fl a year bu ■♦.OlM), and that Ann thinks this l>ook is interesting rtu piMvutid lur conflict
him to be worth - Jennifer views ii AS “a iniponant in cre-
•
hrtn
Stage n; Cognition and PcrsonaliMtion I, the omdiBoivs ciu-d in .Staye I
)rusr«».n. then the potvnnal for opp.«6.^
h the nmdia
antcwJvnt condinons can lead to ct>nfli»
• ?, "x’Xted in «.ur definition of conflict. perceplH.n.s required 1 heretore, or ...ore of .he .«n.cs m»( be o« n.x of the exwicncc ot the anieee.lcnt co.,d,ti..ni Ilouever heeause conflkf is iKMxeivc.l docs not mean it is per^nil./cd, \«nimaybe w.re that von and n co-worker are in disapeen.ent. But the disagreement may „,,ke v>u tense or n.wou.s and it may not influence your affection toward this mworker II is at the level whore wmflivt is fell, when individuals htconie em!«i(,o,l|y involved that iwftios exiieneuce anxiety, tension, fntsir.iuoii, or ho,ulu>.
< * .* * * •
Stage III: Behavior The third stage of the cunflict process occurs when □ member engages in action that fnIStrates
attainment
the
of
another’s
goals
or
prevents
the
furthering
of
the
otbert
interests. This action muse be mtemled; that is. there must be a known effon to frustrate another. AT rtiis juncture, the conflict is OUT in the open. Overt conrtolled
uKiflict
ft^rms
ctners
of
a
full
inrerfcrence
range ri>
of
behaviors,
direcr,
from
aggressive,
subtle,
violent,
indirect,
and
and
highk
uncontrolled
strug-
gle. Al the low range, this ox en Ixhavior is illustnied by the stiidenr who raises his or her hand in class and questions a point the instructor has made. At the high range, strikes, riots, and wars come to mind. Stage
HI
is
oven,
conflict
is
also the
where parties
handling
behaviors
might
lx*
reducing
frustration
are
used
has
become
most
observable.
will
conflict-handling develop
initiated not
Five
in
as
a
stage
behaviors
method IT,
preventive
Init,
for
conflict-handling
initiated.
dealing
in
measures
are
most but
approaches
with
cases,
only are
Once
it.
dw
Conflict*
techniques
when
the
HTJicallv
for
conflict available:
n>mpetition. collaboration, avoidance, acconiTnudation, and compromise.*^ Competicioa
VX'hcn
enjc
part)
seeks
to
achieve
certain
goals
or
to
further
penond
interests, regardless of the impact on the parties to the conflict, he or she competes and dominates. 1 hese win-losc struggles, in formal groups or in an organization, frtfqtiently
utilize
Ac
fonnal
auAont)*
ol
a
mutual
superior
as
Ae
dominant
frirce.
and
each of Ae amflicting parties will use his or her own power base in order to resohta Victor)’ m his or her favor. CoUahoratJcm
Wljcn
each
of
Ac
parties
m
conflict
desires
to
saAfr
frdlv
Ac
co***
cent (»f all parties, we have C(.x)|»erauon and Ac search for a mutually beneficial (>«<• come. A colhboradon, the behavior of Ac parties is aimed at solnng the pnihkm and at
clanfr
mg
Ae
diflerences
particqunts
consider
vivw^nnts
nine
wanlJy
evident.
Ae
mure Because
full
rangi.*
dearly Ac
than of
hx'used,
solution
accoinimMating
alcemahves, and
sought
Ae is
Ac
various
phnts
similarides
causes
advantageous
or to
and
of
view
differences
differenc'es alt
The
parties,
in
liceortie collabon-
win-win approach co resolnng conflieix. It is, for exaini’k’
m IS o ^n^quendy ^.^2^
ratlier
hy
marriage
cuumelonu
Behari.xal
sciennsts
who
m trlationAips, are also strong advix’ato of a colbhi<^“
ovc approach to resuinng conflicts
value
opdi'
.. D •c Abidance Reeogniaing that a conflict exists »
Chapter 12 Coaflict md NemUUon
from or suppressing ir. I.idift'crenct <.r the desire Jisagreenicin
can
result
in
withdrawing
withdrawal
The
iwm
7****”
dentonstratiw
an,1 ca.E sates out a rerntory disontt from the <.ihIX
of
a
«iwration.
Jrtinible. rhe parries may suppress, 6ai is wiihhol.i',h * p,emlK.-n are rcpiircd m imcract pression u. a more probable ouicntne than withdrawal
because-
of
the
interdcil^nH “P-
At<»miiiodanon When the parries .sect ui auneasr th..ir ___________________ willing to place their opponents’ interests above their «w.n rehdonsb.p, one pacn- is willing to be self-sacrifinng 7ve Tcfert rh’Tr'” acoHnniodatioii. UTten h.isbaiids and wives haw diffm.ices it ,s nut un orte to acxom.nodare die other by placing a sp.use’s interest above one’s n™" Compwinisc When each parn- to the conflict musr give up so.nething sharing «x-ur^ rcs-tdnnp in a compromised outcome. In compronusing, there is itn clearwu; net or loser. Rather, there is a rationing ,4 the ob,«i of the conflict or, where the object 15 nut dniMble. one rewards the other by nel.ling something of substitute value •nie disuiguishutg characteristic of compromise, therefore, is the requirement that each part)-give up something. In negonadoiis lietween onions and management, compromise is required in order to rc u h a sctrlemc-iit and agree on a labor contract.
The
Impact
tiling
c’ohflict
for
of
cxawple,
tcristics
Naticmal
will,
to
have-
arc
a
exmsisrent
Culture
soiiie
on
dcgr<x.
repotahon whii
a
Cunflici
be
inttuvnccd
Iwingopen,
society
Behavior by
Your
pnir
direct,
and
by
relatively
marked
approach
cultural
roou.
conipctiiive.
tn
han-
Amencans,
1’hese
ckawv-
low
uncenaiiny
avoidance
in
uncertainh’
avoidance
and high quantity-of-life rankings. i\s
w€
feel
secure
lore,
rend
emphasize
discovered and
to
in
relatively
be
rather
assertiveness,
Chapter free open
'I
he
2,
people
from and
threats fledble.
cultural
in
countries
of
uncerrainry.
(Countries
climate
of
low
low
Their
ranked
organiz^ilions,
high
uncertainty
in
quantity
avciidiinrc
thereol
and
life high
quantity uf life tends to shape a society that is open, direct, and competitive. It would also
tend
to
create
individuals
who
tavur
conflict-handling
behaviors
such
as
competi-
tion and cullaborarion. J his prertiise suggests that uncertainn* avoidance and quantiTyA}ualjiy-of-Lle rankings would be fairly good predictors of which conflict styles are preferred in different countries. Il suggests, for instance, that when one E in a Scandinavian country—which tends t
Stage B'; OutcomeK *K- .nurpbv be^een the ..vert conflict behavior in consequences. -Ks Ethibn J2-1 de.nons^i«. *«: conflut has resulted in an iinprovemeni in t c perfonnante ntav t« hindered and the o.ncome dicn HUUM
Cwiversely. dv^ftmetionai.
Fertril
group
goals
and
acrivitics,
and
increases
the
probability
that
the
hxs
suffered
because
it
group
will
respond
to change. For tional
Manv
functional
GM
example
of
you
don’t
conflicts
Motors.^ of
an
to
part,
GM’s
of
conflict.
the
pt)int
conservative
that
co
problems
over
hired
never
white
and
look
resisted
change—they
ward
to
challenges.
the
questioning
w
past
three
company
almost
who
actions.
back
can
he
were
the
‘‘yes were,
their
others
inside
the
GM
ranks,
the
company
to
lor
the
that
to
insulated
managers
cnnfii-m
the
functionality
lack to
mosi
Vnited
belief
further
a loyal
rather
worked in the past would cxintinue to work in the future. iVIoreover, by sheltering executives in the company’s Detroit offices and encouraging them
func-
General
men,”
successes in
Btde
traced
inidwestern
j>ast
sanctunonious
too
behemoth
Managers
in to
had
automobile
decades
raised
looking
ere
than
individuals
males
j)referrcd They
lurcher
promoted
Anglo-Saxon
who
new’
company have
Il
of
a
States
than
for-
what
had
soaalize from
with
conflicting
perspectives. Research Consider
studies
the
following
administrations
of
group
would
think
conformity phere
in
among
of
diverse
findings.
four
L.S.
A
comparison
presidents
overpower
presidential
constructive
settings
found
policy
advisers
conflict
of that
and
'I'he
related
ro
critical
major
conflict
decisions.
was
six
decisions
reiluced
thinking
decisions,
die
chance
that
demonstrated
that
while
surrounded
conflict.
during
the
comparisons
poor
of
an
the
an
nos-
well-develnped
decisions.^ There is further evidence that conflict leads to better and more innnvad^'^ decisions,
as
established
groups,
among
members
observed
that
members
of
was
73
ditions. bers
well
uith
problems
as
pcrfcjnnance than
when that
increased
group, greater
Other
researchers
than
do
there
analyzed the
percent
different
tended
when
groups
than
interests
group to wui
of
have tend
homogencuns
improve fairly
decisions
average tJiat
productivity.
those
groups similar
produce
groups/
had
improvement
found to
more
close
that
The
It
was when
there
agreement. been
among
the
rcsailts:
higher-quabty
was
The
made
characterized
preceding
demonstrated
by
by
solutions
trary to the traditional view, conflict in the group might !>« an indication ol streng*
eonfli*^
invesngutor^ the
indh’idu^
high-confiict
gro^P^
low-conllkt
toft*
imposed
of
a
ot
Groups
findings
that,
to
suggest
varien that-
ctxv
I r* -T^ , C onflict The dcstruvtive von^ pcrfbmwncc ^’2^ generally «;,c: L oppmitnm hre«l» diicontent lead* to desirut tion of the group \nd l^y cf literature to document HOM- the dt sfunchon J efletu veil ess. Ajnung the more undcsirahlr r> Snuf'f'*"*”’’ 'n gi-oup ujhc-:ivencss and'^M'd’” ® H, thepn’oa'-?' ■>( tnfighnng among members. At the e.rtreme fanctioning to a halt and potentially threaten the gro..p\
Ch>|rt®r12 Confttrt an
Th
’_g««P .'‘«nunary mipht d'«ttlve e.immon ries ’ ’’'‘’»»nual ” v<mflietcan reduce of S^oop goals ^’niiggroup
Thedtmuco(anorganiuti.inasaresulioft,w,„.,.^k ti - . i,
gtieht
fit'f
‘I’P*:"
For
instance,
Cod,I d,«d .i„.„
one
of
New
York’s
best
knou'.Ua
"
.1„T? i" *
d,. w
n.ns„lu„,. fin„bT w,d, ,he „,p„,z,d„„, -This w„ , fi™ rf,Jh.ri,”e ,„d pnnoplcd d.He™ an«.„g d,e p„mers ,h„ w„e l,.,i„ll) ir,„„„il.bk •n«, same consultant also addressed d.c partners at il.e.r las. meeting. ‘•Yen. don’t have an ettmoinjc problem, he said. ’•You have » permoaliiy problem. You hate each other!"
NEGOTIATION NepotiKion rioflS.
There’s
obnous: tiate
are hav’e
A
some
worker past direci
interacnons
obvious:
or
with
purchasing
agrees
to
finding authoritv'
benefit,
thcntoelves and
almost
bargains
agents 3 in
and
phone
today
team-based
to
w’hom
work
they
groups
may
a
not-sii-
share
nego-
there’s
ininuies
colleagues even
the
And
organizations,
with not
few
organiza-
s;ilespeople
suppliers.
for
and
There's
bosses;
with
colleague's s
in
fnanagemeiir
peers,
negotiate
having
with
ex^enwe with
subordinates,
ans-wer
future
of
Laboi*
negotiate
customers;
increasingly no
the
the
Managers with
subtle: fcr
permeates
the
in
exchange
where
members
over a
whom
they
common
boss,
negotiadun skills become cTidcal. For our purposes, w'e define negotiation as a process in which two or more parties exchange gocxls or services and attempt to agree on the exchange rate for them. In addition, we use the terms negQfMFtQn and hat^aining interchangeably.
Bargaining Strategies There
are
two
general
approaches
to
negouarion—
b/irgaifung
and
Wrgrgrnr Wgi«ributivc Bargaining You see a used car advertised for sale in the newspaper. It il-P^rs f. IK- just what you’ve been looking for. You go out TO see the car. It’s_g«at^and *’nt i,. The owner tells you the asking pnee. You denV wan. rn pay That much, '■he two of vou ihcn neg.3riate over the price. The nego.iaang process yo ■"g in is called di.trihirive hargawing. Its most idenufying feature .s that « ^ro-sum u,nd.aons. Sat is, Iny gain I mak. .s at y.ur «ed example, every dollar y.n. can get the seller to cut from “ »tVJlar you ,avc. Converselv. even dollar more he can ge So
the
essence
<,f
distributive
bargaining
«
negoua.mg
«ner
who
ge
**»o
I
nrtW Giwp* in the Orgiwiaiwn EXHIBIT 12-2 Ofetributiwe versus Integratiw Bargaireng
BurgflininS < IhinKteriMk AvaibUc *o« rel="nofollow">uniol rcsoitfrv* tf> he divided Pnmenr’ monvBtitnis PiiJimr^ I niece? cs FCICU5 of rcfeiionships
Bafggwiftg
Hi J cribuii><^ Bargainin
Inuyi^vy
Fixed
VarwiHv
I win; wu lose O|>|nised to each oihet
1 wifi: you uifi
t
Conveivent or congrueot wiih each other f. on g lenn 1: Hfchard 0. Hinn. iSaS}. o- 280
Shori le/ni Amed trecn ft X iMM and X*. Wttrer. ••xJurhWio^ --------------------------- - ------ y Copyrthi ® RJ Imii*: ma J ft L-ttw. 1985. ftepr.WKJ nr peTiWion cl ftenert 0 ir
Probably kabur
rhe
most
managenxenc
widely
negntiacinns
cited over
example wages.
of
distributive
Typically,
labors
bargaining
is
representatives
in
conic
to die baixainin^ table determined to get as much money a.s jKJssible out of nianagemcni.
Even’
cent
party
bargains
more
that
aggressively
labor and
ne<(itiates
treats
die
increases other
as
managemenfs an
costs,
opponent
who
so
each
must
be
tic fc a led. E.xhibit
12-3
depicts
the
disrrilAitive
bargaining-
stmtegy
Panies
A
and
B
re^Kc-
sentthe two negoiiator.ft. Each has a Mrger /lowr that defines what he or she would like to
achieve.
Each
also
oeccptabic—
rhe
point
has
a
mutana
below
which
p^/nr, they
which would
marks
the
low’cst
break
off
negotiations
accept a less favorable settlement. Phe area herween their
outcome
that
rather
is
tbaii
resistance points is the set-
tlement range. As long as there is some overlap io their aspirati<;n ranges, there easts a settlement area where each one’s as pi rations can be met. VMien
engaged
in
distributive
bargaining,
one’s
tactics
focus
oti
(tying
tn
get
one’s oppment to agree to one’s specific target point or co get as dose to it as possible. Examples of such tactics are persuading your opponent of die ini|xissihiiity of getting
EXHIBIT 12-3 Stoking Out the Bargaining Zone
<
ftrtjr A*8 aspration ringe -
a
rarcy e s aspiration ran^e — • * Senlonianc range
I
k
Party A's Orftt point
Par^ B's resi$once po(nc
Par^ A*i r^BOnce pom
fergr Bi
p, h/, her
OttHUt «
^ing .h.t v.H,r wrge. is l.ir. while >, ..|.r.r«"y«" w'-gei|’'>'"t-
• .enU™
.o
«.u and
. .
•^*‘***« »»gWynur
'■'rpnng „„ yu,^„^
IflfeMWO'v UjrRam.nK A wks . ,„frr kf. I>.'t ilouxl a St 5,IM)(J.,r,|e, ,• ’-•..ineiA ..v »hworder t>’ h
“*’» l’Pr<>vcaed.xtn
,,|U,.prove .he s..k. bu. .he vi...h,’X;.’:^'‘‘ 'hen nk-.k flu. y.;;,’ " .iiicn.»,v ,«,„c„. ............... .................. .. ................. I""'.*, I„„i I hi^ >jrvs VIvein nvgnrhnion uas. «O .(isrnl.unve bargaining. inUTsrX'pXrW’’' »‘‘'»‘inrag. In eonA!l thmgs l>c,ni; v,(..a,. intcgr.v.vc l.arenir,. 7 “ pimnu. ni»7 Because ,be (ormer hu.lds Io,,, felm"''" '''’‘7" w»rbng mgvihvr ,n the fnn,„, |, gaininfc lahlv Icelmg i|,at l,e ,„• she has acliir.e,! . .he ..lluT han.I, leaves one purly a hner. J, tends m htd|7' .H«vs when ,,c.ople have to work .ogether on an otuX uhy, clu-n. we sve iiitire • r . •. i iitswer lies in thv vundidnns luwssan h.r mdu,k- parties who are open with inf, seruhtiviJy hv both parckX tl^ wtiingni by horh'panks
^’’’rtion har1
/'i, ‘‘ 7"'
barl^trgd.ning, „n
wrpmmg >n />rwniz.u(ons? I'hc ”* » " """
•' "’•t'''"'"''”'* "Itc. take on a win-it-any-cwc
Jmaniic
Issues in Negotiation ttv: TOni-hulc owr JisCMssix>n ot negotiation by negoriafom <1ecision-.nak..ig hia^s, the role o. pcrs-anal.n tia.c, Cultural differences on iiegotianng styles
'^7'^,^
n^in^Ss
ami
the
effect
Decision-Making Biases That wx!'ha7hoped f..r, ricgotiating expvnenccs in which the T«SW S I ^uch as JKI$Wt: Wetul co be blind co opp<>rtunincs «hle ...„ of u negotiation. 'I'he fnlkn^mg .dennhes .setc cm Wind us.'* , ,.nnue « prwi.iady selected t. Irrstwrtal tXfilatian it cimmim"" would recnn«"en| a«» ,* bt™. J «H« X rof n«. eneno. ».! X.
iwsi»w« on lead to wastmg a gtejt munry alirady invi-sted are hr considered w he., selert.ng h.n.te n>UTses
"sun
sflo ^^^uiscsof^b""
of
[ v>« ^in Groups torBain«,s,«L.n«th.r their g».n must come « Che expend 1 M^noted with ircegntrive bargaining, that needn t be the ««,
.
in w?n wtn soln. ions. Sy assuming a «ro-su,n gan.c, you p. oclude oppomtt ties IO find options (lint can allow .nnlnplcv^cKines. “ anchor their ,udgtnent,. on irrelCTuni infoni.arion, snch as an initial oftei. Many fectors .nflocncc the initial positions people take wtien entering a negonatton. 1 hey arc otten mean.ngks, E^-tne ,'egoL.Mors don't iet an inidal anchor mmimtze the ainoi.nt of inforn,atio« ami ihc depti of dunking ihtry lu^e to tt'duatc d smiaaon, and they Uont giv^ iniwh weight h> their opporenr^ initial o^Ter too early tn the negobmion. Pnww/wrt/tfrtwy. People und co bt; OM’HV affeewd by the way nifonnauonispteseniwl io them- For instance, in a labor-nianagctiicni ointraci negocianon, rhax your emplovecs arc currendv unking $l 5 an hour hue rhe union is seeking a S4 raibe. You «ro prepared to go 10 $17. I he union’s response is hkcly tn be Jiffevemif x’ou can succe-sshiUy frame this as a S2 an hour gain (in coaipanson to the current waire? rablicr rhan a S2 aji hour loss (when compared against the union’s demand).
*
AvaMiiity
Xegouators often rely too niuch on readily available iofor-
mation while ignoring more rele^-ant data. Things or events that people have often
encountered are usually easy co remember—they're “j;vailable" in their memory. I6 also easy to remember or imagine vivi
A
whdtib reliable ujid rckvant. The uinner"^ airxe, h friend w
OJK
side (usurily the seller) lias much betfer infiinnatioii ihnti dw
orher. V’ei people often tend to act in a negociation as if theirepponem is inactive and ignore the valuable information ilut can be learned by tliinking about the ocher side decisions. \ou can reduce die ’‘curse' by gaining a*; rnuch information as possible putting yourself in your opponent's shocsQ-veran/nlence. .Many of die previous biases can combine to inflate a person’s conSdence ui his or her judgment and choices. W^cn people hold certain beliefs and e^ecmuons. they tend to ignore infornaiion rono adieis them. ‘Ihe result» that ju^goTiATons tend to be overconfident. Overconfidence, in turn, lessens the inceiv uve to roinproralse. Considering th« suggestions of qualified advisen> or nh,eeiive assessment about your position from a neutral party arc rwx> wav's to this (endenev. '
V wodtlbe
Trans i„ Nego,iatio« C^an von predict an oppc«enr% ^bout his or her' ,.crs<)nalin-? It’s tempnn? "’'Sht assume that high risk takefi
(X-rrall assessments nfiJie personal,ry
12 O.nflM and NtRobaiion
.licj. n-aits have nn signiHcant direct effect m ..iircHnts I h.s conrlusi.w is in.pomn, ,
^"<1 *hat persnn-
rtn HK^ =«’<' siniaticnal fiicrors in c u-h i^meni and his or herrliaracrcristics. ' ‘*‘P‘inmg rpufje and not on your Cdtural Differences in Negotiations Altlmurf, ,h dirarr rcbtinnship betw een an individuals Dcrsnrv?li,
"« ^gnifinint
bsckgrot.iiil does sccin to be relevant. Newttiatin» culture.: egonaung styles deariy vary among nanonJ T he Frtnth like conflict. Thev fremienilv „:putntH>n> a
by
long
ume
ivhethcr „„ns.
them hut
you
thinking
in
for
a
you
ve
executive,
iha.
eve.-utn-e
Japanese,
the
(.hmrse
rather
than
world
fur
cuiinTries
their
like
d.ftcrcnr
diuit
together
pinned
or
might tie
tui-n
detail
stuiJe
and
tn
up
and
these
They
that
anti
reached
start
tlieir
a
eharacicrisTics
the
to
to
and
liked.
i
draw
never
over
a
UK^OS'
end
aie
agam.
known
a^hinXe Like
the
to
work
an.und
iiegobatont
by
when
with
conunitment
Astute
advantage
werk’^n^^
solution
all
Americans
be
ibeir
final
process
end,*'’
al
negoriauons a
against
□len'x
Chinese
relationship
loose
desire
thev
Tlic
believe
develop
every
actiitg and
rhcin.'^
cven^
negouate to
dislike
reason.
douT
impatience
often
agreements,
ncguuating
opponents
and
n.,;,
dragging
from out
the other
neguria-
rioiis and makjng friendship couditioiMl on the final •settlenunt. The Tj’pe
of
cultural preparation
relationships, To
ccmtexi
further
the
tor
the
ncgfiriation
barg'diiung,
the
usedt
even
laciies
illuurMie
of
some
of
and
these
signilioiidy
relative
emphasis
where
differences,
influeiivcs
the
let’s
on
task
negiuititior
look
at
nvo
the
amount
versus
and
interpersonal
should
be
conducted.
studies
comparing
the
influence of culture on business negotiations. rhe factors
first
that
study
were
compared
looked
at
opponents
arguments,
their
negotiating
deadlines.
Kortb
appealing made
to
logic.
They
small
concessions
reciprocated
opponents*
unportant.
The
opponents’ the
appniached *rf«ls. '‘as
witli
Thev vicHcd
as
and
very
made
few,
a
weakness
making
Americans
in
the
to
tried
if and
how
they
concession.s,
and
opponents’
arguments
with
North
to
appealing
feelings.
The
establish
Anierieans
by
always
was
style,
by
negodatinn
any.
Russians,'"
jK-rsuade
subjective
casually.
and
to
persuade
almost
Anilh.,
negoriaring
to
concessions.
arguments
deadline.^
Ainerir«ins,
their
approach
early
tried
pnK-ess
uere
countered
.Arabs
bargaining
North
They
recipriK^-ned
Russian^i
con«i.bions. almost
never
tended IO ignore deadlines.
Any
on
facts
and
deadlines
emooon.
made
I
hey
their
uonte.ssinn
reciprocated.
usually very
couiucrcd throu^out
concessions.
arguments
on
offered
Hnally,
and ITiey
as
concessions
opponents’
an
handlctl
fans.
relationship
the
lo
they'
objeciixx
,.
?yaos /»serte< by
the
aii
Russtans
-.hihited J™ H Brazilians mt
The seeond study looked at verbal and nonverbal by Nurth .Americans, Japanese, and Brazilians dunnp ba ' Snmc of the differences were particularly average said No eighty-thrcc times, as compared » nine times for the Nt.rth zXmcricans.
based
how
treated to
resjKuided
relying
a
Among
The
the Japanese and i mnr.? than live periods of Japanese isp ayesession, North
'lienee lasnng longer than ten seconds duim^; e h avtragvd such penodst iht Hraz
/: <
41
Graopa tn (tw (tifantrarinn
n..,.l.vsic«tv ........ 4v/JiU.tln..rH,.|...nu...ilunn,;.uynt..,......y-m p. tor ,1K ll, 4z.h..nv IK.I >•...•!. ...her live mues ,IMH hour.
,
L
IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS
Miinugiiig ContJUl Al..ny
i«nplf
[,cH.ii-i,i.,iiiv. CoHlIivl
a^suin. I'his
thHi
iTwpivr
enn be eillii r
con,.:! Ini--
k
nhtvil
dcioonsiiiHtd
K
that
lower ibis
group
orgj„iz«i,.na|
JIKI
assuinpiion
is
i.btl,
«k'Mi iiciive lo iln- bou linning ol
vonstnii tivt or
iinil. VVh. n us ino high or ...................... ...
io
FAIM!,
a group„r
biiulers (H;rloiiiw«is'e. An o|„iii,al lewl is
one in wliuli then- is enough « onnivl hi (Mrvi-ul si.ign.itHio. stiiiuil.iii- creativity, Iillow iciiMoi,MiolH-rel«'!iscil, iiiul iiiili.i(vthe seeds lor dmngv. yet hot so much to be iliNruptivc IVIwl ihlvtcv van wv guv to nianngcis f.iced with exussiw oinlljil anil the nvxal h) re
alwiiys
Ix'
best!
Voii
shoiilil
5vk(
t
(hv
rcMjIutioii
0235
ipproach that
technique
npprnpriatt
for
each viluaiioH. Some gtiiJvlHU's lollowJ'^ UM* i
whe>i (|ui( k. cktiMVc net ion is vital (in vtikTgcncies); rm
iin|M>riant issues wbun tiII|MipiiLii actinias need invnling (in vosi5 culling, en(oitingun|H»ptihir rules, diseipline); on issues vital to the organizatioifs welfare when you kii<»w ytni're right; and against fKople who take advantage of nona an* jK’titJve Ixdiavior. Use Are
t
to find an integrative solution udien both sets of o)nterns iinponant
insights
Iroin
porating
toru
to
IK*
people eriis
coniproinised;
with
into
ililferent
a
when
your
perspectives;
consensus;
and
to
objective to
work
is
gain
to
leant;
to
ineige
by
incor-
have
inter-
eomntitinent
through
feelings
that
fered with a retaoonship. Use pressing; bal
when
disruption
regain when
avMthuhc
when
you
outweighs
can
issue
perceive
perspective; others
an
no
tlie
g.uhenng the
trivial
cbaine
henefus
when resolve
is
conflict
of
of
or
when
satisfying
resolution;
information inoiv
more your
to
ini ea
let
{K:o|)le
and
nt
inherits;
supersedes
effectively;
porta
issues
when
cool
when
|xiten-
immediate issues
a«
and
deeisiun; seem
tan-
gential or syinpioiniitic of oilier issties. Use fiMtHJHwtathiH when you fiml you are wrong and to allow a lM‘«er ptxsition h» IK* heard, t<> learn, and lo show your reasonableness; when issues are more tnt]tortan( tion;
to
to Iniild
than
others MH-ial
to
credits
yourxeh for
later
and
to
issues;
satisf)' to
oihei’s
minimize
and
loss
maintain
when
you
cooperaarc
**ut-
I Hatched ami losing; when harmony and st a hi h tv are especially im|)orrant; and h’ allow em|))oyees to grow by learning from mistakes. l»sc*<ewp/iDwnf when goals are uu{>onant but not worth the eflbn ofpotefttwl disruption of more assertive arc
couumned
eomplex
issues;
to m
iiiuiually arrive
s; when op})onenu with equal 5157
exclusive at
goals;
expedient
to
solutions
backup when odldMiraiion or uHii|Tetmon is unsuccessful,
achieve under
tem|>orary* time
seitlemeno
pre*ssure;
and
lur a><
Chapter 12 Conflict and
Toward Improving Negotiation Skills
opponents concessions. Concentrate on the negotiation issues not on the personal characteristics of your opponent. When negomdons get tough, avoid the tendency to anack >^ur opponent. It’s your opponent’s ideas or jiosition that you disagree with, not him or her personally. Separate the people from (he problem, and don’t personalize differences. Pay Litth Attention to Initial Offers. Treat initial offers as merely a point of departure. Everyone has to have an initial position, I'hey tend to be extreme and idealistic. Treat them as such. Jtntphasizc Win-Win Solutions:. If conditions are supportive, look for an integrative solution. Frame options in terms of your opponent’s interests, and look for solutions dial can allow both you and TOur opponent to declare a victon*. e• Create 4an Open anJ Trusting dintate. Skilled negotiators are good «listeners, ask questions, focus their arguments directly are not defensive, and have learned to avoid words and phrases that can irritate an opponent (e.g., “eencruusi offer,” “fair price,” “reasonable arrangement”). In other words, they arc good at creating the open and trusting climate necessary for reachingan imegrarivc settlement. fhi' Problem, Sot Pv-sojuiHhes,
PART IV: The Organization System
CHAPTER 13
Foundations of Organization Structure After reading this chapter, you should be able to
1. Identify ttie six key elements that define an organization's structure 2. Describe a simple structure 3. Explair the ch^acterrstics of a bureaucracy in r* «o
4. Describe a matrix organization Explain the characteristics of a * virtual * organization Sumindrize why managers want to create bouridatyless organizations List the factors that favor different organization structures Explain the behavioral implications of different organization structures
Tdwi K-alh,
h^vedifferem strucn.n.-s and fhji in
rb
folloxving
P^ges,
'defincT/v^'^
'/atiiin's sinirnirv. orew-nr Irilf ,l
aO'hides
and
bdu^dor.
.More
**‘’‘«P<»»cnts thjt make up an uiyan-
■.ontiiigeiuy fachMs that make cvrfd,7i^' T’ 77’''*“''“* •hms. and tcnclud^: by considtrring the •’fnitturus have on en.pinyce txthavin/'^ d'Hercnt effects that various urg.-mitation
WHAT IS ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE? An organization structure defines how Job casks are formally ilivideJ. group«^<*’ tiMjrdin.ifed. For inshirKc. Johnsen & Johnson has historically grouped
specit-
■■
ChaptMlS ^i-aut(iiKHno.is companies organizerl around
Siruciw ™«MRm of
these wnipanies considerable «lecision.,n.ki,n, bmrT""® Tlicrc arc SIX Uy elements that manaire^ their nrpmization-s su-uemrv. These are wnVk „?e
i^’
J^'P*
"'^F^'^nenuUaation, and fonoal-
The following sections deserih^rh'^ as answers t„ an important ns aesenbe these SIX elcmencof stnicnin:.
struciural
Work Specialization Early in the twentieth century, 1 Icnry Ford became r;,-k ...if
....
mobiles on an .issembh’ Imc. FA er) Ford worker was assien'ed For instance, one person would just pit on the ried.t „.ould instidl the h,4.t front door. By breakin, jobs np^n?;
'“‘T’ c. repeutjve task.
will J. could be performed over and mxrap.m, Ford wxs able to prtxlucv ea«aTthc rate ol one every ten seconds, while using employees who h;«d relatively limited skills Ford demonstrated Jat work can be |.crfor.ned more elT.cientlv ,f employtx-s arc allowed to specialize. Today we use the term work specialization or irt-mw «f labar in dcstTilK lilt degree to which tasks in the organizanon arc subdivided into se,;afatK jobs. I by
one
rate
he
cwncc
of
individiiab
individual.
it
In
work
is
si>ccwlizatioa
broken
essence,
dou*n
is
into
individuals
tlvit,
steps,
rather
dun
an
each
step
being
in
doing
part
specialize
entire
job
completed of
an
being
done
by
sepa-
a
activity
rather
ctnintries
were
than the enure activity. By being the
the
done most
with
highly
workers
were
least
have
or
levels.
And,
wages
tend
wort
use
of
developed engaged
to
have
demanding
skilled
1940s,
high
efficient
require
would
late
highly since to
in
its
each
reflect
their
can
of,
say,
ncccwry
result
sophisticated skilled
others
w'orkers highest
m
would
tasks,
jobs
skills.
level
saw
In
diis
most
performed
an
orgunizarion
perfonn be
paid ul
industrialized
be
that,
employees arc
in
Management
employees’
step
skills
The
manufacturing
specialization.
skills;
the
jc^is.
most
w'ouki
more
skill,
tlum
paying
most when
mate
some
tasks If
all
prtx’ess,
all
demanding
and
the
i>crfurining
the
iwt
working unskilled
highly
to
workers.
manufecniring
the
be
means
untmined
s
except
a
organizations,
by
both
as
skilled
bclow'
their
skill
workers
and
tlieir
w
or
ken?
to
r
o
easy tasks represents an inefficient use of organizational resources.
EXHIBIT 13-1 Six Key Questions That Managers Need toAnswer in Designing the Proper Organization Structure
The Key Questinn Is
1. To »hat degree are tasks sulxlividcd uiio ■separate jobs’ 2. OnwhathKiswilliobehegroupidtogethfr; Id ufaun de I iiuhviduak and (TToups rt’p»>rtr Hem ffum* irufe^idaals can < marugcr eftkicntly Mid cffmvciy dirtci? Where «)ue» Owiiion-maiuim authtri ty lie’ In ahu degree »ai there he rule* and reguhtion. IO direct employ«* and
The Answer Is Provided
Cht/i"
J4
Pare IV Tlie Organisation Systtm Mtnauen also I-keri for other efficiencies that could bj achieved through work •r niovec shHs at performing a task successfolly increase through ren, XiTess “pnor
Hme
step
is
in
spent
the
in
nork
changing |,rocess,
tasks, and
in
in
putting
getang
a^.ay
ready
one’s for
took
and
anodter.
equips,^nt
EquaUy
impor-
is easier and less costly to find ami trafo workers to do specihe and repetitive tasks tha^ to
do
a
broad
complex person
range
operations. had
increases
to
of
For
buiJd
efficiency
diverse
tasks.
This
example,
could
Cessna
lhe
and
entire
plane
productivity
is
especially true protluce
alone?
by
on
Nor
encouraging
ul
foghly
soplusticated
e
Citation
jet
likciy!
Finally,
work
the
creation
ot
a
year
if
and one
^ipctialization
sjiecial
invenowts
and nuchineiy. For much nfdic first half of chc twentieth century’ managers viewed work specializarion as an unending source of increased product:vity. And, up lo a point, they were probably right. Because spccdaliz-atinn was not widely practiced, its introduce almasc alw'ays genewed higher product!viry. But, by the 1960b, tliere was increasing evidence that a good tiling can be carried too far. The point had been reached in some jobs at which the human diseconomies from specialisation—which surface as boredom,
fatigue,
turnover-
stress,
-
more
dian
productiviiy
could
be
activities. activities teams
In to
with
addition, do,
low
productiv’ity,
oftset
the
increased some
allowing
economic by
to
skills,
do
found a
they
qualicj’,
increased
advantages
enlargiug,
companies
them
interchangeable
poor
rather
(see than
absenteeism,
Exhibit
1S-2),
narrowing,
that
by
giving
whole
and
complete
often
achieved
bt
the
and
significantly
such
scope
employees
job,
and
a
cases, of
varietv
putting
higher
high
them
output
joh cf into with
increased employ’ee satisfaction. Most ing
source
provides
in
managers of certain
today
increased types
see
work
producrivity. of
jobs
and
specialization Rather, chc
as
neither
managers
problems
it
obsolete
recognize
creates
when
nor
rhe it’s
an
unend-
economies carried
You’ll find, for example, high work spedalizadon being used by /McDonald’s to effi-
EXHIBIT13-2 Economies and Diseconomies of Work Specialization
too
it far.
“ ’Tectalisis in inost heairti Saturn roadening the scxipe of jobs and
mainicniinrc organizations. Or, rhe other h , Corjinraiion, Xtrox.andUnisyTjh.ivehad.sticces.shL’...,'^"’’^"'? leilueing sfX'cialization.
Once
fou've
divided
up
jobs
rhrnugh
work
sDeci
ilir^iL,.,
fohs together so that common tasks can be coordinated T^’ h "^1?
*ese
^O4>e.l Wgethcr is called dcpartnientali«tio; One of the most popular ways ,o ^^oup activities is by yi.^rr.cnt performed A „,anuhcninng manager m.ght org;m.ze his or her plan, b/sCparadng^, XL accounnng, manufactur.ng, personnel, and purchasing specLists fnt.^cLnmon deparrmerns. Of course, depamncntal.zncion by function can be used in all types of organ,7-auons^Only the functions change to reflect the organization's obkctivXand activities. A hospital might have departments devoted to research, patient care accounting, and so forth. The ma,or advantage to this tvpe of grouping is obtaining efficiencies from putting like specialists together. Functional departmentalization seeks to achieve econonue.s of scale by placing people with coiiunon skills and orientation'? into conunon units. Tisks can also be deparuiiencalized hv ducer.
Procfcr
&•
major
pnKkict—siich
authorin'
Gamble,
'The
prcxluct
pcrionnance,
direction
of
major a
the
insrance,
Tide,
Pampers,
advantage since
single
product-related,
accounting and
for
rceently
reorganized
Gharmin,
and
along
these
Priiigks—is
lines.
now
Each
under
the
fxectnive who will have complete global responsibility for that
product.
than
as
rhe organizjjtion pro-
firm like.
all
each
If
an
service
have
would
this
type
acoriries
manager.
could
Each
of
to
a
organization’s
would
a
grouping
related
be
departments
offer
of
increased
specific
activities
taxes,
array
of
are
for
managemenr
the
the rather
instance,
consulting,
under
for
under
setA-ice-related
grouped,
services
accouimbility
product
were
autonomously
for
commun
is
an
auditing,
direction
of
a
product i>r sendee manager, .Another way to departmentalize is on the basis of sales
function,
regions. This
for
Each
form
of
of
instance,
these
may
regions
have
is,
departmentalization
in
can
or tendrory. The
western,
effect, be
a
southern, department
valuable
if
an
mid
western,
organized
and
around
organizations
eastern
geography.
customers
arc
scattered over a large geographical area. Al nized
an
into
.AJeoa five
aluminum
deparnncnis:
tithing castiag-,
plant
in
pressing,;
upstate tubing:
•ng. and shipping. This is an example c.f
New
York,
finishing;
production
and
is
inspLCtnig,
orgapac
-
departmenralizatmn
dqartmenr specializes in one .specific phase in the production o a uiiiinuin The metal is eas, in huge furnaces; sent to the press department, into aluminum pipe; transferred to the tube mill, where it is sire c
finally ’ h P^
and shapes ortubmg; moved n. finishing, where it is »mves m the inspection, packing, and shipping departoKm^ to Quires different skills, this method < >ffers .a basis for the hon g ■A
final
catcgimv
of
depanmentalization
is
m
use
t
*e organizanon se^ks to reach. The sales activities m an otiKc pj .
The OrjCBfuzaoon Sywcm .. .„ m«an«.he hmkun ipivcinmciitnistomcni. .
i,„„ tKrcc dcMronents to *eni« retail, wholesale, ang'^ J^segment irs staff on the basis of wheA^ ' . j dienw I^c awiumpr1<*Tt underlying <-U5itqniet
5.™.- SZ;::.. e^a. ..eparn^^
' that
deparotK-ntalizanon descril.e?,\ sions
.najor
along
inenulizcs
lnpanes<.
fui.cdona)
saks
four
customer
nim
in
the
dectron.o.
lines
and
around
seven
grouping.
Iwo
past
decade.
finu.
i(s
mstancc.
nn.nufacunng
geographical general
First,
for
units
repnns
trends,
uustonirr
nrgan.zes
and
around
divides
houeyer,
each
seein
to
.Jeparnrentalization
rrf
.n
pnxesses;
ta^
has
dep9„.
region
gaining
grown
divi-
n
sales
be
we’ve
in
into
momenps,pularity.
In order tn better monitor the needs of < ustoinei-s and to be berrer able to respond tn changes
tn
those
needs,
departnieniidiiaiion. being
The
complemented
described are
in
tn
organizations
second by
Chapter
needed
many
trend
teams
H.
as
accomplish
tasks
is
have
that
that
cross
have
become
those
tasks,
put
greater
rigid
emphasis
funetionai
traditional more
management
has
customer
departtnentaliwtion
departmental
complex
on
and
lm«.
more
turned
to
is
.^is
diverse
we skills
cross-functional
teams.
Chain of Cuinmand In
the
1970s,
organizations. agers
dw
zV
should
chain-uf-coininand
you’ll
srill
see,
consider
ir
has
its
conttpt far
a
less
iinplioitions
basic
comerstene
importance when
they
in
today.
Hut
decide
hou
the
design
contemporary best
to
of
man-
sinictwe
their organizarionsTbe chain of command is an tinbroken line of authority that extends from top of the organization to the lowest echelon and clarihes who reports ro whom, li answers questions for employees such as, “Wio do f gu to if I have a problem?” aad “WTio am I responsible to?” Yon con<x?pts: a
can’t
discus.^
authority
managerial
and
position
organizaiioui
mand,
each
responsibilities.
ghc
of
of
aimmand
command.
orders
and
each
managerial
is
given
a
degree
unity^of-comtnand
without
Authority
expect
give
manager The
cliain
unity
m
uwrdinanon, and
rhe
the
refers ordcre
position of
principle
discussing
a
to
place
auchoritt’ helps
to
in
two
the be in
rights obeyed.
I
order
preserve
complementary
to the
he
inherent Jo
chain
meet
fAdliiaW ol
his
concept
in
com-
or
hex
of
an
unbroken line of authority.
It states tlnit a person should have one and only one supe-
rior
is
to
whom
subordinate
he
might
or
she
have
to
directly resjKinsible. C(^c
with
If
conflicting
the
unit)'
demands
of
command
or
priorities
superiors Funes change, and so do the Ivaric tenets ok oi^anizational design. The concq>cs of chain of awnmand, authority, and unity of command have suKstannally lew relevance today because of advancements in computer technology and the trend lowani cmjx>wenng employees. lowdevel employee todav can access information in onds that was avaikhle only m top managers 20 years ago. Siinilarlv, networked cixnputers increasing y allow employees anywhere in an organization to contmunioit^ wim anyone else without going through formal channels Moreover, ihe concepts ot ^’•hain of command are increasingly less relevant ope g emphyecs are being empwered to make decisions that previiwsky
i.s
broken,
from
a
several
J . tv resenxd for management. Add to th,\ tr> u. funmonal teams and the creation Z ’’ Popularirv of «-lt , IKMSCS,
and
rhe
of Otg,nixrtcmStniame l
uiiin,--<>f.conniwn
course, still many tirganizations that'’fina^4'
•
^^fucfiral
desiEnVth^?’"'’^'”^
relevant?^Th' "’“'“P’*'
^e chain <.f command. Th..
Span of Control How many subordinates ca,, a mana.r ■
.
□on of span of control is impnrtaiK because" to Tl''
"rhis ques-
nomber o levels and maj»,^^fs an or^ruzatmn’ has\ 1? T'’ " the efficient dte organizamm '’"'"S equal, die wider validin- of tbs .statcjiient. iraaimn. .\n cxninplc can illustrate the .-Vsunie that we have two ornnip^ij i operaiivv-ievd employees. ;Vs Exhibit 13-? iUustrLJ^ and the other a span of cierht, the wider -;nun n k matelv SOO few. managers. Ke '"X? spn wotdd save $40 more efficient in lenns of cost. But -it kr^o •
ndL •i
Thark
become.s
when
supernsoT.
no
longer
employees,
a
drawbacks.
First,
manager as
the havv can
the
span d.ne
maintain
already
ro
close
desenbed,
provide conlrol.
they're
the Rut
expciisive
^‘pproximatdy -+,100 ttniforw span of fbur ‘‘PP"^a y^mTZ™?S', ously, wider spans are too
n.es.nsmall
large,
leadership
spans
because
have
d,ey
and" rhrcc
add
maiugemenc. Second, they make vcruejl aimTniinication in the organ! zarion more
EXHIBIT 13-3 Contrasting Spans of Control
M«mben at each level Assuming span of 4
Assumirg span of 6
U/
vjjfes’.
Ln o*
OrgAnlzAClen&l level
(Highest)
wa*
Span of 4: OperaiivK «4.046 H^nsgers (Uveis J-6} = IJ65
Span of 8: Operatives Managers (Levth
= 4.0% 1-4)« 585
X
'
major
levels
of
tart W
The OtgMttatwn System
i j . ^351
nfiKT^nicnt 'l^iird upper managenient. nnr
E
can
handle
...ward larKCf ^pans of control. Wide spu^ X. X cut overhead. .peS^ get Jk.scr ro customers, and cmtxiwer emplnj^. suffer lieeause of iliesi wdet spans
a
wider
span
whe.t
r.nplot-ees
know
their
|obs
nis.de
and
out
u.
can mm to dieir co-workei-s when thw have quest.ons.
Centralization and Decentralization In
som«
incrcly in
iHcamwrions.
cam
which
out
top
top
deei^on
luanngers
nwnaecmenfs
malhig
pushed
mnke
all
the
deuMons.
Jircciivcs.
At
the
other
donn
tn
the
Lower-level
extreme who
managers
raanaeers
are
arc
organizrjons
closest
to
“rhe
making
is
con-
action.” The former organizations are higbk centralized; the latter are decentralized, The
term
centrated
at
auchorihs
that
centralization
a
management
refers
single
point
the
rights
is,
makes
in
to the
organizations the
personnel,
then
lower-level
personnel
provide
organ input
degree
tn
organization.
inherent
the
lower-level
the in
ones
key iza
or
arc
decision
The
concept
uicludes
only
position.
Ij’pically,
its
that
decisions
Linn
which
is
with
little
centralized.
actually
given
In
the
said
Or
no
coiiuust,
if
top
input
the
discretion
formal
from
more
to
make
that deci-
sions, rhe more ik'ccntralizfithit there is. .\n
organfz-ition
structurally be
from
taken
and
one
more
employees
characterized that
quickly arc
is
rc.>
less
by
centralization
decentralized. solve
likely
to
In
problems, feel
a
is
inherently
decentralized
more
alienated
an
people
from
organization,
provide
those
different
who
input
mike
action
into
the
animal can
decisions,
decisions
that
affect their work lives.
anti In
Consistent
with
responsive,
there
large
more
derailed
Sears in
companies,
and
tively year
in
sales
1
-has
general uKcnsity.
more
makt^s
The
feet
a
efforts
markeil
trend
closer
about
prcAleins
than
do
have
given to
their
stock
Similarly.
than
400
store
so
separate
welding
creating
these
hundreiLs
that
each Illinois
business T
wl
has
to had
top
their Tjol
decentralizing the
managers.
units
focus
average
flexible
decision
making.
and
Big
can is
to
separate on
more
its annual
more S6
effec-
billion of
a
Illinois
to
molded
units,
each
with
its
customer
set
with
l.iser-hkc
earnings
growth
cent over e past ten years indicates that its highly decentralized structure w'orks.
Formalization iz*d H lullT
as
discretion
management
nails
have
such
more
compete
producing
Tlie
typically
retailers
considerably
stores
equipment of
action
Works
business
from
allows
h>
organiziitjons
managers
that
Illinois
make
toward
are
e%eryihing
that
to
managers
merchants.
from
njanager,
been
merchandise
l(x:nl
found
irianagemcnt
lower-level
Penney
what
against
hxs
knowledge
J.C.
choosing
recent
wbicli jnhs within an organization are srantbnl* ,ner what B to be done, when it is to be done, and how he or iJie dK«U
of
plastic
17
OUTI
per-
, , ., j, h:mpl«’y'-‘" ’* expected .»!«-avs to handle the sa uav, resulting m .i consistent and unifbni, nutnur j„p of organizational rules, and clcarlv defined nroced7r
ChapUrn Foundations nfOtBanbaiioBStrwwe fhe same
;,gxnizanons that h.ave a high degree of fonn.SSttu 2?*’
bchax-iors are relat.veiy nonprogranunetl and e.npimxes doin to csercise discretion in their work. .An indivizt.. !•' inver^eb rfi.iied to the amount ofbeha\aor in diat iob th t^' ^...ooix rlieretfire, the givater
® the
of free'« ndaX±
st
£: bow his or her work is to be done, S.ndSt'
The
deg^e
organizations. College iefonn their
Ceiwm
hiKik them
jobs.
goreming weekly tides-
publishing
their
They their
have
no
lor
houses
are
va,^-
tnstanee.
may
be
some
extreme,
new
well
of
sales
known
publishers
little
“spiel,” more
suggestions to
among
“clock
than
on
in
and
what
clerical
in”
at
have
great
requirement emphasize
and
editorial
on
deal
of
and
little
call
extent
to
tlreir
to
a
die
the
organizations
who
publieauons—have
employees
required
widely
arc
represenuuves
.standard
and
other
can
vompanys
behavior report
the
)obs,
irayelers—the of
sales At
oHonnali^tion
professors and
that
they die
by
in
procedures submit
vanous in
8;00
to
freedom
rules
positions
workstations
formalizaoon
of
for
within
the
A.M.
a
new same
or
be
docked a half-hour of pay and, once at that workstation, to follow a set of precise proccdures dietdied by management.
COMMON ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGNS We now turn to describing three of the more common organizational designs in use; fhe siwpk stnutare, the hiiTaucnjcy^ and the j/tatnx snucnm.
The Simple Structure What
do
a
new
Plnruu'd
small
retail
sttrre,
Parenthood
an
office,
elecU’omcs an
airline
finn in
run the
by midst
a
hard-dnring of
a
entrepreneur,
coinpanywidc
a
pilots
strike ha\ e in common - They probably all have a simple structure. The simple structure is characterized most by what iris not rather than what it is. Die simple structure is not elaborate? It has a low degree of departmentalization, wide spans of control, and little ibnnalizadon. The simple sirucnire is a “flat” organization; it usually has only two or three verticil levels, a loose body of employ ees, an one in uil in whom the decision-making autliority is renrralixed. Its most widely pracocec in small businesses in which the manager and the owner nre one And the same. But iris a so preferred strucTure in a time of temporary crisis because it centra i7xs
,
The strength of the simple structure lies in its .simplici^’. b inexpensive tn maintain, and acct^untahility' is clear. One iua|or Jiffifult
to
mainuin
ui
an\-thint<
other
chan
intreassin^Jl
orgam/uuons.
Ir
'cc
-Kly in.deq«u as an organ,zanon grows because its low ^ah74tH>n tend to create information overioad at the cop. ,„„r and c,,, =ven„.lly «
j ^'u ringle he d,e cnmloy fihv or a iboiw. If
-
PtrtIV Thr
The BureautTBLv SundmJizacoft’ die
bank
vour
Thais
where
clothesj
dons,
or
die
yOh
or
keep
rhe
provide
kev
com-ept
your
checking
government
local
di.U
underlies
accouiU;
offices
rhnr
fire
procection.
The>
is
cbawTcrizcfl
li>'
all
^hc
collect all
bureaucracies. department
your
rely
store
taxes,
fjn
Take
a
where
enforce
standanlized
look you
health
work
at buy
regul*.
processes
for cwniiiiauon and control. Tlic through into
burcaocrsicj’
speaalmrion,
ftiiutional
very
lormaLzed
deparnnents,
highly
rules
vrntralizecl
and
routine
operating
legulalioiis,
authorin',
narrow
Uhks
spans
ti^ks
that
of
achieved
ate
conmd.
grouped
and
deci-
sion making that follows the chain of command. Tlie ized
activities
donaJ and
primar)* a
departments
equipmaiu
ornong
tlieir
hence,
less
the
in
ernjitnyees s.
bureaucracy
efficient
results
manner. ot
u'ho
the
have
hen
bureaucracies
cristly—middle*
and
lower-level
formalization,
for
managrnal
alien*'
decision
lies
in
Putting
economics
Fun
.snbsututes
high
of
highly
and peci
regulations with
in
strength
its
like
scale,
gel
managers. discretion.
tnaking
to
to
by The
lo
together
duplication talk
nicely pen
“the with
ceniriilized.
standardin
fuuc-
of
personnel
same
language"
Iw
aMvencks
Siaruiardiaed be
perfonn
.specialties
minimum
opptinuiiiiy cm
ability
lalented—and, of
rules
operations, There
is
and
coupled
little
need,
therefore, for innosadvv and experienced decision tnakers below the level of senior execu Gves.
obsessive concern with ftillowuig ihe rules. WTien cases arise that don’t precisely fit
IBAl,
Ciencral
nrzed
as
because
a it
Electric, bureaucracy.
has
still
take on
high
formalization. become
with
an
Although
difficulty
dons has
Volkswagen.
more
increast^d
responding
Maisushita.
the
However, decent u>e
of
spans ralizcd. teams.
hurvaucracy
rapidly
basic biireaucratic ch of and
and
co
is Mi’s,
have
fujutional
Another
out
change—the
a meter control
is
Royal
trend
of
Butch
Shell—wasorp'
fasbirm
rnday—largely
maiority
of
large
paruc iilarly specialization and
generally
been
wddcncil,
dcparltncnts
have
been
is
mward
breaking
P*^ople, has its own tnissioii and profit goals. hV been estimated
about fifteen j^rcenr of large corporations have uken this direction.* mst^ce, Exsunan KiKlak Im transformed over 10(1 producrion units into separate businesses. And as we saw earlier, Illinois Tool Works has sti'uc.'tured its entire organs iMioo into small, independent busiue»ies.
authority
supplemented
bureaucracies
into smaller, though fully funciioning, mini bureaucracies. Each of these smaller vetkl^
organiza-
up
Chapter n
The Ma**^ Structure j«rfising ^el-on ^kijtp
1S7
P-I>ut«r orga.»z.tk«»l design option is the nurrix ag^«^*je.s. aerospace r.n„s research conn«»HC^.
hospUah.
gosermnent
and
agencies.
lx ,s nse-d m luboutnri«. «>n-
nixivcrMiic-s.
companies, Kssentially, the matrix combines two The strength of hinchoiiiU dcparwe:\ti»Uz^rDon hes in pulling like specidists
cethcr. tJnuiping specialists mndntizc^ the nunsher necessary while allowing spepc'olcd and shared acroto products. li:> majnr weakiieja is that i5(lifth'iih It) coorduiate th^ specialists usks so that th^ir diverseproiemare com^•ted on ririi^* and within budget. Producr deparnncnralizabun. uu the other h«id. K (yuit dy ihc opposite sirengths and weaknesses. It f)Knlitates e<x>rdinanon Q( spe• r B so that they can meet deadlines and budget targets, and further, ir provides ^ar responsihilit)’ for all activiiies related ro a product But activities and costs are ^"plicated "I’he matrix anempts to gain the strengths of each while avoiding their niosl obvious strurtural ch a raci eristic of the rnatrix is that it breaks the .,n nf-comruarid concept. Employees in the inacrix have two hos.ses—their fiincrinnai department managers and tlieir product managers. Therefore, rhe imuixhas a HWWt nXh^u-s the nmtnx form as us«l in . college of busincs,s non. The ac^ulemic department of atconntins, adnmustmtnx smeJjes, tiuitemg.
maiugmenteon-
The OrfMiadon Sysrem «, forth «re ftincoon-1 units, in .tWition, specific pr«gr.n« (that is. pr.xiucta) m overlaid on the fitncQons. In this way. members m a tnatrix structure have a Jo,} 1 assiCTmcnc -w thdr functi<mfll Uepartmene and rn their pnxJuct groups. For < insmTuv. a professor of acvouniing rrx:hmg aJi undergniduate counc reiw.m u, the director of undergraduate programs as well as to the chairperson of the accounting department, r
. ... he
strength
organi/jtion gets
has
larger,
cracy,
irs
people
The
to
so
become
in
in
Information need
in
and
ability
caparit)’
(he
can
matrix
can
the
lo
take
account
lines
of
authority their
to
facihwte
The
make
it.
little
and
tendencies
worlds
that
liureao-
frequent
coiitaet
quickly
matrix
of
tltc
a
eiimmunicauon
nxirc
the
the
organization
In
and
letter
when
an
overloaded.
for
Further,
reduce
As
direct
organization of
coordmanon
acnxinc-s. bcvoiiie
fonnalizutioti.
permeates
protecting
its
interdependent
increased
spetialtics
wlio
pathologics.
lies
complex
results
flc.vibiliry.
the
maonx
inf6nnation-(M-CK'cssing
dit'fvrent
more
rhe
multiple
coiiiplexiry
between
of
reaches
rduccs
hureau-
deparanencai
organization's
and
memheH
overall
gnih
become secondar)'. Tlierc non
of
K
sko
another
specialists.
ftjnccional utilized.
UTicn
department I*he
organi7.arion
with
individuals
or
matrix
advantage
both
the
the
with
product
achiev'es
ro
group,
the
matrix.
resources
facilinnes
highly
specialized
their
talents
advantages
best
Tr
of
and
jikills
are
economies an
the are
lodged
monopolized of
effective
efficient
scale
way
in
and
by
of
allix:a> one under*
providing
ensuring
ilie
their
efii-
dent deployment. I sjcy
he
to
major
foster
pense
ptwer
with
ambiguity whom,
die
often
and
it
power
struggles. of
tional
the
and
to
introduces
role
and
unusual
their
the
for
conflict,
in h
rules
arc
For
unclear
it’s
and
is
to
for
over
stress.
power
desire
Reponing
expecuihms
introduce
more
role
you
dis-
Ixvst
the
by
and
reports
the
struggles
security to
who
create
graiw
prupen-
increased,
gening
also
its
\Micii
unclear
[xiwer
grabs,” who
significantly
fight
for
it
individuals.
frequently
potential “up
on
ambiguity
individuals
produce
confusinn
places
managers
(he
the
ainhiguicy'
(.2onfusion
can
and
stress
product
result.
diinate
lie
example,
reduces
tliose
managers
work
For
products.
V^Tien
uiatrtx
concept,
conflict.
Bureaucracy
product this
to
not
game.
ambiguity,
the
unjty-of-comniand
i.s
assigned
of
struggles^
leads
cialists rules
disadvantages
to
s-pe-
seeds
of
defining between
and
the func-
absence
of
than
one
boss
ambiguity-.
The
com-
fort of bureaucracy's predictability’ is replaced by insecurity and stress.
NEW OPTIONS In
recent
develop this
years,
new
section,
senior
structural w
e’ll
managers options
describe
in
that
three
a
number
can
bener
surti
structural
of help
Organizations their
designs:
have
fimu the
been
compete
team
The Team Structure •As d^nl>ed in (.hapter 8, teams have become an extremely popular means around * K to organic work activities. An organization that uses teams as its central voordinamin device hxsa ream structure. The primarc characieri-sticsof the team sirucWrt
leva ot the work team.
to
effectively.
In
structure,
organization, and the houndaryless organization.
r*Jrtf*
working
I’arriers and decentralizes decisiofl mabng w *■
the
virtual
ChdptBf 13 L* In smaller companies, die team OTutcur
_
"f<3rea'iTad«, Stt
ins„n«. K^dms. an upscale reswurant in Rosio?d«t^?nn?’'' ^,.,p!,rdy anninrf teams.^ J here are teams „ eX?7
« "rganv,i..d
fish, Fwsrn'-and each has full responsilnliry coinp.w.e.s
are
ucnjTt
"^g^nizatiw. For kitehen-mea,,
using
teams
ihrmigb.m..
Kor
?«
;v, L tio’-v & Associates employs 6.200 peonte rh.^
???'
T
Ciore-.e, maker
employ'-’'-’^ Of less and everyone is part of a self--man,3'’'"^^''0 Afore iificn, [Mmcularly among larger ore okments what is typh-ally a burcaucraev. Tlu. sinicuire com,he efficiency of huicaucracy’s standardization reams provide. fining the flexibility that
The Virtual Organization Whyuun
when
small,
core
yon
can
or-an.zat.on
.on?
that
That’s
the
outsources
essence
major
of
business
die
virtual
functions.
organizatina^
In
snucn.ral
XT
the virtual organ.zanon .s highly centralized, with little or no departnientalization ' Companies few
of
lions
the of
such
as
thousands dnilars
of
in
enms
no
Most
Cisco
System's
Steel
Corp,
National credit-card
Reebok,
companies hiismess
instance, of
Nike,
plants.
It
prcK^essing.
that
computer
ExxonMobil
found
.shoes
its
has
they
then
made
niailroom
Corp,
Cisco
Systems
van
do
manufarniring
and
are
and
that
owning-
networks out
Claiborne,
have
without
designs
contracts
Liz
turned
their
assembled
operations. over
just
hundreds
facilities.
ouwnnrces
and
are
Nike,
outside fems
maintenance
inib for
rnnnu&cturmg.
I7
AT&1'
of
a
nf
hrnw.
out its
its
refiner-
ies to another firm. What’s going on here? A quest for mx
virtual
hxs
ownership. duction the
many In
in
stands
levels
of
organizations, company-owned
own
personnel,
virtual
vertical
such
occurs
company’s
extra
organization
employees.
including
organization,
however,
To
in
sharp
management research
support
accountants, outsources
iind
and
plants,
contrast
sales
all
these
many
where
the
and levels,
resource of
tliesc
typical
control
devciopinenr
and
human
to
arc
is
sought
done
markedug
bureaueraey,
in-house,
are
management
through pro-
performed has
specialists,
and
functions
.ind
lo
by
employ
awyers.
e
concentrates
nn what it docs best.
-H
Exhibit B-5 sliciu-s a virtual organizauon in which manageniciit ovtso _ ^’f the primarj’ functions of the busmess. The con^ of the orgaiuzannn is a of exeJunves Their job is to oversee direcdy .ny aetivincs that .ue J-.n-ho^a^ to coordinate relationships with the other organizations t at -d perfom. other erueiai func.ons for the
jj^es in a—
Exhibit 13-5 represent those relationships, c>’pica y n
fo rrinrdinaun<^andcon-
managers ,n virmal strmrnres spend mos, of ,he,r trolling external relations, u-pit^Hy by *ay of computer ne The major ads^tage to the virtual organizauon is drawWk tn this structure is that it reduces l^ness.
primary j managements
control
y parts of its oxer > P
IS#
4.
fWlV Structure of a Virtual OrganiMtiwi
Atfwtbf hff •t««r V
--------- V IMipendtfii rctwch t d«v«fepmem j coMuftmj ffnn
1,
( pftctorits
/ CommUsioned 1 i
I
V
/ General
Electnc^
Ibrnicr
IICJW
chairman.
Jack
Welch,
coined
the
tern
bOttodaryHess
ofganuauon lo describe his idea of what he wanted GE tn become, Welch wanted to turn his coinpaJiy into a ‘‘$60 bilhon family grcKcry sh»re.'’^ That is. in spite ol i& moiKtrnii'i <.ize. he w’anted co eliminate remor/ and and co break down plieiv
ITie
C-VZC/VM/
boundaryless
boundaries withm Ct
barriers between the company and its customers and sup-
organi7ati(>n
seeks
cr»
eliminate
the
chain
of
command,
have
bmities.s spans of conc-oL and replace deparunents with empowered teams. GE has
hasn’t
yet
achieved
this
made
significant
progress.
and
MoToroLi.
r.ctb
AT&T,
houndaryless
So
take
a
have look
state—and
other at
probably
companies,
what
a
never
such
as
boundaryless
will—but
it
Ilewlett-Packanl,
oTyaniz^tion
would
look like and what some linns arc doing to moke it a reality. rank
By
re
mewing
arc
ininimired.
and
operative
.^60-degree
.And
u.‘anis
Cross-hierarchical sors,
tw/w/
boundaries, the
organizadon
(which
include
employees),
performance
tnanagenient looks top
participative
appraisals
(peers
flattens
more
like
executives, others
hierarchy.
a
siJo
middle
decision-making
and
the
aliove
than
and
a
pyTaroid
managers,
supervi-
practices, and
Statu*
and
below
the the
use
yf
employee
evaluate hw or her performance) are examples of what GE doing to break down vertical b<*mndanes. Functional departments create barriers nize
is
activities
annual CUI
replace around
budgets
maintenance can
to
of
through
based a
hotindarics. The wav to reduce thes^
luiictional processes. not
on
worldwide horizontal
departments For
with
instance,
functions
or
is
tn
use
AT&
departnicnc*
tckcommunicaTions
barriers
«»me
crtiss-functional
nerwixk. lateral
I' bur
units on
^Another
transfers
teams are
now
procews w
and
ay
rotate
and
to
doing
such
d*
juanagcti*®^ peo^e
inB^
and out of different fuiiuxional areas. ThU approach rums spcciabsLs into gener^bselien tuJIy o^ranonal, the boundaryless orgunizanon also breaks down barners to rarrnM/cunmniencies and barners created by geography. Globalization. straW' gic allianc^, customrr-urgantxatjon linbges. and telecomtnuting are aJI exampb'^^ pracTK-v. th« re.lu« „ien,al boundaries. For insranee, firms such :.s \tC CoT Boeing, and Apple Computer each have strategic alliances or )oini iiarmerships «•'*’
L
I* I
The Boundaryless Organizatum
‘
<|o,CTs«rn».n,wnies.TheAe alliances hlurvk . jn
z.,
ir,,nrh.
‘'’’Cinction
StriKt we
l>jtwe«.
.evhntlu "J,
.h nerworked computers -iT
<•
»»o*.ndirvles,
i„tnorpan.zanon..l and
1-ople to comniuniJ^X
JVHY Dt) STRLiqTCHEs Dih-FER? Tfcr orxaJHxoiJon trCrm nij^s dvR’rjbcd so f sundjrdi/.kxl burcflucnuA to the lrM«s
•.
^ged
from
the
——w smiiniMj
hiehlv
□
IS. eecooce, JI,., ch models o( orjr,m..r,nn s^ttnrc. One eauj J he X" •"'= ^lerJIy sy.x,nyn.ous u,di the l.nreaMracy i„ th n it (<jan,l,Z2an„, -., hnuced .'nlbrinatit.n
'*««• . ’""’Aamstic model. I,« j J h ■‘^»^««»«»i2atwn
ntnv
‘^c^nward onnwniution). " «'gari?ation. h is possesses
and We p.imnpanoii In' low-level nw.nbers n, « the organic mtxld. I hi. nxxlel look, a lot like thX^Z”^'. d^ir, uxs tTw.s.h2«75rfhicaJ and
J oreanic
mo.h-P
?!»
structured
we-rv now prepared to address tlut X
StrategyAn
organiiadon'b
Since
nhjctiives
siriiiture are
derived
is
a
means
from
llic
to
help
organization's
management overall
achieve
straregi’,
it
its is
ohjectives. only
logical
that strategy and structure shoulil be closely linked. More sueeificallv, structure
EXHIBIT 13-6 Mechanistic versus Organic Structures
Mechanistic structure
• Hi^ horiional dtfferentiation • Ihpd hierarchical retationship* • Fixed dudes • ixwaUcKioA • FOHMI wJ cornmi**®'’®” chtf*«« • C«wr»lMd dMiston authoHcX
Orf ante structure
Low horffOAQ/ di^IofeAtiabon Col^a£rorac>or (ho(>^ verr^cal and horizontal) Add^shle df/tes Low Ibrmafizaoon Informil commonkadon Oecentndiztd decision luchority
X
itl ftirt IV The OrganiMdon System should foJlvw srrftKgy. If management mnk« a mguificani change in its stTaicgv. the srruccurc will need to be modified to aecninmodate and support th« , Most licMi.
1
current
cost
each.'"
In
vices?
An
changes rions.
strategy
minimization, whai
from ()hv
5,VI
an
strategy
Co.,
does
alt
but
not
but
tirms
ifs
on
die
not
a
rather
u
design
inaoducc
mean
pursue
three
stnictural
niganiaacon
offerings
not
tocns
iruiiation—and
dtws
previous
ir^usly.
characteijzc
and
degree
uioos-adon
framcwi»rk&
that
m.n)OT
strategy
one
for
puniueti
b\'
simple and
sttflteg)’ the
bwc
w„h
or
ser-
products
merely for This
works
new
ineiiningfril
mnovatioh.
sinitegy
I. . strategy’ dimenMon^—innova-
or
cosmetic
unique
innova-
may
appropnauty
conservative
Brilishretail^
AUrks sSpcnccr. An urganiMTion that is pursuing A ciKt-miiuraization strategy dghily conrroU costs, refrains from incurring unnecessary innovation or marketing expenses, and cues prices in selling a Iwic product. ITiis would describe the strategy pursued by WalxMari or the sellers of generic grocery* pnnlucts. Organ bodi
of
bafions
the
tunity
for
after
their
prenous
profit.
heir
xiabiJicy
has
and
rip-oJfs
designer
ol
smaller
been them.
styles
Thc)-
strategy
seek
to
to
move
proved
by
innovators.
Alanxifacturcrs low
such
innovative
tljc as
into
of
competitors
to risk
new T
capitalize and
hey
take
strategy;
and with
superior
or
the
rhe
new
label
They
the
but
opporoijy
ideas
of
tint
an
gocxis
also
iif
markets
piob^hly
ewenrially
products,
best
successful
fashion
I'his
Crtterpillar.
on
tnaxitmze
products
mass-marketed
uiiitation IBM
try
minimize
is
lol
firm.s
more
inutation
strategy’
copy
well-known and
an
stnaegics.
I
innot^ators actcrize-s
following
char-
follow
their
after
their
only
coenpetitor^ have demonstrated that the marker is there. So organic
how
link
while
srnicTure.
structure
iries»
we
structure,
mechanistic tic
do
while
in
rhe
cost
to
same
and
structure?
minimizers
Imitators
order
;it
strategy'
combine
maiiibiin time
they
seek die
tight
Innovators rhe
two
controls
create
need
efficiency low
(jrganic
costs in
in
of
stability
They
subunits
fie.vihility
and
structures.
and
the
use
a
their
which
of
the
mcchani?'
current to
the
pursue
‘activnew
undertakings.
Organization Size There
is
icantly
considerable affects
employing
tions. rate.
more
But The
once
adiiicional
SCX)
ID
son
support
of
levels,
size
an
and
isn't
employees
shift
an
to
will
not
toward
more
and
that a
has
organizations—typically specialization,
an
more
do
it’s On
inemliers
signifthose
depirtmen-
Miiall
at
oi^anization
mneh^impacc. 300
than
more
structure
employees,
only
size
org-anizatiun’s
affects as
2,000
have
an
regulations
size
important
suound
that
large
have
Rather,
less
organization
notion
rules
linear. hai^
die
instance,
more
becomes
organization to
For
people—tend
relationship
cmpioj’ees a
more
vertical
impact
to
structure.^*
or
die
Essenrially. ^ng
its
2,000
ulization.
evidence
a
organiMdecreasing
e.xpands.
VVhy?
already
feiriy
incch-
the
Other
hani
is
nxcchanistic
hkelv
to
result
structure.
Technology The term laMogr refers to how an organiMOon transfers its inputs into output Every- oqpni/.anon his it least one technnlogv for fonverting financial, human, an^ .'i physical resources inrn products or services. ITie i^ord Motor Co., for instanct.
1
J
a<>n.Hi«'lly U«s an assembly-line process u, ,„alfv ir. opisereiiies nu>- t.se a mimber of msinKtion leehnol..^ If.!,ire nivth.Mi, the case analj-sis meUmd. the rxnei ienr
'^^-P"Pular rormal
graiW’fd leanung nierhod, and
mward ether roiir.nc or nonroutine activ-ities. The hwmer are dnr^
a“k'*'
P,jred anti standardized operatum-S. Nonroutine activities are indu^-l' varied operations as formnirc restoring, custon, sh..emalci..p?Z?ga.S W'bal the
reJariuiisliips
relanon^hip
is
„th
taller
,„d
fontiahr-ation,
associated
and with
nor
have
between
found
i.venvheln.mgly strong,
more
tkpartmenwhz^l
however, the
hec,
i.s
presence
su
n.le
find
uetutes.
stronger. of
we
technoh^sjy
Studies
mannals,
that
The
an.l
structure’
toutuie
tasks
rebuonsh,,,
consistentiv
show
Althnuph
are
assoriaiS
ktween
teehnolZ
lotitmcuws
job
descriptions,
and
of
insutunnns
or
other
to
£
formalized
JiKUUltncaQon.
Environmental L'ncertainly An
orwniiariujb
environment iind
dieorganizaiion
is
potentially
composed affect
the
forces
or^^anizarion’s
thai
performance.
are
outside
The
environ-
ment haj, Hvqi.iired a large following as a key detcrminaiu ofsniicnire. Why should an organization's structuie be affecced by its ciwironmeot? Because cfenvininmental unevrtainty. Some organizations fate irlativcly static environments; other oi^anizations face very* dy^namic emiroiuncnus. Static environments create sig* nihcanlly less unceminty' for managers than do dynamic ones. .And, since unceruinty a threat to an organization's effectiveness, manageincnt will try to miniinize it. One way Io reduce environmental uncertainty’ is through adjustments to the urganizadon's stmcturc.^^ There uinty
to
is
sulisraiuial
different
cain
thcenvironineiii,
will
lead
to
evidence
structural the
higher
greater
that
relates
arrangements. rhe
.irganranniiul
need
tlic
Essentially, for
effectiveness.
degree the
flexibility. Conversely,
nt
more
environmental dynamic
Hence,
the
in
stable
organic and
ernironiiienth. the mechanisric fomi will be the structure of clmicc
ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE AND EMPLOYEE BEHAVIOR ''f '^tened this chapter by implying that an organizations ’’^‘^'’^“'^5 fuund cfifects on its members. In this section, 've direcrlj assess iust wlia review of the evidence linking organization -^nct and satisfaction leads to a pretty cleur conclusion-yon "w-one prefers the freedom and flexibility ‘’^™^^“rdized and ambiguity is "**» pruductive and satisfied when work risks arc sundardue
and
(.Jects
Not
uneernnccrstnicturc
predieiable
mWmtadvniploycc
pretcrenccs
R.r
work
.pec.hz.Uon,
m.lK..t.s that ..ri-
span
wnuil.utes to higha,
ZJSX^S2,S;»J=S
^we
noted
nnKluctiviry. human
Pn>ble..«
disXonotnio
sDeciah7atwin lhat
}ol^
pre-vSousIv.
V
are
start
of
u.
surface,
doing
the
and
pn>ducnv„y
repetitive
and
h.'i*
(xx-oiuc
wdilloruc
imrinsicalh’
.nd ,U H- of i..l. »Us pc^ndo. speciabzadon is tu.t an unen.hng source
work
rcwanling,
the
4
narrow
tasks
more
point
at
begins
to
suffer,
overtake
highly
which
of
rhe
tdufaud
when
the
economies
of
deMfous
of
and
prudueovin
higher
begins
rn
decline
seems co be reached more quickly than in decades pasr. Uiidouhtedly were
Their
there
is
highly
parents
still
a
ization
and is
segment
there
is
that
Some
of
two
liehaviural
professional
would that
individuals of
o|>eracing
ih
I
from
cKcupicd
by
overly
naive the
workforce he
higit
makes
qucsiitm,
of
high
reality
that of
intellectual
work
special-
is
jxjrtxjnt, w
whether
(oven
that
c
might
conclude
most
likely
to
needs
for
urc high
dm
repetitiveness
ofcoiitsc,
Ciireers,
with
the
|ohs
minimal
fifty-two
sfiecialization
individuals
and
people,
or
choice
ignore
routine
these
empirical
specialized
to
that
For
The
rhe
be
work
rounne.
of
of
prefers
want
sorisfacrinn.
percent
tolerant
ii
workforce
outcomes
jobs
less
but
security
iob
srif-srkcrion
iicgaiivc
arc
the
the
represents
some
of
lobs.
source
today
grandparents,
provides
a
croup
in
or
specialized
demands
this
people
sur-
personal
growth and diversity; A rG\’iew of the research indicates that it is probabk safe to say there is no evidence is
to
support
intuirively
a
l
attractive
elationship
between
to
that
argue
mance
because
they
pi-ovide
sonal
imuanve»
but
the
impt-)s«ble
to
that
high
satisfaction
or
individual
differences. of
a
theories
of
leadership
explain
when
any
Sonic
securin'
empioyees
research
stare
formance
a.s
more
Ixiss
who
or
fails
and
narrow
in
support of
to
Iw
available
spans
and of
at
lU the
coinrol
and
lend
to
and
this
control
subordinates.
Chapter
fonftvl
superv’ision
span
like
abilities
nf
spans
to
among
quickly
discussed
experience wide
is
large
disStant
particular
people
fp/tu
employee higher
more
luuiott
is I'hc
best
At for
is,
alone,
whereas
all
dmes.
Several
would
lead
are
of
likely
to
this
structure to
the
in
contribute
formance and fob satisfaction. VVe find fairly so'ong evidence linking ee/fn-f/liztrfm? and job satisfaciian. In g^cral, orgaruMUons diat are less centralized have a greater amount of panidpative dwtsion mnkmg. And the cvidvin r suggests that participative decision making is itivel> related in job satisfaction. Bur. again, individual ditfcn^nces surface. The rcl>UiKiship beiMvcn dccentraliz-ition and «usfacrinn is strongest with emplov.xs who Sv r"individiuls have little c-onf.denc-e in thei^alxboW held soldVres'i^Libk individual
again,
expcci
conclusion: lb maximize emplovev perfiiniiaiux ami sausfact**
for it
is per-
prolwbly
prefer
the
contingency
factors their lo
per-
high
others of
perfor-
point,
producing
left
degree
employee
(jpponuniiy
rca.son
us
perfonnancc.Ii
.such
tasks their
to per-
J'"
4i
IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS An .
. ’’'d Pedi« and group '’3*e an important lieanne™, ,k”
X
««'>’nh art'■‘^‘'“ces anihigutty and "" ^cilimtcs and m/Xat«
Of course, sirucnire SIM) vi.nstrain.4 i and
voi.fioh
«’h.ir
they
do.
For
«a,„pie
orv-SK
levels ol tonnafization an.f specialization' serL ..T’”'" mend. Iimin-d ■lelegad.jn ofaoib.jrjn' and narr ees huie autononty. Concrols in sud,' tend to van- within a narrow range. In contrasL ort.\n” u arotnitl Innituf specialization, }o«- formajiz n’ion lilce provide employees greater freedom greauT bch^Mnral diversity;
high d’e chain ofcom*iM *tructitred • I be characterized by
Technology and Work Design A
Explain the three key elernents in process reengineefing Contrast mass productiori and rrrdS$ custemizatton Identrfy the cbaHenges to molivatlng employees In e-orgamzations Explain how e-organizstions are rewriting the roles ot Pescnbe the job characteristics mode) Contrast the social niorwation-processing model with the job characteristics model
7. Oesaibe how a [ob can be enriched S. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of flextiime 9. OesCTibe why telecommuting has grown in popularity
<^chnoli)gy
T
is
completely
changing
most
organixarions.
In
this
chapter,
wo
fcxnis
on bow lechnolngics of operacioii*? and infnrmarion are influencing Tnanagemcot
and work processes, and how managers can design folis and work schedules to man* mizc employee perfurmance.
TECHNOLOGY IN THE WORKPLACE Wc inuodxKtd the ww
in v!it ptxvwnis
iHscUSsion
cures dilTer. We said it was how an organization transfers its inputs into recent years, the tenn hus become widely used by economist, mun^^gurs, cons and l)usine$s analysts ro describe machinery and equipment that use sop electronics and computers to produce thoMi outputs. The common theme among new rcchnok»gies in the workplace is so rule machinery ftjr human labor in iranslorming inputs into outputs. This
jp
1^**
Chapter 14
,,
.nd Werk Re..Aitit>n in the niiiMSOih. F.„
''"fe the hid«stri»l
,i)e
h> .ntn.luve .nu hnnica! I.H.ins ,h«» eoul 1 . more elu-..,.ly ilr.ni w.,s ,x.sMhk when ,he j, h» l«en tlu' c..in,>utcnr.rttinn ol cquipuH-nt and n. t
dinged ?
''7'' '"‘lividiiak But
cenltiri that has been the pi inx- ninvcr in reshaninir „Jlcr inuehiiies. for cKiiinjile. have i-cplacud tens of .1? ’ ""'■ki.latf. Aiih.mated
ijuHrtcr-
banks. Nineit -einht perve.u ofd.e spot welds „n new |.\2rr “ ' n
IBA1
has
buili
a
plant
in
eoinpuu-rs that
Austin,
3exas
rUai
*
i
v^haiuus
hours
to
nut the help of.»single worker. Kvei ything h ,,,,, ih^. j',7"
diag-
with-
to the final pacing of finished pnidnets is completely autoinauT''" ThK book IS concerned wHh the l>e-havior of people at work: No coverage of this today, wotild be complete w.thon, d.set.ssing how recent advances tn techno .^,are J.ngmg the workplace and .rtecting the work lives of employees. In thlsX t„M,, we II look at three spembe issues related to teehnologv- and work. These ire continuous iinpnn einenc processes, process reengineering, and mass enston.iaarion.
Continuous Improvement Processes In
Chapter
customer
I.
we
satislaction
processes.
This
and
even
that
instance.
3
However
result
in
the ?00
qualih'
through
search
percent it
L
sound
Post
incorrect
conn
minus
error-(rce
Office
surgical
can,
great
losing
eonstant
when
like
you
pieces week,
he a
realise
of
of
mail or
two
isn't
improved
this
hour.
plane
gotki
upon.
standard
that
of
organizational
that
high
an
amuviient
all
recognizes
should,
sounds
each
the
improvement
and
2,000
procedures
seeking
improvemein
perfonnance so
as
eonriminus
perfbimance
doesn't .S.
management
the
tor
excellent
99.9
lence.
fonning
descrilwl
For
of
excel-
standard
would
U.S.
doctors
crashes
a
per-
day
at
O'Hare Airport in Chicago!^ Quality menu
so
increase in of
customer that
that the
results Inc.,
management variahitiu’ uniformity
lower
costs
Champaign, qu.ility
same
progrAins is of
audit—from
period,
constantly the
and
Illinois,
monthly
seek
to
reduced.
product
higher
or
the
number
26..^
per
1.000
For of units
production
continuous
WTten
service.
qualirv.
cut
unit
achieve
you
product to
0
tripled
eliminate
Increasing
instance.
and
process
defeexs-as over the
a
variations,
uniformity,
Advanced
turn,
Sy^wms
detennined penod.
er
you
in
hiltration
4-year
num
improve-
hy
a
Uiirmg
o
wor
ers
o
1,,creased
declined bv 20 percent. J’’
tens of thousands of organizations introduce men(,
how
will
employees
be
affected?
They
will
no
longer
c
.1:
e
previous accomplishments and successes. So some peop c may exp wress friHn J work climate that no longer accepts comp with no finish line can never be won--a situatioi lju.s tension may be positive for the organization <-haptcr 12?X hut the pressures from an <’an tTcate anxiety and stress in some emphnyes. I ni > for cmphi’yees is that management will look to '
constant tension, in,ieThfuif eonflia from ,^prov niost significant implisource for part and parcel
ideas. Employee involvement programs.
T
RBftW
The Organize tinn Sytcein ,.f
coniinuoas
ment
in
improvement.
|jroce«
Empowered
impr.wement,
for
work
iiisunce.
teams
aix
who
widely
have
used
hands-,xi
m
invok,.
orgamzattom
thai
1 '
inrr/wluced quality pnHtrams.
Process Reengineering We abo intnxJuced prrxess reengincCTing in Chapter I. Wc described it as considen» bt>w > r>u would do thinp if you could start from scratch, llie tenn reenginemng CXMI^ from the pnicess of taking apart an electronic product and designing a better version. Michael f hnvner applied die term to organizarion.^. UTicn he found companies computers simply to lutomate outdated processes, rather than Tinding hjndamentaUy better ways of doing things, he realized that the principles of reenpneering could applied to business. So, as applied to orgamMOuns process reengineering means th® management should start w’ith a dean sheet ol paper—rethinking and rtdtsignin^ those processes by which the organization creates value and does work and ridding itself of operations that have become anoquated.Key
Elements
Three
organization
\
horizontally
by
that store
the
dis
lined
locations,
instance,
a
more
comprehensive
distinctive
better
than
efficient
itself service
competencies
process
so
system, technical
its
competitors
technical
support,
important?
Because
by and it
are
idencHying
processes,
and
competencies
competition.
superior
from and
its
core
disnncdvc
distribution
or
reengineering
assessing
organization’s
personnel,
differentiates
of
competencies,
An
docs
sales
elements
vc
process.
organization
knowledgeable ware,
key
Examples
higiier-quafitt* support
guides
prices.
what
it«
include
better
products,
more-
Dell
emphasizing low
reorganizing
define
might
an
('.oiuputer, high-quality
VA’hy
decisions
is
for hard-
idendfiing
regarding
what
activities are crucial to the organization’s success. Alanageinenr also needs to assess the core processes chat clearly add value to the organization’s
distinctive
rials,
information,
ues.
capital, UTien
planning each
to
adds
activities
the
and
organization
after-sales value.
drat
competencies.
Not
add
labor
is
as
support,
surpri .singly, or
into
viewed
curunner
little
These
nothing
are
pniducts a
the
processes
and
services
series
management
this process-value of
of
value
and
that that
processes, can
transform the
riuigiug
determine
castomer from
w’hose
only
ju.stification
Process reengineering requires management to reorganize around horizontal piYiccsses. This means using cross-functional and self-man aged teams. It means focusing on processes rather than functiorw. So, for instance, rhe vice president of marketing might become the “process owner of finding and keeping customers.Ii means cutting out levels of middle manageinein. Hammer points out, “Managers are not value-added. A customer never huy-s a product because of the caliber of management. Management is, by definition, indirect So if possible, less is better. One of the gcwls of reengineering is to minimize the necessary amount of management.*^ Implications for Employees Process reengineering has been popular since early 1990s. Almost all major companies in the United States, .Asia, and Europe reengineered al least some of their processes. 1 he result has been that )oR have loM their jolw. Staff support jobs, especially middle managers, have been partied' larly vulnerable to process reengineering efforts. So, loo, have clerical jabs in seP'k^
val-
strategic
what
analysis typically uncovers
always done it this way.”
industriuH.
to
mate-
degree
a lot is
of
Sve’vc
‘^•Moor .nd Wwk Dwjp,
pniployces who keep their jobs after proves ,hat they aren-t the same jobs. These new k'k j^Juding niore nncracon with eusromer, antSpp ^,n«hihncs, and htgh. r pay. Ilowexxr. the dlec ?’ bnplement process recngi.u-enng is usually toud, oL ^ruinr) :>nx.cn ass.K.a.ed wid, taking on new It^HSuhhshed work pracut^s
W«'>X fo«n
formal
social
network
jklass Customization The
Tom
Clancy
or
Stephen
King
paperbacks
vuu
find
„
i
i
printed on huge offret presses, then stored in hanr-a.-size waXh^''"'" du,T^
f«
bookstores
m
fleets
trucks.
The
nm-ek
are 7'’’
pn!K^ of several-hnndrcl thousand <x,pies Rot print rtins to kee,» prodiH tion costs down. called
even
one
at
and
.store
h.gh-iech qualilv
on
Demand,
a
nme-aimost
it
m
a
These
Ixaoks
mstantly.
prinnng-and-binding paperback
these large
allosvs
centralized
m.
to
Publishers
computer. machine
high-tccli
pnxlucc^and
be h„ve
Then,
only
when
goes can
by
action,
be
in'snul'
digitice
t.r.lered
into
machines
to
sold a
a
hooks
customer
creatmg
Icxated
in
a
hewkstores
qumdi^'’ contents a
sinde
slick
hiX-
allowinB
a
store to custoni-print a book for a customer in sixty seconds oi less. From demanded mated
the
days
mass
large
Henry
production.
processes
favored
of
to
Firms
because
systems
to
through
used
manufacture
quandcics
ma«-prndi(Ctii)n
Ford
division
producis that
the
in
of
prtxhieoon
Industry
Ford’s
cHieienaes
standardiz.arion,
quantities-
costs.
costs.
1990s,
labor,
large
i-educed
minimize
late
Eennomies
after
Model
industry
T,
and
auto-
of
scale
relied
on
.McDon.ald's,
and
Levittown stand as icons lo mass produennn. Neu
technologies
(CAD/CAM). they're
making
toinizarion tKts
that
manufacturing
ft>ods,
mcthixls. converting ^^’rp.
possible
sendees
production
Peking
are
encompasses
and
aged
however,
mass
are is
one
for
products
to
'*b«iId
order”
that
Strauss
have are
of
two
like
tbsu
are
to
of
whjch
be
custoniei^ And
been examples
it
firms
manufacturing production.
Demand. enough
to
cuscoincrs.
1
Some
products,
using
traditional
wanr
custom ibnc
HCCIIIS
configured of
On
indiindual
made
and mass
flexible
custoroizahon.
to
systems.
design
economies
lajlored
mass
continue for
the
pniccssrs
individually
Bur
l^vi
computer-aided
customization
production
probably to
as
undermining
will
pixxlutrti and
such
for that
their have
niass ciistoiiiization. Ca.se is a huge farm and constniciion equipment mauu
Mass
cus-
create
prod-
he
hiture
such
as
pack-
firms
are u
wdl^
mcrcasmgty
particular
success
\
needs? em
ra
. ‘
^ned all its products to mass customization. For ^^gnujn farm tractors arc now made exclusively to order. Lnder its r ih'ev had 'n had u. sele.1 from the model, and options chat a dealer had *■*116 months to get the one they wanted. Now
customiKd
*'pti<jns such as engine, tires and power tram. / '^■’w in 5 to 6 weeks. Iwrvi makes IW stvlcs of jeans. Still, many **« they’re hMkinp fok No proldeml Uvi cun provide them wiffi
of
inass-producd^
features
custumers
And
jjpd a pair that is exactly eiustoni-fitteJ pair,
i
1
Mrt IV The OnntcMMn Sysivm choosina from 3 k.ic inoriels, 10 “made
to
order"
jean,
«
5 kg .nd 2 types of fly. VVTuW hit
inoi'e
(al^mt
S55),
l.evi
uses
computer
Standardize options and v»it tosu. Mass
nisuHnixatinn
technology
h,
'
j.
oficrx
advantage^i
to
both
customers
and
manufacturer^
Customer don t have co n»npromise. I hey tan have the products they want, tailored to their individud tastc.s and needs. For manufacturers, they create more sansfied cu&. tomer-?
whiie.
res-ults
in
litdc
nr
the
or
no
wiic
time,
incrcaMng
work-in-progress
or
pnxiuction
effiucucy.
ftni.sheri-gcxnls
c-ustomitatiun
inventories
and
iv.iob^obtc
pixjductt gaihcrinc duHt on shelves or in showrooms, and it requires less working cap. iui. Case says, tor instniicc, that merely by reducing im entories of its finished UHUm by more than half, its fiitviug between SL.^00 and $2,000 per marhine. J he downside of iiuss customization is that it creates increased coordination demands on tnanagemenu And it typically requires cinployecs to go through signifb cant retmining. Mass <'usr(>mi7.ation usually requires reengineering of processes, and reorganizing w ork ai’Ound teams to increase flexibility.
ORGANIZATIONS BEHAVIOR IN AN E WORLD area
of
technology
is
changing
t or insiAiK f, rerms like current
lexicon.
In
organizations
more
than
electronic
technology,
and i -husiftexf have hcconic a standard parr of die
this
scciicni,
we’ll
define
an
e-organiration
and
die
affect
it
is
liv-
ing on both iiuhviduai and group behavior in rhe workplace.
What’s on £-Organist ion? E-
refers to
the
Hales
side of
electronic business.
V\Tien \*ou
read
about
rl*
tremendous number of people •ndio arc shopping on the Jnierner; and how businesses can set up Web sites where thex’ sell gtHuK. conduct transacuons, get paid, and fulfill orders,
you’re hearing about e-coirunerce. In contrast, e-business is the full breadth ert
SUCCCHSIVI
activities included in a stracegicH
lor
running
employees,
suppliers,
Internct-based
and
Internet-based enterprise, h includes developing
companies;
customers;
and
improving
collaborating
with
crmirnunicmon partners
to
fichvccn
electronically
coordinate
OMH
And the Term c-ui^ruzatiun (e-orgs) merely refers co applicaUoits of e-busiocss cepcs
IO
sthfxiis,
all
oi^anizauons.
museuim.
E-orgs
govemment
include
agencies,
not and
only the
Inismess military.
firms, For
hut
also
rnstaTice,
hospitals,
the
Intenial
Rex’cnuc Service is an t-orgauization h ecu use it now provides access to taxpayers over the Internet. ITie
to
understand
coinpunencs^die
worldwide
nework
Internet;
employees by
the
network service pirary •f
way
underlying private
•J
best
and
and
Internet,
to
linkages
extranets
which Type
Most
organiutiocs
e-oipmizarion
iiirraneTs,
interconnected
authorized
degree firms.
of
the
outsiders. it
.Vs
uses are
organizations with
are
heavy
and
uunpurers;
cjctcnded As
(Inurnct)
14-1 and
into
on
this
intranets
accessible pnvauj
today
as
categor)’.
in*
three is
«
an
organizations
onlv
to
e-org anet
extranets.
is
and
small
Type
(Host small e-cmnmerce firma. Anil finally, Type D’s are full e-orgs. I’hey've eoflt^
at
Internet
an
(inu
such and
Itok
arc
illustrates,
ozonizations
reliance
to The
intranets
traditional fall
is
extranets.
intranets,
Exhibit
global
concept
selected defined extranet!
retailers
B’s
are
Type
and
contem* C’s
arc
1■■v4w?as
iXHWIT 14-1 What Defines an E-Otganizatian?
il
OufMtl* 'RxhwIonrvMl^tMkn^
r High
n
Intranet and extran et Irnfca ge^
High ’ Internet linkages
Lo*
Degree of Mrvnest
—I
I Full
O U 4 0
None -[■ A pfctck cBay> mmcs
incecratcd Cisco kom
a
global
aad
Si-stems, Tj-pe
A
private
^\mazon.com, toward
a
lype
networks. and D,
it
Type
D’s
Wai-Man. increases
would
Note the
incktde
that
degree
as to
such an
which
firms
as
organixatinn it
takes
e-ortf pfoperue^.
on
,
The following discussion looks at how e-organii^»fions affect OTpbyee behav. k.r. But Aince e^,rgs. in acrualin; encompass a range of elecmnuc teehnolngy applications. our ohsersadcHU and predicdoiis need to be qualified: 1 he more aiv lion uses global and prh"3te newtwi linkages, the more our comments a
u
*111 be applicable to its employees.
Selected Implications for Individual Sc '
on how e-orgs wiB l.x>k at i«st two selected
We e-nitd develop a full chapter or affect mdisSdual behavior. Given our space individual topics-niodvalion and ethics.
..nployces in c-organita-
A,= .b.e -1“"“ nons? rhe answer appears to be
their work cHort an employees m e-or J j^„jence on
susceptible to distractions that can dunivin. In addition, techmeal a P that make them ven'
matUeuble.
these »kdk. .\s a result, pemauun cxpectau.ms dun do thetr peers «
thcr '"^^•^yons traditional orgaiu
different comfrequently base
MrtIV
The OqBtticanm System
rupnon^ by wllw^es pc .
surfing the Ncu pl:ivintf online gan^ W *«*•
S
online.
Some
of
the
■•cylx.T-fft.irs," and searching
n.n«
ns.ted
«U-s
ix=o^.lc
access
tru.n
uork.
tor
instance,
.re
each
day
il>cWeather(;hani>d.Anuz<>n.ioin,3ndcbav •rhe
averatre
visiring cent
L’.S.
sites
unrelated
oHnst
die
work
lo
be
motivated
•'Mimetbing problem
isn't
to
else’'
are
aldiougb
is
Etensity,
u
below
the
ple?
Quite
the
Net
employers
arc
industry*
average.
lot
turnover
And
actually.
rale is
what
'Ehc
and is
Roof,
TtV
gives
difficult
employees.
for
So
employees
c-organizaiions
many
have
benefits
rarely
seen
instance,
signing
bonuses,
onsite
incentives
sides. the
One
is
increasing
gtxxl
when
future,
a
the
rewards
is
comparisons. with
just
happened
public,
inequities
has
continually
the
There
join
nuking
a
firn
those co
chasing
implosion
of
dot-ei>m
options
as
motivators
feel age,
chat a
and gave
looks
llic
addidon,
you
w'ere
qualiiiuirions out
stock
wanderlust
ibtoc.ks
in a
3lXK)
two-way
instance,
sued.
give
incentives
and
organizations:
fur
full-time subsidies.
there
arc
them.
The
they on
downother
l<x>k
condirions
reverse.
employees
in
between
the
designers
and
potciiiial
for
dcniouvaiing
there
the
problem
$>0,b0<)
nuking and
a
3001 Many
of
rlxi* inter-
year
bursa*
$10
nd
Ilion
now
her
company h^-'’
The
aniung
wry
couipany’s
software
nuking
is
the
discrepancies
is
peo-
professional
beciuse
cieaUon
ofiaterfnD
e-org
employees,
many
wealth-creating and
its
home,
and
among
valuable?
next
for
favorably
options
mentality
points
keep
while
high
glaring
15
new
when
very’
meredihk
the is
Specifically,
employees
In if
options
create
get
tTeates
treated.
you
who
don’t
organ-
motivatiid
memberships,
those market
a
bill
empluyees—particularly ITiis
experietK'v,
health-club
but
often
the
and
typical
rccipicnth
is
in
attractive
their
options.
are
eiujiloyces. would
in
free
on
stock
hard-ro-hirc
How
tended
b^vc
Web-monitoring
a
of
what
progi**anb t*alled Rabe
phone
benefit
inequities
inequitably
u>
oii-s,
breaks
kjiow
about
technical
list
employees
demotivate
Iwing
similar
extensive
stock
and
can
to
they’re
by
perceived
other
firm
someone
created
organizations,
aud
may
progi*anK
this
morale.’^
year,
sdinubre
keep
cell
rewards
growing
bjr
feci
stuck
these
options
who
The
effect
provided
engineers-
gone
benefits
finn
potential
Internet-based
and
to
a
that
to
fonnal
has
toward
an
options,
solution
trust
firm,
likely
Inwmer,
installing
car; and another
and
and
pnihlem
stock
The
she
.stock
doing
find
nonmanagerial
cnnctei^es.
l'lu.*se
to
arc
emplovces
percent
$10,000
implemented
by
5
Wheels
a new
the
providing
undermine
per. year.''
emplo^’ee
only
companyHut
a
lhe
so
40
CAberloafing
ro
services
Eiensit)’
this
siccess
also
can
t.,
employees
affect
employees up lu $400 a month to pay for the
eHiirts
Ml
stress,
employees,
guidelines
such
and
diversion,
clear
Web-consulting Its
a
to
that
billion
easy
as
interesting
that
abcrloahng;
have
minutes
mdicate
exeessive
they
Many
VII
SS4
adversely
workforce.^’ a
using
evidence
Virginia-ba.sed
committed
If
csrablishing
and
hi
ereaccs
else.
expecred.
tliere
solely
or
spending
e-som.ues
alone
more
and
is
Recent
due
wresting
iobs
access
job!’
K
increasingly
monotony,
izadon
her
Munetliuig
making
behaviors
snfnvarc,
or
in
do
is
includes
online
h.s
Net
einplovers
itself
overcome
with
jM-rxkictivuy
U.S.
If
and
to
worker
LosiiriK
ro
employee
illustrates
oppuriuniry. that
e-organiMtions
the
use
envourJg^
hanf-to-hire employees tn give up a large salary in exchange fer stock oprinns. Thb
X
1
’’PdoM seemed to g^ only UD R k
fin®
n,jn>-sp’ck opuons become ^vonhless.'^ For individnd i ■ firms nwinly for the pos.Mbiliiy of getting rich through *b «in he J powcdyl denionvjtor.
'W ork Desigr. ‘‘"’P. ’■‘‘fi ® ^phons» a declining mar-
Ethics Elcctn.nic surveillance of employees bv emninr. P’« «»
orga.iiMfi'^nS desire for control againsr an cmpl.'n-ec’s „:nt of increasingly sophisneared surveiUanceTo^\^” ^'T' ddeinnia r.f hou lar an organization should go m momiorins the lA' •” ees who do their work on compurers?^ for iiiswnce, rhe Web activity of every otic of Xerox’s 92 nnn HT^KI
>ehavior of employ-
Xerox fired 40 ^ ns employees because they were caught in die act of surfing forbhl den Web sites. The companys monitoring softu^are rcoirded the unnuthorizxdviril w shopping and pornography sties, and every minute they h,,
argue
that
they
need
surveillance
a»ntrol$.
These
them to make sure employees are working and not goofing off not
distribuung
ee‘s
who
organization
might
create
a
wcrch
and
to
protect
hostile
environment
for
the
controls
and that employees are
organization
women
allow
or
against
members
employ-
of
nunoriry
workplace
parame-
groups. rhe ters.
surveillance
There
seems
employees
at
know
are
they
mingled—for
dilemma
to
work, being
instance,
be
when
is
little
exacerbated dispute
using
watched.
the
But
employees
as
doing
that
by'
the
employers
organization's home
blurring
life
job-related
of
have
the
equipment,
right
and
and
work
life
work
at
home
to
when
are
monitor
employees
increasingly
rather
than
inter-
at
the
office—the ethics and legality of surveillance is less dear.
Selected Implications for Group Behavior b
this
leadership,
section, and
w'e
will
organizational
show
how
politics
issues take
on
such a
as
deosion
different
making,
look
and
communicauon, inij*orunc*c
e-organization$. Decision Making The iradition.il approach taken in OB «hcn making needs to be modified for e-organizarions.
Exactly
what
those
J®"'"®" wodificaoons
should he are not yet fuUy clear. However, wc offer wo protections. Iwe,
First, individual deckn-making models are likely to E-nrganizatitins are typically team-based
•nodels will offer greater relevance. Second, the thoughtfuL rational models of de w management literature (see pages 70-. >)— There arc no proven business models tor e-orgamz^tio^^- • ^alue experimenution-thase that utilize quickly and assimilate it and that can accept fail me an E-organuations don’t have the luiniry o trying co
coinmiiinties. .
So
gToi
.naVine—which dominate J I6 c,,,.ppss iroes co finns tliat gather data
ei^r decision^ in starch limited information
j.
in
F^rtiv
’n
The OgflniMCinn System . I, -i^„vfrarmflltinffmLstjlM.-s.l>eci«ionsinc-<jrganizjitionsareinacia*^ w ± tos bei,?g «.nu..u.lly nu.difi«l »nd even dtscardrd. And ro.. ; Je ec“on pmgran.s nrc dally u>ek« hccausu kw ,.f the deas.ons that "n k encountered before. So no. only do dec.s.ons .n e-orgs need to b, Lk fas,, thev have to be nude ba«d on hnle prev.ou. expenenee. 1 his. of enurv, the pn>l«bi1ity of errors and the need to be able to recover qu.eldy from ndstakes and move on. Communkadon Because
they’re
tradmonal allow,
even
make
obsolete
between
or
also
graphically
employees
who
even
have
going
to
ers
informal
how are
San
arc
activities
Web
sites
comparing
meet
apart.
are
becoming
and
5-com
routes
to on
company
employees
electronic
gripe
u
working
www.truckinlife.com,
the
distinction
and
filtering.
people now
gossip
in
than
in
geo-
easier
fur
ot
Young
conditions
offline
industries
lawj’ers
and
flight
arid
those
number
and
lliey
supcnnsion,
its
grapevines.’'
about
as
allow
Moreover,
share
AIR!
such
meetings
anywhere.
hierarchies,
negotiations,
virtual
through
anyone,
communication,
regularly. to
going
stauis
concepts
meerings,
instance,
Singapore
associate
rigs
as
with
mjtwopks,
L-organiMfions
without
historical
nonverbal
cubicles
that
greedy
to
and
two
For
commumcacon
anytime,
cation
communication.
infornuuon
directly
down
muni
such
conducted.
Francisco
instantly
break
oJ
integrated
coiiununiene
coin
ruk‘>
networks,
localions
work
w'ww.
systems
and
dispersed in
to
interpersonal
talk
employees
longer
revise
redefine
conler’’
no
communicate
eomnninicadon
formal
“water
can
the
comprehensive,
individuals
KnxpJnyees open
icwruing
around
levels
encourage,
These
They
designed
hierarchical
channels.
arc
E-orpanizatioiib
are
pay;
truck-
attendants
share
gossip at w'wwJnsidctheweb.com. The
downside
A
recent
poll
18
pieces
of mail,
sages,
14
fiiund
foxes,
incoming
of
this
that
and and
open
the
18
average
tn
U.S.
23
voice
interruptions
netw
worker
memos
in-house
listen*
cnnununicirion
niinmunicatinn
receives
daily.”* mail
cost
ork
He
or
or
cell
is five
she
phone
also
phone
employees
conimunkatinn calls,
reads
valuable
36
13
messages.
overload. e-mails,
Post-It
*rhesc
rime,
ines*
frequent
erode
their
ability to coiucntrare, and can negatively effect their work pnxlucrivity.
Leadership
Is
organization? focus
on
leadership
Business
three
in
an
executives
differences:
the
c-organization who’ve
speed
different
from
char
in
a
in
both
think
there
is.
They’tend
they'
have
to
worked
at
which
make
rradirional
decision.*,
the
to
impor-
tance nt maintaining flexibilirv', and need to create a vision of the future. Alanagers decisions. (luickly eBay a ent
Bur and
>soluteiy
the
sei
In
one
to
2.2
a
is
comiRitirion
changes
users
organizations
problem
“We're
company
we would
all
the
says,
istered
in
growing dw
much is
at
we
million.
yearlong
from
and
in
then
50
Everv*
they
three
she
lo
dis 140,
previously
we would
when
world
president per
mon
M*ant
The
the
percent
employees
(where
data
Whitman,
to
.30
the
c-organinations.
Meg
chaUenge:
Hasbro
strategy,
all
w(»rse percent
went At
have
intense. 40
leadership
year
never
we and
had
simply execute
is
and
quarter.
hai
l>e<x>mc
been
moving CEO
J
from
making
a
pace cJiffer*
100,000 an
against
at
reg-
execudvel*
it.
At
eBay,
we constantly revisit die strategy—and revise the tactics,'”'' m ’'****'” online businesses n
tmtt
tme
a
as reference
themselves as spnnters and their contemporaries in long-distance runners. They frequently inject lo
a
rapidly
speeded
up
working
uusmess) leader today has to unlearn one lesson that was drilled miu each QIMl4
environment,
the ‘tvcry
terffl I*"
gAthcT cbta so th« yo. .a„
VV»3.
i^a-n.et urne. ""
You can^ d,, du^
In
□a«li"‘">
to
>pcei1,
k-aikrs
in
c-orgs
„jl with the ..i>s and downs. I hvy ntx-.l u. ahlL,
n^ud
hiH,
fl
They have n. be .bk
something doesn’t work ThT^'I?'’’'* ^ocxwi MaA t-iiban. eofounikr of Broadj-ast^j^jj^ anmlifi**' Jirtvcl- «c thoiigin ad^ erasing would he the core of<S
" ‘”K»n«peh**'” “"■hen
.Q th'waht that the way to define our network was to disn-T"”^ 'Lcn- "e w ere wrong. V\e\e had to recaWirate again ^Sing « ■" The
’ fininder
of
'>?ain-and we’U have to PnceLme.eom
saw,
"Forget
about
o-u
’
„,tiH;usc<»‘St-"’'h on rhe ne« generation of pn>blen,s Ldrrship
Jnd -n-' I-'-
•>
deep
understanding
of
how
teehtioiogv
is
uoin/r^
requires
vi^aty
0,,hei„J„,4„f„ppL’i'Ji.'.S
<"n-»,„™„l
dw»nnnuities—jnd they chtxk tlut map constajidy Visionary leadership is undoubtedly iinpomnt ’in even- organization But in a hiperkinetic envin.iunent, people require more from the.r leaders The rule noli tie, and agulatrons tliat ehar.ietcnze more traditional organizatmns pronde’di^ti.«i and reduee lUKcnainty for employees. Such formaln.cd guidelines don’t npically exist in e-orgs, ami it falls on e-lcaders to provide direction through their vision. Polirirt and Networking recognizes the political nature tif organizatiotes, the nJe that poiirics pl.iy in decision making, and the impurtaiue nf nccviorLhig m develiiping wmuis both within and ou&ide an i>rgunization. But preliininan* indicators suggest that efteetivv politicking and nensorking arc different in c-orgs than in the tTKre tradtrional (.iffline organization, In traditional organizutions, effective politicians keep themselves \isiWe, utilize wifM\.*ssion nianagcmcnt techniques, and partiidpatc in activines that will put them in dF>sc rontact with inlluendnl people. But these are essentially face-to-fiu'c activities dut amn’t like I v m be as effective in vorganizations. E-puliticians iirc likely tu rely much mure on cyber-schmoozing ' ia the electronic graiwvine. Internet chat nxims niesMge Kxirds, tor instance. o)>en up opponunirics to meet and talk with people *110 an help employees he more effective in their iohs and their careers, Cvbcr-vxhmmJzimf isn’t likelv to rvpbux the water e<M.ler, cxiraii part), uniwralumni get-togethe.^, or trade shows as places to make contacts and hwld political ‘U'c'. But online networking will hecome increasingly popular and etlecuve asa supl^rment to more traditional jiolitical channels.
'^«ll E-Orgs Redefine Interpersonal Relationships? has redefined »..replace P-*’''"--nSX |„„ge‘r earns,rarnenl be ,nne p aee m d.r.np .hen
^»re
‘^iJicadons of these c-org. to imenu rsoiw •'*'’?rt IS substantive
e\
tixlai than ju-st a few wars ago. f or instani_ , *?' 'ohne
4.i hour, ,scr wwk. In
« ’ hnurs..’^ I’here is also preliminary .ha, .he n.„e P-l-'.. M'*?;''^.^^^ar.e, of m^nla' users with friends and tamily
idencx*
are MK-nding more time th;U pe<‘plv‘ predirtnl Cmvenity stml> t„„e the) sjwnd in real-hfe
gx
PartrVThe Oi^niMcion System
Z
report that they now arc spending IMS time attending social actnitics and talking rheph<.ne to fricn
of
rhe
digital
age
to
conclude
that
Internet will undennine a sense of srxnal community. But it clearly creates new- way^ interact
with
w'oA
people
they’ve
colleagues.
never
mtl
and
Employ-ces
will
may
meet.
never
increasingly Theyll
be
working
develop
on
-office”
teams
friendships
wdth jwople thousands of miles away. And ‘^good interpersonal skills” msjy increa&mgly mean
not
nielude
only
the
the
skills
ability lo
ro
interact
comruLUiivate
effei-hvely
w'annth,
with
jx-opk
enwuon,
trust,
lace
to
and
face,
but
leadership
ju^
through
written words on a computer screen.
WORK DESIGN TTie
way
employee
that
tasks
are
pcrfoniuncc
and
combined
to
create
sarisfecrion.
In
individual
this
jobs
secdon,
ha5
V’e'll
a
direct
look
influence
at
task
(2)
some
on
characieru-
Qcs theories, work redesign, and work schedule options.
Ta.^k Characteristics'Ph cories Most
of
us
interesting
and
researchers. to
identify
different
acknowledge challenging
They task
jobs,
tliesc
have
than
tion,
satisfection,
tant
theories—the
the
and job
face:
(l)Jobs
others.
These
by
developing
responded
characteristics and
two
of
jobs,
relationship
performance.
of In
characferistics
how*
have
task
not
and gone
task and
characteristics we’ll the
review social
art
unnoticed
characteristics
characteristics
section
model
different,
fect^
these
these this
are
theories
are die
OB seek
to
form
employee two
by
that
combined
to
more
most
motivaitnjior-
infrirmation-proccsang
model. The Job Characteristics Model The dominant framework today for definite ta^?k characreristics and understanding their relationship to employee motivation, perfurmance, and satisfaction is J. Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham’s job characteris-
tics model OCM)."' According to dieJCZM, any job can be described in terms of five core job dimensions, defined as follows:
SkifJ vatrefy^ Ihe degree to which the job requires a varieh’ of different aetivides so the worker can use □ niimbef of different skills and talent IM ttiifatify: I "he degree to which die job requires completion of a whole and idendfiable piece of work
3.
1 he tlegrce u> which the has a aibstantiol impact on rhe lives or work of other people
4.
degree to which the joh provides subsmbal freedom, independenceand dxstretion to the individual in sehediilmg die work and in determining the cedures to be used in carqnng it out
5.
degree to which carr^nne out the work aniviefes required fav th® rwuhs m the individual’s obuining direct and ckar information about the effeco*' new of his or her pcrfonnance
Eihifni H-J offers cxamnl-e c Janmeristic, "ariple, E»h.b,t 14. J
•*
I•
‘^Ww 14 presents
the
r«4« j Eksign ftch„oJoBy «nd Work l'»w f.>r each
,ot,“'I
d,nu-n«ons-*k,J/ t~,rinv. task ul,.., •?.
>
^^ningtul 7-hat is. if these threeS mnniihent will v.cnv ,hi- jol. as hein^
f.r« three exist b a job
tmJ, tlur job- rhjt {^,ssvs>. ,t(,rono„,v p
valuable L
responstb.lm; for the l esvfts and rha! ff a ioow how cttei-rively he or she is .-rfor P'‘’^<
«hen sh.
i
’^l*>nMbihtvl has
1 ta^ that she cares about {expcricn,s?i pSKhnlogjuJ states lire firesent th--
‘jn
The n < r .
mance, and sarisfection and dle’lowiT hr7’" the nrffaiii/aiion. As l’■,xhihn 14 1 sh '*
‘^'"P'^Kc's aj^j |;(.,.(.e
'i'''"' ! "d’erfor-
..»,by rndnlda,!, ».,h a h.gh grop-U, „„,l ,r, „ ™.
.Se
,„b,, ana c„„efc„, ,H.„
.«« «h»
XXXX'T arQ wnri Jow grovf th need.
Characteristic SkiU nriety
High variety Low vanen* * Task identicy High hlentity Ixiw hknnrv 4
Task aignifiwm High significance Ixiu significance AutMomy High auvmnmy Ixrn autonomy
ftrcdhBck
Examples
of
High
and
Low
Job
Eumpte
The <jwn«r-op«.*ntor of a garag< who 4o«s clccthcal repir. rebuilds engines, dries bjilv work, and intrruYs with ewsrumeft A boJ>*!hhop worker who spray? paun 8 hour^ a day k cabinetmaker who dcjiigii^ fl |Mcee
huilda the object, 4firi frn/shev it ro fXT&U/n« A worker in a fwnuiure factory whi>o^wrii«2 hihe sokly co make Ug? Xunung the sick in a hospital micnsive care unit Sweeping hospital floors A telephone in<«ralkr who •icheduivi hi* or her own nwrk for che
n«a will*MH supervision, atul ifeddc* o« the most cfTuethc ttchfiHpies hit a particular installation A tdepht»w oiwratiJT whe must liaiulle lalU as il'cy rtnne atstirding to s nunne. highly sps'Cified procedure An tlectrtintcs fosturv worker »h«. »«»niibl«s a modem and then leso ii
i<.
dciermine if h opvrares |>n>per^y An fattr/O’ ’^<^ker who o-onbles a modem and then nwtes I efttHWltls — Ute j< Mttn <• CopyiW* it »• a qutbty cntnil in-peit»r who tesrs it for pn^wr n|«tition and makes nettled ac^tfvonertes
, J
EXHIBIT 14-2 Characteristics
ittrion Syitrm lisn 14-3
The Job Characteristics Model Personei
Crtticaf . paycholofial smes
and work crutcofvws
Experienced > meanirgfulfvess of the work
SkiU variety Task Wentity Task signtficafwe
High internal work mocnration Htgh-quality
ExperwKed responstbllic
y
work perforwance High satisfaction
Autonomy ------------------------------------------ ojtcornss
of the work
with the work Low absenteeism and turnover
Knowledge of the Feedback
actual resulu of
die work activities
V Soi^nx. J.fl. Hackman and J L. SuUe. cds.< ZmpMMng IJIB 8t Vi
Moreover,
they
will
rcsjvind
mure
positively
to
the
psychological
states
when
the>*
jrc
present than will individuals with a low growth neerl. The job ch a ra Cl eristics model has been well researched. Most of die evidence supports the gen end framew iirk of the thenr\ —that is, there is a set of job characteristics,
and
these
erable
debate
chanuteri
about
the
sties five
.ilTcct
specific
bchaviuraJ core
outcomes.’*^
dimensions
in
the
But JCM
tliere and
is
still
the
conoid"
validity
grtnsTh need strength as a mcxlerating va riable. Wicre docs this leave us? Given the current $bite of evidence, we can niakedi« following statcincnis with relative conluicncc: (I) People who work on jobs with hi^’ core ioh dimensions are generally more iiKJtiv^ied, satisfied, and productive tban^ those who do not; and (2) iob dimensions operate through the psy^chological influencing personal and work outcome variables rather than influencing the conics direedv?’^ f Sotwl ^’’^'^atioQ-Procegeir. vt j than n, tbeXv/r e<.»acu..U„ d-c,,.,. I.l
{x'ople a-si^o,, 4
ninfcck-arjnffli^ (SJp) nifliW-"
ot
^’»Pt«r 14 Technobj^ »nd Work Oe«t
The SIP m<J.lel argues that einpiy^ ,he SCCMl cues provided by rtJ.ers veiih uSom»>el.=iviors in re c-worke. s. supemsors. Irienrts, farnik- n, ? ***)'«>nw« i h? Ijng prt . Munnur pb working in a Bn.ish ( ±0
H.r
dns one paid f.arheuiarly well. a^i-k , ,..e^7wn weeks later, however, his n.odvarion
i'4is were L
«.as rhat his ca-uorkers cnns.stendy b.d-mouthed i ' “‘'1 ’"’• ^ad happened luring, .hac having Jock in and nut proved
"a-
wK
^penxsop never bstened to their opi.nnns. The obieT'^'u '""<> ‘h« ,^dn,„ ihanped in the two-week jK-rind; rather (iX h
(larj-’siob ’
basis (»f nie«agcs he had recekctl I'roiti others ' A inimlxT of studies
generally
Kalin-on tbe the 1
conlirm
insrance, n has been shown that emplowe mom ari ** '1 ”*
™«<’el.’^ For
lated by subtle actions such as a co-worker or boss e'"'
can he manipu-
jiiseiice u( job J'catiircs such as dtfllculiv chalk-ncr should
give
as
much
(nr
more)
existence or n can be inanipueniuloKes''\J'^^*'-'“‘"^’’-^V
atteiitinii'p,
’’
rhet give to the acnjal charaaeristics of diosc joU' rhev miirbl'^^ -"Ployees how i„,c,«u„g .„d
Lj jcLTt ™°"
^ptoi should ,Eo no, k surprised th,, newly hue J e„,p|„,„s J people „
p,„,„o,e,l
,0
a
new
posiuon
are
1
rno.e
",
likel,
to
he
at
their
teeepnve
,o
Le.al
info„n,„,T„
d)in are those \nth greater seniorih;
Work Redesign What
are
jobs
to
cusses
some
of
make four
ihe
them
ot
options
more
those
nuinagcrs
interesting
options:
job
have
iiiul
motivating
rotation,
job
disposal
for
if
they
employCLS?
enlaxgcment,
job
want
The
tn
redesign
foJlo^ving
ennebmenr,
and
disteam-
Used work designs.
Job live when the
Rutation is
to
UH*
It
employees
activity
i^s
same
level,
that
all
ihcir
gives
employee's
ested
in
from
job rotation (or what
an
cruss-trains
suffer
upward
more
no
longer
has
job
mobihry;
many now
challenging,
similar
customer
overrourinization
skill
and
cross-rraining
is
For
representatives.
tiicir
mw-hiy/w/g).
employee
requirements-
serv'icc
variety^
the
call
of
rotated
instance, The
challenge.
And
for
exposes
them
to
work, Wiib to
one this
technique,
another
America
altema-
job.
West
Airlines
company
say5
that
emphjyces
who
are
about
sixieeii
at
this inter-
differen^r^s
•if the company versus oniv one they would l>e exposed m it jobs were specialized. 1 he sirengrhws of job roTation arc that it reduces boredom and increases luouvabon thnmgh diversifying the employees activities. Ot course, ii can • ^2. I>enefit5 for the organization sinix* employees with a wider range o ' ageincnt more flexibility in hdiedulin|r work, adapting ro changt'. an j^sed On the (rthcr hand, job rotation has its drawbacks.
his or
and productivity is reduced by moving a worker into ''
rotation also
^'vr efficiency at the prior job was creaung organizanon creates disruptions. Members of the work group a'c I he supervisor may aJso have to spend more
employee, . and monitor. mbjrion can detnoiivate
"jg the w«wk of the recently roraicd empkiyee. km “Welligem and ambitious trainees who seek
'Pe«4ln
jn their chosen *■
f The OrpWMtif^n Systwn
W
Job EoJwsement More ch<w 51. yean^go. the idea of e-.p^ndinje
'J
nr wh«^«’l job enlargement, grew in papularny InereaMng ibe nun.hcrand v,„. X ofLk.
■
individual pvrtVn nKd reM.lted .n ,ohs with .nore d.verMty
of nnk sorting du' incomirg in.dl by depannien.. for .usance, a mail sorter^ jobeould be enlMfcd W include physieaiiy delivering the mail to the vanom .Icpartmenrs«» runuingoulgoinB letters diroughllK postage meter. Efforts at job enlargement met with less titan eiithas.astiL- resiiks.-+ As <«« einploj’CC
who
experienced
such
a
redesign
of
his
job
lack
of
remarked,
“Bt-torc
I
had
005
lousvRjh. Nw. through enlargement. 1 have three!" ' jobs
/Uthough ir
did
job
litdc
enIsM'gement m
instill
nuacked
challenge
rhe
'^r
diversity
mcaningfulness
lo
in
a
overly
workers
sp^xialited
aetivities.
Joh
ejii'ithnienr was intro.luccd to dc.i! with the shorteomings nf ciilargeineni.
Job
Enrichment
increases
rhe
Job
degree
enrichment which
TO
tile
refers
TO
the
worker
controls
vertical the
expansion
planning,
of
jobs,
execution,
and
h
evalu-
aci<jn of his oi- her work. .An eiirichcd job oi^anizcs tasks so as co allow the worker to do
a
complete
rcspousibiliie,
aciivit).
and
increases
premties
the
feedhack,
employee’s
so
an
freedom
individual
will
and
be
independence,
able
to
assess
increases and
correa
his or her own perftimiance. How based
on
docs rhe
jnanagement
job
enrich
cbaracterisdch
an
luodch
einphy'eeX specify
the
job? types
"JTic of
following
changes
in
suggeshons, jnlis
that
arc
casks
and
pot
1
measure
most likely to lead lo improving their motivating potential (see KxhiWt 14-4). 1.
Cyw/jw/e them
Munagtr^
back
tygeclicr
diould to
seek
form
;i
ic
lake
new
CAJsting
and
larger
and
fruvliuiulucd
niodulc
of
work.
his
increases skill variety and task idcinity. 2.
fVivnr Ntfr/nffZ-srent uniu. The creation of natural work units means thar the tasks aa enjpkjyee does term an identifiable and ineaiiingfixl whole. TH 15 measure increases anipkiyee "ownership* of die work and improves the likelihood tfut emplo^xes will ^•icw their work « meaningfal and iniporunt rather than as iiTple%*ani and boring.
EXHIBIT 14-4 Guidelhes for Enriching a Job ---------------------------------------
Suggested action ;S','
>,,
.1111 tiBlo
^ Forming natural work
Core |ob dimensions ,1,1 SkjBvylcy
Talk MentiQr
ffittahttihing dient :'l 1 . ■ -----------------relationships loadrng
Automm
charmte
; /• *
J1^. HflcMwan aM XL $MU e4s../rpmMn|Ul^*(ni0rt(aHrM«xt^Scaah»«aman^ 1977 LO 13&
I
M
fJc Chapter 14 Tethnolni^ and Work J. ExtafM chevf reioftert^hip/. 'I’he udient is th empluyw works .m (iind may he an prodiKt or svrwr that the organi^^uion). Wherever pwsihlv, maiwifer/ch'^’u^ JKrrnconc mitside the sJtip* heewevn workers and ihcir client tn tn esiahliidi direct relationback for tiie employee. ''ariety, autonmny. and feed4. £v/7^/«i^y6Z-r VerUcal expansion pves cinDlov.*t. tn* tn direct relationtbac were formerly r-erv-ed for man.X t>ewe«n the doinj!- and the \ontr
In and
general
turnover
6e
evidence
ity;
in
seem
.s
be
overall
costs
others, to
the
and
e-.^Jence
increases
inconclusive?'^’ it
decreases
consistently
some
Even
more
that
satisfectionj
In
n.
shows
job
but
on
situaiions,
when
enrichment the
iob
productivity
conscientious
use
of
reduces
critical
issue
ennchiuent
goes
of
productivity-
increases
down,
resources
absenteeism productiv-
however,
and
a
there
higher
docs
quality
of
work
in
product or service. Team-Based
Work
groups
teams.
work
and to
about
try’
co
Designs WTiat,
improve
iijJjvidual-based
because induals
the
w'ide
instead
Revisited if
anything,
employee
W'Oik
to
a
of
can
we
perfornwiue
design
popularity’
ot
Jncrcasiiigly,
than
we
say
in
do
person—is
ahnui
those
about
teams—specibcally
single
people
a
the
assigning
doing
design
groups?
desitrn
relatively
arc W'c
at
group-based
kjiow
rhe
tasks
of
a
group
to
a
lot
level,
more mostly
group
of
indi-
recent
phenomenon.
That
said,
to
as
valid
nr
the
group
a
group
to
perform
the best work in this area olfers two sets nl suggestions.-^' First, level a
as
high
the
JCM
they level
are
recommendarions
at
w'hen
the (1)
individual die
noted
level.
group
task
above
seem
Managers requiros
should
members
be
expect to
use
a
variety
of
at
relatively
high level skills; (2) the group task is a whole and muwngful pietx of work, w itlt a visible
outcome;
quences omy
for
for
(?)
the
other
deciding
outcomes
people; how
(4)
they
of
the
the
do
group’s
task
the
work
provides
work;
and
on
group (5)
w’ork
the
task
members on
the
have
signihuani
conse-
with
substantial
auton-
task
generates
regular,
trustworthy feedback about how well the group is performing. Second, Cohsistent the
group
with
following
composition
findings
four
described
conditions
are
is
critical
rn
in
Clhaprer
8,
met:
(I)
die
success
managers
Individual
members
ol
the
should
w
have
rhe
to
wor ensure
necessary
greupthat task-
relevant expertise to do their work; (2) the group is large «)members
possess
i,ncrpcrsun.il
as
well
as
task
skills;
and
(4)
membership
.s
atcly diverse in tenns of talents and perspectives.
Popular Work Schedule Options Jn a work world where employees are increasingly complainJTtg ...L.Uule onrions about being pressed ^'-r time wl the difficulty of balancing personal and work fives, ’uch a. flextime and tclecommuring can be a way W .mpmve employee pnxlucbvjtv, and sarisfaction.
moder
Tt>e Orfuunuicm Sysietn Hcxrimc
'
n«rim.
allows
is
employees
short
some
ha^o
worU
specific
work
within
cerSn
core,
asoally
"flesihle
discretion
number limits.
su
ft»r
of
.V
hours,
over
hc.urs
with
a
wh«m
a
sh«.wn
work
week,
in
flexibility
they but
r.xh.bit
hours."
ban.!
arnve
they
14-S.
at
are
each
day
surrounding
the
actually
employees
their
Hibs
two
hours
fi
during
A.M.
the
and
closing
common
Iwfore
core
and/or
at
6
P.M.
[scriod,
after
the
All
but
they
core
are
time.
to
«heduling leave
vary
c.nstsu
A^M-
at
a
and
free
exclusive of a one-hour lunch break, the a.re may be 9 opening
It’s
the
of
core.
work,
a
hr«n^
cotjinxm
For
example,
to 3 P M., with the office are
allowed
Some
required to
to
be
«
accumulate
their
program
all^
flextime
extra hours to be aawiulated and turned into a free day ofFeach month. Flextime full-ome 25
has
U.S.
million
flexihiliiv
become
employees
employees,
on
extremely
flextime
or
nearly
dieir
daily
arrival
equally.
U^iile
in
employees
an
42.4
popular
almost
2H
doubled
percent
and
of
the
of
1991
S.
full-time
U
xnanagers
option.
from
times?*
departure
percent
scheduling
But
enjoy
to
The
1997.
w
.approximately
firkforce,
flextime
die
pnjponkmuf
isn’t
freedom
now
ha»c
available
of
flextime,
dl only
2 J. 3 percent of manufacturing workers are offered a flexible schedule?** rhe tceism.
benefits
increased
toward
and
job
.Most
the
of
absenteeism
traffic
autonomy
performance
and
can
and
overtime
their
up
worker work
and
include
a
work
fur
the
stack's
They
expenses,
anjund
beyond
improves
absences,
numerous.
responsihilily
evidence
schedule
and
are
congestion
Bui
frequently’
tardiness
flextime reduced
satisfaeoon.^^
Employees
reducing
reduced
increa.sed
employee
fr>r
productivity,
management,
ncss,
sons.
claimed
lessening
sites,
that
whats
record?
productivity/*
probably
for
employees
can
with
adjust
personal their
tardh
flextime’s tends
align
of
increase
Flextime
to
hostility
may
favorably.
hours
aUen-
in
elimination
employees
claims,
reduced
to
reduce
several
rea-
d^mand^
thus
work
activities
to
those hours in W’hich they’ are individually more productive. Flextime’s with
clerical
(Jc^partment retail
major
Usks is
stores,
drawback
for
limited.
or
similar
is
which
an
It
not
is
jobs
in
that
its
not
employee’s a
w
viable
hich
applicable
to
every
interaction
with
option
receprionisLs,
for
comprehensive
people
service
job.
It
works
outside sales
demands
his
or
personnel
that
people
well her in heal
their w ork stations at predetermined times. Telecommuting
It
flexible
hours,
freedom
leagues.
Its
home
least
ai
might
called twu
related term rAr r/rOizJ
be lo
close
dress
telecommuting Jays
a
week
to
as
you and
on
a
the
ideal
please, refers computer
job and
to
for little
many
people.
or
interruptions
eniploy'ees
that
is
linked
no
who to
do
their
\O
their office.
commtitinp* frtMn work
at
(.A closeh
—is being increasingly used to describe employees wtxJ
work out of their home on a relativciy permanent ^sis). Currently, about 21 niiilit*’
EXHIBIT Y4-S Example of a Flextime Schedule
I 3m
cot-
4m
p^le in the United States tekcoiwnutr *2 L-
technology and WorkO^i
plain' Sotmare. Patagonia, and Xerox are . Management Svs n VVliat kinds of MK k-nd rhunsekS be^n idennfied a.s m.,st apprup.iatci to.nine?,Three cateEones have ines and pmkssional and other knowJedg,_^™J'™-’’’^dhng tasks, moWleaLand employ ers who spend the majority of thl J
»"»-
phone are n.Koral candidates for tekcomi,,,,,;
“t the telc-
ewtorner-.scrvKx- representatives, reservation aec K ' '"i”'
’c'cmarltetcn,
spend iiinsl o! dicir time on the phone. As Iclecomm '
specialists
on riieir computer sci ceiis at home a> ea.silv as..n tk
information
There are numerous stories of telecoim.,
in any office, ^••ccew ' .A1'S.-T has 55,000
teleiomniiuers and claimsstories that it nf has sav.-d the There numerous tele 75 percent of these -AT^T itlcroinmutere said personal
and
family
lives
rni'hon And tlian
licfore
they
staned
wewL
*^'^
claims that tclcconunuring has increased nrothictivitv ■’5"^
^ysicins
key employee, who ,night o.l.erwi.e h„e left, .„d ,.„'d
jI mT
|,„„
overhead.
As
cost
eqm^en,
telee—niauoa, to
the
introduce
the
nmial
of
trad.tion.l
ha, office
office
plummeted, b
a
wny
to
space
has
maoagots inmate
cst.laL
„e
aod
the
i,KTea„„gl,
employee
ikxibilin'
ev.vTof mohvated
and
productiv-
in; improve employee morile^ and cut co.sii.
Ihe wx
don\
long-lenn yer
huvc
future
of
dcfimiive
teltcrnnmuiing
answers,
Por
depends
ijtsunce.
will
on
some
questions
for
which
w’ho
tlicir
w’ork
employees
do
ar home be ar a di<;advamage in office poliuo? .Might they be less likely co he considered for salary increases and promotions:' Is being out of sight ct^uivalenc to being out of
mind?
close
Will
proxiinin*
non-work-relared of
rhe
distmedons
refrigerator
such
significantly
as
reduce
children,
neighbors,
productiviiy
lor
and
those
without
supennr willjxiwer and discipline?
IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS Technology is changing popic’s jobs and their work lichavini. Quality management and its emphasis <jri continuous proces^^ imprnvemenT can increase employee stress as individuals find ihat performance cxpectahons are ^nstanrly being increased. Process reengineering is completely reshaping^c j s o tm lions of emplovees. And mass cust<xni/ntion E making it possible for organmtions to efficiently tailor products to individual eustotne.’s tastes, but tj-pMlIy requires cmplovees to go rhniugh significiuic rd raining.
u.-rtlnmes to
The /„rg„„z»ti™ «ppli» hpcrnet. intranet, and *e M, hneatltS „f ,ta aepvities. „ i™ managers. hor instance, employees
etnpbvcc monitoring X'^r.^lo,™ privacy; precedt-ni: op'"
undermine rherr work prod,rcnv,t,n the wjfruarc creates ethical dilemmas tor tn.n .g . decisions must be made more quickly Minimum cations increase the porenual distractions from work tasks; cffecmx lea ‘lensHms quickiv. maintain high flexibility, t-orgs will likclv use electronic networks as a
overload and furdier .
be able to make usions. and eiiiplweesin boddinK political allies, QKISI
the
"'T
2t4
Part
Organization System An undersModing of wrk design can hdp managers design jnhs that pc«^. nvdy affect cinployxe motivyuon. For instance, jobs rhf>t score higJ^ on the •ncrciihc an fmpHyee’s control over key elements in hjs or her work. Therefore joi)s th at ofler autonomy, feedback, and similar enriching task characteristics help to KaTisfy die indindnni goals of employees *'ho desire greater control (jver their WTJrk. Of course, toit5;rstcnr wirh fhe stKaal «ifofnia«on-pfrx.es5ing mod^[ perception that task cliaractenstics are enriching is probably more important in influencing an employee’s motivation than are the objective task charactensties themselves. The key, then, is to provide employees with cues that suggest that their jobs score hi^ on feernrs such as skill varict)’, task identiry’, autonomy and feedback. In shokdd
an
effort
consider
to
help
implementmg
employees work
copc
scheduling
with
work/lifc
opxk>n8
confUexS,
such
as
managers
flextime
and
wtecomnauting where applicable.
t*:
I
Vr-
/
Human Resource Policies and Practices After reading this ihapter, you should be able to 1. De$cnb€ jobs fof which interviews are effective seiotton devices 2. List the advantages of perfonnance’^imulatjofi tests over wrirten tests 1 Identify fotx types of employee training
4. Identify the advantages of using behaviors rather than traits in appraising peribnnance 5. Explain the most popular performance appraisal criteria i. Identify who, in addition to a boss, can do performance appraisals 7. Explain actions that can improve the performance appraisal process
H
t. Describe approaches for managing workfwre diversity
he quabn of an organizadons workforce is largely a result of rhe people it
hires. II a firm hires new cmplovees with inadequate skills, for mstante. the
work perforroance of«hese employees is likely to suffer regardless of maiiagenicnt s efforts to pronde morivarion and leadership, create effective groups, or design chaiIcngins jol>s
«
The message of this chapter is diat human resource p-iUcies such as cmpltnec selecn«»n. training, and perfonnanee appraisa unce
an
organizauons
effecriveness.'
We
begin
^bicct of our
discussion
u.th
the
sub|vc
hjrintr,
EMPLOYEE SELECTION '^lui ch> application forms. intcr>icw5»» P”^*ul lenen of rccomnwndanon have •4-n.o.m ,b.», . M. -PPUCM. >bM t-an hdp UK orpmaaoon
ft>r olHatnmg determine
SjWcn
a
fUrtlV Tbe
or nor rhe flppHfant^ ski Ik, knowledge, and Abilities arc u|>propriaic for the }<*' question. In rhis section, we review the more im|Mirtant ot these selection device*^ *’ Jhtcreicw.s, wriuen xcsfs. ami perlonnancc-simolaricin tests.
hucrvicu'S in .South Korea, iapan, and manv other Asian touniric*. cinplovee interviews tradititj,^ ally Ji a VC not been part of the sekcdon process. Decisions were made a I most entirely the busts of evam scores scluiksnc acartnplishTncnrs, and letters of tecomincndaonQ ’I’his is not the case, however, tbnjughout most of the world. It’s prolwbly correct chai mosr of tloiAknow niauy people who ftave gorren a full-dmc iJi wiihnut at least one intern ew. Of all the seketitm devices char organisations use to difk-reniiate inb tacilidares, the hiterview cymlinues (o he the iiiie most frequently used.- Even eompanjcs in Asian counrnex have begun to rely on employee interviews as a sen: ening device? Not only is the interview widely used, it also seems to carry a great deal uf weight. That is. rhe results tend co haw a dispropcruonate ainount of influence nn the sclccuoi) ^keision. The eandidaTr who performs p<M)rly in the enipkonnenr interview is likely to Iw rot frtim rhe applicant pool, regaidlcss of his or her experience, tot scores, or letters ol recouun end anon. Conversely, “all too often, the person mostpoh i shed in jnb-^r eking techniques, par tied adv those used in the interview pnieess, is die one hired, even though be (rr sbr nifiy not be the best candidate for the position.”'* These selection
interview
duration, fccrive
causal,
Mjiccrion
and
often
can
distort
share the
findings
ihrir order
and
made
to
rusulis.
I
use
a
incdiod
recording
r>indom
JaUi
unduly
high
are
standardized
sci
information,
from
and
.such
hnerviewers weight
to
questions,
been
ro
standardizing
the
rhe
internew^shon
tn
to
a number favor
of
the
an
nf
inrf
biases
applicants and
evaluations.^
intcnfowcrs
rating
be
tvjMcally biased
information,
influence
providing
whicli
are
structure,
tending
in
proven
interviews
ncgauve
to
manner
unstructureil
Without
interviewed of
iiristrueuired
'The
performance.
include
biases
ihe
que.sdon5H-has
gathered
job
applicants
of
conducted.
ol
fa cure
giving
winch
up be
These
atumdes,
because
frequently
device.*'
interviewers of
itnpomnt
is
unrelated
in
are
w’ho
a
Hawing
Dv
having
a
uniform
with
applicant’s
qual-
ified tion.s, the variability in re.sults across ajiplicnnts is reduced and the validity of the interview as a selection device is greatly enhanced. The cant’s are
evidence
intelligence,
related
to
level
job
increased.
For
in
rnaiugeriat
upper
indicates of
interviews
motivation,
performance,
e.xatnplc.
that
these
positions.
the
and
validity
qualities This
most
interpersonal of
have
may
arc
the
valuable skiils.'
interview'
demonstrated
explain
why
as
for
assessing
^^Tien a
selection
relevance
applicants
rhest
for
lor
an
qualities device
is
perf^tinance
senior
luanagC'
mem positions t)-picaJly undergo dozens of inten iews w ith cxecunve rccruitert*, hoard members,
and
other
coinpjmy
explain why organizations
that
executives design work
before an
a
final
Hind
teams
decision
is
may similarly
through an unusually large number of interviews. In practice, most organizations use inten’icws for mure than a *prcdicbon-ofpcrfonnance” device? Companies as diverse as Suudiwesi .Airlines, Di.vncy, MicT<«ofu and Procter & Gamble use the interview ro assess applicant-organization fit. So additicMi (o specific, iob-relevanr skills, organizations arc looking at canAdaics sonalit)' char^txensbes, personal values, and the like to find individuals that fit the o^anizjihon^ culture and image.
made, put
h
can
applied’’®
■P^*t15 '’umsnRcwwcc Police,
Written Tests •h-pical uiirun tests intelligence, aptitude .1 i-
pipular as si-I« lion dcsStes. the,, have gcncralk’ ,1'
«»d integrity. Ltxw ’^equcnrly Jx^en
drtrtctcn/. d as disenininaring, an.l many ..tKani^ri k
i. lx.-ing jol.-rclated,
»Iidate, such lists js ‘’hdaied. << cajmix
Tests of inielk-tnjal abiiiiv. ^natial -^„,i L - . . „d motor -ib'liT ^’«ve been shoH-,, skilled
and
iinsUlkd
opcnitive
Mxuraty, jol^
in
or.«^,
indiisirial
•
P’’®dietors
for
many
s«3ni-
proven to IK- parricilarl)- g.xxl predictors h.r ,..bs that XuLTr' Japanwauio makers, u heii staffing plants in the ••'-''P’ltivc complexity.*'’ written tests Io predict which candidates will he high perfoXis^^'f "'"'“"J TwiJia. for instance, <-an lake up uj three days of oj •' *'’h . .............. Jabilin' work with others. uv
I
hese
in-,
carehiincss.
are
powerful
ovc
cmphiyee
are
paper.and-penal
responsibility,
in
predicung
liehavjur
on
and
tests
honesty.
supervisory the
job
that
The
evidenev
ratings
such
as
m«.surc
of
job
theft,
factors
is
such
impressive
performance
discnplinc
as
that
and
prtiblcms,
depen^bilthese
tests
lounterpitKlucand
exccswve
alfrcntcckm.’-
Performance-Simulation Tests VVTiat bettvr way is there co find out if an applicant can do a job than having him or her do it." I hat’s precisely the Ic^c of perfonnance-simubtion tests. Perforinance-simulation decades.
Undoubtedly
the
tests
have
enthusiasm
increased for
these
in tests
popularity comes
during
from
rhe
the
past
two
fret
that
they
sampling
and
more easily meet the requirement of job rclatedncss chan do most written teats. The assessment
two
best-know
eeniers.
'I’hc
n former
performancc-simulation is
suited
routine
tests
iobs.
are
whereas
work the
latter
is
relevant
for the seleedon of managerial personnel. Work sampling tests are hands-on simulations of part or all of the job that must l>e performed by applicants. By carefully devising work samples based on a detailed descriptKMI of the tasks involved in a job, management determines the knou ledge, skills, and abilities needed for each job. Then each work sample element is wtchtxl with a corresponding job performance element. Work samples are widey in the hiring of skilled workers, Auch as welders, machinists, can^ntef^. and clecfneians. For instance, cajididates for production jobs at B.MWs factory m South are given work sample tests.' ’ They’re given 90 min uics to perform a variety epical work tasks on a specially built simulated itsseinbly line. lhe results from work sample experiments arc impres-sive. Studio aJm^^ tiemonstrate that work samples yield validities supenor to wntten aptitude
A elaborate set of J*»ltt«e 1 candidate^ managcnal poteonal, is I®
p^vchologists eval-
centers, line executives, cwdMb.es » the) KO through one to several days of exercises tna
5-
The OrgaBlmon $y«Mn ,, ____ X •he iobJ’ Based ort a liwofdeicriptlve activities might include intendt^^ - kadcrlcss gn«’P diH-ossions, and businewdeek -
pmWerna that they wotdd qnns that the acnial j«
hour ixriod. , J k»w valid I* the assessment center as a selc< non
It
X. muTdccidr how to'respond to i« num<« i« h.s or her u.-basker within ,
Tliev
have
effectiveness
<‘f
assessment
centers
is
impressive
1 he evidence on the consistently demon-
managerial
srrated results thai predict bter job perfr.rmanc r in
Competent become inal
employees
oby>k
te.
training.
employees ers?'
For
sjxnt
Xcmx.
don’t
'I’hal^;
as
why
instance,
S54 a
billion
case
remain
in
competent
or^nizafinns
spend
it
was
reported
in
one
recent
point,
Ski11$
billiuns
of
that
year
spends
forever
more
U.S.
deteriorate
dollars
each
corporations
on
formal
than
$3(W
training
with for
tndliun
year
can
on
UM)
50
each
and
for-
or
more
mjllion
work-
year
on
training
and retraining irs employees.’**
Tjpes of Training Training
can
include
advanced
courses
everything
in
categones—basic
executive
litcrac);
from
teaching
Icaikrship.
The
technical,
employees
following
inrcrperymal,
and
basic
reading
summarizes problem
four
skills
to
general
solving.
In
skill
addition,
we briefly disruss diversity and ethics training. Basic
Literacy
Skills
Ninety
million
American
adults
have
limited
literacy*
skills
and
about 40 million tan read little or not at all; this literacy problem is costing U.S. companies
$60
billion
annually
in
lost
productivity?*''
workplace
demands
require
a
10th- or 1 Id^-grade reading level, but about 20 percent of Americans Ixtu ccn the ages of 21 snd 25 can’t read at even an 8th-grade lev el.-*’ In 1998, 36 jxrcent of U.S. job aptilitamoi
failed
some
version
of
a
basic
skills
test.’’
In
many
Third
World
countries,
few workers can read or have gone beyond the equivalent of I he third grade. Oi^anizarions for
their
are
emplfn*ee$.
increasingly
As
long
as
having
job
to
demands
provide
basic
continue
to
reading
require
and
that
math
skills
individuals
hav'e
solid skills in rhe 3Rs^ and many job applicants continue to lx deficient in these skills employers will need to take |K»idvc action to close the skills gap. Manv business firtWs lor
instance,
are
hiring
instruemrs
and
offerim*
classes
in
English
and
mathematics
ft*
employees at the workplace and during work h ours. T^hnicaJ
SldlU
technical
skills.
Most
iniining
Technical
is
training
direcied has
at
upgrading
become
and
increasingly
improving imporant
an todav
employee's for
t*®
reacns—neu- technolog) and ncu structural designs. Jobs change as a result of new technologies and improved methods- For mswnce, many auro re|«ir personnel have had lo undergo extensive training to fixawl maintain recent models with computer-monitored engines, electronic stabtliuo? Mtelliic navigation s>-stenis. and other innovarions. .Siinilariv. ciMnpuwf required millions of production employees to team a whok
f".™
eMnp*
iniportan, becn.se of
and break down rradinnnal deparunenwl^"''*«’*■ It-arn a wi'It-i' variety' nt i;,sk«i.
"amcrs, employees need tn
Inwrp*’’^*’"*’* en,p|„vves belong tn . i J,eirw■‘»•^^ IKTloj-mantt depends nn their abiluv ,.,i. r ,x,rker and ibeir boss. Some employees have t'xeelien'’HnV'''^^^‘'^‘’‘''i^
Ri some dcerec.
-rsre«iu'''i-' iramingto improve theii-s. J'his indinl..« I "'‘■'''’fHit othh<.«' to communicate i.kas mote clearly, and kZX play^^* Problem-Solving Skills Managein, as well as nianv cii,Dh,v..r< .vS .c, j^utiPf have to solve problems on the |oh. VVIum petmk tetuc^ ^ttorm nnnIdelicicntm ibe.n, lhev can pardemnte in nrX?v^ '
’‘><'1'*’’ut
'
,„,We acuvitH. to sharpen their lojpc, reas.S^ing, an7J ,,ell as thvit abilities o .i«tss causation, develop alternatives, analyze alum select solnrions. Probiem-soinng training has become a basic part of al.no”; eveiy organizational cffoit to introduce self-managed teams or implement qualiiv’
managtrnent programs, WTiat
About
Diversity
training,
for
instance...
tiatives.
MS
|>crccnt
programs
are
eMniiiiiiig
Training? recent
surv-ey
used
generally
fhe
stereory'pes.
(ound
training
intended
centerpiece
as
to
chat,
part
provide
Participants
(earn
of
tuinpanies
their
programs.--
vehicle
to
tliversicy
among
of a
most
value
lor
is
diversity
ini-
with
Diversity
increasing
individual
programs
training
awareness
differences,
'and
increase
their CTCKS-CUICiiral understanding, and confront sicereoh'pes.*^ The
rypiciil
exercises, cise
at
panrs
program
lecuircs, Hantord
to how
old
(2)
V\^Kn
I
from
discussions,
and
Insurance
respond
are,
lasts
to
would was
chat
the you
18,1
thought
a
day
gn>up
semghr
fullowinp guess
half
you middle
increase
questions:
are?
three
experiences.
to
bur
to
In
age
began
For
and
If
you
words,
ai
age
Includes
exainple,
sensicivih*
(1)
otiicr
days
training
to
^ging
asked
didn’t
know
how
how (J)
a
rolc-phipng
old
do
Today,
I
you ihmk
exerpartici-
old
led
you
inside?
middle
age
begins fl! age ____ . (4) Wluir would be vour first reactiem if someone called you "an nhkr Horkcr’7‘^
Answers
h'pes.
another
In
tach
partitipani
born-again stercohpes,-' ‘•ertain to
these
program
was
asked
Christians, They
groups
shatter
to
in
the
questions designed to
blacks,
were the
also past.
stcrcutyT^es
to
write
asked
used
to
analyze
awareness
of
the
anonymous
Hispanics, to
on
directed
then
raise
an
ifays
Based
were
paper
men—to
explain
why
responses,
guest
at
gnMip.
each
power
detailing which
they’d
This
of
all
was
>
stereotypes,
had
troehle were
stere<»-
groups—women,
they
had
speakers
age-reiared
attached
working
brought owe
with
into j
ex
the c
diwiission. About Ethics Training? A sun-ey fouml that alxiut 75 working in the l.lHffl largest U.S. corpiratii.n.s receive ethics traimug, on wheduT you can teach ethics is not clear. Cntk-s argue that ethics arc based on values, an *
, already been
^■*'1) age. By the time employers hire |u'uple. their e ^tabltshud.
The
In’ cxdinpk.
critics,
also
claim
“taught," hut niusr be that
ethics
cannot
he
formally
The
System SuBPWten ofcthKs training argt.e that values «n be leaded and changed a^
early chiKl. And even if they couldn't, ertnes tia.mng tvnuld IK effee .ve rhclp^mployces «, recognize erhied dilenunat. heco.ne more .avt^re rj tk edtie,! LXndcdt-ing their actions, and reaffinns an nrpm.zant.n s ex,Kc-tao.ms that tnem. bers uiU urrcthicaNy.
Tmining Methods Training methods are most reatlik eUwfied as formal or informal and on-ihe-iob or ff a , I • I
off-thc-job. Hiscoricaliy, training meantTw-witf/ structured ingly
relying
nations ity.
formar.
They the
on
and
most
H<jwvver,
mosr
has
indicated
leaching
training
information
important
is
nothing
and
outcome
skills
sohe of
and
more
trend
organizations
than
is
and
keeping
work-related
this
that
unptanne.l,
m/»ww/rrd
informal
share
Its planned ui advance and has a
evidence
individuals—Ikr
1I
problems that
cisily
employees
emplityees many
ith
increas-
adapted
current.-''
helping
w
are
each
one
managers
losit-
In
real-
other
out
another.
are
now
Maybe
supportive
ofwhsr used to be considered “idle chatter." At a Siemens plant in North Carolina, for instance, to
be
management working.-"
managers focused
recognirits
Discussions
thought, OU
now
about
Miking
that
around
nonwork
u'i>rt*re1ritcd
die
people water
needn’t
be
cooler
or
sports
topics
such
as
prubUni^.
So
now
on
in
the
the
production
cafetena
or
politics.
Siemens'
line
weren't, They
management
as
largely
cncnimges
$ucb uaMial meednrrs. (Jn-ihe-j^ih ments, job
and
formal
training
invest
in
Trahiifig
includes
mentoring
methods
ffff-rhe-jfft
is
programs.
that
rra//ii/ig.
job
they
The
rotaaon, But
often
$54
apprenticeships,
the
primary
disrupt
billion
the
figure
undci^tudy
drawback
workplace.
we
cited
include?
\*idcola|>cs, television the
The public
classes,
most
group
olT-the-joh
Hamburger
enhancement, maximizes
and
learning
experienced
tltat
employee
who
live
self-srudy aei
ivities
training
earlier
franchisees. bum” is
lassroom
programs, Aatusc
and
we
undergoing
Internet is
the
Vs
its
all
have
on
and
deal the
it
hum
training
costs
in
a a
satellite
•beamed
studies.
course training
One
of
oftered
at
operations for
protected
customers. with
encompasses
combines
skills
job.
aiso
case
curritulum
real
time while a supervisor tries to explain or show
But
twy-week
done
on to
training
organize
for
courses,
interpersonal
frustration
when
lectures.
rolc-playing
Hain
And
minimizing
<
on-the-
of training might
programs
management,
while
‘‘slow
is
University.-’^
equipment
managers
service
popular
somixiars, and
famous
McDonald's rant
nmst
these
So
was largely spent on tht fnnnal, off-the-fob variety. WTiat this
of
assign-
Alost
clerk,
'They
take
an employee how
restau-
environment of
us
have
cashier,
or
other
up
our
valuable
particular tasks art
to be done.
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL Why
are
onnain-* oons
ot
performance <»
t
eir
ob(c«jve
appraisals
employeesr appraisals,
important?
What and
potential how
are the key questions addressed in this section. J.* It
can
I
low
do
orgaiiizaii(»ns
pniblems
can
arise
managers
ovenxune
to
appraise subsen
thus*
th*
pcr-
th*
inten-
i.ntbkinj,?
'Il»e«
Chapter 15 Hunan Rcsnurce Pnlido, and jVn-fonnance Appraisal and Motivation
.
fn <* h 3 ptcr 4, i.’oiisi dera b I e ii iten d on was invc n K ► t h P ..v \v<
cLiTt^ndy ..ffcn the best
jn,ount ol effort an .ndiv.du.l will exeri on hi^ her i,?h \ moW is pcrlonnance. specifically the effort-performwce and Mages. Do people see effort .as Jca.Iing to perf< ’ "e that they vafoe? Cleady people ite ro
Th"
„eed to know how rhe.r pedorn.ancc will be mcasmred. hurtber fol .n K fi T ?' dent that il they e.x«i an effort w^dlin the,,- capabilities it will resuk in . p^rfonnance as defined by the entena by winch foev are hMgXn J VS fed confident that .f they i^erfor.n xs they arc being «k«|. thev will aV Je tS fevwd;^ du‘y vahie. In hrief. if the olvecrives that employees are seeking are for
measunng
focir
efforts
will
will
he
an
are
achieved,
Hence,
objectives
lead
a
we
can
are
vague,
-satisfactory
payolf
expect
by
the
plays
If
appraisal
iiidmdtials
appraisal
and
the of
to
an
work
employees
tlu-ir
organizabon
when
role
lack
confidence
performance their
in
or
performance
there
objectives
their
intineneing
that
believe
IH;IOW
considerablv
important
unclear,
potential
an
employee’s
when
appraising
We Evaluate?
criteria
eripl
to
unsansfactorjr
performance
motivationWhat Do The
foose
or
criterion
performance
that
will
have
managenient a
niaiur
chooses
influence
to
on
evaluate
what
employees
do.
Two
exam-
ples illuscrate this point. In
a
public
employers of
seeking
interviews
sis
rhat
with
employment
they
rhe
the
workers,
agency, einplojTncnt
conducted.
evaluating
number
of
which
The
criteria
interviews
served
interviewers
interviewers’
influence they
workers were
actions
behavior.
conducted
seeking
appraised
were
widi
by
consistent
Interviewers
than
employment
were
die
the with
more
number
of
and
number die
the-
concerned
clients
they
placed in jobs.-^^' A
management
community* drive
to
highway police
officers
would
the
highway
for
their
w'ork,
munity's
consultant
but
City
this
Council
come
that
entire
specializing on
ducj’
in for
cut
through
the
toun,
shift.
Clearly
this
fast
behavior used
made
mileage
sense on
police their
shift,
and
get
speed
cruising
once
pulice
research
the
into
back
had
as
an
that
their
and
little
consultant
vehicles
norited
police
forth
to
learned
one cars,
along
do
this
w’ith
good
the
com-
that
evaluative
in
measure
of
police effectiveness?* These ^raisal.
but
e.x3mpfes what
.r^rnz/ZJ
demunstraie tnanagemcni
the
importance
evaluate?
rhe
of
three
criteria
most
p( rel="nofollow">i»ular
in
performnee sets
ot
ria are individual task outcomes, behaviors, and traits. •ndividual Task Outcomes If ends count, rather than means, then nianag ‘h-uld evaluate an employee’s task outcomes. Using task outcome.s a plant mm ’get txjuld be judged on criteria such as quantity produced strap g per unh of p'roduction. Simtlarly. a salespetsran could be as.. . n o e.H «les volume in L or her territory, dollar increase m sales, and number *^'’unt» esrahlished.
-
crite-
The OtgaiWcadon Symm Beh^o» In many w rioim rhe
and b.r.er
each ,s
«.
lliia
Mork
case,
team's
perk.rmance
rhe
member
examples,
artions.
whose
unusual
purnows
ciloyce^
individuals
learn
nor
difficult«. identiiy apeafic nutc.nes «n he
may Iw
hr
behaviors might
leadership
cd-;,
itKhnIe
style
that
ro
plant
may
are Iw
manager in
that
ue
.T«l.ly
l>
employc<-H |m(
s
be
his
Pertinent
he
li,
hr
her
.n
tcan,
siah
efft^
s;dc5i>cpson
.
msTanew.j, rhe
pr«k,»
jrerbima.ue
nionihjy
staff^
ec^rnlnwcne,
tH-havior.Jls.ng
used
or
ofa
u,
KleirUly dearU.
eouM
exhihitt.
..t
en.duaud,
employee
suHinmng
nKln.1^^e^
n
inffinsiu,
orimposwhk in evaluate ihe
promptness die
pamnilarly
assignmcnis
ditticult
management
,s
apprai,ji
rrimrts
ar
behnviors
the could
average number of contact calk made per da>' or sick day^ used per vMt. 77, e ^^eakest set
real 17 That such irails arc fre
used in orgaTiirations as criteria for assessing an
employee’s level of performance.
Who Should Do the Evaluating? Who be
should his
or
evaluate her
an
employee’s
immediaTc
boss.
performance? By
The
tradicion,
a
ohvions
answer
manager’s
would
authorin'
seem
rypically
to has
included appraking subordinates’ per for man t:c. The logic behind this rradidon seems to 1>c diat since managers are beki responsible for their suhtirdinates* perforinancc» it only makes sense that these managers should evaluate that performance. But that logic may be flawed. Others may actually be able to du the job better. Immediate and
Sujierior
middle
boss.
^*
About
levels
Yet
a
nf
95
rhe
number
of
yiercent
organizanon
of
all
are
conduct€
organizations
are
pcrfonnance
appraisak
by
recognizing
the
the
at
the
employee’s
drawlwck.s
lower
immediate
ro
using
this
source of eval ua Lion. For instance, many bfKses feel unquulilied to evaluate the luiique contributioas with
their
of
employees’
scifrmanaged bosses
each
from
teams, their
of
rheir
careers.
subordinates.
Others
In
with
addition,
telecommuting,
employees,
an
and
cniplnycc’s
other
rcsen: many'
l>eing of
today’s
organizing
immediate
asked
superior
“play
organizations
devices may
co
not
that be
God” using
distance a
reliable
judge of chat employee’s pertnnnancc.
Peers
Peer eva]u.»rions are one ol the most reliable sourtres of ^pprakat data. Why*
Firsu peers arc clow m the action. Daily interactions provide them with a comprehensive view of an employees 10b pcrfornuince. Second, using peel's as raters results in several indc|>endcnt judgmeiirs, w hereas a boss can offer only' a single e-aluadon, .And c average of several ratings is often more reliable than a single evaluation. On d* down side, peer evaluations can Miffer from co-wwkers’ unwillingness ro e^^wte <W another and from biases of friendship or animosity. Having employees evaluate their own perfomuiKc is consistco’ seh-inanagement and empowerment. Self*o*aluauuns get high marks from employees ihemscbrs; they tend to lessen employees' dcfcnsi%eAC«
Chapter 15 Human ReMMirce Policies and Pr*cd«« about the appraisal pr.>cess^ anil they make exedkhr v k i r -cr/onnanre disfussuuis benvecn emplovecs anj ? " stimukung job^
^juess, h
self-evaluations
ofren
have
low
niight
agreeinen^
wilh
scU-servmg
bias
Because of ihese .mon. drawhaeks. sdf.evaluL’o," are developmentJ1 uses than evahiadve purposes.
better suited frir
feurth judemenr 'smirr'A s.^
i».
SuborJin;iCv:s. These evaluations can provide accurate and'detaSldiX** marag^T. 1 hey ,,rc also conscstcin with ...any organizaticns' eff..t,s tn create cultures j„r value honesty, openness, and employee empowemreut. 'Ihe obvious problem dns form <./ ratine^ is tear nl reprisal from bosses g.v.-n unfavorable appraisals ■rhefft-rv, re.spnn.lenr anonymity is cnicial if these evaluations ate to be accutate. The Comprehensive Approach: The 360-Degrec Apprais.-il The bust Approach to performance appraisal is the use of 360-degTee appraisals?-* It pnmdes for performance feedback from the fell circle of daily contacts ih,u an employee iiug^it hare, ranging from mailroom personnel to customer to Ixissei to peers. The number of appraisals can be as few as 3 or 4 evaluations or as many as 25. with most organizations collechng 8 to 12 per employee. A d^rec
survey
of
232
companies
appraisal(’oiiipanfes
found
currently
that
using
more
this
than
65
approach
|>erccnt im
were
ludc
using
Alcoa,
360-
DuPont,
Levi Strauss. UPS, Spimt, Ar&'H and W.lGore .Assonates. V\'hat’s the appeal of 360-degree appraisals? I’hey fit well into organizations that have introduced tcairis, employee involvement, and qualif^’-managcnicnt programs. By rehing on feedback from co-workers, customers, and subordinates, these organizations are hoping to give everyone a sense of participation in the review process and to gain more accurate readings on einplotn^e pci*fbrmance.
Pertormance Appraisal Methods Obviousiv,
performance
emplot^ee’s
performance?
appraisals That
is
arc what
iinportHni. are
the
But
specific
haw
do
you
techniques
fir
evaluate
an
appraisal?
The
following reviews the major perfonnance appraisal mcihods. Wrirten Essays Probably the simplest method of appraisal is to write a narrative describing an eniplovee’s strengths, weaknesses, past perlomiancc, potenaal. ansi suggestions lor improvement. The uTitien essay requires nj; complyftainirg to compkle. bad aiijraisal may be determined as much by the evaluators writing skill a.s by the emplyvue s actual level nf pert’onnance. Critieal Incidents Critical incidents focus the *at are key in making the difference Qych. That h. the appraiser writes down did that was especially effective nr incUcctivc. The ey and not vaguely defined personality traitSi 3i*f Pn^VKles , rid) sKofexumples from which m desirabk and those that call fur improvement.
what the employee
the
only specifichehav^^rincal incidents ‘ ^hown the behaviors emplm^c ear be shown
•T
• <; • The OrTWlMti"" SW'”
i..HnrSrtlcs Onc.ftheoWcnandmostp^ulirnwthcMlscfippral,^ G«phic l^np , «t of pcrfi.nnanw favton. jmch ^ the .!«■ oJ gi^h'c « J[ . ..ij-n.^vWpe, cooperation, 1oyalt>', attendwu, and
quunot.-
M;
’V
-
• ■»
honesty. .UHI I
down
tl.u
list
nnd
rateTS;
npkallv specify live points, so a factor such as>
^^'^■,^'”'■^.'”■■’''‘'1^ ‘l<=pth of inti>rnntion\h't essuys or cnrictl inadents- do. they are less tmu-wnstunirg devclon ..nd administer. Thev also allow for quantiUUve annh-s.s and coinpans.,n.
Behaviontlly maior
Anchored
elemenrs
Raring
tn.in
div
Scales
vriiical
Behanontl
incident
y
and
ancliored
graphic
ra
rating
ing
scales
scale
wmbinc
approaches:
Hie
appraiser r.tirs the vmplovecs on die basis ol Kenis along a conQiiuuni. hut the points are exam,des of ,x t.wl hehanor on the given iol, rather than general dcscnpnons or traits. Behaviorally able
j«.b
fnxind
anchored
behavior.'Examples
by
asking
retr.irdingeach
translated
into
a
performance.
paics,
plan.s.
I
of
p^rccip^ints
liehavior
of
raring
scales job-related
ro
give
perfonnance
set
of
specify behavior
siK'cific
executes,
solves
These
dimensions,
he restdts of this process trninediaiv
and
uf
carries
and
having
dcsci
iptioiu,
nut
tncKur-
dimensions
are
ineffective
examples
dimension
are iK-havioral
and
ctleccive
lx:havi(irnl
each
problems,
olwerv-abk. perfonmnee
iliu^alicins
dimension.
pertornijnce
dcfinire,
are
vanmg
then levels
such as antid-
orders,
and
handles
emergency .siniarions. Muidperson
Cx>mparisons
perfornuiKx against measuring
device.
Multiperson
that of The
one
or
three
comparisons
more
mo.st
others.
popular
Tt
evahwtu
is a relative
comparisons
one
rather
are
individiuh
than
group
an
absolute
order
ranking,
individual ranking, and paired comparisons. The oetlcf rank'ifig requires the evaluator to place employees into a particular dassiffcation, such as top one-fifth or second onc-fifih, This method is often used in recommending students to graduate schools. Evaluators are asked lo rank 6e student in the top 5 percent, the next 5 perccin, rhe next 15 percent, and so forth. But managers to appraise employees, managers deal with all their subordinates. Thereft;re. if a rater has 20 subordinates, oniv 4 can be in the top fifth and, of wurse. 4 must also be relegated to the boitom fifth. The manager
is
difference
r/ntkhfg
required
between
iMenty-first ^ouped,
mJiriiit/al
and
Ulis
the
to
approach
appraise
first
and
twcnry-sccmid.
approach
allows
orders
employees
JO
snixirdinatcs.
second
employee
Esen for
rank
no
tliough ties.
this i.s
.some The
result
same
the is
best
approach
rhe
of
from
assumes
as
ihal
employees a
clear
to
mav
nnfenng
worst.
If
that
the
between
die
be
ebsek
nfcmplm-«s.
Inim the highest perfonner down to the knve^i. The
p.,ire.l
eomparur,,,
approach
compares
each
employee
with
every
otbef
employee and rates each as eirhei the superior or the weaker member of the pair. After all
paired
cximpar.sons
are
made,
ea.
h
employee
is
assigned
a
summan
ranking
hasc-i
.m the number of superior scores he or she achieved. This approach ensures that exh
U rciame stands nU. For ciample, u uiu*eW
r I
1, k, R«ourcePn^«^
Humin
^ieht 'I''- 'hr graphic rating ^-ak- an.l ,hc indnadu-i „ t ,nl«>mwn«»n ahniii its snuicnts' pcrforminr/^ ^"’*1"***”"' »*'’*’<*« moi* :«•' aU«.!.itf grade'„f A ‘*‘e at tv^,,st,',dentil‘ "" L’ ’“■'^P'TOvi H,fferaiK at mnndng c-.uraes anti draw omd'Sl jbouT each where neit to one gra.k- it says "ranketl fourrh \ cnnclusioni ^hersav.' "■•anke.l t.uirreentli
SyggeMions ^1,,
ped,.nuance
evalu^itor. eJ
fbr appraisal
on
nuke
ptiq^oM's.
state
1
hi.is
and
traits
see
the
the
appraisal
or til
by
themselves
(the
iiroccss
.raneik-ltl
s.nd..r.,y
errors,
as
.nftate
.dlow
or
use
sitnihiriqpolitical
eiTOi).
one
whtj
curse,
nvcrily
ft<
Xl
mukr-
eluracterist.c
people
to
instance
leniency)
halo
of
nr
pr.,e«s
(the
;\n.l,
opix.ituniiy
the
of
charat-terisi.cs favoring
I
(lu.sitive
.tssessinent
iinconsciouslv
a
prx.hknis.
evaluations
the
other
.d
Appraisals
error).
to
So.ne
have
qualities
some
evaluators
reward
or
punish
tl’slikc. While there are no protections th.it will niurranlte accu-
cinplnyv-'vrate
leniency),
Performance
p.tcntial
unconsciously
evaluations
to
a
anti
assessniein
their
siniihr
is
halo,
can
(negative
inlluciiie
upiiraisci'
proe-evs
kn.ency,
hey
iKrtori.i.niee
unduly
Improving
perfonnance
appraisals,
the
following
suggestions
c-an
significantly
help
to
make
the |)r«Hcss more tibjcui'v ami fair Emphasize related
Behaviors
lo
gocxl
are
intuitively
question
is:
ersthan
those
such
appealing
.Arc
employees
find
others
Our
eoncltisi
hut
there
who
who
is
rate
is mi
as
dcsirahlc who VVe
high
cxccHeru
that
in
loyalty',
low?
rate
.ire
niaVs
Traits
as
individuals
who
are
Than
perfonnance
trails
ForexampL\
Rather
traits
evidence
on
arc
f
to
licrle
evaluated
as
answer
this
these
as
do
loyalty' that
or
no
high
certain
rciaricjn
employees.
traits
question
easily.
VVe
are
jxjur
score
well
on
mitinlivv traits
may
will
lx:
he
jierformance in a large section
to
be
performance. scir-cxprewiion
But
those
ami
lo
nnJ
on
not
and
considered
rcliahilin;
in
characteristics but
often
courage,
characteristics
can’l
suppon
tracts
have
ii’kitiiitive,
jKTformers such
Many
the
relevant
biglier
pcrftirm-
know
that
iwrfonners. traits
such
prized
adeiiuate
liy
there
We as
can these.
managers,
synonynw
for
,. tn id i
Another weakness of trait evaluation is the judgment itself W wt is nya ty . 'Hen is an employee ‘‘reliable ? What you consider -loyalty," I may not. So traits suffer from weak inlcrratcr agreement. Document
Perlbrmance
Behaviors
in
a
Oiary
Dianes
^»rgani/t intormation m their memory. I he evidence vpccifK critical mcidcnts lor each employee, . less prone to rating errors.^'^ Durics, lor .nstanee tend
i , , r..dHce k-nicneV and 8938
halo errors lice a use they encourage the evaluator to fotus on | ^*havn,rs rather than traits.
.
* Uulciple Kvaluaton A.s the nuiiil>er
’Naming more accurate infonnation increases. I
an iiHTeasc in the nundxT of appraisers wi I"'-.
.h,«,
rt„
n,i,l(lle. .„,l
V,.u
’«> f<»|bs* a normal \ p j mah*hy ctmgrcjthlciie aimpcooom «
scr .b„ .PP-”.''' A «I •>, evaluaW’.' P-PK. P^
udX
pcrfn™“«
hrtnr
The Oi^hlMdjjn Syewm k.wcM He«.iCM .n- dh.ppea, «•»<’ the fi.ul |KTfr.rmfln« i, .n^,^ ..r thne .cn.nining- The l-.gu nf ...ult.ple „ ■
««• nw AM- ............ .. >l>^.hr ' I’-'' I l.r.el..rr. I.y viniihivcv. wiihin the org^mrAiiKMi MI U* VI g’JHi n huiiibpr o1 c\nluau(>hi» OP iiMiitf nuilliple asu’>MM‘s G»s pnn’ulrd «n
appNihJs). IIUTUASV llw
;d)iluyot'.HWnignKHvv.iliaaud rJi.iMc r^..hhmons. Hflluaie Sckiiivch Appi.nM r' JVHIUI ev.ihiuic only in urvan in vhuh they have If Mter. iitike rvuhratiuns only an (limcnsuins lot ,hc‘y arc in
M.inc
a pxxl posiiinn in rale, 'vc im-reusv ilu- interralvr iigrvemcni «n
Evnluators
rvatuDiors.
There
If
you
can’t
//«//g<«id
evahiaiors,
is
suhstantial
evidence
that
sin
halo
lenieiu'y
lhe
training
alternative
evalnau»rs
is
ran
to
make
wtr
gticxl
them
more
act (Irate ratei’sJ’* (ainnnon Workshops shn|b not
in
typically always
envoi's
lie
were
sesMons
ernirs which run
h
as
nianageix
from
one
necessary.
practice to
Onv
three ease
decreased
immediately
only
rninuies.
lasting
live
and
have
observing^ days,
has
Iwen
aher lint
but
Ixx-n
and
in
exposing^
lhe
rating
nllocaling
cited
effects
mininnzAxt
livhaviors.
many
which
htuirs Ixith
evaluators
to
tr.iining
do
of
<»r
cliininauxl These
to
hahi
in
wnrk-
(raining
iiuy
and
leniuney
explanaiorv
training
.ip|KMr
to
diinniisli
twer lime.'^’ This suggests ihe neetl for regular refresher sessions. Provide
Kniploycvft
appraisals
lo
inii-ease
turcs
eharaetenze
notice
ol
aired
in
what a
fair
with
ttuc
js
Dne
the
pereepri<m
process
expected
hearing
Process
so
ol
(haI
sysiciiis:
(hem;
indn
The
(2)
iduals
all
concept
of\/w<
employees
are
(I)
iiulividnals
relevant
afteeteil
can
/izvAWcun trcaietl
are
evidence
to
respond;
and
a
priqnised (
I here is txmsitierahle eviilcnce linn appraisal systems often violate employees due process liy providing them with infrequent anil re la lively general iwrlbrnuiut feet^Mek, allowing them biilc input into the appraisal priKcss, and kmnvingly intmducing Inas into iKu foimattce ratings. I low ever, when due process has been pj(« appraisal sysu in, employees report |)osittve reactions to the appraisal pnxess, [wranx t e rvaluaimn results as nuire accurate, and expre^ inca*ased intern n» remain with the orgMui/ioioiv
Don'l l-orgct Pcrformaiue Kwdbuckl ’’^anaj^'rs, few auivines are more unpleasant (han providing |Hrfornw»^ tmh, managers are likely to ignore this res|H»ns(hdi^?’
1
applied
fairly.’’’
provided
based on the evulence and free from hias,
t^mployees?- In tact, unless pnssured tn- organi/4tionai policies and CJ®" .j
IK
0
iht*
Three
tvilli v Ihial
to tea-
adequate iolation
is
decisMW
,
,
Chapter 15 l.un,»nKa.
Prw;tlfl< feedbavlc'."UCW I’fJiciMjnd Th *' ‘‘•'’''•’'"ng perf.in.unee
Mb, the ^luctance to perfonnan« rtiree rea«>t.s. hrsi. managers are often unenmfonat ' r .•eaktiesses .hrcctly xvith employees, tiiven that alm"? n,
imi'Tovc
in
some
areas,
fc.,r
nwnagei-s
a
eo„fro,„a,
*’'7
'•‘"’P'nyee
could
(^llwvk. I his apparently apphes even when i.eooi,. .hv'”' *
stand
negatht
putet! Bill fiates reporu that 'ticniwift condu-t-d^ .w rate their i xperieiite with .i einiiputer. “Whe,, i, Ji **“* required users to worked M ich ask for an evahuition of its ixrfornianee the '‘•'''de.l u, 1« pt®.
iliw But »hin we had a second computer ask the «im Counters uith the first m.ielunc. the ieop etre „,„c-tance to eriticirx the firs, computer •,!. its laX J^^'h to hurt its Ic-ehngs, even though they kncM it Mas onb ^mjcJiiL Se‘'‘‘”i ‘ emplnjres tend to bccon^ defensive when their weaknesses are poimJd oct of accepting rhe feet I,ack as constructive and a basis for miproving performance ,«m« emplo.vces challenge the evaluation by criticizing die manager.it redirecting
Idanic to someone else. .A surv ey of 15 i area managers in Phila.lclphi i, for instance found that MS ixrceni of these managers encoimtead some tvpe of aggression after going employees negative appraisals,-'' Kimilly. employees tend to hive an infiated jssessnteiit of their iw n pcrfonnance. StatLsticalb s|waking, hall of all employees must he iieloM-avcragc performers. But the evidence ind'ic.nes that the average emplnyccs estimate of his or her own pcrfonnance level generally falls aruiind the 75th perccnrile.-^’ So even M’hen managers are proviiling giKid news, empiotxes are likcK to perceive it as not gcMxl enough! The train
solution
managers
rexiew—one cere,
and
in the
in an upbeat improve,
.ind
to
in
how
which
the
climate IIKHKI,
the
as
|Krtbrnuncc to
feedback
conduct
employee
problem
txmstructive
perceives
constructive—can
the
result
is
feedback
ap[>raisal in
not
the
as
(o
ignore
sessions. fair,
employee
IIK
it» An
manager
leaving
the
hut
to
effective XS
sin*
interview
informed a lx nit the perfomiancc aixas in which he or she needs to
determined
to
correct
the
deficiencies/
In
addition,
ihe
performance
avivw should be designei,! more as a v'ounscling iutiviiy than a judgment priKTss. I his can
hesi
he
aexomptished
Iw
allowing
the
review*
to
evolve
out
of
the
einploncs
own
self-evaluation.
UTiat About Team Performance Appraisals? Perfonnaiicc ipprjis.il itmivpts have been alinosr exclusively employee-s in mind. I his fact rellevts .he l.hct cha. 47
building block around which organizations are biiih- But as MI se ?
around
«u. .hi« b..,.l. „„.re .„d ,.,.,rZ;.rg,niz«„.,n, are reerruUunng HDH should rhosc organ luve Ix^en offered li designing a f"n«nee„f,e™,s.“
using warns <. imonwes th« that suppirts and imprm J
1.
7ir /ir rtfults apply IO iniponani goals that the icatn is supi
2.
Bf^pn t:ift> ibe Hinit'i (Wtnmtis afJ TbTfinal pnaluc. the cusu-twr rnpuretiients ITw
J' * aceoinplish. ~^|,uted in teniis of the ewno’*"'’ reexi.ves can ‘;X; X^ontheh«uof«W.«n,
betwe^ teanw
^je ume.
and ukutiT)'. ^nd the pnwei® »wj“
.4
Hut IV Tlic Orgmimtion Syntm
V
3 Afrijwr botb tcttta und MtitvidtMf Define the mks <»f <arh team a wnns of m-wnplishinviiu th«f wppon the wain's work process Then u
Perft>nnan<e Appraisal in a Glohsil Context We in
previously affecting
WTiy?
examined
Irehavior.
Because
rhe
role
Caution
many
that
inu-st
perfonnance
he
cultures
u.sed»
are
unt
appraisal
however,
plays
in
parricubrly
in
motivation
generalirjng
concerned
acr<m
with
and
t-ultures
perbrounce
appraisal, or, if diey arc, they don’t look at it in the same way as do managers in (be United States or Canada. Jo illustrate these paints, let’s look at three elements of culture: a person’s reUdonship to the environment, time orientation, and focus of res|xjnsibiUc\\ U.Sheouibc Middle I*
and
Canadian
people
in
Eastern
w’idely
these
conn
used,
organizations
because
believe
countries
tries,
on
hold
the
other
managers
in
people
the)’
hand,
tliese
responsible
can
dominate
performance
countries
tend
for
their
their
appraisals
to
see
actions
environmert.
In
aren’t
to
people
likely
as
snhiupted
to (heir environment. Some PcrforiTjancc once
a
countries,
such
appraisul.s
arc
yeir.
la
Japan,
as
the
United
likely to
however,
be
States,
frequent
where
ui
people
have
a
short-term
such
a
culture,
hold
a
long-term
time
orientation.
couducted time
at
frame,
least perfor-
mance appraisals may occur only at five- or ten-year interv’als, Lsradk culture values group activities much more than do the cultures of the United States and Canada. So North American managers focus on the individual in performance approisals, and their counterparts in Israel arc likely to cmphaMze group contributions and pcrfonnance.
___________ IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS AlajMgers traitiing, affect care
and the
contrul how
to
selection
employees
qualit)'
needs
the
nt
be
an
taken
are
prcxTcss,
evaluated.
organization’s lo
ensure
Because
workforce
that
decisions
the
rcg^irding
these
and
manage
rhe
organization's
rial
beharior
selection
employee
of
decisions employees,
process,
rrainiDg
programs, and appraisal system support high employee performance. An erly co
Organization’s
designed, the
i<»l)
they and
.selection
will
the
practices
identifr
will
competent
organizatjon.
(
he
determine
candidates
u.sc
of
who and
(he
gets
hired.
iKruratelv
proper
It
prop"
match
ihcni
selection
devices
will
increase die prnhabiliiy riiac ihc right pervun will be cho.scn co fill a slot. While design
employee
their
person-job
lit
performance improve and
a
select
the
will
may
he
selection
ion
systems
be
achieved. less
candidate's
replacement
is
will
so
need
from as
VMten
than skills.
frr
sat At to
is
to
science,
maximize
errors fact
worst, Iw
a
arc or)’.
the
Idund.
some
the
likelihood
made,
the
Training
candidate
Similarly,
organizations
chosen
may will
when
results in hiring less qualified candidates or individuals who don’t fit into d*
that
be prove
the
fail the
lO right
candidates
necessaH’
to
unacceptable
selection
pruec0
A g„., „rperfor„,„,, perfonnance ctmcrihimon as a basis fL? ? “ pcrtormaticc appraisal process em»i, appraises actual job performance deinonstrare.1 in Chapter negame consequences such as red for aJceinarive job opporwnidcs.
„ «x-Uratch. r . ‘‘^'''ard aUocarion » *^riteria *’‘> be Jer«qu«c> the.,rs- rh ‘lUci.’rreism'^^r “amb
'
:»s
■ Chapter is ,, /orgamzanon. chow chosen are I,LHI . R«>«iree PolW- J This, .n turn, IS likely tn Cense -t-h. rno.« ,.f,v,oas vffecT o. cr.S ,mpn« mg the sbii.s necessary- fr.r ,k ® P^grams on work i' L her M»b. .An increase in uhiJit?i„.„_ ‘ ®'"PH-CC TO suceeswi.u'^**^ higher JnxI. Of c<„,rse. i»ue of motivation. P^reinial become* p P^'rfcnn at >
4
CHAPTER 16 ...................................
r' .
Organizational Culture 1*
*1 I
After reading this chapter, yo'j should be able to 1. Define the common characteristics that m^ke up orgdniistional culture
*
CM 01
Contrast strong and weak cultures Identify the furctiunal and dysfunctional effects of organizational cutture on people
%d VI
List the factors that maintain an organization's culture Clarify how oilture is transmitted to employees
♦•«*
Describe
spirituality
and
characteristics
of
a
spiritual
culture
Contrast organizational culture with nalional culture
1. Explain the paradox of diversity
JiX.d their aid hides tunl behaviors ln\i pic..™ be vativc. Thesu irans, jn f,„ fh,.„ dlc people \^,thin diese oiganizau„ns/^ that, airhougb JiarJ enipkwccs generaliv cJcsfribc ^n'r Just as trib j culnirc!, havc^rnr"'"’ *11! act toward fellow .ttcnbeij an.l h.iw n.embe.>. I.ehave. Iu7. u^.r finploj-ce attitudes aiu) hehavh.r diuosse*! in tht: following pages
organizations. In Ch^prer J, ux !>tah!e iraics hdp u5 predkr
pjy-rNING ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE *" ’
Jis meaning held iw members Srim- - Th. sy'.teni o, shared meaning ,cren«tks rh.« die orgamz.irion
‘T’"
SnZ: R«earch has
values.
s..gg^^^
l’
a^racterisoes. m aggregate, capture rhe essence of an I.
ImmJlinu anJ mnnvative au.l .ake risks
nsk
raking—lhe
Avmc tn whi.-K e.npirnees arc en«.ura«d w be
2. The degree to which empkryct^ arc aiialysiv. and arwncion lo detail
3. 4.
i
exhibit preasKm,
Ofitcowe wiewrZrt^i—ITic degree to which manaff*.in^«n. t conwM
rather
ih..,
the
Pa.t>ie
Techniques
«nd
proccs.es
t.ed
to.ch^.^.e^oL^lutrotn?,''
he tiegree ,o which n.onagcncn, decisions rske into considers-
tKUi the effect of ouicojncs on people within the orgai.j^ation 5.
degree to which work acuvities are o^gani^cd aremnd i«nis rather than jndmduals
the
6.
z/ffirrtorrnw—The degree chan (tasygouig
7.
SM'ty
Ejch
these
charncrerislics
on
these
organization’s
culture.
standing
tneinbcrs
way
which
people
are
~Vhc ilegree to which organizanrrnal qarus quo in contrast to growth
oi^nizaaon
that
to
inemhers
arc
seven
This
exists
becomes
about
supposed
a
characteristics,
picture
have
on
to
the
activities
concmuuni then,
ihe
Exhibit
for
how 16-1
a
and
ewnperirive
euiphasire
from
gives
basis
organizalion,
behave.
aggressive
low
to
composite feelings
things
are
of
done
demonstrates
how
rather
maintaining
high.
Appraising
picrure
of
shared in
ihc
it,
the
underand
the
these
charac-
seven
charac-
rerisucs can he mived to create highly dh'ersc organizations.
Culture Is a Descriptive Terra (hyanizationai
culture
is
teristics,
whether
they
important
not
because
il
concerned like
with
them.
dilfercnuatcs
I’hai
the
how is,
concept
employees it of
is
a
perceive
descriptive
organizational
the term.
culture
This
|M)int
is
from
that
of
job satisfaetion. Research on organizational culture has sought to measure how’ employees sec organization; Are there clear objectives and pcrfonraiicc expcctariniii? Does the <’tgaTiiz4iion reward innovation? Drx^s it encourage competitiveness? In contrast, research on job satisfaction seeks t<j measure affrerive res^ponsvs to ^hc Work envininmenr. It is concerned with how cmployccjs led a )out ii^aiion'^ ex|)ecunons, reward practices, methods for handling con let, an ret 'Although the two terms undoubtedly have characteristics i ar
is
^‘ncl that the term ^^aluative.
is
c.h.re is descriptive, whereas jeb
Organizations Have Uniform Cultures? ^K»ni/a,i<,nal culture represents a common
^uhureas^sj^te^
"*”^*rs. Illis Icaturc was made explicit when wc dt ,i;ffLrcin twek^mnds or We should ex,wet. therefore, that individuals w.th ihttercm t« 6P
jMTVgBitetfoa 9trm
Conirwtif’gOfganttaOonal Culture*
cxNwiT ie-t
<>r«8nir.atiM z _ ftnn MaoaKCTv ate tipceted la bitty d»c*wt«m iA ThJ” ’ "’“r< who van pS detailed d>» u> wppon that r^ dcr WioK a««l jiiani^rs >rc i ^-.fnani duflffe or riak are nm «Hvnirag< ,«Mr>cnd»n<m' ... oixnh m(K»/x
with higli «tqiartmenta»ndlinw
W..rt »uHnc. uz.- fiiriii.l n.n..u.. .nh -her en.pl^ of anil ernp'"^"'1^ of onnmanil Perfonnan. e ei-aluainms ind fei.inb •>” — nation of W rti*' wd jsrranouons. OrgaalutxMi B I hu is JIWI a manafjctunng 6nn. H«f«. h<»»cvcr, ownagcjneni eixnuragn and reusiids nsk laUng and change. Decision^ on inrunion are valued sstnudi a% those rhat arc well rari/maii/cil. .Management pridec iwlHm is history ofcxperiimmting vidine* tedimdogics and lU succe** m regularly iniroduchig inmnauve pruducta. Aheugen or employees *hcing market driven and rapidly respomiw to the changing needs of its vusoiruers. 77rcrc are and rcguladons anphn'cev tu UAUfw, and «se fiutcomcs. Employees are given considerate auiunumy inpro|>eraes organiudons have a dominant cDJh,r^Most large choo«iigthe culture means exjjressts corn the v^h..goals k numerous ms of subculnires. A ibrrnnanf bythe which arc attumed. ^«hared by majority of the organization’s
mein(>ers. When we talk aU
-'^‘n.re. we are referring to .ts donu-
nantc-ulture. k is th's niL^I, soiiality, Iciiis, defined
Suhtnltur^f situations, by
or
tend
to
cxnericn.-.-s
depantneni
deXlon^n A
iksimThese
dejiartment. for cxaiiinlc, can have?’’ l" that departjnert. k wiil include the the organization that is nhvsi.~jltv m-y Uie on a d.ffercmf.S^ahtv m-xJlfiedh,Hte se,«ra,ed unit’s ihsd^.i M.'nlm.n"'
i
f'organization
yganizarions subcultures
to are
its.
distinct
per-
refit«
common
pn»h-
litcb'
to
separation. The atwonting uniquely shared by members of 51’^™”'^'”' bmnlarJy, an offite or unital
be
..
,
Chapter 16 OrganitwonalCohart
If orgfln/zatmns had no dominant culmrt and .ulH-iilri''’rs, the value of organizarional culture a, an ;^Hcandy lessened. Why? Because d,erX:M £ represened apprepriate or mappropnate behavior, h ofcul.crc that makes a such a potent
'>f numerous
Strting versus Weak Cultures It has bccn.nc .nvreasingly fxipubr tv diftcrentiau; I>etv».«t, strong and weak culture urg^-n’vnt is Unn stnrng cultuiy hnvc a greater impact on employee behavioTS are ni»re directly reiated ro reduced rtimover. navior and T7 '"i'^Tl ■' "■-g-ni«t.on's core values being both intensely held and widely shared.- The more members who accept the core valuesand d,e grciiter rhc.r oi.nmiimcnt ro those values, the stronger the cnlture is. Consistent ft
I1*1J
metnhers
because
mate
of
high
ijped
one
employees
the
ft a greater influence on the behavior of its
high
behavioral
ol
the
know
in
degree control.
strongest no
of
sharedness
For
e.vainplc,
.service
uncertain
and
cultures
terms
w
hat
intensiw
tTeates
Seattle-based in
is
the
expected
an
internal
Nordstrom
has
retailing
industry.
of
and
them
cli-
dcvel-
Nordstrom
these
expecta-
rions go a long way in shaping cheir behavior. One strong
specific
cutttJre
zation
siands
zational
result
of
tlernorisiraies for.
Such
commitment.
strong
H
high
agreement
unanimity
These
culture
of
should
among
purpose
qualities,
in
low
members
builds
turn,
be
employee
about
cohesiveness,
lessen
turnover.
A
whar
the
organi-
loyally,
and
organi-
employees’
propensiti’to
leave
die organization-
• > # 7 3 ,0 x 'i S ;
WHAT DOES CULTURE DO? We've
alluded
to
argued
that
strong
liiin,
we
a
more
org'.inixadonal culture
carefully
cHliureV
should
review
be
the
impact
on
associated
functions
tliai
behavior.
with
We’ve
reduced
culrure
also
tornov’cr
pertornn
and
ejfplicitly
In
this
assess
sec-
whether
culture can he a liability’ for an organizadon.
Culture’s Functions Culture
[lerfonns
defining Second, tstts
role; it
die
•nterwt.
several
that
conveys
a
generation Fourth,
is,
it
functions it
sense of
within
creates ol'
organizanon.
distinctions
identitv
commitment
enhances
an
social
to
for
between
organization
something sysiem
nne
I’clps hold the organizaliun together by provuhng appiopnatc
it
has
a
urgamzation
members,
larger
suhiliry.
firsi,
boundaryand
otte^.
rhird,
culture
than
ones
mdiwdual
Culture
is
e
tau
souia
1.«itgu
\ control
'-•n.l.loyecs should sav and do. Fmally. culrure sen-es -as a sen^-mak mechanism that guiiles and sliapes the attitudes and behavior cl enij > makes clear, culture h^ncoon is of partcular interest to us. As the following quotauon makes cleai, culrur ^Itfines the rules of the game: iniphcil, .nd raker f«r granted _Bur Culture by definibon is elusive, intangible, even. ..rganizanon develops a eorc set of assamptions, understandings, and .mpiKar ndes that pnem (bv-to-«by behavior in the workplac*- L! nwl newcomers Icam
F. 4
J” f :
f
1« ^'h-gatutatioQ Systtm
the rules, thc>’ are nor accepted »s full-fledged memlxrs of the organiutioo. Iran^^prcssions of the rules on the pan of high-level csccunxcs or ffrmt-line employees result in luuvcr^al disappros^l and jM>uerful penalties Clonfonniry m the rules becomes the primary’ basis for reward and upward uwbtbty * As we show later m this chapter, w ho is offered a job, who is appraised as a high performer,
and
who
gets
fit,
that
is.
organization are
compatible
and
Disney
\5'ak
some.
with
with
employees
promotion
wheier
the
are
strongly
applicants
the
cukurc.
IT
is
W’nrkI
apiwar
to
be
almost
the
image
bright who
a
smiles.
will
Thars
maintain
that
not
a
image.
or
influenced
employees
coincidence
that
universally Disney
.\nd
both
by
individuil^
attitudes
and
empkiyees
at
attractive, seeks.
the
the
clean,
The
bchariijiDisneylanj
and
whole-
company
informal
nonns
sclcet^
and
formal
rules and regulations ensure th.it Disney employees, once on rhe job, will act in a rek advciv unifonn and predictable wav.
Culture As a Liability J**
are had,
treating
only
that
organization the
i?.acii>n.
From
It
die
Culture
is
ther
the
exists.
an
of
its
when
things
the
is
are
aspects
entrenched
of
liehanor
asset
burden
the
is
an
onganizaoon
and
most
the
iis
of
abilitv
to
a
to
to
is
stable
an
or^-
ambigushoul^'r
strong
culture.
that
be
will
fur-
when
the rapid
appropriate.
ennrnnmcnt. tu
the and
undergoing
respond
or
But
occur
longer
a
bndi
reduces
those
likely
no in
(or
imponant.
environment may
it
with
socd
commitment
l>eejuse
agree
is
iVs
benefits
especially
organization
hinder
that
valuable
arc
what’s
not
situation
an
clearly
and
culture
co
are
valuable
do
said
organizarional
culture,
WTien
organization’s
Consislencv
is
of
values
dynamic.
outlined,
These
done
This
haven't
enhances
culture
shared
We
as
behavior.
standpoint,
effectiveness.
en\nrnnment
functions,
cmployxc
how
manner.
Culture
dysfuncoona!
liability
the
however,
of
employee’s
potentially
organizations
nonjudgmental
employee.
employees
a
a
Many
the
organization’s
change,
in
consistency
tells
ignore
it
and
increases
ity.
culture
It
changes
may.
in
die
environment.
CRMTING AND SUSTAINING CULTURE organization away,
forces
s
culture
doesn’t
influence
the
pop
out
of
creaunn
of
a
thin
air.
Once
culture?
established,
WTiat
it
reinforces
rarely and
fades
sustains
those forces once they arc in place?
How a Culture Begins .\n
organizations
largely
due
to
current what
it
customs, has
iradiiiuns,
done
before
and
and the
general degree
wav of
of
doing
success
it
things
are
with
th««
had
endeavors, So the uluinate source of an organization’s culture is its blunders.' The
founders
of
an
organization
traditionally
have
a
major
impact
in
estaWish"
ing the early culture. They have a s ision of what the organization should be. They are unconstrained typically their
by
previous
characterizes
v*:sion
on
all
any
customs new
for
doing
organization
organizational
ineml)ers.
things
or
further
ideologies.
fiicilitates
Becaase
the
The
the
founders
small
blunders' have
the
size
that
inip(»sii¥ origin**
idea, they als<j topically have biases on how to get the idea fulfilled. J he organiiAW’*^ culture
results
from
the
interaction
l)etw’cen
the
founders'
what ihe original mcmliers team subsequeiuiy from therr ow n e.tpenenceL
biases
and
assuui|Wuns
nilture is largely n ixflw-ti,,,, nf«, Bill Gates- fn-res himself « aggressive, conipetitive an,I same adjectnes often used to ikserilie iMitrow’ilt „ff;,iinJers
who
have
had
an
immeasurable
T chairman, ‘''seipImeU. n,<»e inmact
.,n
rk
‘■■'’’’‘cmp'Taiy
etaniples
ALW Morita at Sony, Fred Smith U Federal K
are *^‘'y
tosmeiics. and Richard Branson at the Virgin Gtwql.
KeepiiR s Cidturc zMivc Once a culture is in place, practices within d.e organization -.r, o ,„ • exposing
employees
to
a
set
ot
simikr
•-e
experiences?
Fl>r
example
mm^T.
'
,,rion's homatt resource practices reinforce its culn.rc, The Xd..; nunce
appmisal
and
pronmtion
who
support
piay
entena,
procedures It.
and
particularly
3ctionii
Ct
top
Selection
'i’he
als
have
who
zation
the cion.
It
attempt hiring the
6e
would
be
of
people
organitation)
gives flict
between
of
the
employer way,
the
judgment
of
than wdio
h<jw
ignore
this
whether
w'ho
have
common
values
at
Icxst
a
information
ihcir
applicant
those
Selection,
to
selection
and
abrogate
process
the
»a
the
therefore, marriage
sustains
an
will
and
hire
iolw
will be
within
meet
Mgiiiflcnntly
aspect
the
decisiem
of or
esseniinlly
those
values.
The
Candidates can
becomes
a
there
appears
organization's
to
to
tx.*
culture
by
hire.
a
a
allowing natch. out
individuals who might attack or undemiine its core values. For outerwear, titles
at
instance,' prides Gore;
\V.
R.
Gore
itself
on
its
there
are
no
&
Associates,
democratic
bosses
or
the
culture chains
maker
iUid
of
of
(iore-tex
teamwork.
command.
All
I
hbnc
here
used
arc
employees
nii
are
in job
called
“associates" and have equal authority. The company’s -W plants arc al.so kept small so eveiything
can
he
done
i'^b
applicants
through
*ith
die
of
level
in
teams.
extensive
uncertainty,
In
Chores
interviews
flexibility,
selection lo
and
process,
ensure
dial
teamwork
teams
of
candiilares
w
that
employce.s
cinployees o
can
have
t
to
*idi m (iore plants are selected out. ■'■>P -Management -fhe actions of top nunagemciu also have a ''fganizanon’s culrure. Through what they say and how du-y behave, se . «tabl,sh nonns that filter down through the orgamz.anoii as co
.
„ro-
h™ „,u,h freedom nunrRer, should giv^e .he.r M.bonta a. P"«e dress, whai aelions will pay off in terms of pay raises, pn wds, and the- like.
,
Fw example, look at Xerox Cuiqi.* iR ^”*1* Wikm. .\n aggressive, entreprene-unal type, he oversaw
i iix i to 1968 was Xerox's staggering
put ea tlwl
of also con-
themselves
selecting
the
those
process
mi.st
by
This
in
perceive
street,
job^
organixa-
widi
scll-sclect
two-way
organi-
given
rhe
selection
svho
individu-
results
eonsisLent
each.
influenced
into
inadvertently,
<»
at
the
any
fir
organization
if
loti;
will
organization. f>f
the
iorc«
the
closer
identifv
th,5
Three
practices
u
a'cSs
reward
it.
candidares
(ones of
rake
n>
purposely
|x^rrion
about
values pool.
gotKi
is
hired
subjective
march,
s
candidate
rhe
c.dtiire,
challenge
pertorm
one
well
the
who
Let
to
is
development
culrure—scivetiun
pn^cess
proper
applicant or
about
a
career
with
d.use
abilities
more
in
mcth
a
or
applicants
and
and
ii,
expel)
selection
skills,
to
hired
suhlaining
the
decision
naive
ensure
in
tj-qaically,
hnul
even
'Sr
training
rhase
>;Dcializauon
of
knowledge,
maker's
that (and
ind
goal
But,
practices,
part
nianageinent.
'fhe
to
[Kiuiiz.e
explicit
decision
ensure
unporunt
successfully.
requirements,
reward
“
out either
In
this those
Partly 1'hcOrfini»tiiMxS>»«m
? of iu 914 copier, one of A« niost successful product in Amrica*
bXn Under Wkon. Xerox h«1 in enavprencurial environment, with an infornu^ S-^a,;»n.der,e, irt.cv.t.vv, boM. risk-mki-.g naln.r.. Uilsons rephcemc-nt a, CEO I K r Pv-«cr Mc(k>i«.ugh. 4 Hanard \UU ^v,th a fi.nnd .nai^gcnx-nr su4t. He.w, tuted burcaucranc o.ntrols and a .iu|ur change m Xeruxs eJUKc. By ihc .VR<x.l..uxh stepped do*^ in 1982. Xerox had become sto^ and fi.rmal, unth lots of politics and rurt banks and las ers ot waichds.g «ers. H.s tepl .vrmenr ua, fhvid T. Keuw who beheved rhat the culture he had mhented hu^dcred \eioxs ahd»t> oomtwte Io jncrejsc the company’s campedth-cncss, Keams mmnwJ Xe^x do>n by fttttiV 1 ^.n<)0 iohs, deJrgareri decision miking down wan!* and rehxused the oiyaniurioni culture around a simple theme:
the quality of Xerox pnulucts ind ^eivkev.
By his actions and diosc of his senior managerial cadre, Kearns conveyed to evcTy^>ru. Xerox
that
reured
in
the
cmnpaiiy
IWO.
Xerox
valued
still
and its
had
rewankd
qualin'
problems,
‘fhe
and
copier
efficiency. bu>iness
When
was
Kearns
nianire
ard
Xerox had tired hadh’ in developing comptitei i^cd office sy-stems. 'I'he next CKO, Paul Alliire.
again
soughtV
radon
arotuid
a
iiunufecrunng with
and
Ri^
riioman,
Allaire
sought
a
on
high-tech
replaced
culture.
to
IBM
of
reshape
cxet
Ac
iirrve. He
services
built
all
spring I
emnsioned around
reorganised
product
company’s
culture
Wlule
he
unified
rhe
Xrrnx^
Tn
technology.
Specifically,
depanincnt. half
compcuucjii.
former
.Xerox of
the
Xerox’^
inarkenng
and
ouibLisrling
refocused provider
w'orldwide
divisions,
oursiders.
jug
reshape
to
of
1999.
hcHnan reshaping
digirnl
.Mlaire
documents.
team
innovative was
only
Xerox
and
management on
lasted
corpn-
development
top
focus
the
B
into
replaced
by
monAs,
he
a
Although
think-
LST-moving Thoman
is
pone, Xerox’s current top nmnagemcni team condniics trying lo tulfill his vLsiun. SudaJizadon sclecrion, Because
No
matter
new diey
porcntiully organization
employees Are
the
how
will,
are
legist
n^ost
good not
fann'liar
likely
therefore,
to
a
job hilly
widi
disturb
wnnt
hi
rhe
indfictrinated
rhe Ac
organization
help
in
orgaiiixadon’s
hcliets new
ind
does Ae
in
orgam74tions
culture,
employees
recruiting
new
iliat
adapt
are
to
its
an
J
culture.
employees
are
in
The
place.
culture.
This
adaptation process is called sochlirAtion. All Marin e.s must go through lioot camp, where thc\' prove their com mi unent. Of
Course,
at
the
'‘^Marine
way.”
employee
through
learn
about
rhe
>:ime
Vunt, a
a
Ane, rapidly
Arcc-wcek
firms
Ac
hisujry’
^Marine
growing program and
nainers
are
Boston-hased in
key'
which
ilicy
personaeL
indoctrinating consulting
bond,
New
new
finn,
accjuire
Disneviand
puts team
recmiuinthe evert'new skills,
employees
and
spend
their first tv o full day3 ol work watching films and listening tn lectures on how Disney employees are expected to look and net. •
discuss socialization, keep m mind that Ae most critical socialization
IS ai time of enuy into Ac organization. This is when Ac onranizarion seeks f> TOukI Ae outsider inm an employee m ‘‘good standing/' Employees who f.iil to learn c essential or pivotil njlc behaviors risk being labeled nonconfonnists or rebch and. ultimately being expelled. Bui rhe organiz^iciun will be socializing every employed’ fxig inay >e not explicitly, diroughouc his or her career in Ae organization. Phis cononual pnccss further contributes to sustaining Ae culture. ScK’ialjzjtiou can k conceptualized as a protvss made up of thrw? stages: pre^nvai, encounter, and metamorphosis. The first stage encompasses all Ae Icarwng at occurs ore a ncM’ menil»er joAs Ae organization. In Ae second stage, the («• employee sm what Ac organization is really like and confronis Ae likelihooJ thK
a»pur« Org«|«to«J ^.rratirtiis and reality nxav diverire. In tlit third ,.te plaxv. The new c,n,.h.yee mas,cm ,).« skith'rc^.iS’for V iwrtonus h« or her new ro es and inak. x »kt. ?i-
.v ’*7 ’'«or her
anpinyt*•' «<,rk prcJucnx^ty. cnm.mancn,... ,he orgnm.auon-, .>b,e uves an^ hX or^anuatmn. Exhibit 16-Z .k-picts this i.nKei The/’W'vvtwZ^Zz^Xr '>ccur<. bcl<»re (he eniplovec inins dip r^r
' L.
^.^rhoth the work ,.. IKI done and the organ,zarion. Eor instance,,., many ,ol>S tXricularb prokssional work, new members w,ll have undergone a eonsideral.lc tlejee prior sm iahzation ,n tra.mng and m school. One nuior purpose of a business «hool. lorexJinpic, is to MKiahzc business students into the attin.des and behavium hrms wain, h iHUjncvs executives hclieve that successful einplovecs value the profir ethic arc )uyaK tan hire
<^ut oi husniess -ichouts who huve Ixen preinolded in this paucni
ButpretrrivaJ
MK
A1/C
ysei!
hard, want to achieve, and work svdl in learns thev
in
nioxt
t^liZsinon
goes
organizations
lo
beyond inform
the
specific
pros|wc(i>'e
job.
I
he
employees
selection
about
the
process
itself«
organization
as
a whole and to ensure the inclusion of the right type—tivise who will fit in. “Indeed, the
Abilin’
process
uf
I
he
detennincs
individual
his
ahilin*
m to
present
move
the
into
.ippropriatc
face
organiintion
in
die
during the
the
first
scletlkm
place.
Thus,
success depends on the degree to which the aspiring member has cniTcctly anticipated the exptcuHions and desires of those m the organization in charge of selection.”'^
Entry' into the organization begins die front
the
possible
boss
3nd
the
more
or
ceptinns
in
accurate,
the
gained
earlier.
But
between
their
general—and
encounter this
is
realiry.
stage
often
cxjwctntions—alxiut If
merely
not
ihe
their
expectations
provides case.
a
iob,
prove
to
reaffiriiiation
WTierc
expectations
co-wurkers. have of
been
the
and
per-
reality*
employees must underp > socializathMi th ar will detach them from previous
asMirnprions
die
organization
less
differ, new
ducTiis
dichcitomy
Now the individuals con-
and
desirable.
JCTiialities
ot
replace At
the
their
those
assuinpuons
extreme,
job
and
new
with
members
resign.
Proper
another
may
set
bctxitne
selection
should
that totally
the
organization
titsilkisinned
significantly
with
reduce
the
probability of the latter oeeiirrence. Finally, the
encounter
new
members
stage,
‘lb
do
must so,
work
they may
out have
to
any go
problems through
discovered
changes;
henw,
this (he wrXtfwo/pjbofw yfrigv. The choices presented in Exhibit 16-3 are alternatives
EXHIBIT 16-2 A Socialization Model Socialization process
Outcomai
during wc
call
CMture
Hwttv TbeOk^^woonSyMBm CJQWrT 16-3
&my Sodatization Options
T1i« more a tie* vinphn ee is fwgregan’d from the ongtring wmi setrftag differentiated in some way tn mat* capIxiT hi* nr her newvunxr’s role, the more tonnak b. Spcafic onuoUTHHi and training pR»grutm are exampU*. InlVxntal soeialtMCKm pm^ employee directly into hi> or her h’h. wldi licde or no tpeoal atieniinn. :y Cotieari'c New members can be Maaaliizd indnuiuJly. Many proic»uonal offactt socialize new employees ua this wav. Nc» tneinheTs nan abo h< grouped (ngethcr and proo^g^ rhmugh an fch ntiewl set of as i»‘ ftiikitary bocn camp. Funi iariMr tinw M'b«bilr in which newcomers make the transicuin from <jutodertK» indderran k' trinl or variable, ^fiied xhcdule establishes standardized stages of rraftsiuoo, *uch« I thtise UMxl m nitadonal training {tnigranK. It akM> includes pnibationar) periods «uch as the^x^egf “reowre or one" procedure
vt. fnfiimak
organizations able
can
to
metamorphosis?
process
are and
work
group,
accepted they
tern—not
the only
practices be
say
that
new
They
they
have
peers
as
asks,
used
to
OWTI
Finally, measure
constitutes have
a a
internalized
the
and and
complete
they
know appraise
fob
well
done.
on
be
They
Exhibit new
with
are
the
their
members
fee!
self-confident
understand
and
informally that is
showed,
employees’
orpni*
and
They
what
desir-
sociaJizaUOD
\'ew
evaluated,
16-2
a
organization
Tliey
know
is
entn
norms.
procedures,
will
the
the
the
successfully.
work
j\s
of
individuals.
they
what
comfortable
those
rules,
their
impact
norms
job
the how
and
positive
valued
But
and
become
accept
the
but
metamorphosis.
metamorphosis have
trusted
their
desired
members
understand
to
well.
should
die
competence
as
what
phosis
their
about
can
when
jolh
and
by
have
and
their
bring
We
complete
/.anon
will
uw
is.
the
s>v
accepted
what
e.xpecied
criteria of
successful
productivity
diM
them
metanKrand
cheif
comnutment to the organization and reduce their pro|)cnsiiy to leave.
Summary: I low Cultures Form Eadubit T
he
16-4 original
influcneot Ae
general
to
be
the
stunmarizes culture criteria
climate
socialized
employees*
values
of
how’
is
an
derived
organization^
from
rhe
used
in
hiring.
what
is
acceptable
w
ill
depend
to
those
of
on the
The
the
founder's actions
Uhavior degree
organization
agemimt s preference for socialization methods.
culture
of in
eswblished
philosophy.
of and
is
the w
current
hat
success the
Tills,
is
in
t<^p
not.
achieved
selecihin
and
sustained.
turn,
sirnngh’
management
How in
pnicess
set
employees
art
matching
oe*
and
top
maB*
OMpterlB
HOW EMPLOYEES LEARN CULTVRE
J-
Culnifc is transmitted to employees in a nomber of fonns
ries. rituals, material symbols, and language.
'
portnt beingmn-
Stories D«rijj the when 1 lenry i-oid H was chairman of the Ford Motor Co,, one would have been h,ird-pre«ed to find a manager who hadn’t heani rhe storv about Mr Fordes executives, when they got too arrogant, that -Its name that’s.«the biijlding. I he message was ckai: Henn- Ford K ran the cumpany. Nike has a number of senior executives who spend much of their time serving as corporate about.'”
ston
tellcrs.
VXTien
they
Bouerman went ate
a
better
hires
hear
tell
the
the
stories
story
to Ixjb workshop
running
talcs
professional
And
ol
shoe, Oregon
sport
and
of
and
they’re
are
mcani
co-foundcr
poured
.star
attain
tell
how
talking
running
h)
they
rubber
about Steve
lo
(and
omvey
Oregon
what
track
into his wife’s waffle
Nikes
spirit
of
Prefontaine’s
better-performing
in
eijuipnient,
to
they
is
coach)
Bill
iron ro
cre-
novation.
battles
Nike
When
new
make
running
learn
of
a
Nikc^
Cfniunitnicnr to helping athletes. Nordstrom
employees
are
fond
of
the
following
.story.
It
cninpain s policy toward customer returns: WTien this .specialty’
.sinmgly
conveys
the
retail chain was in its
uifency, a (.njstomer came in and wanted to return a set ot automobile tires. ITie salesclerk was not sure how to handle the problem. As the customer and salesclerk sj)oke, Mr.
Nordstrom
ceded,
asking
instructed «>mer Mr. *e
walked the
the
had
Xonlsmim. need
to
do
queso.ms-asked
customer
clerk
received we to
by
to
how
lake
his
make
sell the
policy.”
the
refund
don't
return
and
and
tiresl”
he
tires
the had
hack
left,
the
conversation.
pid and
fejr
provide
perplexed
“I
know.”
replied
cuMomer
happy.
I
Nordstrom
then
die
mean picked
tires. a
clerk
He
immediately Mr.
full
looked
ar
boss.
“Inn
it
when
1
up
rhe
^end in the auto parts business to see bow iimeh he could get St.wies such as these circulate through many organizanons.
N’ordscroni
rash
the
inter-
refund.
After
boss.
“But,
die wc
say
we
wlcphotic
then
do
whatever
ave and
a
called zsm-
raus-to-
a narrattve of events about the organiMriuu’s founders, ni c re'Jcti.jns m ^•bes sutxesscs, reductions in the workforce, reloc-anoa o emp raisukK. and organizational coping. These stories anchor the presen “*1 pKMKle ctplajutiuns and legitimacy b»r current pracotes.
no
.^si
(V 'rhe Organization System Rimals Rituals nf
are
the
repetitive
ureaniatinn.
^iquences
what
whicfi
are
expendable.
quest
for
permanenl
goals
of
are
University
nuivicks most
chat
express
intporumt.
faculn'
which
nicmhers
employment-tenure.
reinforce people
undergo
TyTi«ll»
the
a
the
^re
value,
nnportar^t,
lengthy
tacuky
key
nniai
n.eniber
n
and
in
their
on
proba-
don for .six years. x4t the end of that period, the members colleagues must make one of nvo
dioiecs;
WTi.ic
does
extend
a
tenured
cake
to
obvain
it
mance,
.service
.iatisfjes
the
to
the
appointment tenure?
deparnnent
requircinenrs
for
or
Tc
and
issue
usually
university,
tenure
in
one-ye.ar
re(|uircs
and
one
a
satisfaetoiy
scholarly
dcpamneni
terminal teaching
actmty.
al
one
contract,
But,
perfor-
of
course,
university
may
be
appraised as inadequate in another The key is that die lemire decision, in essence, ask^ diose whoflre tenured to susess whether die candidate hxs demo ns crated, in six years that
he
have
proved
ulty
niernbers
is
a
caji
he
of
are
Ls
The
across
iu'^iructor
activities
member
spends
assess
by
parsed to
some
often,
cases,
of
hours
each
but
neglects
for
tenure.
Wist
to
the
norms
set
on
in
die
piobationary
fac-
action decision
tenured
feculty
week
prepar-
Ills
has
by
of
the
the
will
this
however,
adapt
early
hundreds
areas
students
over
properly
the
dozens
evalna.tinns
failed
in
year,
In
More
well
vocialirxd
F.very
tenure.
f«*iard. doing
who
maybe
has
will
the
been
tenure.
denied
not
Outstanding
have
granted arc
member’s
instrucror
who
l.icing
unkmities
faculty
publication
faculty
of
and
achieves
the
Colkiigwes
performance
the
and
that
isnire
In. worthy
imporcanc.
and
simply,
poor to
class
leseaich
fits
at€ollege::i
traced
for
The
she
themselves
result
believe ing
or
the
or
her
hapiwned, department.
period
what
atti-
tudes and behaviors his or her colleagues w'ant and will then proceed to give them what they
want.
/Kiid,
of
course,
by
demanding
certain
attitudes
and
behaidors,
the
tenured
faculty will have made significant strides toward standardizing tenure candidates, One
of
the
corporate
best-known
rituals
is
Mary
Kay
meeting. Looking like a cross between a circus and a Mis.s
Cosmetics’
annual
America pageant,
award
the racct-
ing takes place over a couple of days in a large auditorium, on a stage in ft out of a large,
cheering
clothes. pins,
Saleswomen
fur
“show'”
stoles, acts
addirioB, mism, and
the
to
i.s
a
II
with
pariicipnms an
by
array
on
publicly
Mary
her
overcome
personal
success.
Tt
of
recognizing
reinforces
to
dressed
conveys
and
that
through
hard
Laiupreia
are
cw'o
of
Seattle’s
they're
less
rhan
10
blocks
in
her
achieving
personal
hardships, and
and
sales
sales
to
found
diamond Ths
performance.
her
that
evening
quotas.
dcrentiinauon
salespeople
work
glamorous
gifts—gold
outstanding
Kay's tc
in
flashy
success
aspect
material
important
the
acj*—based
motivator
enabled
all
rewarded
(ladi
ritual
achieve
with
arc
pink
as
w’hich
quota
audience,
and
own
reaching
encouragement
opti-
company
theii
they
In
too
sales can
achieve success.
Material Symbols Fullers But,
and
although
ferenr
feel.
decor.
T
casual
and
he
Fullers staff low-key
is is
formal
to
the
formaUy attired, It
has
a
stylish
most apart,
point serious, but
of
highly the
two
being
focused,
minimalist
rated
and
restaurants
“stuffy.” and
decor,
expensive
stiff. ITie
convey
It
has
In
contrast,
staff’s
a
restaurants’ a
very
dif"
n)useuni-!e'’®l Lampreia is
casual
dress
and
and
ser-
Style are consistent with rhe decor. Both
Fullers
and
Lampreia
consistently
receive
honors
for
their
vice; require rcservanixis days, and stxnetimes weeks, ahead of rime; and cost at Ic*
fixxl
for dinner for two. Y« the resiaurwits bav,; rwo .i.fr dtiDfP s«'-^ =*=* smplovees- attipe o,nvev messages to new empluyfPS. Ar Fullers . 3, and consenative. I he message at La^JVX „j4xed and open. Messastes ran also he conveyed by material st^hob besu«vcd n,
'u ” reflected in th«e material symbols "ti’cr hand, is that we're
Some corporauons provtde their top executives w.th chauffeur .1^ i ««cunv«. unlimited use ol the corporate )t t. Executives at otlier Am, '"""USIIIM and traiisixjrtation paid for fo- the company, but the car is a Chevrole7(tiT ’
“'x*’
the plane sear is m die economy section of a commercial airlint Other fomishifo^. ries.
and
5„nb..b top
e.xaniples
ol
c.tectitive
fterts,
the
material
presence
ntnvey
lo
the
..
and
who
the
include
cxisiuKe
reserved
employees
management,
sjmbols
of
parking i.
kinds
the
of
employee
spaces
unpomnt, of
size
behavior
lounges
for
tire
certaiu
degree
(for
olfires.
dw
or
cl-anee
onsite
emplo«e>.
of
example,
dSTdfo
These
eg-alitananism nsk-iaking,
conservative
Language organi/anons
member
of
a
and
units
culture
or
within
organ
subculture.
iz^itiuns
By
use
learning
language
this
as
a
language,
way
to
identify
meiiibeniane^ittorheiT
acceptance of the culture and, in so doing, help to jjreserve it. ‘I'be following are examples of terminology used by employees at Knight-Ridder Info nil all on, a (.alifornia-hascd data redistributor: /rrrrrrwj assigned and
each
rrimow/?/
Librarians The)’
arc
sprinkle
for
Research
and
OPAC
mu'll
find
(Boeing hve
indi\ndual
record
in
a data
data
ftpir/aur
(searching
a
a
source
lerminology^
rich
their
conversations
Libraries),
(tot*
online
appUtarion);
OCbC
online
yourself
of
patron learning
center
accessing a
data); MAIDS
bast
lil^crally
(a
for
in
names
or
co
Ohio If
that you’re
vocabulary
sei
of
key
terms
people
acronyms
catalog).
CATlA
KM-7C{a
foreign
with
unique
(manufectiiring
(a nunibcr
base);
of
kcy-words-in-contcxt);
outside
and
sonic
their
such
as
does
c<xi|icrative
a
nw
AKL
acronyms,
inscalkLon
order).
profession.
(^XshKxiauon
employee
(computer-graphics-aided, assembly
in
cataloging), at
Boeing,
including
BOLD
chrec-dimensioual data
system);
POF
(purchased outside production); and SLO (sciTice-level objectives). Organizations, over dme, often develop unique terms to esen offices, key personnel, soppl.ers, customers, or pmduers rh.t ere less. New employees .re frequentlt overwheltned with .enrnyms “"'i
“
.her six monX Jn the job, have become fttlly p.r. “* latcd, this leniunolum acts as a common denominator that unites
cultur
or ^ulKuhiire.
MANAGING CLLTURAL CHANCE an organization’s culture is made up ^■uli to change. An organii'Jtfon^ culture devc ops ‘^Pl> held values to w'hich employees are stron^y ‘ ■“•aber uf f,Kce. condnuaUy operating to matn ain P suteiiK-nts alH.ut the organiMUOns mission
maiX
desineTfo.
authoritarian, piiriicipativc, individualistic, social) thatare appropriate.
Many
of
^^a^'^and is rootci in addinon. ibc« -j hese >nclude the design of
phwHal sMt-w and buildings, the doHWoam leadership style, historical sdecrio. fix past proHuxioft prarrices. entrenched rituals, popular stones about ke>- |)ea,rit foniial struvture. ents.Although the orranizau.xi’s past perhntnance evahiatton untenxFc» changing an organization^i culture is difficnik u isn’t impossible. and the urganixaaQ|A cultural change to tw cffccuve, it helps if certain coodidon< are prevalent. The evidence suggests ml rural change is most likely to take when most or all of the followuig tour conditions exist; A dranhttk 4T7<w fWTr or o’ created. Fhis is the shock that luulennincs the stact^ qiKi and calls into qiiesrion the relevance of the current culture. Examples of these cnscs tnitfht l>c a surpnsing finaniial setback, the li>e» of a niaiw customer, or a dr> fnahc technological breakthrough bv a competitor, li is not unheard of foi some necudves ro purpnseh create a crisis in order co simulate cultural change. 7«n/oi
/«
hiidmhip.
New
top
leadership,
which
can
provide
an
alternative
set
of ke}'values, is usually needed to make cultural change work. I hey are more likely u> be
pcrceiv
include
the
ed
as
capable
organizaann’s
management
posiiioas.
of
responding
chid
executive
Bringing
in
a
to but
neu'
the
crisis.
also
CEO
This
might from
leadership would
need
to
outride
encompass
the
orgajuzjdon
defirriiek all
senior
is
likely
to increase iJie chances that now cultural v alues will be introduced. An outside CEO, ill
convast
to
promoting
someone
from
within
die
urganirjtinn,
also
conveys
a
mes>
sage to emplovcc?! that change is in the wind. Young und sfitt/U t/rganizanon. Cultural change is more likeh* to take if the organi* ration is bodi young and small. Cultures in voungcr And ifs easier for IS
small-
ITiis.
organizations are less entrenched.
management to communicate ir^ new* values when the <^gaaizaaoD
incidentally,
helps
explain
the
difliculty
that
multibill
ion-dollar
corpo
rations ofren experience when crying to change their culture. Ifijji culture.
1 he more widely held a culrure is and the higher
the agreement
among members on its values, the more difficult it w ill hr to change. Conversely, weak cultures are more arueiiable to change than strong ones. Even immediate
when or
the
dramatic
above shifts
arc
conditions iu
their
lavorable,
organizations
managers culture.
slxuddn’t
Cultural
ImA
change
for h
a
lengthy process- which should be measured in vears rather than months.
CREATING AN ETHICAL ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE TTie content and strength of a cnlnire influences an oi^anization^s ethical climate and the ethical behavior of its members?^ An organizational culture inu^t likely to shape high ethical standanh is one thati high in risk tolerance, low-to-moderaic in aggressiveness, and focuses on means well as outcomes, .Managers in such a mlnire arc suj^iorred fw caking risks and being innovative, are discouraged from engaging iu uubndled compciititin, and will pay attention to goals arc achieved as well as :rhat goals are achieved. A
strrmg
0rganizati0n.1l
culture
will
exerr
more
influence
on
emplovees
than
weak fHie- h the culture is strong and supports higli ethical standards, it should have a very
powerful
example, romers,
has
and a
positive
strung
employees,
the
influence
culture
that
conununiryv
on has and
employee long
behaiior.
stressed
shareholders,
Johnson
corporate in
chai
Johnsctfi,
ohliganons
order.
TykooJ (a J&J pnxluct) was found on store shelves, einpkivees at J&J acruw the
&
WTien
10
Ibr cuS'
pcistawd
jriitftion of tHe fd lowing pratiiccs: culture? We suggest a corner a ni^del. Employees will look
OrgnfZHkHI^ CBteiTC Vniied benchmark States independently for defining appropriate pulled the pnKl„„ Izehavior from .k « as taking the ethical high road, it provides a nmiov^ ’'’’■'"■-management is seen even issued a statement a.nccming the tamperSrun• N management ethical Ethical amhuniir, *** employees, tiduahConmninicate what was morally nghi; they expectations. knew what^fu iniBVVTiJt candi.seminutf^g managementan do..rganiX7±":j to creau a ic . ” to do. ating and T *■’- -P'-’Xl
Sow " ' Prov^ ah,cal
Sex up .seminars, workshops, and similar ethical trainmg
programs. I se he« iram.ng sessions to reinforce the organization’s standarik of conduct, to clarify what practices are and arc not permissible; and to address possible ediical dilemmas. Visihly reward ethical acts and punish unethical ones. Performance appraisals of managers
should
measured
against
include the
a
point-byiHiint
organization’s
evaluation
code
of
of
ethics.
how
his
or
Ajipraisals
her
must
decisions
include
the
means taken to achieve goals as well as the ends themselves. People who act ethically
should
he
visibly
rewarded
for
their
behavior.
Just
as
importantly,
unethi-
cal acts sliould be conspicuouslv punished. Provide nisms
proactive so
behavior
that without
mechanismi. employees fear
of
The
can
organizatiem
discuss
reprimand.
needs
ethical
This
to
provide
dilemmas
might
and
include
formal
mecha-
repon
creation
unethical of
ethical
counselors, ombudsmen, or ethical officers.
SPIRITUALITY AND ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE WTiat do Southwest Airlines, Ben & Assotiaxes,
anti
'n»m’s
of
Maine
Homemade, Hewlett'Packard, Wctheril! have
in
common?
They’re
among
a
growing
number
of organizations that have embraced workplace spirituality.
V\Tiat Is Spirituality? “
^Vorkphec spirituahcv is noT altout organized religious practices. It s not about theology.
Workplace
spirituality
recognizes
that
people
have
an
inner
»!.» „d„„Xhtd by meanngful •>’»■ -’kes place » U.e "Iv ’- (>rg.„,J, promote e spirint.l culture tecogn.ee that ■ m,„d »d . spirit, seel to find rae.ning
‘ 1 X*
,nd
purpose
tn
the.r
wort,
b. .nd
des,re
uiih other human beings and l>e part of a community.
^'I*y Spirituality Now? ^
, .
P
>
myth of ranonalsin^hrly. concern But just a.
44
1
*•
Mt IV TW Or^uucian SysMa we've- now cxin.c tn r«]iu that dw Study of etnoBOM imp^ ow undenoB*^ oryanizatii.iul behavior, an □wut cness of siHittuality CMi help you to better undenttj^ 1 •!
crnplovw lichantar in (he twenty-fim century. Of course. eiuplo)-ees have always had an iiuier htc. bo why has the search meaning amJ purpose fulness in worfc surtiiCTd now? There are a number of rcaeo^ Ue xurcrunze them i/i Exhibit 16-5.
Characteristic of a Spiritual Organization The
con«pi
such
AS
we
cerned
ethics,
spiritual
full
that
workplace
valuts,
instance, their
of
uindvation.
organizjinons
potential.
This
discussed
with
^irinialin-
in
spiritualit)
to
more
on
out
and
work/life
concerned
aiialogutu
relation are
leadership,
arc
is
draws
with
tv
likely
ti»
s
.As
people
ol
pmblems
topics see.
and
fcr
reach
self-actualixadon
oTgani7,nnons
addres.s
of
j’ou’U
develop
description
Simibriy,
directly
discussions
balance.
helping
Maslow
jnotn*an(>n.
previous
that
are
con-
created
by
work/
life u>nflicts. W
hat
.Mchough
dirterentiates
research
on
spiritual
this
i|nestion
orgaiuxalions is
only
from
preliminary,
their our
nonspintualcouncerparai
review
identified
five
cul-
tural charactenscics that tend to be evident in spiritual organizations.^*^ Strung
Sense
meaningful of
the
ing
the
Ben
&
its
of
Purpose
purpose.
MTiile
orginizadon. low
Jerry’s
producing
household
i
and
profits
Southw
cst-cost
Spiritual est
airlares,
has
selling
ice
that
are
be
Aidines,
lomemade
pnKlucts
nwy
on-dme
of
organizations
made
instance,
ice,
closely cream.
im^Mirtant.
for
sen
build
and
their
they’re is
cultures
not
strongly
the
pleasant
exi^erience
inteniieshed
.socially
responsible
from
of
natural
.Maine
stri^-es
ingredients
primary
coinuwcted
a
Tom’s
around
to
sell
and
are
values
to
for
a
prorid-
cuscomen.
beharior
into
personal
care
envinmmentally
friendiv. *
Focus and which ple,
on
value
of
Indiridual people.
employees they
also
can tn’
to
The)*
Deveiopment aren’t
continually provide
just leam
Spiritual
providing and
einplojiuent
organizations
jobs.
grow. securin.
Thes*
seek
Kccugnizing Hew
ret\>gTuze
the
to
c^tures
the
lea-Eackani.
create
importance fiir
wunh in
of
peo-
insmncc.
goes
to extremes to in’ to minimize die cfteci of economic downturns on its srall. l^c
EXHIBIT 16—5 Reasons for the Growing Interest in Spirituaihy
--------------------------------------------------------------------------- > A» J MAintcrholansT to the pressures ami «rrvM of t turbuleni puce <»f hit. (Utmonportry lilest\'lp«—sinjrie-parcftt famines. gecHtrafthw ntobilin*. the tempuran* nature c£ h»hR» nca u:chnoli>gte5 that errate distaiKY lircuvm —undtfrwurr (he lat'i of onninuniiy many people (eel and increase* ihe need fin »m«»lvfrrn:w and c^mncvtion. ABmp Uiln -hmtnKni. reaching mKMih*. are looking for M«neihing in thnr lift?. F(»nnaU/ed rehgiiHi hasbn t wciricvd hn* many pc;o|ile ami ihey vundnuc to tnoi fix Mdton m replatT hek u1 kijth and tn fill a gro« mg (vding of empnnra. Job drrtuixk tu>'e ma«lc the wurkpiaev di Hinn ant in many (Hxiples livea y«i they coMWtte » qur»t)on the meaning of worit. IIK* desire tn integrate pcfxonal life values whh unv' prulewiiMta] life, in Dmes of eeonueuc prosperity, more (lenpk ha*« the loinni* tn engage KI a warch n> tem*h their hall putemiaL g
dnwncums throuc^h i workweeks (sh^i^cd by ail); and Intiger-tenn dcStZ?’?'"'^ 3nd buyouts « UiroQph early rttirements -Pfusl And Openness Spinnial organizations art ch honesty, and openness. Managers aren’t afraid to adni.t XTt
trust,
A
ertrentely upfront with their employees, customers and s..^ r ’ W-’ctherill .Associates, a highly soccessfiji auto parts distnlnih^ lies here. ..nd cve.yone knows it. We are specific anX 5uirahilinof the product ^le to derecr any pn.blem""' rmolo'*^
EmpoM^rnient
.mnbined
with
ageme-n
empowering
,p.nt«nlh
based
employee*
and
dous
take
li.ey
As
a
customer
whatever
case
in
service
action
they
most
point.
Southwest
representathes, deem
to
and
necessary
tu
make Airline
i
learning^and ManageTs^n
amhoritv
to
imhviduJ
thoughfftii
and
rnnscien
emplovxes-including
baggage
meet
tn
erxi".
decisions.
deleganng
employees
we
employee
work-related
comfortable their
in
promote
make
are
trust
needs even if ’«“•«' nught n.n be climarp
to
to
organizations
customers' ’
hich-triut
de.sire
employees
teams.
our
I’he
rhe
decisions.
attendants, to
for
** prewdent of
handleiv-are
customer
needs
flieht
encOTra^d
or
help
fellow
workers, even if it means breaking company policies.
Toleration
of
spiritually
based
people
to
reprimand.
be
Employee
Expression
organizations
is
themselves—to
Employees
at
lliat
express
Southwest
The they
their Air,
final don’t
moods for
characrerisne
stifle and
employee ieelings
instance,
arc
that
diflerentiates
emotions.
without
They
guilt
encouraged
tn
or
allow
fear
express
of their
sense of humor on the job. to act .spontaneously, and to make their work fan.
Criticisms of Spirituality Cricics of the spiritual iiy riiovej^ieiil in organizations have focused or ru’n issues, first the quesiioii of kgriitnacy. Sped Ilea I ly, do org’anizations have the right TO imptwe spiritual values on their employees? Second is the question oF economics. Are spirituality and profits compatible?
icy
On
the
to
make
especially fhi'i
first
some
business
criricism
question,
is
there
employees firms,
have
undoubtedly
is
clciirly
uneasy. no
valid
die
Critics
business when
potential might imposing
spiniualiry
for
an
argue
that
spiritual
is
emphasis
defined
secular
values as
on
on
sqnri^al-
insrirodons, employees,
bringing
re
and God into the workplace? • However, the criticism seems less ‘iringing
igwn e
limited to helping employees find meaning in their work lives. 5 1‘Sted in E.^hibit 16-5 auly characterize a gniwing segmem of the ’^ybe the rime is right for organizJtions to help employees fmd meaning an p rp in their work and to use the work-place as a source of community The issue of whether spiriroality and profirs are tainly
relevant
for
managers
and
investors
although limin
busincs-s.
,
research
study
by
a
'tfd, indicates tJiat the two objectives may be vci y comp ■ "ttKir «,n«iliing firm found that companies thai unproved pi f>ductivity and significantly reduce m that organizations that pn.vide their dnelopineni outjtcrforined those that dulnt.
,s Aocher study fi,r spiris,u!|i« also report chat
‘ .1
tart IV
The Orpnixatioo System ipirituafity in oreini^aooiw wa* positively reUwd to c^dvi^ cmpl.,yM team perfonnance, and orgiuiizational commitmein. And if you re kxiking for ,
'
single case TO make the arg:umenr for spirituality, H’S hard to beat Southwest Ait. i ScutiiwtTii viiiployces have one of the loM-est turnover rates in the airline industry/, consistently has the lowest labor costs per miles flown of any major airline: it regu, lady outpaces its eompeutoi^ for achieving on-lime arnvaU and feucst eutttwncr complaints -ind it has proven itself to be the most consistently profitable airline h the United States.^*
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE yjiRSUS NATIONAL CULTURE In places throughout this book we've argueil that national tliHcrenccs^chat is, national culture—must be taken into account if accurate predictions arc to lx? made about organir.iuonal behavior in different councnes. But does national culture override an organuadonk culture? Is an IBM facilicv^ in Germany, for CKample, more likclv to reflecx German edmicity nr IBM’s corporate culture? The than
research
does
Munich.
indicates
their
national
organizadun’s
tlicrefi>re,
Organizational
dial
will
culture
be
culture?-
influenced
ducb
culture
have
a
hxs
German
more
great
by
a
greater
employees
(icnnan
influence
on
impact
at
culture
an
behavior
to
reflect
etnplny'ees
IBM
than
the
on
by of
facility
IBM’s
people
in
culture. at
trork,
but national culture has even more. The goes w
on
be
at
the
less
hiring
an
expect, to
preceding
hiring
stage.
concerned Italian
and
with
who
dterefore,
find
conclusiun
hire
A
the
job
to
British
be mu
qualified Id
coqvoradon.
lialian"
for
the
“typical
with
the
corporation’s
employee
appliouits
selection
who
arc
way
process
a
die
national
hiring
fils
chat
has
good
fit
its of
will
lor
Italian doing
be
with
self-sclecrion example,
used
their
is
ojxradons things.
likely
than
We
by
dtai in
should
rnuldnationals
organizuiions
duriiiiujit
culture, even if such applicants arc somewhat atypical for members of their country.
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND THE PARADOX OF DIVERSITY We
briefly
employees
mention who,
here
because
a
of
contemporary
race,
gender,
challenge
ethnic,
or
for
other
maiiagcnt.
Socializing
differences,
arc
not
new
like
the
raajurity of the orgajiizarinn’s members crearei whai wc call z/ir {yrradax fff Alanageriienr Otherwise, management
wants
these
new'
employees
employees
wants
to
are
unlikely
openly
to
accept to
fit
acknowledge
the
in
or
and
organization’s lx*
accepted.
demonstrate
core But
support
cultural
at
the for
same the
values. dine, differ-
ences that these employees hnng to the workplace. Strong cultures put considerable pressure on employees to confirnn. They liiwt the range of values and stydes that arc acceptable. Obviously, this creates a ddcmnia* Organizations hire diverse individuals because of the altcmadvc strengths these pie bring to the workplace, yet tJiese diverse behaviors and strengths arc likely co diminish in strtmg cultures as people attempt to fit in. .Managernent
s
challenge
in
this
parad<»x
of
diversity
is
to
hsdanev
gods. Get em^oyees to accept rhe organ izadem’s dominant values and encourage d*
two
confliedng
Chapter T« OrgiaraadwMlCnlm^ c of diffcrcn™.- -loo m..ch to investiture rites is likely tn create 2■‘n-vng.hs ihur pcopk of diffvrent backgroun.U bring to the There seems to be little doubt that culture has a strong influence on ;^;ani^."'‘’'’efflpl«
behavior
But
what
can
management
do
to
design
a
culture
that
molds
pp,p)oyce5 ill the wAy iTiimagcnivni wants? When acai
of
There
an
influence.
There
few,
if
any,
or
her
arc
touched diese
orgamzation
by
bis
conditions
best
faeilitatt
organization culture ven'
is
become
ihc well
made
liciomv
may
b«
little
[he
most
cultural crisis,
months.
turnover
can in
ol has
the
of
took
to
so
conditions,
time
cultural
“favorable
l>e
successfnllv organization’s
Not
However,
its
and
dominant
fonn,
and
particularly So. and
if a
change
handicap
have
impiemenied
that are
leadership,
to
be
the
under will
when
the
that
this
it it
bcaimes tenets
change
culture,
to
to
because
over
time,
management,
there
the
short
measured
increase an
to
given
ii.espcriallyin
conditions"
yxiung and small, and a doiiiiiianl culture that is weak.
a
directly
that
(iiven
established,
resistant
stnall.
is
charactcrisiki,
once
is
culture
ailtutc.
permanent
great
surprisingly,
goals.
changes
top
is.
and
organizations
them.
to
founder
a
to
to
do
organization
is
arc
the
a
organiration
create
stable
The the
too
The
has
to
organization
van
knows
opportunity
the
cultures
an
the
management
traditions.
Everyone
what
coiiiinitted
inanageiiietit
favorable
change
It
established,
esuhlishcd
relatively
Strong
inappropriate
or
vision
of
so
being
sulx.-ultiin;s
change.
becomes
weeks
no
csiabli.shed,
up
to
pist
achievement
entrenched.
employees
are
management
is
resistant
js
the
existence organization
run.
in
Under
years,
probability of
a
that
not that
dramatic is
both
w
•*
Organizational Change and Development After reading this chapter, you should be able to 1.
Oescribe forces that act as stimulants to change
2. Define p/annetf change 1 Summarize Lewin's tliree-step change model 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Explain sources of resistance to change
9.
Summarize sources of irvnvdtion
Describe techniques for overcoming resistance to change Explain the values underlying most organizational development (00} efforts Describe a teaming organ 'zafion klentrfy symptoms of work stress
1#. Define knowfeetge manaiement and explain its importance
'^his chapter is about organizanonal change. We descrilie ens-ironmcnwl fixoes A. that are requiring managers to implement comprehensive change programs. compare two views on change. We also consider why people iind organizations often rwist change and how this resistance can be overcome. Finally, we present the concept o organizational det el opmen t as a sA'stemwide approach to chance and introduce several conteinpf,rary issues in organizational change.
FORCES FOR CHANGE rcouir^orranTT9r^”'^'**i"’* acting M stSulanB^i chai^'‘
dynamic and changing environment th*
Ch^ter 17
Org&cuwkm&t Caangt Dentofmtmt
I V
gXHiBJT 17-1 Forces for Chang
F’nrce
BxaniDlrv .MGI€ eiiltural .Iivtrsii5 Inrrc^st in
of’’He Morkforre
TcchnilfojC’
Hster and cheaper computers ^c« nichilc coniiniinicatiiin devices
EcoTcniicsniM’ks
Clwnge.s in oil pnceai J fell of Oecliin- in rh© Viilut o| the GIOIMI compelirfirs Mergers and cnnsolidaliuns Cnnvth oF e-viimnipi'w Inrcrnet cHai rooms Piercings, and tanoos among wcni^rs Incieased urban living Black rule mtere-ii of SouthinAlrica
Comped b on
5e<'iaJ (fend:>
World polhir*;
I
Opening of markets in China The war on terrorism fbllcM’ing')/! l/Ol Throughout this book, we’ve discussed the changing insU3icc, Human more
almost
every’
resource diverse
organiiadon
policies
and
workforce.
is
practices
And
many
having have
of tbevorkfirce. For
to
to
adjust
change
companies
are
to
in
a
order
having
to
muluculcural to
attract
spend
cnvironiucin.
and
large
keep
this
amounts
of
money on training to upgrade reading, math, computer, and other skills of employees. As noted in Chapter 14. instance, are
cuinputers
being
are
increasingly
is changing jobs and organizations. For now
perceived
commonplace as
in
necessities
alnww by
every*
a
large
oqjanization; segment
of
cell
the
phones
popidatic^,
and process reengineerin? prop-arns are eliminating wasiehil and redundant jo ta We pretty
live
good
in
an
indication
^‘age of
of die
dlseontimitty/’ fonirv.
In
the
tomorrow
195<)«
was
and
esseiiiially
1960s, an
the
past
extended
was
trend
a
fine
bom yesterdav, T'hat’s no longer true. Beginning in the early ! uvemight quadrupling uf world oil prices, cfflOTBzir yiorii' have connniie lo '
_
changes on organizations. In lecent years, foi snsiance, oil pntes a^e eantly
increased;
new
dot-ram
businesses
have
been
create
.
turrje
tens
j
|j
j
of investors into overnight millionaires, and then crashed; and the Euro has 10 percent against other major world currencies.
are as likely to
,s changing. In today’s global
,XnT X"J. nL
come from across the ocean from acros^^ town. g
both tradiiionul
h necessary for established orgaiuzkitions to defon competitors
who
develop
new
*Kh innovative offerings. Succcsshil organizations f«ponse to the coinpetidon. Thej^H be fast pmduas rapidly and getong them to market quic y. J.on predvK. .Jiles. and an -e-ng snaam of new be flexible. They’ll require an equally flexible ana POn adapt to ramdiy and even radically changing ra
entreprenctinal firms products
and
sernteschange of developing new
’‘U oji short production products, in odier words,
in
%4
frtif TlwO»f»h«WBSjM«
nrndt don’t remain -Mtie. F«r in^ance, in cnntr«t «. ,u« JO y«„ •SWM/ m>* .harinff inforiiifliinn in Internet chat rmims; lecnagen ,-nX7n?ly ornamenting their iHxlic. with piercings and tanons and many LXXd (ienention Xvrs arc leaving the suburbs and moving U. the au«. w" have aretied strongly, thr..uplio..t this htK.k. lor the .mpurunce .rf ««ng nrcanizational iKhavi-r ((IB) m a global cs.ntexi. Business sch-.b have been preach, inga giobal ,Hirspcct,vc since the early I'^SOs, bft no nnc-mrt even the strnng«tp«^ ponents of glol«.lizaiion-c.mlil have imagmed how
u-o^ change m
.-ecent vean A few examples make the |v.int; the fall ol dm Berlin Wall, the tcunificatNNi
c/(Knmny,
IraqA
invxMfUi
of
Kuwait,
and
the
breakup
of
th
Soviet
Vnioii.
in
just the pasi decade, dianK^-> in world politics have increased business o^nKiTOiniuesm South Africa. (‘Inna, and both South and N<»rth Korea.
JklANAGlNC; PLANNED CHANGE A
group
of
housekeeping
owner: “Il’s ven*
hard rbr
.sjM»kesw.’onhin. rigid if
hours
you
‘’Each
don’t
don't
group's
tilrimamm
ny>st
of
work
set
employees
up and
us
has
MS
for
of
wh<»
work
fur
significant
family begin
as.
Were
going
(lexibk
work
hours.”
The
request.
’l*he
agreed
to
irs
small
hotel
rigid H-to-S wtirk
to maintain to
a
and
personal
kxiking
owner
for
day
hours,”
the
said
their
responsibilities.
And
someplace
listened
next
confronted
else
dmughtfully
rhe
owner
dollars
to
towwk to
the
introduced
a
tlcxnmc plan for these employees. A the-art
major rolnjcies.
Sophisacated improve would and
automobile One
spent
chat
receive
area
would
coinpiiter-cuntroUed
the
company^
dramatically since
equipment,
nianufacrurcr
ability’
change
to
the
management executives
equipment find
jobs
were
be
|wople
a
equipment put
de
feci
in s.
working
considerable
developing
billion
new
correct
the
anticipated
the
would
and
uf
several
in
employee
program
to
help
was
place
install
state-of-
quality
control.
to
Since
the
die
quality
significantly
new
equipment
conrrol
resistance
to
|K'ople
lieawnc
area,
the
rew
familiar
with the equipment an
scenarios different.
are examples of change. I’hai is, both were tonHowever, only rhe second scenario described A
ff/i/rmeJ hotel—diey rencc.
.Many changes in organizalions are like the one that ixxnji rcd at the just happen. Sonic organizarious treat all change as an accidental
We’re
concerned
wixli
change
activides
that
are
proactive
and
otvur-
purposeful.
In
this chapter, wc addre^*^ change as an intent io naJ, goal-oriented activity' What to
are
improve
the
the
goals
ability’
uf
of
planned the
change*
organization
Essentially there tn
adapt
to
arc
rw'O.
changes
in
First,
it
seeks
its
environment.
its
environment.
Ses’ond, it scek*s to change employee behavior. If HTicn new
an
organization
competitors law's,
important
changes
take
place,
empower
employees,
is
co
iiuioduce sources the and
surv'ive, new of
must
products supply
organization introduce
it
go
needs
work
respond
co
or
sendees,
out
of
to
teams
in
govcmniciu
hii.siness,
adapt. are
changes or
similar
to
stimulate
Efforts
examples
agencies
of
planned
enact
environmental in»iovam)n,
change
activ-
ities directed at responding to changes in the cmironmcnt Since
an
organization’s
success
or
failure
is
esscndaHy
due
to
the
things
that
employ ees do or fail lo do, planned change also is concerned with changing the behavior f»f individuals and grou|» within the oi^aniz^tion. Later in this chapter, we renew
apter 17 Org,ni„hwal
i «*'i>Tn.etu
rtchniques that organizatiws tsin use to get pconle m kok they perf'in" inwrjctinn with others Uho in nrgaoizadoiis is responsible tor niAnaffiiitr^l..
'n die tmles
change agents. Change agents can Iw nianagers^or noniiiJna'S^''^^'
«
or outside consultants. For ,tia,or change y s’l'l hire the services of outs,de co. Jitants rfpro Because they are from the outside, these individuals eaj offer an o J . ““'stance,
«npl«yees of the
unas-ailablc to insiders. Outside consnltans, however are d.s^Sw uimally have an inadequate understanding of the organization’s hism^ operttingprcKcdures, and personnel. (hjvsi.le constilunr; ak. mav k nm.r to h« vnti, die re,KTvu.ssK>ns after the change is implemented. In contrast, intend staff.spec,ahsb cu managers, when aenng as change agents, .nay be more tlioughtfu! (and p(«sibly more cannons) because they have to live with die consequences of their actions.
C:HANGE
Tvvo VIEWS OF
Simile Sea
1
to
The a
organizauon
specific
port,
is
'fhe
like
large
shipk
ship
caprain
traveling
lias
mAde
across
this
the
exact
calm
nip
Mediterranean
hundivds
«f
times
Ixdbre with rbc same cre«-. Ever)' once in a while, however, a sxorm will appear, and the crew
has
tn
respond.
ment
changes—and,
1
he
having
captain
will
maneuvered
iihikc
through
the the
appropriate storm,
will
adjiismicnc—ihai rcnirn
to
calm
implewaters.
Impkmairing change in organizations shnnld therefore be seen a$ a response to a break in tJiC Status quo and needed only in occasional siruanons. Simile
2
The
organization
is
more
akin
to
a
4O’ftxit
raft
than
to
a
large
ship.
Rather
than sailing a cairn sea, this raft mu si traverse a raging river made up of an uninterrupted
flow
of
manned
by
before,
much
obsudcs, raft
10
people
ol
the
needs
permanent
the
exact
to
pull
white-w-ater
w’ho
trip
is
have in
destination to
shore,
To
worked
together,
the
is
never
the
of
rapids.
dark,
the
where
raft new
is
river not
crew
make
clear,
tilings none
dotted and
memho'S
have by
at
arc
worse,
the
Lravcled
unexpected
irregular added
raft
is
die
river
turns
and
frequencies
and
utlicrs
the
leave.
Change is a natural state and managing change is a continual process. These
wo
similes
present
verj-
different
approaches
to
understanding
and
responding to change. Let’s take a closer look at each one.
The "Calm Waters" Simile Until vro’ recently, the '‘calm waters^’ snnilc duininatcJ tJ.e thinking of agers and academics. It’s best illustrated in Kurt LewinV three-step esenp change process.- (See Exhibit 17-2.) .According “'’Attjfjjgthe status quo, changing to a new state, and
,
J s
nr The OtpaiMMM* 9>*m ► TTic s»tw« quo cm he considered an eqidlibrtom state. Mtwing front nnfrStg. uh^h cm. he achieved m one of way.: * 1. n.e.AiwiK/ora/.whichd-n.-vrbehaviorawjv from the sunn quo, can Se increasna, J. I’hc two approaches can be 2. Theunfreezing rwwmwgyiwrt, whichdCTomplishctl. hinder .n..vc(neni the itself exisdnp em b, Once hxs been the fr-«J change rancquilibnum, be implemented. clccreaACfl.
However,
the
mere
uitroduction
of
change
does
not
ensure
rhat
it
will
lake
hold.Tl^
new situauun ihcrdare n«xnh to be rrfi-ozen it can be susuined over unic. Unless this last
step
is
emplo>Trs
attended
will
there
revert
to
»s
the
a
ven*
strong
previous
chance
equilihriuin
the
slate.
change The
will
k
oliiectivc
shondivcdaaj of
refreenng^
then, is nj stabilize rhe new situation l»y balancing the driving nnd rtsttainiiig fijrces, Note
how
I,twin’s
three-step prcxxss
treats change
as
a break in
the
organiza-
don\ e(|uilihrium stare. The sranis quo has been disturbed, and change is necessary to establish tively
a
calm
new
equilibrium
environment
state.
that
This
most
view
might
organizauons
have
faced
been
in
appropriate
the
1950s,
to
1960s,
ihe
rela-
and
varfy
1970s. But one can argue diat ''calm waters’* no longer describe the kind of sexs that mana gel's currently have to negoti^^te.
The **White-Water Kapids” Simile The
’’white-water
rapids”
simile
is
consisienr
with
the
disciiwicin
in
Chapter
B
irf
uncertain and dynamic environments. It is also consistent with the dynamics asscxriatcd with going from an industrial society u> a w'orld dominated by infornution and ideas, To get a feeling for wdiat rnanaging cha/igc might be like when you have to cootmually maneuver lowing
in
uiiintemiptcd
curriculum.
Courses
vary
rapids, in
consider
length.
attending
Unfoitunalcly,
a univcrsiiy that when
wu
sign
has up,
the
W-
yxjudon*!
knf>w how long a course will last. It might go for 2 weeks or ?0 weeks. Furthenuore, the insinictor cm end a course any time he or she w anps, with no ]>rior w arning If chat isn't had enough, the length uf the class changes each time it meets—sometimes ir lasts 20 mjiiuTcs, other times it runs for .1 hours—and drtenninauon oftidien die next ria’s niecting will cake place is set by the instructor diinng tliis claw. Oh m. there's one more thing. Ihcexamsaieall unannounced, so you have to be ready for a test at any tune. To respond
succeed
in
quickly
to
this
university’,
every
you'd
changing
have
condition.
tn
he
incrctlibly
Students
who
flexible were
and
able
to
overstructured.
rigiii. or slow on their feet wouldn’t .survive, A growing number of managers are coming to accept diat chetr jrJi is murii like what a student would face in such a irnh-ersity. Swhility' and prcdittaWlity done exist. Nor
are
disruptions
in
the
status
quo
only
occasional
and
temporary;
followed
by*
a
return to calm waiurs. Many of today’s managers never get out of the rapnls They’ face constant elungc. bordering on chaos. ‘Fhese innnagei's arc being forced to play a game tlicy VC never pJayal before, governed bv rules that are created as the guiiie piogrcjscs.
Putting the Two \^ews in Perspective Does rt cn* manager face a world of constant and chaotic change? No, but the set of managers who don’t is dwindling rapidly. Managers in businesses such
a.s
womens
higivfashion
dorhing
Ironu^ a w<»rid that kxiks like white-water rapids. I'hey used tu kxik with envy it
have
king
coft-
X
Chapter 17 Organiorionai t3,a..w «u n-
c«-n«rp.ro m md^r.« sud, „ ^.(bo(l renauranc, office equipment, publishin«r
nun«6,«„rt„.r nil ,, .•r
banking,
rba. nugbr have ix.en true 30 or 4<,, J
,.«lKtaWc emi-
Fov orgnntzanons nxby can near change as rhe ' J 7*^ 7^ peatefti! w 'TM. Even these few dp so ai great risk 'Ik. ‘^’^'bance in an nth<«-gafii/Jti..n ..r ii-, managers to be aimplacent VI.Kt
^^Wng «Jo bst
* '..r
•, t
,^rf«n IKtnonths. ArtrmsucbasPcop|cExJkss^;;Sr^^^^^^ ’ tj,e nKxiel “lieu IrHif jinn, then went l^nknipt a short ti™. I
'I
‘If-' ’in’i broke, don’t fix it" no longer applS t' “Jf ■' broke, you jus. haven’t kx,ke.l hard enough EU r!anp?a>
RBSISTANCE TO CHANGE *' One
of
oeW
the
mr^t
behavior
resistance there
is
-
is
that
p^itjvt.
It
weren’t
ch^rtic
well
dex
umenud
orgajiuadons provides
a
findings and
their
degree
of
sone
resistance,
organizational
randomness.
Resistance
to
Fur example, resistance
TO
change
from
studies
members
stabiJity
behavior
can
also
resist
and
a
change.
predictability
would lie
—^'Hij and oreanfra
_^x:.. Wft.. of individual
In
to
a
this
behanw.
take
on
characteristics
source
of
functional
If of
conflict
a reorganization plan or a change in a product line can sdm-
uljrtc a healthy debate over the merits of the idea and result in a berter decision. But ihcre is a definite ilown side to resisrance to change. Jr hinders adaptaiioji and progress. Resistance an
be
overt,
resistance
to
implicit,
when
it
emplovees
quickly
direatening
to
that
js
change
go
impliat
is
doesn’t
ininicdiate,
or
overt
immediare.
respond on
or
necessarily
and by
strike,
deferred.
deferred.
voicing
or
the
Implicit
surface Iris For
The
resistance
standarditxd
easiest
for
instance,
complaints,
like.
in
maoagcnicntto
a
change
engaging
greater efforts
in
diallengc are
wav-s.
is
a
is
deal
with
proposed
and
work
managing
subtle—loss
of
Resistance
slowdown, resistance
io\-alt)
to
the
organization, h^s of mod vac on to w<jrk. increased errors or mistakes, increased absenteeism
due
to
"sickness”—and
hence
difficult
to
recognize.
Shnilariy.
deferred
actions
cloud the (ink between the source of the resistance and the reaction to it. A change may produce what appears to he only a minimal reaction at die rime it is iiudated but surfaces wccU, iinpa. build
But up
mondw, it
or
becomes
and then
even ±e
vean
straw
later.
that
Ora
breaks
explode in some response
single the
change,
earners
in
back.
and
of
itself,
Reactions
that seems totally out
of
to
has
little
c^ge
can
prc^inion to
c
thange action it follows. The resistance, of course, has merely licen deferred and stockpiled. Wiat surfaces is a response to an aecumubrion of changes. l-ets look at the sources of resistance, tor analytical puqK?ses, we \e ^hem hy individual and organizational sources. In the real world, the smirces oft
Individual Resistance Individual «.urces of res.sance ro chanf.^ reside in bxsie hunun vharmensucs such five reasons why
« f*^veption5.
personalities,
and
needs.
The
like
people,
tollowi.ig
su.nwanres
•'•dividualh inay resist change. Kvery day, when you go to work and streets? Pn.bablv. If you’re n n-gubrh
most
you
hnd
smg
..
The Oiganieetion Syuem As hu.«un beings. -e’« crw«n-»
Ufe « cmnjes enou,^,; ,.4^
need » consider the hJI range of options for the hundreds of deacons we make esxr, day. To c<jpe vrith this complenn-. we all rely <^>'ah«s, or progranunji r«Doiiscs^"'hen we arc crinfronted with change, fhw tendency to respond m 0^ accusomied ua« becomes a source of resistance. So when > our .lepartmeni n a neu crffice’building across to«Ti, H means you re bkely to hav e to change ma,, habib- uakma up 10 minutes earlier, taking a new set of streets to work, finding a parking place, adjusting to the new office layout, develofung a new lunchtime uid w ua. Security Per’ple who haix a high need for scenritj- are likely to resist change because it threatens dieir feeling of safely. When Boeing annoonces it’s laying off JO.OOO people or Ford introduces new robooc equipment, many employees at firms may fear that their jobs are in jeoiardy. Economic Factors Another source of indiudual rcMsrana is concern dm changes al lower one s income. Changes in job tasks or catabli^ed work mutmes also can arooje economic fears if pwiple are coocemed they won't be able to perfewm the new r
',
nurrines co ihcir previous standards, especially when pay is closeb bed to producTh5ty. Fear
of
known.
the
And
Unknown
people
eca- Ff. for
general
subsnnire
don\
like
ambiguity*
the
unknown.
and
The
uncertainty
^ame
tor
applies
in
the
employ,
the incroduchon of a quality management pn>gram requires tta
production be*
in
Changes
workers
learn
staosdcal
unable to do so. 'Fhey'
process
may.
control
techniques,
some
may
fear
they’ll
therefore, de> elop a negative acdcude toward
quahn
management or behave dy*sfunctiana!K if required to use stausdcal techniques. Seleed^c their
Information
world
changing ktxp
it.
their
mation
through So
with
bosses
their
the
nuke
die
introduction
in
explaining
wc
lions.
arc
intact.
cluUenges
As
percep
individuals
pcrcepdoas
chat
faced
Processing
Once
guilty
They
of
of
hear
world
a
they
in
(Chapter
2,
have
created
this
selectively
what
theyve
quality
why
teamed
processing
they’
u
CTeated.
of
co
The
nunagemcni
knowjedge
ant
shape
world,
resist
hear
ignore is
they
infonnadon
in
They
prtxiucnon
may*
statisdes
individuals
ignore
wor^n
the
neccs-sary
«dcr
or
infor-
who
argumcnis the
in
are ibcir
potential
benefits rhe diangc uill pros ide them.
Organizational Resistance Organizadofls,
by
Aeir
very
nature,
arc
conservative.
Hey
acmxly
resist
change.
You
don t have to look for to see evidence of this phenomenon. Government agencies want to continue doing what they have been doing for years, whether the need for their sefchanges
or
history.
Changing
Fducadonal mne,
arc
essenoally ness
remains
nrms,
the
same.
church
institudoxis
which
rhemsdves
extremely
die
teaching
same
too,
appear
Organized
doctrine exist
requires to
open
resustanx
to
technologies
highly
religions
resistant
to
deeply
great minds
change.
today
arc
as
change.
persistence and
Mosr they Six
entrenched and
challenge school
were maiur
50
in
their
padentV’
tsuWished
doc-
systems
are
using
y
MOM
busi-
ago.
sources
of
organization^
resistance have been identified.^ Structural tor
Inertia
exampl^die
Organizations
sclcvoon
pnK*ess
have
buik-in
sy-stematically
mechanisms selects
certain
to
produce
people
petpie oui. Training and other siidalizadoft techniques reinforce specific rtde requtf*-
in
and
siabiliiycerw®
Chapter 17 Organutti ^<’pnwnt
gnJ skills. FormaliMtion provides job descrimi<.n . ^pbrtTCS r..
1
The
ndes, ami procedures fi,r
are hired iiny an ..rffatiiMtin,. ,rz.-k
^jpcil JirccU’d lo behave in ecrcaiii ways VVhen^n'*''**”'-^' ^th cha.>ec, this striK-fural inertia acR as a counterbalance ijmited F«'tuh ’'f Changes Organizations arc mad,.
,
''
You can’t change one without affecting the others Fr r " ,Hanges
the
^Vstn.crure ittd
to
matclu
changes
Group a
tc-cbnoJogical
m
Inertin
the
changes
if
An 11.
processes
change
subsystems
Even
constraint.
the
h.s
in
|0b
to
wart
union
by
simnltaneouslv .n^ig \ing the organiz^tnoilikelv to be acc^tedToTw
is
be
nullified by rhe er f^v'stcni. change their behavior,
to
mcn.ber,
suggested
without
technology
tend
individw.ls
mdmdna
subsys-
for
instance,
management,
but
may
it’union
larger groupnorn«
bewiling norms
to
dictate
any ujiibierrtl change made by managcmeni:, he's likely to resist to of
Expertise
5|>eciaiized
Changes
gn>ups.
rfidr
human
cfiis
adnunistrflcon—has
Cccaustf
resource
The
tliis
in
orgrimzational
recent
move as
activities—such been
our^ioiircing
resisted
i.'?
a
threat
by
training, by
die
threaten
vompanies
dex’elopmerr
many
to
may
human
to of
stills
expertise
outsource pay
resource
specialized
the
many
plaits,
and
departments.
held
by
people
of
benH’hy?
in
HR
departments. Threat
to
Established
making
authority
ization-
The
can
Power
Kektionshtps
threaten
introduction
long-cstablishcd
of
parucipaiivc
Any
redistribution
power
relationships
decision
making
or
ol
decis
ion-
rhe
or^n-
self-managed
work
within
tearos are examples of changes that often are seen as threats to the power ol supervisors and middle managers. iTireat
to
control
Esrabiished
sizable resources
Resource often
see
Allocations change
as
Groups a
threat.
in
the
They tend
organization to
be
that
content with
the wav things are. WiH die change, for distance, mean a reduction in their budgets or a
cut
in
their
staff
size?
Those
whu
most
benefit
from
the
current
a!location
of
resources are often threatened In’ changes that may affect future allcKUtions.
Overcoming Resistance to Chang V\Tule there are numerous forces that act to resist change, thange agents can take to lessen this resistance. The foUowng ne y ig of them. Communication
Resistance
can
be
reduced
throu^
^^unv^^that
the
snuX:
hdp them see the logic of a chunK^. of resistance in misinfonuation nrcleared p’>or a facts and any lies misunderstandings arc is inadequate conunu^ppniach M'ork? It does, provided that the source o res mutual trust '^canim and that inaiiagement-employec relations arc c ,iniikelv to succeed, ■nd credihilin'. U those conditions do not exist, the change « *‘»rtici|Utit>n People who panicipate in 'ttonglx commined to the final outcome t h.r individuals to reais: a change decision m *h.c >
«Ten‘t involved. And it's . which they paracipated.
may aceXt
tesistiny
®
patterns
some
s^^tem.
The Orgsftiation System
?3 befiire a change i» made, th.-se oppo^eH can be hnw^t int.. the decision proc«,.« the cxi>ert-=.e to make a meaningful contnbulion. their invoK,. nicm ran reduce resistance, vbmin romniiuncnt, and increase the quality „f o*,
decision. Provide
Support
resistance’
Change
^instance,
showing
offering
employee
Reward
Acteplance
of
nwsion
of
and
can
Change
and
Change
As
behavior
agents
offer
concern
counsci.ng
karning
behavior.
agents
a
and
o
empathy
therapy,
we
or
discovered
modification,
should,
range
by
in
provide
a
2
and
powerful
employees
to
listening,
skills
rraming.
S,
in
force
widi
redaa
active
new
Chapters are
efforts
prxuc.ng
providing
rewards
tlicrefore.
siippnmve
onr
dj».
in
shaping
attractive
tewmis
that are coniingcnr on an ejitancc of change. These rewards can range from praise and rccngninoTi »> jay incrcasc^i or pruni<»nons Create
a
LeamhigOi^ntzadon
incennonally this
a
five
designed
teaming
uith
with
each
that
evcQ'one
examples
odier.
of
agree
learning
less
capacity
to
continuously
.As
People
iirnkrstaiHl
can
is
the
ui^nizatinn?
basic characteristics.
Resistance
shown
in
Exliibit
put aside their
h
upon,
their and
in
organizations
work
would
organization adapt
17-3,
ok! ways
organization then
an
really
co
been
We
call
organizations karn
form
achieve
FedEx,
has
change.
thinking,
work^,
together
include
and
learning of
that
a
to be
plan
that
hord,
have open
or
visioii
vision.
Seine
General
Electric,
Motoroh. and Wai-Mart. What it
needs
can
co
improvement. vision.
aiake
explicit
do its
co
their
firms
commicmcnc
co
change,
becomes
pare
I
bis
coauninnenr
Second,
the
organization’s
boundaries
between
by
fattening
the
use
reshaped
management
of hj
become
basic
misukes.
,\nd
ferences
OUT
the
people .structure,
cross-function support values.
the
to
a
I
I’hat
open.
1
combining
Finally,
create
his
the
a
requires
be
This
openness,
people
who
cake
cliliutc
that
brings
encournging
strategy'and
and
to
can
departments, culture and
First,
cunrinuous
redesigned
organizadon’s
Risk-takmg,
rewarding
to
to
and
organizadons
interdependence.
learning.
needs
the
incTease or
organizations?
innovation,
needs
teams.
means
of
learning
structure
eliminating
continual
management into
and
make
reduce
be
and
achieved increasing
needs growth
chances paradoxes supporting
to
he
should
and
make
and
dif-
functional
conflict.
EXHIBIT 17-3 Characteristics of a Learning Organization There exists a shared which »r\TP>’onc agrees on Peripk discard dinr old ways of thinking SIHJ (be srainbrd r«r(iw»d
1. 2.
3,
«
«o
-
Chapter 17 Orgmiieckaal
V^NAGING CHANGE THRO15CH ORCANI^'^'I ‘<^ NAL DEVELOPMENT xJ mARajciog change wi^uld complete whhouv including organiitaJ Il^conctp^ * ntion^
Organiiaoonal dcrelcpment (017) is not an easily defined dnincluding organiuvneompas^ a aillecticn of phnned-changc humanistic-dcBwnnc vahiCs that seek lo 5 ri ttyt an easily defined vnint^ , ,1....:. ..^...'. ........... ” ' Ag. Tlie OB pAvad^gm values human and organ) za non a) ^onaS eliec»vcne.s and employ., w.ll-bemg, 1 i spirit t»f mquin*.' The change agent Tli. OB [wra.li^ values human and organizunonal growth. collab<.rative andsuch as power, es««/* ^.,,..1..-:. c^’Uahuration. Concepb ^Cipativr P1.KCSSCS, and a spint of inquiry. - The change agent msv l,e directive in riiv vonuol. conflict, ai\d w>etcion art held in rdaflvely b's however, ihcrc is a sm>ng emithasis on a.llahorarion, c; following briefly identifies ihe unflerlvi <’ esteem aJiMmgOD 1. ying values in mmt OD Individuak are pcaen.ed a. being responsible, ronseienbous .,„d caniig. They should be treated with dignity and rcspccr. 2. 7iW .>r,.! «,pp^. The effective and heaJ±y organization is characterized bv crust, authennem', openness, and a siipporuve cliinatc. 3.
.'^uatizathn.
Effcciire organizaiions deemphasizc hierarchical authority and
control. 4. Ccnfi
Problems
fMfutfoti.
shouldn't
be
twepi
under
the
rug.
They
should
be
openly
confronted. 5.
The more ±at people who will he afTected by- a change jrv involved m
Fjrtth'tfurCion.
the dccisjons surrounding that cliange, the more they wiU be conuuiiicd w iitiplemenu ng those dccuioos. VVhai change?
are
Ir
some
ihe
of
the
following
013
pages,
techniques
we
nr
present
fivx
loierventions
for
bringing
abour
intcn'cncons
that
change
agents
might con si tier using.
Sensitivity Training It
can
go
groups,
or
dirougfa open
by
a
variety’
i’-groups
unstructured environmem
IM’ocesses, <>rieiiicd. rather
which
(training group in
loosely
names—laboratory
groups)—but interaction.^
which
directed means
than
being
tuld.
*eir
ideas,
beliefs,
express
of
all
that Tlie and
a
refer
Members^
panic!(*ants by
training, to are
indmduals
attitudes
through
crriics lie
nt
die
she
reiects—any leadership rule. The
ohjcciives
of
of
in
sdenrist.
observing
not
encounter
changing
and
opportunin-
does
training,
together
themselves
l)ehavdoral
team
professional
method
brought
discuss
professional
a
sensirivitj’
a
The
group
participating
panieip»nis>
accept-
ability
is
-w
fact.
w
ovcru>
... j .,....,P«.PSS T-gnmps
are
to
provide
the
subjects
wi
uicreA.
to
empathize
,J• wih
c
oihcis,
imjirosc
greater -„n,vcd
conflict-
’^Venoc. increased tolerance of individual diflcrences. an p ^**»luti«)n sluIK. If individuals lack awareness of how others percen can effect more realistic self-percepnons. grea«r gro p
.
j^yght
K'f "f Others, and increased understanding of poup increased
and
inienivtive
of their own behasior and how others perceive them, greater
delude
free
their
and for
behavior
rhen the successful cohesi»vness, andT-a ' „ohesi»vness, and a
«wtirrion in d>‘sftmcttonal tnurpcrsonal conflicts. Furthermore, it can ideally raarft inteerotion
l>etween
the
have
declining
in
T-ffioup5 rcawn is
htui
probabb’
able
witii
ii
rhat
can
threaten
moved
th®^
provTS*
away
that
an
from
intnisive
Inditidual
and
the
organization.
In
practice,
}>o|«ilarity
o\-er
the
past
or
two.
nanire
the
as-ks
pjrticip;int>
employee’s
emphasizing
r»f
co
^clf-inmge.
individual
decade
howc^'
UTiy?
0^^
prtKcss. Many managers
arc
dischrse
themselves
Second,
Iveliiip
in
OD
and
forma
efforts
focused
lion
in
uncortifc^^
recent
more
on
anj
years
hav«
issues
related
to tinproving work processes .mil group performance. Survey One
Feedback
tool
ancte*
fijr
assessing
attitudes
tiieinber
options
in
organiratum
among
held
by
and
organize!
solving
non
these
a
I
memlwTS.
ditYercnces
idcndlnng
is
the
discreph
survey
fec^
Imck appnurh? Even’one importance
is
cinplovees
who
all
members
gest
the
of
in
nation
directly
the or
be
xsLs
between
to
him nr
and
her
for
to
in
manager
unit.
A
nt
any
given
practices;
is
members
what
perceptions
with
feedback,
questionnaire
determine
satisfaction
survey
Organization
their
decision-making
units;
participate
or
intersiewed
members
including
am
ftmify—the
organization
may
typically
topics,
organizational
reptjn
questions
uonnairc
an
usually
arc
of
those
completed asked
on
a
to
job,
bjsug.
The
ques*
broad
range
eftectivencss;
organization,
key
and
relevant
attitudes
communicanon
the
unit
maybe
issues
and
but
peers,
coordi-
and
their
immediate supervisor. The vidual’s
data
Iroin
specilic
These
data
issues
that
importance
this
“family'”
then may of
questionnaire and
to
l)ccome be
the
the
(Tearing
encouraging
are
tabulated
entire
organization
springboard
difficulties
dismssion
for
for people.
and
with
data
pertaining
and
distributed
identifying
pnibiems
Particular
ensuring
that
atrennon
to
to
indi-
employ^ecs.
and is
discussions
an
clarifying
given
focus
to
on
the
issues
and ideas and nor on attacking indinduals. Finally, bers
group
identifying
)K>s$iblc
tening?
Arc
or
assignments
job
result
in
new
the
discussion
the
survey
implications
ideas
group
in
being
be
the
generated?
impnwed?
agreeing
of
on
feediwek
questionnaires
Can
Answ^ers
approach
decision
to
commitments
like
various
result
findings.
making,
questions to
should
Arc
in
people
interpersonal
these,
actions
ir
that
mem-
b
will
lis-
relations,
hojied,
'till
remedy
the
problems that are identified.
Process Consultation No
organization
mance it
can
can
lie
be
operaie.s improved,
improved.
perfectly. but
The
they’re
purpose
Abnagers
ofren
sense
unable
iJentily
what
of
to
process
consultation
that
their
unit’s
can
be
improved
for
an
outside
is
ixrforand
hu*
consultant
to assist a client, usually a manager, to yxrccivc, understand, and act on pnx.*ess events with
which
he
or
she
must
deal.’*'
These
might
include
work
flow,
jnfi>mul
relation-
ships among unit members, and fonml communication channels. Process
consultation
(PCJ)
is
organizational
effectiveness
can
be
and
einphxsis
in
its
on
similar
to
improved
involvement.
But
sensitivity’ by
dealing
PC
is
training
more
with
in
its
assumption
interper^HmaJ
task-dimted
thw'
that
problems sensitivity
training. C^suiuntK A,
in
PC
are
there
to
give
the
elieni
'insight*
armnd hint within him, and between him and other people.^’ITiey do not soke 4*
into
what
is
gning
uo
nrwni/a-.i'iii'' problems. Rather, the consultant is a nruid.^ „ L
S dUev
•aiVx-ss to help the client solve his or her own pttddems ’’ ’ The cmsultanr worb with the client in jniprovenienf. The emphasis is on '‘joirtly” be^-r- - ’ within
proce-sses
hb
or
her
ludt
*e
that
can
be
co„ri,iualk\dled
eensulvint is gone. In add.nnn, by having the clieni aetivek «n long aftcj.
diagnosis and the Jeveiopment of altcrnarives, tlicre will lie '
ri,e pmeess and the remedy and less re.sistmce tn the action ^la.i chosen y parncipate in both die greater understanding of Impiriandy, the process consultant need not he an exrirt: i v Ur problem that is identified. The consultanfs CApenise 11*^^^. !,!^ Hoping „,,p„™hip. ,f tnowW outside the clients
and
consultant's
"^
expertise,
the
consultant
hehs
dient tn hKate such an expert .and then instructs die client in how to get the mS out
of this expert re'^nurce. Team Building Aswe’v-e ingly
noted
relying
in
niimermis
on
teams
places
lo
throughoul
accomplish
this
work
bonk,
tasks.
organizations
Team
are
building
increas-
utihzes
high-
level
where
interacnon group activities to increase trust and openness among team members.iTeam activities and cetns
building are
leave
can
be
intcnlejXTiiienr.
intergroup
applicaiions
applied For
our
development
to
within
to
organizational
groups
or
discussion, the
next
Families
we
section.
(command
at
the
intei-group
emphasize As
a
the
result,
intragroup our
interest
groups),
as
well
as
tunctions.
To
illustrate,
to
level con-
commit-
tees, project teams, self-managed teams, and task groups. Nor
all
group
activity’
has
interdependence
of
consider
a
football team and a track team:
AlihOugh members on both teams are concerned v.-irh rhe teams total output they funcuon
differently.
The
football
team’s
output
depends
synergistically
on
how
well each player does his parriedar job in concert with his reammatus. The quarterback’** performance depends
CMI
ihc performance ol his linKmcii and receiver's^
and ends on how well the quarterback throws rhe hall, and so on, Ou the other hand, a track team’s perfonuance is determined largely by the mere addirion of the performances of the indhddual members.’ ’ Team
building
is
applicable
to
the
case
of
interdependence,
such
as
in
footM
r h
objective is to improve coorHinative efforts of members, which will resu t n ’wreasing the teams performance. .. . .ji di>velThe activities considered in team building typically indude Went of interpersonal relations among team members, to « -Ijujlj. "'embers role and responsibilities, and team process analysis. Ot co Jpg may emphasize or exclude certain activities teunU? confronted, ^^clopment effort and the specific problems anyone members w ®«Kally, however, team building attempo, to use high interacuo g iTust and openness. attemut to define the goals It mav be beneficial to begin by having „erceptions of what the *«nties of the team. This will bring m die surface diffe 1^^^ purpose may be. Kolhjwing thi.s. ’>«K*-4i.!7effectivx is the team in strucn.r.ng pn«nties
and achieving its
ThebrgaciBitwn Sjww Thfe Md identily powndal prohl«n areas. This self-crin.,ue d,.c««ion of u ..nTdone with member, ..f ihe total team present or. when Uq interchange of views, may inWally take place ,n smaller poups foU
-a
lowed m bv the shariiie of their findings with the n>ta3 team _ iSmi buikline can also address each member’s role on the team; carh role can be identified
nnd
individuals
danfied.
it
mav
Previous
offer
one
ambiguities
of
±c
can
few
be
brought
opportunities
tn
they
the
have
surface
had
to
For
think
some thnnigh
thonHighly what iheir ,ob is all about and w hat specific tasks they are etpected to carry out if the team is tt> oponiize its eflieiTiveness. Sriil process
another
team-buiMing
wnmiranr—that
ideniiiy
die
way
is,
work
to
is
activity
analyze
performed
can
key
be
similar
prtxcsses
and
htiw
that
these
to
that
go
on
processes
performed within
might
by
the
ream
to
unprosed
to
the
be
make the ream more cffccrivc.
Intergroup Development A
major
groups,
area
As
of
a
concern
result,
in
this
OD
has
is
(he
been
a
dysriinciional
subject
to
conftict
which
that
change
exists
efforts
between
have
lieen
directed.
Intergroup development ceptions
that
saw
account
the
groups
human
icsounxts
cerned
that
with
the
have
iiig
of
some
making
change
For
having
,i
of
profit/’
of
hunch
employees Sudx
the
example,
composed
group a
to
other.
as
as
protcctetl
coiui'Kiny
each
departincnt
department
seeks
attitudes, in
one
company,
shy
at
ot
“ultra-lilx:raIs
might
stereotypes
id
stereotypes,
conservative the
ir
can
have
the
are
and
the
more
con-
hurt
than
feelings
an
per-
engineers
lyjws,
who
get
and
obvious
negative
impact on the coordin stive efforts between the departments. Although of
the
group and
more
ineers how
after
dicrc
it
which
are
popular
snxral methods
independently
co
Iwlievcs
other
the
similantics
appnwehes emphasizes
develop
and
for
lists
group
problem
of
its
perceives
diftciences
arc
iinprtndng
intergroup
solving.In
perception
it.
The
discussed.
relations,
ibis
method,
of
itself,
the
groups
then
share
Differences
otw
are
each
other
group,
their
clearly
lists, articu-
lated, and the groups look ftir i he causes of the dispariries. Are were group? tion
groups’
Stereotypes
standings the
the of
phase-
formulated?
intentions?
Answers
causes
goals
of
to the
Have
questions difficulty
working
to
at
odds?
Were
Have
some
W’ords
and
like have
these been
develop
perceptions
differences concepts
clarify
die
identified,
solutions
that
distorted?
been
been exact
the will
caused
defined nature
groups
can
improve
wlial
by
of
the
move relations
Subgroups, with mejnl)crs from each of the conflicting groups, can now be erefurther diagnosis and ro begin to fornurlatc possible alternative actions that *d1 improve rcUtions.
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE FV>r many employees, change creates stress. As a result, many managere are asking, inc stress among my work sTi/fff '^Innovate or die” is another popular phrase
basis
misunder-
differently
groups.
m managcBKnt cialcs. IFA*,
On
by
each
conflict.
Unt‘e
to
the
integra-
between
the
Chapter 17 O»g»ni„,ionaj
Chanee anH ru. And « organixauons have b.c.„ne increasingly ««cen,.H inrellecnu] n,anagcP. arc seeking answers optinMiing
,ba, a,n http people
^^p^cs, address rhc!«r three questions.
In 'he follow.
U^ork Stress
Sa^
- dj-naniic conJinun in which an individ„al is confnmied with u.
, constraint or demand related to what he or she desires and fo is perceived to be ^.th uncertain and imponanc.” Stress is not ,p and oHtse-lf. .although stress is often diseussc.i in a negative c««nf« T?" Sidve value. parUcidarJy when ft offers a ptnendal gain. For example 'it oS^n Sdeusor stage perh.rmers achieve a superior performance in a criiical ftmsS However, stress r.s more often associated with constraints and demands. .\SS nievetts )'0u troin doing what you desire; demand.s refer to the loss of Ln^J. you take . test at school or you undergo vour ^L peffo^t c! ^ew ar work, you feel stress because you confront opportunity, constraints and Jeroands. .A good perft.nnance review may lead to a promotion, greater resp.m^bilitics, and a higher salary. But a poor review may prevent you from getting the pmmo non. All c.yrreTiiely poor review might cause you to be fired. Employees brought for
on
by
no other
to
cost
U.S.
productivity,
today
are
prc.ssurcs
at
reason,
increasingly work
and
iCs aftccting
industry
between
employee
at
home.''’
the borrom line.
$200
turnover,
compiaininc
and
$300
accidents,
about
higher
^\nd
managers
For
instance,
billion
a
workers'
year
arc
stress
^ying
levels
attention
if,
job stress is estimated
in
absenteeism,
compensation
costs,
diminished and
direct
medical, legal, and insurance fees? ’ Symptoms too
of
high.’
Stress
expcrieriringa dirfiiiJfy like.
in
These
Stress
What
shows
high nuLng
level
itself of
routine
symptoms
signs
can
in
in
a
stress
di
number may
decisions, he
rale
tJiat
of ways.
develop
loss
subsumed
an
employee’s For
high
instance,
blood
of
a{>pcriTc-
under
three
stress an
pressure,
accidenc
general
kvei
might
employee ulcers,
who is
irricabilicy,
proncncss,
caregorics:
be
and
the
phy*siobgical,
psychological, and behavioral. .Most of the early concern with stress w’as directed at phy'siological symptoms, prijiiarjiy because the topic was researched by specialists in the health and medical sci«ces. This research led to the conclusion that stress could create changes in metaboJ™, increase heart and breathing rates, increase blood pressure, bring on headaclies, 3Jv( induce heart attacks, rhe link between stress and particular physiological s^inpnot clear. There arc few, if any, cemsistenc rchuonships. Thi^ inability co pair u-ith particular symptoms is anribuicd to the complexity of the symptoms an ^difficulty in measuring them objectively. But physiological symptoms avc t c ’^^st direct relevance to managers.
, i-
. Of greater importance are the psychological stmiptoins. Stress ^-t&ciion; and job-related stress can cause job-related thssarisfacnon.Jo ^3ct, is the simplest and most obvious psychological elfecr o itself in other psychological states-for instance, procrastination.' Behavioral stress ahsenl-e. and nirnover. as well as changes in eating habits, nereased ^'•’'’Munpiion of alcohol, rapi.l speech, fidgeting, and sleep disonteis.
prosiuo^ng g
Mt
W
Tke Organ
Sptem
RcducinK Stress Not ah stress is d^t^ncticmal. Moreover, realistictally, stress M never be coralIv clhnuBiced from a person^ life, cither off the job or on. As we strcss-rcdwrd<.'n rerhniqucs, keep in mind dial ewr concern is with reducing the pan of stress that is dyshintaonah H icnns of nrganiiarinnal factors, any anempr ro Inwrr sn-ess kvek has to begin '«ith employee
Management needs co make sure that an employee's abifciucs
nwich the requirements uf rhe job When employees are in over their heads, their stress levels will hpically be high. An obicciivc job preview during the scltenon process will aho lessen sws.s by reducing ambiguity. Improved
'ir^amzdti>>nfjl
(ommuwill keep ambiguity-induced stress to a minimum. Similarly, a program Mill darify job rcsponghiliries and provide dear perform.inee objectives is al>o a way to reduce suess. if stress can be traced direcriy to boredoin work overload, jobs should l>c redesigned ro increase challenge or reduce the work load. Redesigns that increase opporniniries for employees to participate in derisions and to gain MX-ial sup|Xiri have also been fbuml n» lessen stress. Stress it’s
dilJicuIt
tioii’i. tle
that
arises
fa>r
die
S|>ecifically,
employee
is
al
For
to
directly
the
receptive, their
manager
there
in
life?
arc
turn,
or
free
whose
and or
a
If
few
personal
creates
stress,
in
a
life
creates
Second,
there
two arc
manager
believes the
problem*..
ethical
to inrnide—even
uppruaches
oT^anizarion—ih
lives
rhe
outside
suffer
offering
of
them
sort
out
rough
in the
it
is
Firit,
couskleran^ost
ethical
manager
its
prolessional
from
sub-
and
can
die
consider.
a
lack
help—can of
v their
managers,
piioritics.
meet
planning
that
and
perneed.
OTganiution
prove Still
another
lien-
approach
physical aM'iry prctff /nHs.
employ
in-huuse
thTtc-managef/zcni
a
ma
helping
ally sponsored
rhe
low-cost
irtyjgrarfi ebcial
cwtrol.
have any right
personal
problems;
counselors,
cmployce.s
that,
manager
personal
can provide stress relief. Employees often want ro talk to someKHIT
sonnel
employee’s
ernptoyvv’s
Employee one
an
does
tile
wayrj—ip
from
is
organizaiion-
Some large corporations
physical
ness
specialists
techniques,
and
who
provide
show
employees
individual
employees
fit-
willi
exercise
physical
advice,
activities
they
teach can
relaxation
use
in
keep
which
many
their Stress Iwds down.
Stimuloting Innovation How
can
an
o^ranization
beixjme
more
innovative?
The
standard
toward
organiz-itions strive is diat achieved by 5M Co.^^ 1 he maker of Scotch Tape and PostIt-Notes world
has by
built
a
reputation
consisrentiy
as
one
new
of
the
products
must over
a
innovative
organizations
vert'
period
long
of
in
die
time.
3M
his a staled obicctive that 50 percent of its sales are to come from pnxhicLs less than 4 years old. In one recent year alone, 3M launched more than 5<X) new products. V\‘hat s the svcrci of 5 M’s success? HQiat can other organizations Ho to duplicate 3»M
s
teristics group
track
recohi
surface them
into
for
again
innovaiion? and
smictural,
agaiji
riiere when
culrnral,
and
is
no
guaninteed
researchers human
formula,
bur
certain
diarac-
study
innnvaeive
organizations.
ru.source
categories.
Our
message
We ro
Q»apter 17
^n,c ,hat
orpmiMtions faciliratc the flexibility, Ldapm''n ntak*’ adi.pnon of tnn.waiiofts
.
easier
':«.trali«rion, Innt^
SecJd
T"'
’a
,, associated with innovation. Managerial tenure apwtrcnt nd knowledge of how to atx-otnplish tasks and ohlS d e
legitimacy
i„nn«n»« >” nurtured where there are slack resources Ha^'n |.g5ource-'> allows an organization to afford to purchase innovadons s jnstininrg innovuuons, and absorb failures. Finally, interunit co^^' hiph in innovanve organizations. These organizations are high us^r^ oT"'’'"' flctiori across departraeiiCal hues. Culnit^
Variables
encourage
Unfortunately,
aijsence risk
Innovarivc
cxiXTin.entat.on.
mistakes. nt
taking
hniures and
<«-'HUU interorganizations
niey in
rather
reward
too than
.nnovation.
hod,
many lor
People
tend
to
successes
organizations,
rhe
presence
will
suggest
of
and
have
similar
and
failures.
people
are
successes. m-
new
cultures They
celeln^te
rewarded
Such
ideas
for
cultures
only-
when
train
and
They the
extinguish chev
fed
dui such behanors exact no penalties.
Human th«r
Resource
Vanables
members
to
fear
getting
u-on’i
keep
become
champions
actively
anrf
Innovative
them
fired of
eun-cnr,
for
'They
making
change.
enthusiastically
organizations
Once
offer
high
job
mistakes,
and
ihey
a
new
promote
actively
idea
the
is
idea,
secunty
that
encourage
developed,
build
so
develop employees
individuals
champions
support,
of
overcome
to
change
resistance,
and ensure that the innovation is implemented. Suaunary’
Given
the
sialus
of
3
M
as
a
premier
product
innovator,
we
would
expect
it
to ha\’e most or all of the properties we’ve i den rifled. And it docs, llie company is so higldy
decciitndizcd
that
it
has
many
of
rhe
characteristics
ul
small
organic
organixa-
lioDi. AJl of JM’s scientists and managers are challenged to ‘ keep current ” Idea champions 15
arc
percent
cTeared of
and
their
encouragcil
time
on
by
allowing
projects
of
scientists
tlieir
own
and
engineers
chwsing.
The
to
spend
company
up
to
encourages
Its employees to take risks—and ir rew-ards die failures as well as die successes. Pii’^lly» kM
is
years, Irides
a
model
overall Itself
on
of
corporate
annual
employee
being
an
id zed the company for being
stability. nirnover
employer
toe
for
The is
life.
a
average
tenure
minuscule
Financial
3
for
compnny
percent,
analv’^ts,
in
fact,
and
officers
the
have
is
company
recently
ent-
stable. Tn particular, they rake issue wat
.
nient’s unwillingness to cut costs through employee layoffs. Managements it’s this Muhility that iindcipins its innovative cuimre anrightc5t scientists. Knowledge Management piemens, the ^obal teleconinmnicarions giant, recendy huittcriand
to
build
a
relccoiiununications
j^pite of the network
that its bid was 30 percent higher than
or
nvo
secret
m
Siemens’s
illowed Siemens people
was its knowledge management system.- 1reps wim Netherlands to draw on rheir experience and pro . j|y nxjre reliable '''huKal dau ,h.. proved the SiU.H^ns’ network would bt subsra .
• J
thv kiJiniKilnun’s
•A
The OrgSRtMtaon System S^icms, Koii ’
Siemens is one «.f a eniwing ntimher of compsmes^nclud.ng ( Motor C> . Johason & Kdinsim.
Intel, \olksw-gen, Hexlett-PavUrd. BJJ
Roval Uanii of t^inada—that have ixaliicd the nilix: ol knou ledge man.igciueni (KM). ' WTwt is knmdcdgc management It's j process of nr^'anizmg and distnkxiung an organiMdon^ mllevdve uisdoin so cht lighi infomiaiion gets to the right penile at riX rime.- When done properly, KAI prtwidvs an oi ganiz.irion with lx)th a wanperitive edge and improved orgiinizjiional pertonnance because ii nukes itb emphwees smarter. Knowledge First,
sofw.-’ cal
or
in
financial
employees’ petition.
Second, that
attempts
to
important
intellecnial
assets
Organiz-qlions
that
can
w’isdoin
arc
experience
ns
baby
they
the
increasingly
organisations,
capture
make
is
many
collecrive
awareness
and
imnugetnenr
boomers
represent
a
it.
third,
-•Vid
organiwrion
organizarion
undertake
management
st’stcm
and
a
wealth
quickly
and
elfiacndy
leave
they
access
h»
likely
the
rn
KM
will
be
sj^stetn
instance, previous
up
mu,
an
lost
there
if
Acif com*
inereasmg
reduce
arc
no
redundancy in
scratch.
A
have
learned
eniployees
as
their
employees
from
re»-
iinponam
there's
will
when
start
as
three
“nutsmai-t”
workforce,
dut
needn't
what
least
now
more
For
at
are
knowledge
efficient.
for
assets
well-designed
project,
allow
to
cl
a
more
new
can
iKgin
nxiav
a
large
know'ledgeand
cut
wasteful rime retracing a path that has already been traveled. How
docs
an
organiz.auon
record
the
know
ledge
and
expertise
of
its
employees
and make dial in form nd on easily iKxes.sihler l( needs Io develop c’omputer daial>as«of pertinent in lor mation that eniployees can readily access; it needs to cieare a culm re that supporcv
and
rewards
sharing;
and
it
has
to
develop
niechaiibstns
dut
allow'
employees
that have dcvdo|icd vahiabk expertise and insights to share them with others. KM pnKc»
begins
by
ideniihnng
reenguieering,
what
managenienr
knowledge
needs
to
matters
review
vide die iiiosi value.'Then it can develop computer that
inf(>rmaiion
unless
the
ivadily
culture
available
su|ijwrts
lo
the
rhe
,ieople
sharing
of
to
die
processes
oi
to
^anizaiion.*'^
idenlifj’
tlxwe
networks and datalwscs dial
who
uiosi
infnnnarion.-^
need
it.
Bin
Renicinbcr,
as
KM
As
widi
that
pro
can make won’t
noted
in
work
Chapter
11, infonnarion rhai is iinpwcanc and scarex* can lie a potent source of power. /Uni people who hold rhat power arc olten reluctunt co share n with others. So KAI requires an f>rg> nizarional mua
cuiiun*
provide
employee
die
find
that
promotes,
nicchanisnts
uscluJ
on
it
designing can
be
the
quickly
and
die
die
)ob
system
to
accessed
rewards for
enables
shanng
ein|)Joyees
them
to
knowlccige. to
slure
achieve
iunally,
KM
knowledge
that
letter
performance.*^
knowdedge. Infiirmation overload needs lo he avoided
capture by
and
morivation
and
/vrref
knowledge isn'i necessarily bt’
values,
rinly
pcojilc
pertinent
whom
it
inR>miarion
can
help.
and
Royal
then
Bank
organizing
of
C.anada,
if fur
instance, has created a KiVI sysiem widr cixstomized e-mail disuiburitin Usts cai*efiiny broken
down
by
the
company^
rate
in-house
employees’ iiuranet W'cb
specially,
that
sites
serves
ride, as
featuring
a
and
area
centnii
‘'lessons
lea
of
interest;
infcx-niaiion med**
set
aside
repisimry';
sunxnurics
a
and
where
dedicated
site
created
sepa-
employee*
with
various expertise can share new infonnarion with othci’S. IMPLICATIONS FOP MANAGERS rhe zarional rion,
necil
tor
behavior.
organir.atioiu]
change Think design,
cru'iini^^sscs about and
cepts without inquiring ahoin change,
almost
attitudes, die
like,
it’s
all
of
pcrcepdons, ini^xiKsihle
die
concepts
ceants, to
think
within
leadership, about
nrganimotiva*
these
con-
I If environments were
I
oicdy
rtie
Org,-;, snnw
as
«,£]„.
„,!._.
,2^
'='^f»raung
7^
^“rbulent IHA • ^*fdc or «
/ members rv undercj^
‘’‘^oeriH, ,
/ ebrtr<x/iejn475c peaccftjl dpf/,. / most managers. Today’s
u orld skeb”^’srurU ^^^^*
du»g. .gc„.,
'" -his .Ort.,, S
I
1. 1 r
s •>
A
V.
-1... d,„/“ ™
»nd
abiliH
Epilogu riri
^norate.
feehnj,^
of
the bttine meaning to aft author that it has to accomplishment mid rehef. A» boA
both
of
o.
rejoke
our tour of the es«nud a>n«pu .n orgutuxauonal behav... ,1^
.s a good rime to cwmine where we’« been and what ,t all ni«ns. he tmderlpng theme of tl)i5 book has been that the hehanor of people a, ,otk is
not
a
random
phenotnenon.
hehavton
can
nevertheless
accuracy.
Oi.r approad.
Employees
be
explained
has been
are
complex
and
to look
at
cnni.es.
predicted
«tb
organizariorial
bnt
a
dteir
atnmd«and
reasonable
behavior
at
^grce
three levels; the
ifldjvidual, the CTfJup, and the oi^anizatton s>'?,tera. We
srarted
co
understanding
uons
individual rized,
with
difference';
and
therefore
rhe
indindual
why
mdi^ncluals
act
they
among
cinplm’ees
can
be
genemlizarifins
and
can
reviewed
be
die do.
major We
psychological
found
s>'steinatically
raatie.
For
that
many
labeled
example,
we
conmbu-
know
of
the
and
catego-
that
individ-
iuil.
management
people
into
jobs
than that
arc
are
people
with
compatible
investigative
with
their
personalities.
personality
types
So
should
placing result
in
hi^er-perfonning and mt»re-satisfied employees. Nc.Yt, of
group
viduals in
a
crur
analysis
behanor
by
the
group
is
more
number
than
moved
of
when
to
the
group
complex
than
members
in
alone.
We
level.
We
argued
merely multiplying the
group,
w’hat
because
denionslratcd
how
the
we
kj’iow
people
roles,
understanding
that
act
norms,
about
indi-
differently leadership
when styles,
power relationships, and other similar group factors affect the behavior of employees. Finally,
we
group
behavior
Major
emphasis
processes,
work
overlaid
systemwide
to
further
wms
given
design,
variables
improve to
human
our
showing
on
knowledge
understanding
how
resource
our
an
policies
of
individual
organizational
organization’s
and
of
practices,
smicturc, and
and
behavior.
technological
culture
affect
both
theoretical
con-
die attitudes and behaviors ol employees. It
may
be
tempting
to
criticize
the
stress
this
book
placed
on
cepts. But a.s noted psychologist Kun Lewin is purported to have said, “There is nothing
so
pratrical
xs
a
good
theory.”
Of
course,
it^
also
true
that
there
is
nothing
so
impractical as a good rheoiy that leadx nowhere. To av<)i
this to
result
book inquire
has
insights
included about
been
into
a
the
die
behavior,
wealth
of
examples
implications
presentation but
which,
of
of
and
theory
numerous
when
taken
for
illustrations. the
concepts together,
tem to help you explain, predict, and control organizational behavior.
And
practice that, provide
of
we
regwli^’b'
management.
individually, a
comjJes
offer syv
Endnotes CHAPTER
1
Sec P Ad' I c •
iJt
AAUCOM; I9'>6h t pf^ef-indj H '•cig- “Puiiuig FcopkFi^tfor (jrtjjiuaO^’'«’ ' ’* //Az.;rp^, tf) KxKtttnx^ MM PP <“ 4S. ind R./V Ban»n and GJ>. Mwkffiafi, -BfyopdSTKiaJ Ca^MUl; Hi»u 5w
- , Juit 2000, ^ 215 24. ?. Sce.lvr instarct. D.H. P<\'(erfic]d. ei al, (cds.), TfUtU QaH^ Saddle Rntr. bj* fVeoU‘* Hall. I'W). and WJ- Knlanl, Owww^ Rtftttn (New iorL Mc<4mw Hill. 20110). i
4. Sec. for in
(t'ppcr Saddle River, NJ- Pi einiw Hill, IWH}: and C .M. KhoOBg. Xe/«g’werwg in AvriuN (Izjndon; linpcnil College Pn.*#, \ X Wdlner, *Haw Do You Spell Divcrsiiy?” 7>«nwaa^, .April JOW.pp. 34^58. 6, O.C. Rxhard, “Raaal Diversity, BtsintsK Srraregy, and I1rm I’erlormancc; A Resonrre-Based Vieu.’ JfflAwy of
Aprtl 2000. pp. 164-77 *' V S. Department of LJIMIT. Wiiroens Bureau. 2001: and t.S. Ceosua Bureau, 2001. See. fnr iiisuiK'C, E.E. Kr>ssek' and S.A. T.4>het yUna^watJ^mai.
(AK),
Dnrniiv ((Cambridge, -MA: BlarkueU, 1996); 'Roilding a Competitive Work force: Divciisiry—The Bottom Line.’April J. 2000, pp lHI-94j rind O.C. Ririianl, "Racial Diversity, Business StrjUgy, and Firm ?etfoniidnce A Re source-Based Vie w,’.-f£#dcw7 irf Jauniat, Apnl 2000, pp. 164-77. 9. S.P Rohhirw, .4/tf?»4;r/Mg To^oy! 2nd cd. (Vpper Saddle ^•cr, N): l»reniic<’ Halt 2000)^ p. 36. Bj. Serf. f« jiisiancc, P. Cappclt. J. Cowwntinc. and C. f “Il Pays Io Value Family: Work anti Family Apnl 2000, 125-9^,; .xt.-X Vcrwpei, ‘Balancinif .•Kci." WwiM 0 tfl, 15, 20W), pp. diid K.C Barnett and P.T. Hall, ’Huw so Vse Reduced Ht.uis tn Wn the War lalent,* QwwZa, vol. 29, rvo. 3.2001. pp. 192-210. •'
RAatMtif,
W^wk'. FUd\«\ny U ’he Watt’ll word,* ftww Bli4« Jewy 10. 2000. p. lA 13. S Site lUnhiTger. “What Aates Ideally A^ant Co Knnw: Will I ll.ive j Life?" -Kenct NvrraiWt 17. l9
CHAPTER
2
1. M. Rukuach, TAi Vaw/r Waawj (New Ynrk: Free Presy, 1973). p. 5. 2. Ibid-, p. 6. 3. J«M. Munson and H.Z. Posner,-‘IK Fartorial Vdidnyof a Modified Rukcavk \^ui.* SuA'Cy for FfW llherre Samples," E/th.T/w.tZ ^rui PryJ^niogimt Al«»rnwrw, Wimer I9W, pp. 107) 79; 4hd W C Frtden
Align 1' >»J'}. Pl,. I .V' 1 10. ’ (I luf.inR-. t Wrmr i n bWm. .'Biverlv HWI) (i. Ilobu.lc. MM U x..,a,.n: M<<.r,u-I lili. I IX (i’•
Sehavvir: Its Nan.rc tml Airtevwknu. 7e««tf 0/4^ . 1 Ery<^*w^. (><‘ifAKSf A.P. Bntf. tf!and Or^fnnz^tfihna friioundnil Oakh, CA: Sajm pp. 44-15; nntl P.M. P<MJs«k<.rt, S.B, MAclUnxie,’ J li. Pain f. H), G. Ba,: h f- h, “t»r pnizai H .n si Ciliycttshap A l.rittcal Review ,»f rhe .»'<1 J''mpujc*l Litcrat^jrc and Su^wbonii,, I'uitirt Resc:’rch,'’.7»imi^/ iMzr/wx«’w«n, vc,|. *6, f„). \ .nKKi. pp 5!i IS. D.^V Org.in an«l K. Ryan, ‘ .A MeUAnalyoc'Rev^ „f Aiiitudinxl and IPrcikti^r* f>f
.4p/>/jcd’r>y/»?/yf^. OL'cemher pp, K45-S\ andM.A. Kunovsky and D.W, Organ. “])i*pt•sirhinal and Gintenujl Dcternufiancs of (Irupnrzatinnal CrTizciiship Behavior/ Behcr.'iifr. May 1996, pp. 20. I).W. <>igan, ‘Tersuhal 1 ty and <)r6ijnizfltiunaJ Ciij£ci'i;3hip Behavior/ Summer I9<)4.p.466. 21. L. Fesrinper. 't'hiaiy iff C')ii;nifive Tkvr>Mr»a (Sianford, CA: Sun ford Ciiivenict' Press. 19.^71. 22. AAV W/ckcr/'Attitude Versus Action: ftc Kdadonship nt AXTIXHI ami Oven Behavioral RespciDSSSto fVitiludeObjcus,” 7'jw-7u//3/‘.9')fw//xptffcf,Aucwnn IW.pp. 41 76. 23. H.H. Kelley, “ActrilMJtinn in Sociiil Inuractkm.’pp. 1-26 in E.JoftCA er al. (cri«.)..-^rr7v7wjw P
U l
Endnotes
.
.Model of Pevw«MkFtv.*7«*naW«f AUreh IMH9, Pp. n-*h «d C FingmU amj kk /*T
i
« N H l. nid,.-.\,„j, bmoiKiiis,-p.5s|
c|>i4aue$Bri
A >t««.UnR aj Cm«4«e»cx,ofEr„otionri UW^ U irh.^. Rurning ()□,: I, I1«,e .n 14»»l KVr, vXSnT n j. Zxrbc itJs 1. Eroffwum rt, Ttmy.
R„^
(Weapon. Cl r Qsionun B<MJB,
’Qom pp -S8.HodtxhiW. -Emotic, Wq
: » r> 'XI.
giiiMew
24> N. Janwe. "EaaotlottaE taNnjr^ and in the Soertl Regubtion* of Frrhng».** 5avM^£m/ Rrt'irff'. Fvbnian P*’*. pp H-42: .\. H«»ch*4»W. Tbf SnviJ (New York, VAIUB. JWMIJ and HAt U«iiM-h. "Srams. SoaikJ .Smiliiip: Tlir l'.iTn;i uf Role rm Sun I mg in .Men wd IMancn.” Peiyo^otf/y it/hi Saniii Axf’akgl’ fItfUetta. Sepwiuber V'*>ik pp. 51|-4O. 25, .A^Rafaeli. ’‘Mhrn (Jerks Afcrf (jif, turner A; AT«tnf Mtnables Related to Kmononal Erpressionon die Job," jMrMtofAfiphci/ PsYi fvtus^y. ]uiio pp. 785 <93; and .Vt. LaFrance ami At Barap, "TiTwanf a kntuisxlaabuD of the Gender* Em ot |< >•» K rL l n >ns)i i p. ~ 2A, L.7V. Hoffman, “Fatly Childhood Ftprnkticrt and \MuncA'« Ai4iii vv’»it n( Aer**/ vol. 28,no, 2. 1972. pp. 128 55 27. .V K.ibtfli and U.(. Sutton, "'flc Eeprewior of Enxnuo in Oi^nizarinnal 1 ife.” in L.L. Cimuiung^ »nd BAL Sea* (cd*.), Pufitr/'b m Or^tiNiz^aonfti Brhaztor, vol. 11 (Gfeenwith, CL J.AJ Pfcs^, l*W). p. 8. 28. A. Rahaeli. 'iVhen Cidiiurv Alert Cnstcnoefs; .An 'Anaiy^s of Supeniiarkei Cashiers/ ,4« Alryiry r^ ^fifnj^enreftr j9nniai,JiMK‘
I'W pp. 245-7V
29. I (lid. 10 Dewfibed in S.Emmons “Emi’bons or Face Volue," Jau
Trwfs,jM\iint\' 9.
199b. p. EL
51 R.I. Levy, titbiriansi \ findinii Etpvr/rwfc tn fbi Society IfitnJi (Chicago; Unnuroiy of Owcftgo Pfct*, 1971). 32. Tbi* xn rioit ts bo^d on D.
194
R.
Oijpartumu.
“Affectivt
Ewim
CHAPTER 4
I
\>
b'.to
».
A
ZtfPmtiaiirf
(New
YnH-
A. RM*.
J. D. Md’Tfct-'JV, /Je/iwwtfn S/Jf i/EwftrprOTOi^Y^ McCraw.lliUJV4)1. .V F. HcT?l*'rg, B. Mausner. and R. Snydermn, Tfrp A^erti..m«w in Mbl (New York; A\*i l«y, 1959) Sec updiu • Al.L. Ainhnise SMHI tJ. L Kulik. ”1 Md l’’ncnil\ New F>ca^
»Moti'an«»n Resean-b m ilw I'/'MK.’' 7ciirtttf< of vvL2S.rw.5. rw,pp.235 54. 4, D.( L )Vtc( JellAftd. Tbt. k^xr: rrts (New Yotk* Vjn N^Mrand Rcniliohl, 1961 h J.W. Aikmson ,mjj ft RjVfcji Afwrie/Z«w arr^ . Fc+hTrwrwr (Washington. UC: 1974); atul R. Kanfcr and K.U. lUggemd. ’.MoiivatKr^ TtMilMJinH Skills; .A Pei'^m-C.rnicrL’il Appnuch lo Wipfe Motivation," in L.L Cummings mul B,,\l. Sia* (ed»,), fUtcarft in (/rganiz^ttmui &r(w!'«trr. vol. 19 (Greenwich. CT.J.AlPre^j, 1997). pp. 1ft 24, 5. EJA. Locke. Imvard a 'nic*»r* iif Task Mubndim 6. IAI K Luth a ns arvi R. Krrili5i,*r, v/g<Mr?^n(MwZ/h^*£Di* Incentives,*’ Or^ifnrzinronitl Afodr/riWftdM .amt l%8. Seyond: .ppin Oprnrar j/idE.A. Leantin^ PrfZnwoA-, May zfpppwi/* (Cvler^vieu, IL; Sontr. Foresman. 1984); tocUindC.p. and La lbA.U. All I. -4 7Irrf»rt' of Goat StHin^ anti 'frtik Ptrfunninnf Sajkovic and F.Rivftt Lurfianv, .Meta-Analysis of die (Vpper Saddle , NJ:‘kA Fi\niJ
, py Pnktur. fhe Prtakr Matea^rmnn fNe»y^ , 5^. h»r msunce R Rtnlgcrs ami J.K. Hunter. “Impact !»> 1 )L|c«.uvu-s on Or^fdjunational Tiyehd^, .Apnl IW). pp. ^32-326. and R. Rodgvfv jod.I.E. Huiiivr. “A Fyundation PracQcu in (rti'cmmentr \bna«fn‘*^^ * Fr/lZ/* J^/nmwiOTiaa Bnittp, FehrtUQ I’W, pp. 2. - J9. 5 -At t»» »cO ’’ B
nforecoaent Orffnti^uona/
Z>)7wwifr. Winter 1973. pp.
4J'50 4 See F. l.udiariv and R. Kreitncr. 0»jftf«2flTwwZSeZwiwr (^fvnr and Saaai
IL: Saat. Foresman, and A.D. Soikuvie ar‘<^ F. Lutiiana. “-A Alew-.Analvsis of the: Effects of Organizational l3chanvr.Mixh6taaon on Task p^if^ance; ly^S-^S.^aKe/diwv uf\LaJu/^erttmtJwi’nat, October 1997. pp. J122-1149. 5. F. Luthans and R, Kreitner. “The .Management of Bchivioral Cfnxtingcndrt.’PfiTCflflf/Julv-^Angnst 1974. pp7-I66. Sec Lu (ha ns and Krci&icr, (Jr^tuiz^^al Sr^rZ^r Mfd^nrtivi and Beywd, C^hapctT 8; and PD. Clumpagnc and R,B. McAfee. “Pn^moang U orkplace Safety with PosiO'X Kcjriforcement,*’ Perfbi'ntarue .Vfejjtfgcwpj//, nJ, 13, no. 2 (1999): pp. 7-11. 7. AD. -Sujkfrtic and E Euthans. “A .Meta-AnaJysis of the ESerts of Organtiauoiul Bdtavior .Moditicarion tm Tkdc Peffunnarne.* 9, Cited in S. Caudron. “The Top 20 Ways to Motivate Employees.” MwTty Wrzl, April .3, 199>, pp. 15-16. See al5f>B XeUon.Tr> Praise ”LVC . September 1096, P-IB. 9. G. Flwm. ’Focus and HcTiUhty; Frudcntials Rewards and Recognition Program in -Action,” Hwfe/prze, July 1998, p. 34. 10. “L<x>k, Movie Tickets: With Budgets Tight. -Alternatives to Pay Xacteases Emerge,” WiZ/ SrrrcfJwrwA S<7tcmber27, 1994, p. Al. Il Crtiai in AMU Sunnen, December 1994, p. 3. I-' Jd.. Coaon,
/mokamrof
(Newbury Park. CA:
bigt, 1993K PP J. J4. H- Dwl.p. 3. ’W SfeshkiD, •Pamcipative .Managemenr Is an Ethical ^®l*tati»T," OrgtffffstfnmsZ £>|fl^»nii7. Spring 1984.
'^-PP J12-2., .„., Wagner IU.“P,rtdp,r,«, „
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Wfffr, Scpumlier 6. 199«). p. 26. 21. -EHipJojTi: Sfxk (K-ncrihip Plans.
and Productivity CriW'di .Vtainabk f,«nsh«fc*
in
E-E.
JaulerllL
kww^-Ba*. 1995). 2«. -ttil.-Ba..e.. Pav Bo... Morale." ,, M, K.n;l,nd. -Its UHa. Yon P- h«
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CHAPTER ti 2. For Q
of rhe national mndd, vae f-f liarrisoo. The XLattajierrat (MsicH Mukatg .'ti) pl fBoww: iiffU^nve aSb/llin. 1999), pp. 75-lOZ. 2. ^iG.Mnrris. 9rij fi {Vppar Saddle River, Mntiee 1996% p. 344.
Y f
J life IT. U KiAIhcij. Epoyf iw MaraJ Drt
T>t .;a|| vd 1 (Sew Ymfc;
flc Rnu. 1W l> iiml I.. Kohl berg. Efvv i»
Crearinn in Chyaarawim* Avsac*. Fall 1997, pp. 42-*2. 4 R.U W<wxlmaajF. Sawyer.-udRAV^"’ Toward a The^-y .jf ’ 190). p. 298, 5. VA'JJ. fkirdon, 5r*Yf7?< (Ntw Y<»rti
/Jrrdbpw*®^ ff**
of \t9ra/
,q
(Xvw VoHi.’ H-irpcT ^c R***. IS. Sec, foT t’T^inplc, J. WU^tr. *‘.Man»gefs Mon) Reasoning: Axsvssing 'lltcir Responds in Tlirce Murg Dtkiom^s.** H'/nan
l^ebrtofi‘.Jv\y 1W. nv 6^7w.70J-
SB. Knuuw 4od R A. Gn cal DOC. •Rthicjl MaLmc :n Busing-*’.: BehavUirJ Iscucs ^ncl Cdncerss,* 7«
Harper & R<»w.
V>. S.N. (2hjknv.inv and .A. Feldman. •THe lU*)
iS'cL in T Scenes. -Crratiut)- Kilkrs.”
Taken."
J«waiy25. l905.p.6< 7. M. Rjz^nafl.7ih^**w* .litfiwxrh-f Dcfvi^J Alaimg. >rd rd (New \«L M dey. 1WJ. p 5 h. See H.A- Siiww.. tJtniMfrrarK f ftrhai nr. 3rd (Ne* Ynrt;. Km- Pies.. I9’6); atid.l. Forester. "Bounded karion-liry fli^d diePcdiihsnl .Muddling Through,’JAddre .74toM»riTrtfni« January’-K'brutry 1984. n». 23-3 i. 9. U.K. .Agon ed. istunwn fn Orx-''u'irft»nr (Newhiiry Park. CA S^- ’‘W»; and < F Be Ming and N.L. Eckel. 10. .Asdi'xribcd in H. SiiiKXi. “.Alaking “.AfaUng Sense Our ot A. lnnunon.”Ji*Jriwi Managcroent ^.Mlrrwcrwew/ Decuions. 7*he Rule of TnruiiHMi Fnioiirm,’ £m«r/7Y. KeMvary 199|, j^». 46-4" :tiid G. Kkin. iwrw^’ Atadffnt Pfi^'fr’ Ptttpte yfitkt r)rtiM*Hi (flambridge. .MIT Press, of February' 1987, pp. 59-60. and I’E. Ross.F.feiwtrvr, ’‘Fhsb vt Genius," U. See, fur j.G. .March. Nn»en4«r 16,example, 1998. pp.Af.D, 98-1Cohen. fH , aadJ.P 12. See Tliyrapson, Orjjww/sjs/awr tn .iction (Neu Ohen. “AJ.G. (iarbagc Can Model
.McGwtK
iW.pp. 40-1).
20. A. WiWavtky. Tbt l^Mes fh< Pn^ (Bc*M»n: Lirde, Bn>wn A (!*»., l'*»4) 21. NJ. Xdki; tHTvrfiTThnaJ Uww/«w Pfiwz't^, 4th cd. (Uiiirionati; Suu±we$tem. 2002). pp. 22. G F. Cavanagh. U.J. M<^>erg. and M. ValasqiMv. “T^ Ethics 4*»f Organizaaonal PolkicK,* .dtfdrmj JiiumiS. June 1*^1. pp. -W -74.
CHAPTER 7 1. See, for example. R.K. Merrmi, .^rnw/ anJ iNru York; Free Pres*. Wftg); S E. JacksQn and K S Schuler. W.Meta'Analvxis and Concepwat Cririque of Re«earch on Rok .\jabigQRV»d Role Conflict in Work Settings.’ ffeAar w* rfwrf Htman Dean^fi fifes, AugU’t I9H5, pp. 16-78; Y. Fried, H, V Ben-Oavid. R.B. i iegs. N. .AxriraJ, and T’. Ycxvrechvahu, “ the Interactive Ehecrof Role Conflict and Ryle .\ihbiguitx* on Job I’crfonnancc." Jtmmai a/ On atid Or^aniz^tiouai t^sycbtiio^. March 1998. pp. 19-2"; and TC, Tubre aridJ.M. Collins, “JacL^on and Schuler 0*^85) RcxKiU’d- .S MexaAiuJyris of die Rrlaiiiniships Betw een Kok AmhigDUy. Role ConHici. and Job PeffonnaMve,* Teimu/ tf yiimagenterjf. vol. 26, no I, 2(K)U. pp. 15^-69. 2. D C. Feldman, “7 he Dcxclypmeru and FnforecmeBt of Group Sdons.” Atudc/Hy ef .Ui/fliiKfJflf’W fSevici'. January I9b4, pp. 47-53; and J.R. Hackman. “Group Infloencvs on Individuals io l>rgaoizarions*pp« 2'550 in M.D. Donueitc and L-.M. Hough <eda.K of MusmaJ anJ Chjfa/it zari^uaJ v«d k 2nd ed. {Falo .Alto, C.A: Convuluiig Pvw’bohigiM* Press. 1992K pp, 235-2* e 3. F. .May*u, Tbr Hivrun Probtmu e/'ea InAssmtl Cft'dizuriiM (New York; MacmilUo, 1935k and FJ. Roechh&berger and WJ. Dickon. and tbe iVoihr ((.^arabndpe, MA; Harvard Vnivenity Press. IQ39).
u.
, sominer-, T’"d R.K. Hon.ir, "WoricCJroup r-b«W*-‘ Otlo'-tr ifXK, pp. 627-46; JB Copper. 'Tl^c Relation hccw'«en and Ptrhiniwntcj .’kj!
E"dnote, HZ.,
ApTl’.Xr"'’ Vi''-'’*-’
Jnfe.^T8rion,’' f.
[b«d unj^- GiJoon, J .M. IvnnvcvicK amlJ.H.
^uKHy,.lrM khiuniz^ri^vt, i^ih td. (Du»r RiJ^. n.; invi„, £j. Thnmas jnd C E Fink. “EtRcts oKkoup Size,"
'*'^S3riJ^-|(ir>ridl Divcrsirt *' ,lif. . Spri..g 2(itH). pp. 1H^vie^,
Jidy pp. 5 / 1-S4; .A.P lljife, HW-
-'"^pruflueiKTs™,
(X<w York: Free Prt'ss, 1976};
n^''?r 1 i
E. Shrf». Gmup D^piSMUs: The /^•cTw^gy A/ McGraw Hjil. l9Al>. VV Alnedc. ’Die Rjcblhnkn dcr LentungsI:i^x^^alo^rte,’' 4 (1927): pp, .Si c also n..A, K’ nnil B, Manin, -’Ringel’b‘disC(>vcred: 'ibc Original .AifideCJiiWM/ May 19S6. pp, 936 41. 9. See, forcMinpIp. J A Shepperd. ‘ t^ducriviTy Loss in feriiirmarce Groups; A Motivation Analysis." f^Wojjrta/ gs^rfmjanuan 1993. pp. 67-bl; S.J. Kavau and K,D. Willjatn< •‘Social LoAfiog: A Mera-Analysis Review and llrforeural [nTcgraiion.’T^'jtf’vwZ ofPcir>/iut(ity(tiidSfXiai iFhrMigv'. OfTirbtr 1993, 681-706: and P.VV. Mnlvcy jndllJ. KJfin, “The Impact of Perceived Li?afing and Collective Efficafy on Gruup^n^al PriH csscs and Group PtXormance.* Orgaaiz^tiunat fiehaihr and .^prll 1908. pp. 62-87. 10. Sec. for erjiriple, S.F.. Jackson, K.F. .Mav. and K- Whitney, ^Understanding the Dynamici* of Diversity in Deciston-Making Teams,” in R.A. Guzzo and E. Salas ^eds.), TrsJN Effect a rnrti itnd Dechian A/rft/wg m Os^tmf^jirionHSin Francista: Jossev-Bass. 1995). pp, -Xl-MI: KY. Wlllijms and C A. O’Reilly III, "OemoBraphy and Diversity in OrganlzatioftS; A Revies^’ nf •W Years of Research," in B.M. Staw and I..1.. (^umnungs (fids.k t,( Grwr/flf7jjrwn-?Z Qghavw', vol. 211 iGrccnwicb. Cl : JM Press, 1998). pp. 7" 14(1; and F Linnebin and Y.M. Konrad, “DihiOng Diversity,” JiwnjiiZ i^AlflwgrwTT/wzyi^ry, December 199
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I'Sh (e.ls.K rtandf.wi'Gy Muitriel i' Psychralnpscs PTCKS, p. 23o. ‘^"’’'’■•'.‘'SowandGniforraity to Pre^res in Informal Spnng 1060, pp. ia2^K7.
b’icas}
16. J.A. W^sgiiLs, K Dill, anJ R.D. Schwartz. “On’StataLiability',"' Apnl-jMay 1965, pp. 197-’09. J 7. J. Greenberg, “Equity an6 Workplace Scams: A Field Experiment,’ Z^N/TW/ uf ApftJrtJ November pp. 606 H. 18. V.H. Vroom and JVG . Jago, 7fe€ Z« 07g/wt?flf^yw G-’pper Sotidlc Kivcr, NJ: Prenrice IMl. 19. S ee 1 .L. .1 anis. w 1* (Boston: Houghton MitHin, 19ft2)j S. Smith. ‘'Gnyapthink and the Hostage Rescue Mission," nririfif Jviimai of r^fitica/Sde/a? 15 UVtMXpp, 117—23; G. Moorbead, R. Fererce. and G.K Xed:, ’(irnup Detn^ion Fi a scots Continue: Space ShiiuJe C^ailengcr and a Revised Framework.’’ May J 991, pp. 510 SO: andJ.N. Choi and Al k'. Kini, “'Fhc Orgjiib.flrional Applieauw of (.rwipilmik and Iiv Limiu in Ofg3ni7sooiw.”7t/«>'"-dApril 1999, pp. 297-5116. 20 G Moorhead anJJ R. AbulUnari/Ar. Empjncal Inve’stie-aaoD of the Groopthirk Phernntenon,"//;*^ R.fa^.«A M.y 1986, PP.39M10; aiiJ c P G. .Vloorhcod, “Grei.ptl.ink Rcmodc WJ he mp^ oflL-silership. Time PrKsi.re, and \Ukiug Procedures,” H:t»i
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CHAPTER 8 1. Rtfsed on W. Success, auyal.“T«m“Cxnn>*«'’ Hft*,
W ■■f
KngiiandWiley. IWB J R katzx-nh.Kb ami D K- Smnh, WVA/JW ((3nslni): Harvard Business Sch; and IM.. Kirkman and 8. Rosen, “Powering Up Teams," Orginjti.irnjtfaf DyMuii.'^, Winter 2000, pp 4H-/k6 4. See, (iir example, ‘Tcims* Jwtirfifi. (ktoher W6, p. 6Q; iwij Jixrwon. *'lwins a( Wurk*. 5. D. Dnckhaincr, ’People Powered Oange,” inJusfry Fiufinuf
liM,
(t. Hasek, “TTc Right Chemistry," IK'erA, .March 6, 2000. pp. 36^39. 7. C Dahk’, "EXITuine Team?," Fa^t Cfwiutny. November 1999. pp. 3lf) 26. 8. Sec. for ms to nee J.I.. Cx»rdm. W.S, Mueller, and L.»V!. South. ".Amiudmal and BchaMoral htfcrts of Autofwniioiis Gfviup Workii^; A Longitudinal Field Study,*, letfiicwy o/AZ(rwgr«rwf7®«^‘’*^Z,Junc IWl, jtp. 461-76; and P..5. Cioudm.in. R. Davaday. and I .L. (n iffuh Hudson, “Groups and PmdiH'tivHy; Analyzing the EtfccthriK'bsof S=lf-Mfliwgjng le,nn.<.’ ii.j.P, (;ampWi. R..I. (jmj.lxrll, and Ass.xiatES (nls,), Pfoiluffjziry i„ Or-^^/iz^i/ttnis (Ssri Krani.i^rr:JoMcy-Ik«, l<J8R|, pp. i'H-.l?? H. S. Kirsncr, "Pasur Conijemy," fwrCoM/^trrv, Mavi„ 9. R. .Mjynjr,). ".A Clit.nt-CenrfMJ firm's tx.sons 2000 nil. 162Tcanwijili,' N,ilnn'i Bltmiru, Aljufi 1997, p i’. , ;■,> • '7 ■Kn.nserri, SAI. Dc.Mari,:, 111. O .M. Bnii,dli,-ilow Ha^e^-f>J.^dson UsesCj^sa..d fwinlwnal IcJl...." PunhiMg U JI f U‘"L7«ms: -le. I,...,l.,s>. a„d the n«..«ficn,»...p.ntVmjpiz.i.i WofkpiMt huwre,'zfr«J«„ (Xtivvmbcr4, IWO). ..fthe fanwrit, Augus. I'm, pp. l?-2fl. b. l>u,n^ 6.
Inno$n.:joss9-B»s. IWj. wirS:
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|> K. KIwG “Wortimg on W
(9. R.l, Bcekun, “.Assessmg the EflceUvvne« of S(X‘i<)tcchnical Inccrvenaorw: Anrklnre or Fad?” RvMtmx,
August 19K9. pp. H77-97.
20. D. Harrin^oii-.Macldn. The Ttaift fitifiiiiag (New York; .AMACO.M, t994K p. .53. 21. r.D Sdicllhardc. “Ti Be a Star Aoiong lu|uab.Bc* Ten/n Player," U^z/Z.SwrJaftnjtfA April 20. 1^* P 22 C. Hym<»wiu. ‘How to Avoid Hiring the PHnu nonnns Who Ihiiu Tjatnw'ork.’' February 15, 2(ltM), p. Bj.
CHAPTERS 1- SIT. for cMijiple, KAV TKUIUS JuJ W. 11. S<jncy of M.iiGUKrial Literests widi Respect to< of
1
June 197ft, p. M 7
: SeeJ. Riu,.,, Fluemy in F^igltsh Ateuw-'*^
/^January JK 1*«^ p. lA: and 7^inn*’*b*s f Jfftfcsed Rebw Heatfly Jetlrrxer ( jwdu*.***^ Sepiembcr JO, IW7,p, A2. . I'h'Hugb rhv Gr4i>niiR? FprVff y^n..ni'U-rr.:d. 4K ’■'M.uiJgrTiieru Conimunjc.uion and ihv GraiKunc? A’ri /r .f, SupfcTnhvrCXt.^ber CiH
1 <». York:
(Ntw
y^ienotK,S,K.dy.rfUad=rsh,p:Q.„?X'?;^-^ ' '•■' T~.* -U. A kS’Cl'
Le.4krsh,p < H S««''n Porter. A Saidv .«f rbc (Jrjpevinc J )rgiiijzatitin.’’ Pr»Tr n/ir/ r*w6<>/'j^ :^mer S. ’Box*' in' ft A in The E-Mail," UK4 Did Til at Rumor tl»jW,p. 5Rg,(x>ine “FQH I’ n'l^oyxes I Jon»e P<2s for SS a P ’^4. Month.*' Jinpi//*'*'* ijd
and Mtrt
(New York- BaUandne BorAs, 1991); Morw. and (99$). t T Hall and .M.R. C York* VVjlHam Ctt/rtrrfZ p, Tannen, M 5Hall, (New£j^?mfcw (Yarmoiifh, ME; Intcrculiural Press, 1900); JLE DiileLJ.S. lAtIden. and J.S. Hi IL “Intrnnidoaal CoffitnunicflUon^ An Fjojcuiiv'e Primer? ro Kerrsuffv, Jinttiry-Fehniary 1991, pp. 202.5: and .M. Munrer, “Crub»-CuJrvral r.iHiiiHxiii)cauoii for Manager*? Herraw, May-lune 1993, pp. 60-78. Ii. Tbisscccon is Iwsed im NJ. .Adler. />Tfrrnjrr/^wi /^/wiTBfwttf rjf Or^t/utiarroftal Bch/rrtor^ 4th cd. (Cincinnati s SiHJThwrtteri], 2002), pp. 04- 06.
CHAPTER 10
I. S.A Kirkpatrick and E.A. t/odee. **Leadersli^: Do 1 raib Matters" . •/ .VtfWrfgwwrJtf CxtiVth'r. .May 109l,pp.4Si-60. 2- R.-M, Scogdill and A.F. Coons, cds,. h/nler Brrbevmr' /rt Or«TT/WwrfBdA/w.ii
I
Qy4,TerZ>, Simiincr lv>5. pjh U?-^T. 9- G.B- Graen and M. t'hl-Birn.-Kda6a.tAhii>B«d Apfwoavb to Lcadvrship: Dcvdopmtiu rif I-uckrMember Exchange (I .MX) 11)0017 ‘’l Leadership mer 25 Yean: Ainilying a Multi. Domain Perspective? ^mrr/r. SuimiK-r pp. >1^.47. yx bayerand S-(;. Creer, 'IKvcJopmeni ol Lea«l
rXeember W7. pp, >i2^-+4i anrfC C cjrixinkr IQ. RJ, HniiM*, “A Paili-CrtwlThuory Cogb'scr jnd G.A. St hrieshein), “Fjtplonng Wxtrk Kftcctivmess.•^ibHrniilratire Sf/fr/ir y^»'o7(TA, Sepreunhcr L/nit 1971pp. and ?2l-5«;and R J. House, •‘Ibt^-Cioal Cvrtcexx Leidcr^Meiidier Exchange: A Theory of Ahiki.Lenl Per.^xxtive? tfr/wTW, Le^kr^ip. Ltfssons,fl/’Orgrfrr/srffwnrZ LegiJvy, «r«l a RcJj-fiuulaKil Augibl lire on , 2000, pp.4>J7-Sll. QwfKfiy. Fali pi»« IL SecJ.C WoW'irH and L.Z. IJska. "Path-O’jl ■fheorie-. ofUadrrship: A Mmugemfia.
Wiiirr pp- K??-'*'-
I’. V.H. Vtwni =...3 PW. (Pirtsbureh: Umrersin- i.f PitolxirijJi I rca. I J. \-.H. Mun^ging P^ni.i/Uthi««
:.nU A-G. Jigu. Tk< < ,!’i’rVmom and
I
Bri^avfor
A. H. rjigh..«<;. .VUH"rani- «"'* »•*•• . □hd .hv Fv4h,..ri,.n 7,.7B. Ro»-n«r. <;^;.nrrr 5.TrA> n i^r« A/.^^gnr YC^. (hford Unh^ersity Pre«. K, Ubnicn Rule," NmT.nber 20.4OW’. PP. 75-S4: and -Arv Women BeWi LeJdcis? t- A Ne«> v Htrrt/«<;w,Tj:,iiunr>'2y. -’(»!, p. 10. IV J. A. Corner and R.V Kare-igo, -‘Ikhiviorjl WraenfloM' of Charbrnaiic Leaikrship.' pp.,«- > ui J.A. Conpir. R.X- Kanin.p>, ii.J asx.«;ia(cs (eds-). ChanmoM (San Frjc,cisi-(.:J<wsey-Ba,^. 1S’«81- an.lJ-A Conger “Chanjuiaticand Iransforaialinnal Ltad^ship in Organiutions; Au In^ider^ Pcrspeciivt wl These DOTelopingStrc-OTs .if Researdi/' Lctninyhip Qiunf>-ly. Sticnmcn* pp 16. H.J. House,.!. Woyvkc. and E.AL Fotk»r, “Charisnianc and Ntmcharisiujac Leaders; Differcftccs tn Behanor aixd Effeerivenew." «n Conner, Kanungo. and as.sod3re$ (cds.), Clwifttfiitu Leffdersi!!}:, j>p. I0J-JO4; and D.A, Waldman, B. M. Bass, and FJ Vammarino, “Adding ro C.ODGngtmtRfW'trd Behjvijir; TJie Aupnentiiig E(?cet of Charismatic Leaden}lip, ' c* Ot'^a^NZHTi^fi Derember l9'M),pp.581-*^4. r. J.M. Ho well and PJ. Frwi, ".A Laboratory Study of Ch Sris made Leadership/' Ojxrfw/srtZ/wW BeZwz.vtrr anf/ Htanait
/.>f4vw?
April l’^89, pp. 243-^^.
1 This dcBnnion is based on At Saslikin, ''The MM on ary Leader," inJ.zV Conger and R.N. Kamuigo (eds.i. C/w3riww?;r LWmF/p. pp, 124-25; B. Nanas LzfWJizjn' Lftkienhiii (New York: Free Press, 1992), p, R; N.H Snj’derand M. flrares “Lcadcndiip and V’lsion/’ //wTzow, J amiary-Fc br uary 19*+, 1; and J. R. LuciS “Anatomy ufaMsion Sucement,” Mifriagewart Febniary 19*8, pp. 22 26. 19. B. Nanus, Vishtuuy Liudaybip^ p. fl. 20. PC Nutt and R,\V. BacW, ^^CnfungMsion." Jwinizt/ Iff XtftHagetnfjir In^ujry, December Ip, 21. Based on .M. Sadikin. -The Msionarv Leader,” pp. 128-30; and J.R. Baum, E-A. Locke, and S.A. Kirkpatrick “ A Longitudinal Suxdy ofthe Reladon of Virion and A’ltdon Cmimujucddon to A’cniurc Gmskih in Entrepreneurial February |9Q8. pp. 45-54 22. S. Caiiunid, “What Team Leaders Need lo Know? February 20, 1W5, p. 9.L 25. rhid., p, lUO. «. R.S. XA^lHm. W.C. Byhara, ind fi.R. Dijun, ZanA 7«rfSan Francisco: Jossey-Biss, IWKp. ?lfl,
t/fid
i/vwim
Pfr/arfljant#^
' 1978. pp. 575-403; P.M. Pod#ak«tF, S,B. WK Bcanrwr, “Mm-Analyris of the Rdatj mi chips' Kerwecn Kerr .»inlJtrmkr'« Sub^tio.ks For l.ead^j^ bJtiplovee Attitudes Rok PticvpopHs. jud cfAfiyhtd I'sychohiiy^ Angi«» I pp. 3 > J Al. Jentuer and S. Kerr, “Substitutes fur l acadcnhip: I'hei r Mean i fig a nd Mca sn rr m « n 1 - •< >>nttf Mud Re collections and Current ObservatioiH,” L^tdersbif 8. no. 2 (19975- pp. '»5-l()l; m
fClucago: (xinccruporaA'
BooL. 19895, p. 102. 32. Sec K-T. Dirb, 'Trust in Leadership and Team Fetior* maix-c: Evidence From N(LAA BaskEth^,’'7o/ow2V^^P^^ rtycM?^. December 2000, pp, 1004-1012; and K. f.
1-
fc,
Pri'tev
vol. SO (Pik, Alui, CAs
t.lR-ieu..|O9Q),pp375-«,. •s llitf ’•
“Niihnd^ Trusts
L’ 8.W f.irnpkieiv' -N.m' Whur?’ Awrwj-ftnurt, X
19
277 G.R. hm,, me ,^nlXT 'u7l .^'■'
I'ehnury pp, Pnlme. ir < 11. See, h>r ia'ifancc, R c
> J.R.P. “ Ibc BaMTs of Suebi poffCf/’ CaiittTighr (cd.), SfitiiJa bt Sotiai Ajjprr (Ann jlrtx’r: l’aj'x;nKy <»!’ VUebigan. butirute for Social gesttfdt. PP 15CUI67. ), L>. Kipnis, TFf PKivrAyAilfry (Chicago: University of ellipsePP’ 4. TIE Emerson. "Pnwcr^Ucpendente Relations*’ (1962). pp. ?I- 41, 5. ri. MintJberg, Pwi er fn afut Organ/iotidfn (Vppcr Saddle lb ver. NTI’ Prcriti-.’e Hnll. j ^>S3). p. 24. 6. Th« discussit’ii is base J on J.N, C'levels nd and M.F. Kent "Sexual Harassment and Pcrccprirms of Power An Urider-Aniculated Relationship,'' Jouniai tfVccafiotial Sriwrw; Eebruar)' 1995. pp. 49-6?. See also A.M. O'Leary Ke Dy. R.L. Paeuold, and R.W. (JnfEn, ‘‘Scjcual Harassment as .Aggressive Rchador An ActorBased Pergpecu*€,’'z/£tfdtrfly Rreien:. April 2000, pp. V2-J«. D.J. Vredenburgh andJ.Ci. Maurer, “A Proces kranewofk tifOrganuarionsl Politics" ^cArwww, January 1984. pp. 47-66. < U. Harrell andJ.C Pcu-r^icn, “Patterns of Political Beba»3/n’ in Organizations,’’of.Manat^ent /?rtir^July 19S2, p 4
><■». »M F.nd,, .
Sz/f-f'e«frW V •
11
J RjM. Kiprer, "Prjwer Failure in Management Circuits,’ 65.
'
ln.pr«si<.n
Tx.i’cs
• >''-f»4, and C. K. Mevens aiul ,\.l., Kmt<4 -xni.' R<(,+r lmpn,.si.«,: .A, fidd Study .rf .^mhcL, 1.^^** Minitfcwr, IJ^ngJnl. InUnicws.-J^unw/pflJ^’' Onuher 1995. pp. !'■" /mpr,r!io» iVL Gardner sml M J XhninU “Iniptc-.suK, .\bn,gm«rt» OrpanizanQus. J^KnWnfMtf/w^wrmJxuH. 198B, n ^js and R.B. ( Wini. ’ Incbrm Tactk’s of Image MaTugwient Beyond Backing,” pp. 45-71 in Ciw’.lruie and Bc«enfeld. f37Fprr.<x^?;f .*;rf/rjj;rtne77r in tfv O/^aitizdbMi. IV R-A Baron, "Impression Managment !»)• AppbciTO during Employment Intcrviws The •'Iki Much 4 j Good Tbiug' EffetV ip R.W. Eder nndf F>«;//r?Vz»zr»r /i'.Htfn 6. jw.f Prarfrzr (Newbury Park, CA; Sage, 1989), pi>, 2<)4-l S: (.ulmnre and Ferri:», "The Effect ot Applicant Imprewion Managewon Tacdcs on lnrcp.icwftr JiwlgniciUi”; and A.L. Krislcifand C. K Sreven.s “Applicant Impre^^ionManagement Tacco; Ffttcis on Interviewer EvaluAti^'ns and Inttrvivw OutcI lines/ in D P. Moore (cd.). ActTiicMy iffMuMgewfrtr C'lnffn-^tn P.illas. Augter 1994, pp. 127-51. Hall. 19741. . f. 14. Gilmore and Herns, ’The Effects ol Applicant 2. S«KAJehr. ■'A.MuJrir.eduntl^^nBn^n-f*' Impression Mamgcincnt 'Gchcsop Buichts aiHl OctriirerU< IniaMewcrJudgmems." 15. G.F Csvjna^h, D.J. .Moberj, uml .M. ''iTie Sitnon-s and R S. Ptirrsixi, ' < j EthiLs of Organiuliuoiil PoIitE?," O^nflia in h.p Ma-gen.nt ftftwir.July 1981, p|i. Jfi3-H. lnnagr..upTrusiA7<’^''^^ “Ihc
aiAPTER 12
I JyT,n.ic .\»1UK ..t Imiagn»upContlJtt JnJ<jh P
/i
endnotes 5. The section R based on Rol^hire, pp. 31-55. •I. K.W. Thomas. “(xjnMici and Procesits in OrpinizajMWis," hi VLIX Dimnccteand L-M. Hough (»’ds.X Hafiiib»StQfifr(itKtTu/iainf
CHAPTER 13
’'-d- »
2nd eil. (Pafo Ahx), CA: CmMulting P«ychulogk*cs Prt*^. IW2), pj’ 6H-7I7. 5. See. for instance. CJ. Lo«mw. •EHnostoTS?" F«fT*^»c, May 5- IWJ, pp. 36-42. 6. IL Janis, (Boston: Hoyghton Mifflin. 1972) 7. J. Hall and .M.S. \VjIhanw, -ACom|>arrM»n of Dd.i-’JonMakinff Perfonnanevs in LsttbUslu'd and Ad-tloc GTOli;»»."/e«’i^/ ftrrwyflZrZy itrfd tsofvtl P^hahgy, February 1966. p. 217. 8. R.l. Hoflman. ‘'Hnmogi neiiv of Mcorber Penonahly and hs Effect on Gruop Pioblem Solving/'^Mrutf/ uf 9. Al. Gncim and t Kcbeniliai. “Irrftivincilable Ahi^nftaiart^SfKiatPjyihfilv^\iji\y\\s^TY 1959, pp 27-52; Diffcrentvb Furee Shea Z
V»lu«
20 Based on R. Fislicr and W. Ury. Grfrin^ .4R?«w<wr Griwj? fn IJ Mifflin. 19«1); Wall and Blum. “Ncgouaucns.“ p,, and Barcniiau Nwk. Negnrwrzffg ftrtwflri/6.
i„
1. See, for mbiance. K l- Daft, Ofgjr/iu.i#wn TTrew^ Df'/gr. 7ib cd. {CnuSnnari: $ou(hucvtcrn. 200k) 2. T- Stevens. * Breaking Vp h l*rofiuhk to Do," htd^st^ llMJiuieJI, r>99. pp-28-54. 3. H. Miiuzherg. in i'ivex: De^igrrinj^ ^rti’zw CXrgffuiifrrrwj (Upper Saddk River, NJ; Prenrirc Hall, l9B3).p 1^7. 4. Cited HI.4T W'<WA May-Jnne 1993. p. 3. 5. G. Imperaw, "Their Spcdalfy? Teamworkfysj Cow»/MwJ<’nujry-Fehruary 2000, pp, 54-56. 6. G Habuk, *^IYe RighrCherusny,” Mumy Hret, March 6.2000, pp. 36 39. 7. C.C. Snow, J. Lipnick, and j. Stamps. -The Vimial Organisation' Promises and Pay oik. Large and Small,” io C. L. Coo)>cr and D.M. RouSs&Ju The l lrtiMl (New York; Wiley. 1999), pp. 1?-5U; and W.F Ca,‘K:io. 'Maiwgijig a Vimisl W’oikplace. 'zIcrf^CT^iy AfjH/»gew#f«r Etff//rn't’, Augu&c 2tHiu, pp, bl-9U, K. "(4F.; Just Your Average Evci^’day $60 Billion Family <7n>txry Store," Week. \hy2, I’XH. pp. 0-18 See dso R. xAslikcuas, D, Ulrich, TJick, and S.Keir, lhe (San Francisco: job^ey-Bass, 1995); and R.L. Cross A. A an. and A4.R. Louis, “Bounslary :\cuviucs in 'Boundarylcss’ OrganiaatJons: .A Ca.^ Study of a Transformation to a reani-Ba^ed Slructurc,'* HMvati Rclarioru. 2000, pp. 841-68. 9. Tbk analysts iis referred to a conringCTiCt'approach ro organizarional design. See, for inscance J Al Penning^, “SmicRiral (foncingency 1’hcory; A RcappraisAl,’’ in BAI. Siaw and LX. Cumiuings (cds.), Pennivh m Or'i^arii2^Wfuti Behitvjm , vol. 14 (Greenwich, CT: Jai Press 1992), pp. 267-309. 10. See HE. AliJes and CC. Snow, OjywiraflZaffw/ Snwrrgr, SmtTwre,
f
Viikina^ Pi**. R6lfc C Pofoa; <’-f •
T
' '' **
* K« bth,<»jBpw iXiekymrv ^nd .Un>Kiuhw TT » <> y Urf>tfg,wwr7auW,/v?K P^l.p|> f f_ Emcn »nrl E. Tn st " !!)« t.MMf Texitw of hn»voivB«i»/ Februar OMFTERK y ;p.V:in4P l KS. awr^-no r <>)r rumpie, Oidvw. indJA^. Uinch, S .. /w/rv; rwntz (Boca .V«i45ey»< Rasrm. fU: UK. PreA. 2001 £ indJ.U^ Omada. Faw ^aerf aorf >W .SkGr7ir.HiL 2001 M Hmowr and J. Champ); Kinard Itusjfxt* JBre/tywrrwg Divtac (New AA Kim. “The 60'Secafid ai erf.VonM 1, AurU Boede,* Trw. HarperfiofliM. 1999). 1999, gpcarcK A. P S R . “VVhtfit ‘BiAl co p.45. 1A, KaHgaard, “ASAP ^fcr^rtaHce. f. AV Order* V\'ork« Beat,* intenicu* Milcc Hammer/ piiTUrwd KF IW, ti*UrnT. Aped ZA, lOOtSeptember I). 1991, f—irmci 4if SuwioTf « p. lOOV.J. Urdttef. *V«ir 70 tUbiMA wjobt'..A. .Vnrr CAJomand.* t lhad. auJjo** Btk*'iot" 199V, W♦♦-•A; A Jamtt !«.*>. PF 11^ and K. UR. Cnwford, "CiBtrMnttin|’ the and XP, Jorur^, M-Q^^wtwwi &.“ fwtn, (kvAier 16, 2000. SmMtwrtA p. 16B.of StnKWal Rnic* ■TheiP f.«nj in J. Thaler. -TTic W Owcepmal «Reboonship^ AV
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in 20. J R, Hicbflan, ' “MW (Sinn WorkD«gi^ Morwa, M.. Siirilc fcd«.X CA.IhuL <;o»lycar. 30 p]». pp. fniprt>vinf/
I'S?-
.u. fi.R. S^lanrk ,.MI.|. Pfeffir. "A . Pra<«..^,ng-ApproMJ.coJcbAKim.k.amnaskDci^_. S,-io.,v June W. b- pp. , BmiJ.G. Tb.".«s .n,l RAV. (Jnffin, 'Th< P..wvr cf XiKunin pp. M /5. S«al ? 2. Suf. h ir i n' e:i JK L , j.' I'h'M r» i' > and it V. (< n Tnh,tuition in riK WbrkpLiv.’ n. Six'ial lulbrjni*Thin Pruvvs^ing M
7
36. See. 6 »(rampk, J R. Haclaiwn and GX Oldham. W-iiH' Redrs^ (Re id in e, VLA. Addi-^on.U^e.shy, IMSO); J.B. Alinex, Thfttrif^ if Orf^niz^tifitia/Behat’ifii' (1 linsdak, IX; Dn'dcn Prws. 1980k pp- 231-266; R.W. (Jriffin. “Efil-ct, rfWork Redesign on Emplovw Pei ce|5i ions, .Aeowdes, and Belwvtonr A Lnng-Tcnn Invesngatiun,’' of.Mtffiag^rreiity'jmva/, June Wl, pp, 425 -35; and J.T,. CoctoTi. Zwi'oAzn wMr (Neubury Park. (LA: Sage. 1993), pp. 141-72. 3“. J.R. Ihtkinflii, •'Hie Design of Work learns." inJAV. fzirsvb (ed.}, HtfAd/vOik BcJ,
41, B.K. Bahe*. T.E. Briggs. J.W. Huff. J A. Wright, G .4. Neuman. ’Flexibk and (k»iiiprtx*ed WvHcweck siedrk'.: A Mm-,Ana1yM’^ of 'l^eir Effects on W(^v. Related Criieria.’‘?fi‘«™^ Aogtet 1999. pp.4«r,-5l.l 42. Cjftd in ?i- .Ai-tnour. •Tdtx'ouunudng Stock in the Slow Unv? 7tf+n.Jiiue25, 2001, p. 2A. 45. -Tcleuimmuung As a Way of l.jfc," Fmimc, January 12, 199S, p. 94 44. Cited in R.3k’..hidy and C. U'Amico, lhrF/«7< 2920 (Induiiwpoli?: Hudson Inwr.rte, 1997). p. 58. 4i. E,C. Biig. “Saying .Athos nnlu’ I H’tke? Dnsintn Octolier 12, pp H2-5.X/XUFrgcseib'WlakingStiy^ ?T-nom<.-»Fc«l Wcicnme? nuihftir IFW, Ociotwr U, pp, 155-^6; (\A,1.. Danrhavji^er, "The Invisdhle UVkfker,’ N'menihcr p. 38; and “Bigiiv-st
U.S.
Workplace
Trend
CHAPTER 152000, p. 3.
Is
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1. 5<‘c. fix example. J, Pfeffor. Pfvfi/t': r6e PtrTftr of rhe (K’suifl: llarvatd KusinL'ss Schind Pre
t/f.4/?p/ZfdFr^rAo4igv. October IDSM. pp. 659-6.5. 5. See A-1. Htiftctnt anti W. Artbiu-Jr., “Hunter ar*l ITitiner
A M L.
Sffivn^ Intttvitwi: hwxs hnpe.'tn-ei
B.Kl3,eil Vj|i.l„y
Smith-Wttftem PiiWishing:. P)92k pp 42^. - \A: K
in PcTf.nnrt
4rhvd PT’’* ?'a<WJe River, Nj: Prmuec H»H. IWI). C» A. Albin*, TC.. FlicvjUA, JIKI .S M. Oilarelli. •Tbf
CiredinM I!ei|i«t. mw.!« PP JJ-U ■ 75«.,,,«j., M„,.h l-)94"p‘}rtldfn p’''""’
biK-n k’B' as a Soctmncirk Scleenr.n
Fall 1‘M, pp. ^115: R.L. OipWiyt'. •‘StrutTured ;ind DnstrucniR-d j;eJi‘cTi
21. “U.S. . awx't ReuTUits," .VMnp-Mrr .-|qp,;Ju|y p, “ 2-. Cited in "Sliney Sh.«vs 7S% i.t L»rBeC...n™-i Sui,«.rt Unvrsih Pru^rann,. Hwwexsjimc WS, pp. 25-2?: J K. Fun) .HI” r " ^,''''"’ ’
g Rf. Cbbeili. ** rh*’ VaWfiry' nJ Apnnxdc left* in Perwinnef Sf leciinn.**
ter 19“ 3. p. 4 7 5.
10. R-J. Herio^wtA aod C. Murray, 'i^c Heli .4«yrnor« Ijfr <^€\v York y,^ l*re&s< i9‘M5: and ALJ. Rce, J.A. Earks. and -M.S. Ti’achMUi, “Prediuieiig Job Performance: NOT Aluch More llun g."* Jovi'tbtf IAU^T 1994, pp 5IH-24. 11. J, Amt. “(bn You idl .•kpplesnuce from Pickles?^* Ortuher 9, 1994, pp, hW»« OR, 12- D.S. Ones. C Vj^w waraa. and HL. Schmidr, *XJom(r<Jicjnhc M«:ia«;\aaJ>5is of Iniegnty'lest ValidiriK; Findiflf^ and tniplicibuns fur Personnel SckcQOft and The Ties Ilf Job Performance." ^rt^iwZ August pp. 67’4-"O5; P.K. Satkett and J.E-Wanek, "Neu’ Dev'elopmeoi^ in the l^se uf .Measures of Honesty. Iniegniy Corudcndouancss, Dvpcnddhility, IfuttwnrtIllness, and Keliahiliry’ for Persiumel Srlmion." P^ftWM^r^ Winter 1996, pp. ‘R7-b29; and PL. Schmidt and ! E. Hunter, “ I'he Validtry and Uabry of Sekcdoii VI Cl hods in Person nd Psychologv." U P (brbonara. “Hire for Atuiudv, Train for SLiH,** PM (grruft^ H«) 1 (1997). p. 68. H. J.J. .A^her and J A Soamnu. “Kcalisnc Work Sample Fw: A Review/ Pc’rwTCTc/P.^rWfttry, Wicwr 1974. pp. '*9-3 J: gjxJ I f R^»herT5Oii and R.S. Kaiulok. “Work Sample Testi: ValiJiiy. .•Vh'eise Inipaei and Applkaiu Reaction," Spring i9K2. pp. I7M2. U. See, for ijutanee. A.C. Spychalski, xMA Quinimes.
"’o.kpha
ajid \Vf,rkf,.rcc: N.w l'ersp«-riv« and .\ppro«hn," in h. .t Kosscic and S..A. I .obd, eds., !>r.'tTjiej (CambndgL, .MA Bbckwcli Publishers, pj». 164-.VJ 24. H. ITytics-Gracc, "To Thrive, Mot Vkrdy Survive.* in ifxtlthtk .'iH/htm Cwffr?7 fltff (Av^rnffl/m/u, spcjnsotal by ihc American zV.Miciati«in «»f Reared Per*-ms. WajhjQMtxh DC, Oaolxril. 1992. p. I’. 25. ■Teaching Dh ersity. Business Schools Search for Model Approaches" .\
AM«.Tgrw£W.Nnvwriber 2(XW, pp.
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(Ch.uicii; University of rJ,icagt.Pn?x l*«X JI. -The Cop-Oar Cnpa." Scpteiubcrt99’,n>. *>• !!'G.P. ..... ..... .. .nil K-N. \\Wvy.l98h.p.«
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CndRMK -M^pnK K HO-ji>.j«U.VS-UdJflef.fvTQ'-*^«<-"^Ho*J^a-. A»«l .'■ ’‘»'- P»»• M. eked in C- H,n«H*A "IJo iMP J.* OdW^Euer PrwxMe UiMK-^r) or »4ir Arrrrt De
and RE*<«»« *R«tiaR«^ "> ’I* ReHbrouwe AfiR^>•1 Prn«» ««d Reactions; A .Meta..Amly«, ->£ Field lji»rst>S[atii»ns.” A«^ ' -IS. 1. Zip-n. '^bUing P.rtim.nc Apprsiul Woiifc, leant;.’ OfAPTER 16 /rjzB<;y. h>ne l'*W. pp5(1-63. 1. See. Ex* evJinpU. t.,H. Schein, OtKimr^rfneii*/ <San Fnindsax JtfsoJtamal tf Apfind Pn,hdai^_
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Bass, i985\ p. 2. Tlib s«*i#n-iTem deufipuon iMxcd on CV, 0‘RetUv III, J. Chatman, and D.F Oldwdt ‘Po»pfc and Ofgamianonal Culture: .A ProHk CompanMXt Appro^ to .As^*?»in» Person<.>rgani2atiiin Fit.’ . f^Mdran «/ mi. pp 4g7.5|6(«r^ J A Cbaonan and KA. jchn. ’.Asscssinc the Rebdciodiip Between InJostTV OaracTCrisrk> atu^ Or^nuachxial Culture: How Orffermt Can \< Be:’ .dfU^rnty June 1994. pp. 522-.'5. For a reviev of culcural diruensians. see NAl. .A:thkanan. L.E. Broadfow. and $. FalAus, “Quesdonnaire ATeasorea cf Orgamzadoiul Culturv.” in N.M. Adtkana:>y. CELM. \A*ildeTom, and Xi.E Petetxw (nkl, ^Thousand Oab, CA Sa^20tX)Xpp.Bl-*5. 5. A’. AMcner. '‘Forms of A aloe Sysrenn; A Focus on .J Organuatkinal Efteedvecess and Colttml Chan^aud Mainrenance.’ .divdavT ^JfeK/gnwevr Rrnr?*. October MJ
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R Kil’Hann, MJ. Savr-vr*. and R. Serpa. ed*, Cippdrwi* CufrviY fSan I’MIMS^VU: n,ss |9x^); hi^j:eni)d, “Can C.'hiin^t; in •^t«rtisau(Htar< uJ’ur-j Really BL-Manured?
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CHAPTER 17 1. The.j were devyoped by P.B. VbilV.M-«g,„ iSan Francisco: lossey-Bass I9fi9k 2. K. Lewin. -Gmup Qeeiaca^ and Social Change,” m G. E. Swan^. T. Al Ncwcoinc. aod E. I. Hartle (eds.J, Rcadnigs til Soeiffi Pryvbob^, 2nd ed. (New York Holt 1952), pp. 459 -3. J. T. PvUTS, Ti'rivffjx Knopf, IQF?). p. T
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1 E.H. Hall. .S^rjftTw;«, Axiteisjs, and Cbfidiwi, 46 cd. (Upper SyJJk River, NJ: Prenucc Hall, I987>.p, 29. 5. See. fi»i exampL, C- Argyris and D.A. Schrien, Or^mizatiiina/ LturnnffH (Reading. MA Aikiis<ns Wedey, 1996); L. Baird, F. Holland, and S. Deacon, "Imbeddu^ More Learning inln (he Perlon natjn Fa'i KfUHiyj cn .MLe a DifeMiUcc,' Orgsitii/fTiwaf Pyrj-jwny, Spruig 1999, pp. 19-32: snd R.S. SncH, "Mor al Foundaticns of6e teaming Organi
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V. J.E, Edwards and M,D. Thomas. ’ n« Grganinbonel Sliney PTOCCM: f k’neral Step* and PratTital OrfisMemtinne,” in 1’ Rosenfeld J. E. Ettwards, and M.D. 7lwMiias <edj;.l. f.^5»w24*r/iW»tf/ Ar/r*.(>r: PffTiTww, 4fer/*o^Z’, tf«t/.i/vAr-»/*'"v(Nr^vhxiTy ParL Sage. 1991), pp- 3-2t*. 10, E-H. SchcT’h Pra£t^.t( Cwfaitfrtwn Revi<^vd: fJje He/pftfi ReMonship (Reading. ALA Arldi^ HI-Wesley, W9>, P ]|. Ibid.
SciKCuilKTT 19Ql,
Aivcitwv
12 W. Dyer, Tonr mJ rt (Reading, MA: Acldisnn-Wwiley, 1994). 15. N, A’LKt*nhus and J. Wallace, Ot’ganiznfmMl CbiDi^:
pp,^55_9^
e u
14. R.R. Bhike, J.S. Motihin, and R.I.. Sloma, ’’The Urion-Aknagemenc tnicrgruup Labonitory; Strategy tor Resolving Inceivroup Jumiiaiuf Applied Bebiiviiifa/ SV/«73ce 1 (1965), pp. 25-57,
M
1971). pp. 99-100,
M
(Clenview, II.; Scoci, Forcsnian,
21. See J. “Sliiiring the Wealth,’ M?r
t o
TfchmifuesApph^ofsnvs!
Jurtc 5. I<>95.pp. 28-31; T.A. Siewarr. -JM Ptghta Fp»wwr, Fehrunry 5, PW. pp- ‘>4- 99; B. O* Reilly. Secrets of Americas Miisl AJmiredOirporahoBn.^^ Ideas. New Products." March .1. !<>97. pp. 60-/»4; B. Fihpex^b “Innovation Drivers/ HM7. p. 56, M. (^onhn, “ Ibu Much Doodle?" ForAft, Ckiobcr ]*>, I99H, pp. 54 55; and D. Weimer, “-iM’. * Ilic Heat b oa die Boss,” Bfwfnef.? MreF. March IJ, 1999 pp. 82-84. 20. E Oeminnjxnir, "Oi^anizaiior.al Innovation! A MetaAJI;Jlysis of Effects of 1 k’ivrmirane. and .MoiJeratr>«/
Barriers 10 Knowledge ManagcmciK/Llwdrffl^' ff 15. Adapted trom K.S. Schnier, ’Definidon and
M/magemerft Exeewiva,
GcttKcpmalizador of Stress in Or^aiuzinonj».’ OtgffnfsJimfinJ Behiirtnv itn^i Ifmnaii Per^/rrndtriv,
April I9J^O, p- 189.
J 6. *M.A. Vfircspej, ‘ Stressed Gin." February 21, 2000, pp, i 1-54. 37- Cixd
bufumy
Hhe>,
March 2000, p. 219
18 See, for example, S,.M. Je,x, Stn;.fsand Jnh Peifrn^nance.'. T^rwy, Afrr/rrr^, and JfffpliMtiont for iMjnageriiii fVyeftee flBousand Oaks. CA: .Sage, 1998). 19, Discussions cf the 5M Co. in this srrlion arc based on T. Stevens, "'lool Kit for Innovators,” Indt^ttry
November2000. pp. 113-27,
26. J. Gor-don, '’Intellectual Capil^I and Yau,” Truittiug, Sepcenaber 1999, p. 53. D, Ziclinksi, “Have ^bu Glared a Brighi Idea Ibday?^ iip. 65-6/-
Glindex I^efminons nrc shown in
nuiubei’s in bold
4lMriTv.
Hnd lejm rmnposirion, erppl
indicate ndditional display n,„en.l.
106
ALW Life, ’ hutn emotions and wfwiiy
J6
Aflnlifin^jn ’S’rr Xeed for affiiiadon ,1^ ofo'^riirATinn and change, 242 Ag^re^sinn ifl organiznnonal ciilhire, 241 .
of ^tfd^ies /o kijryj aifnat bumea bdtt^ and Thdr »(nzities,
AOL (.Anienca Online), J42 ^PPk Computer. 3 1, 65. JOI, m i rel="nofollow">P^'»sal. perinnnancr, S(e Pcrfr-nnan( c Aptirjital ^Strong. C. .Michael. 64 Sohimcin E., 8Q-yo 7^’MajyKiyj42.235 i:vDter% -rtrtiT^ rMr lint tvtcutivts. aiidAjr nained fvafaaft a/ gu *ervrB/ days emviffr /Ksf .wwuijZe nal proHcmi I: QUU cn tbe h/>. 2/7-/1 •miLihun ui.rkj^a
«fe
flttiluik’ybehavior fclatiohihip, 22-23 defined. 19 e ’.-..A dissonance reducaoh, 21-22 m d I vidua I lx Haviot, 19 -2 3, 2s job sutisbnion. 19-?i and ^iyqenutic siudy of UB. 2 r9,G (dct(3t theory, 45-47 Amactivxne.x.^ io expen^ncy theory, 52 Attributirji i rh eory, 23-25 .Auslrahan‘^irbnes, 101 Aorhoiitv a rhe rt^ti inhvrxnt j>rr”™ jedwr tfrtr/ rxyjM tht order: to Ir Autonomy In jnh vhunwKmnc model, 206,207 Avaihljility* hcurisric Tht ttadfney frr people fo le r^wryiK/gJWflCf« Mjfinv Ma« rhai is i'ettddy aiaiiabk re conflicts, tik«. 76 Balance worlc/litie iVvoidance in conflict process, 16V, 176 10-11 Barclay'^, 11 Behavior heha^'ioral approach to leadership, k»l B, 154 in contlicf protc'i'i, 168-69 detision-iuakiiig style. “7-78 tnod^ficitian nf, 58, 59, 60 iu performance appmisal. 225 S’fe abo OrganixsUitmal behavior (OB) Behavior, gro'ip, 8?-99 basic group Loncepts, 85-94 classification ul, 85 eonrribuUHg disciplines toswdy oh >> defined, 84 group decision making, 94-90 iiisplicarions for manage98-99 Behavior, irdhidupl, 14-29 flttihidcs, 19-23 ..r ^‘ontribL.hng dj«.'iplinw in201-3 iRiplications for managers. leamiog. 26-27, 29 perLcpuorb values. 14-19 Beh.«or4Uy4nd.ortJ^r‘^“ r Bell, AIt»ndcf Graham,. -
(i^iece Anitle). % Cfl»mljen,Jvbn. 142 <%ainpcm S|tti k Plu^ < Ihanpe CMntger
MAHrvwea.66 fien ft JenyV Homrwsde, 245,244 tkn9(W, Riek. 64 Ku* decHinn maVing, 171-74 in NiieiMeu’s. 216 DiK Model 7*1’ /r.* hen 4w»ruifin/ widrt/wie? lYrrivt, agrgeati/etfeff.
rhnfi^s ^iffirr"/,
(ih ange. n rg»ni /at 111 njl. 2 4^^-65 c<>n*em|M’rarj’ ISKUC* tn, 26tMW f me’ tor. :4H-$n iTnplLati«>r^tbr manti y^er*, 264-65 nunafCfnenr <>t pUnncd, 25{>-51 iTMnagtmer? thixnigh itrganiutionsldev ^OD}. 257-6(1 reftrUnoc tn, 2<*-56 xttinukatirm of, 'MIO views of. 25 1-^? (jwtH’L-gents
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Bo^^emun, Bill, 239 Biiv St'iHit^* 131 Brainstoming >4fr fdciT-grm'fiiftjtgprjiW j/iov/lrf//'. oifi/ ffU oherffaln e.t ii-hitf aurf'bMfiZ artv
tf,fy O7Z»<7X?* of
i?7 Bran^Hi. Richard, 235 Brnadcast.cnm. 205 Bitftaumcv A /rrwnrrv ^/^Wy r»w^ni<* opetatinff z/Kt* tbnn aiteniatixty,
;pn Wzctf/wn. tvi v fr^triiztd mhi rtttj rr^niarwtis, wkt ibaf art gnjaprd
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«erwia' i/WN3 u/Vewrro/, aud drojf/rtii’ju'i tbf i'b/irn nf gMstftand, ! 86
Cdm'uatcrs uUnik. 251-52 CamplKll, Laura. 85-B6, Case. Sttvr. 142 CxuOjrp., 190. 200 CatrfpiOar (xepunDon. 10, 192 Cas*inagti, (;. E, 162 Center for the Smdy i/ Work 'leaios, lOl Cencraiiratkni 'F^f drgrff r» irbicb dgeinou it tontmtrattd af a ssgk pu/trr in fit org^utiavfit 184
Aircrufi, IBO
/'(TTflw vn*) 4/^ Atfw/yff/ ^id a^tsmr tic rftpotuliififfifrf »rrt^«gi«i; thurt^i' 25/ Channek in <.‘om mum cation process. 114-15, UQ, 127 Charisrmne leadership /R^rm ft)lio‘aer\ ni ^eflfuwd oMn* svn frr t*r gwh? cjfargatfi'^tiimt cspohie ofhsnng a pnfut^ rfiw/ft7rj<>rdfrwrT rflrcr /4/, 144 Childress Buick. 61 Churchill, Winsn*11, 111, 141 Cigna Corp., 66 Cijwinnan .Mtheron, 66 CiKP Secerns. 142, l»9. 201,213, 264 Cm K ns hip. orgamrannnal. StfOrgaiiizatinnal einocnihq) Clanci’. Tom. 199 (Jienr relationship escablUhment and iob ennchincnt 211 (loaches, team leadrpi :is, 143 Coalitions, 155-56 Coercive poucr Prtj^rr that is /‘Hfrd w frtfr, 752-3.3 Cognilion and uinflict process. 168 Ckignhive diavunonve, 21-22 Colicsncness 7ir
degrrr
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CoHahoradon in ctmtlki process, 168, 176 (>dlcctiVISIT!, and cultural assessment, 18, 19 Cocunaiid gn»up, H5 (-ommon purpise, team creation process, 109 (.ommuni csQon r*r rwR^rrw / atid ttsderftanding of mtttaistf, ti2^2^ barriers tu e/Rctive, 122-24 as conflict source. 164, 166-^7 co.!..»-culcural, 1 24-26 direction ol. 115-16 tthiix in. 126 hwetionsof, 114 impbeation* for managers, 126-27 mreqjerwinaJ, Ilf*-IH process of, 114-15 nnHtanec tn change. 255 strr* n: duel ton. 262 lechrwdogy and work/li£e caiAicn, IG S
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127 2* j»*l rrwM. r4<, V4H p***' iflttinAu |»r»H-i^K t/ai, 1/6 (jMflfW-HH"’ ^^j)rh*in i4 rin'i tive (vti(N*i Hll* IO6*d piup. *>i <>inipn>fiH«t* >n uMifiui pnK%<*, 16M, 176 ^'*^*‘*^*^1*^^*^**'^*' 121-2^ OmivptUfil ilt'i j'»inn-nbiMnj< *yle, 77w7H (xiA^hd /< en i.'bu h >911 fgan r' pay^jjw^
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OrA%>6inr(itjna] teams
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M,i. ia2,;«,J56 (>rtAs-training, 209 Cuban, Mark. 20S Cultures, natH»nal, and cruu^colhiral mccs assessment frsmewnri, liJ oimmumotion, 124-26 in mnHict process M9 decisidn msbng, effect i*ti, HI emrttions 59 gkvbaliution. Q. 10.244.250 grinjp cirnipusitHm, 92-9) moth'ation ih«onvs B-$4 in negodaDon. 174 OB c<mcrj»b. h-9 W urganpJinnnal cultore, 246 perfonruncP appraisal. 22H-29 )Jvn»ui»»lir\; 33-54 values. 17-lK Srrrfim Organza tonal culture Cwnnm Research Inc., 104 Cuscniiu'i dtpartcncnelwaoyn, Cn^ortien an J qua I tn' tnnf«gen*nt ’ Cybcrlcdfing, 202 DauulvTCh/yskc. I HI, 161 Occcntrabrtooai. 184 PedAXH? rnabJig .Wdtiwf f*«r«r/w« **“*<7^4 b.»«s. and nciPPaWW'l75-<^ constpaiite e-»orld behavior. iOM ttdiwl behaVHtr. U« latHAcini nwdeJ
y •b
20 Onxsirffi making
DepemU’niy and (a>wcr, 15*4’55 Delttirence-bascd mrsr 7>Bff ^rW*tw tiir nj'rfpristfi if fhf rrurt ii wfoffd, 146 DeveJopiient, nrgjnizatinnal. Sez OrpiAixationfll ikvelopment |<)D) Deviant W4]rkpl.4ce ln.'havhir^, 41 Diary keeping and perfontuitce appraisals* 225 Dillinger, Jnhr, 152 Directive deci«win-milring style. 77-78 Directive leader, 1.17 QUguat, .IS oniversal emejcon, 38 Wair Disney Co., 65. 216.234 Wall Disney Imagmeen ng, 60 Wale Dimcy World, 2.14 Disneyland. 234,236 Displayed emotiuns Organiztrtianaiif iv^ttirfd a/) d appnptiare nw/ww, 37 DissTHuIIcc reduction and attitude. 21-22 Distinctiveness of behavior and anrihution theory, 24 Distributive bargaining jVrgeVMAmi thaf sfvks dh^ult up a ^ed a^rfouni rwioTCi-; fl fl?wrje«, 277 -73 Divenity of group manbers, 92 paradox of, 24647 training, 219 worktijrce. 7-8 Stt aliti (iender btues Dfvhion of labor, 179 Dole, Boh, 154 DotninoV Prz.?;*, 9 Dor.own strxdc vol lapse, 202-3 Dcjanw’ard communicaihxi. 115 Driving force, in alm-waters sicule, 252 Doe proceiis in performance appraisal, 226 DuJek R E.. 125 Dyxfonctional tonflict 165.171, 260 E-huaineM
indmdtiAl behawor. impliciliow Snr, 20l-> k*d
EnioauiwI latwir expr«j7
Tkr/a2Z breadth nf aamtitt Mudtd in a stutet^l intfrnei-biaitd emtrprisei 2<)0
E-cottimcrce 'Ar saks tide
F^^urld, rirgsnizAOonal behavior m, 200-21:^ ahteft. 2«l>-20| uwnniunU'atioa. 204 daiuon making, 203-4
4i
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-fliinvilK^'n. 50 52 knafrypOl ,iarcicrp4hf>n vs. mvNv'tmcTir. 62 jHucx’*>rcaigin«ring, 1^8 99 progranto, 60-61
Feur. flsunivctMl emothM,. jg Kyot irnknown em| redsunr^ hichwK 254 p vdera 1 Exp r CKS. $fC |.' p,ip ’* IS* m co«»,nuttwtx«|»r«e*,n4-b i27->a F* cbAiM'UriSTic model, 206, 207 ioh enrifhmenr. 2ll managemwii f>y ohjeCThxs (MBQj, >7 36O-desn;c cvahiiirtoM, 223 l•*elT eniodons
/r, •y* . «'k j
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Firtlkr bred F.., 134, 135-37 i'iedIcr leadership model zl /2»euF> that prapf^^et tbas e^atve < pre/rr MtfT.i Arrttrif 4 ^Adrr^ ji)^ ffpwrwf^ «i» iffAun/ziwfc; and the drgrre Ui ttlrieh tAe jrUMliai |CRr eontnJ and htfttn*Wf ti) the if odor. n^-i7
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fir wro’f’; 123 Firestone Tire, 66 FkxjldliQ tear*! crfnpo^non. W8 woiVIde confikts, 11.212 Flexrime /er ytexrhk varhmg Aiw." 212 Florida Power & Light. 191 Ford, T fairy, 179 Ford, Tlenry, II» 239 „ IM Ford Motor Co.. 8, 10, 194, 105, 110,121, b9, l«. 199. 239.255,256 r onnul ernups, 85 ^„-nkiacn. 119 Fwinal .mall-group nefwoii trtfii«-n* K<»rmal rrjimng, 220 Foni la h «ti W1 . t -A, ann«»*« *" nwre faz»rrnhfy hy
danijzfd.
Aorfw 5/W, lOI F«riw«r JiiOO. FoK-fJevision.^* FfamiM ncgoMlions. di^BonFrewh.JohoR-P.Jf''*^' FnendfiWp FritoLay. 66
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Gray bar Electric. 63 Great Plains Son ware, 213 wwM.greedyassoiaarcs.com, 204 Group decision making, 94 98 brain storming, eiectronii meetings, 97-9X groupshih. 96 groupdtink, 95- 96 vs. HUiividual, 94-95 Kduiiqiirs (hr, 97-V8 Group demiigraphv 7>c duKTfr w :i-4irZr wr«»AnT e/^ gnwp jA^re a fwiwfw
we. ediuaiwfftt/ frtW. ar jfTz ict fw ibe urg/mrumw, an4 the artrikaie Zunwi’er d«d jfln^rtj'on P Group urda ranking, 224 dftmtgriipbif armbaft, rufk « agr. vx,
behavior of <S« Behavior, group) ei»alitwop'’'*ef’ 155-56 ndicsh'tness. W. eofnpOMtrnrt. 92-T3 daddon making, <>4-9K irw^Ua. 255 norms- $7-90 reHwns to jouL K5, 86 nJes, 85-^i7 rizt\ *70 92 startle. 93-94 vy, leainsi 10I-2 (irdcpshilt .4 fijfinjifi in drfisiw ritt hrtavtn ?4e grw/plt ikne^w tad ifce rw JhvW«j/dra'w« ibaS mnbffr urrA’ra rhe i.'wh! fnakfi (ffn tirjien! rithtf fmserMtiSM tj>- greater
CrtMiprhink MTIWWCWB in n'bifh ihe norrn ft/r fansinstmnnrida tbf /faitstic oppraimi nf aitrmatrz e
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95 96. 170 Ilabic aod resistance to diange, 25354 Hackman, T. Richard, 3fl6, 20H, 210 Hall. li.T. 125 Halo eJTccis and perccpfioti, 25 ITainhurper Lniven»ily, McDonaIJ's, 220 Hamner. .Mldtacl, V)h Kappine-i'. as universal emotion, 38 Hara$$ncnT, sexual. Srr Sexual harassment I larlcy-Davidson, 104 Hasbro, 204 Hawtiiorne .snirlies, 87-99, 164 Herzberg, Frederick, 45-47 Heurkrics jMig/nffj/ff/ shoifi'ufs /« derifiun rtukinr^. “‘6 Hcwkct-Paekard, IfH. 103, 105, iW, 243, 244,2o4 Hiemrchy cif needs theory JArtffttfZtf rW.w/bv pnr;df
(WtZ» «er// w
ibe ties't need heetmes dnntuants
4 J 44, 53
High-contert culture Cj/Zn/Ff That relief heai’iiy en rw/z'tjM end subik jiwiiumel ciffx, 125
I Illi, J. S.. 125 Hiring ot employees, 2 15-18, 235 Hl stoned precedents, m^nmtional consrruinU, 81 HoStede. Geert. 18, 19 Holland, John I.., 55 Honda .Motoi*s. 31, 104 Honesty anil ini.si, 146 HoneyMcll. 103 HouLcr Chctnieal. 66 Hnrizortal hoiircbrir?, strucrursl organic chin, 190 House, kobenj., 137 HR, See Huniflu resiMirce CHR) ptkides arid practices Human relations vie*’nF con diet, 164, 165 Hunwn resource
appro baJ, 220-28
ded*itin.cnaUif\gbi>«s. 174 selective proo’«tn^^€.2$4 Ifiiormnrion iWerlmd rsr ih,, VutiaUHgslnicPirv
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n
Impf’ttanceanddqxndcncy, l.^4-55 fin|irw^« nWMxtff/e/jr/Zzii) Z^r/»u,fjs fy a’d/fA uidividads aaan^ to biattroi the iOfprtxiKtn 9lbers
f
iit£ a V'tfi-'ipin
21-29
Integrity and inisL J45, i4$l Infpl Corp., 154-55,264 InuractioiEsr viewof contlici. 164,16S InrerebC groups. I? 5 InttfcgTOvp development G/J fij/orv t9 cZwgr tbt atf/wto, fwzw .4 v/irAfcviJr fbat bniv off>fW. 269of/n/mflnwetTedfWDBfm. 2(Ki 201,202 lxirerra]ly-ciu«cd hchavwis 3 nd afttlbucvu* Inrernettinic, 204-5 the*ify, M InwtrtU rntcrpersonal communication, H6-18 nonverbal, II7 Ifi nra], 116-1; tvritten, I f? Interpennnal skills. 219 Jnlerview process In emplavce selection, 216 Inrynaton as nonverbal comm uni caaon, Intra nee An Zwrrrwff, fit 122,2/W Iriirinjiu: liisk iimtivalion. creative modd. 72-73 bl hl i don and intuitive dedrion making, 74-75 Invohtnent, employee. 5re Employee ippoberaent Peternar, 9 .(ackso!i,J«»>s, 141 .hgo, Ariur C;., 139, HO Jargon an4 tVHhmunrc.iror e/Jectivef>«s, 24 f mock! J CM. 5>f Job charjcrtri*ucs J.
JCl^ernev. 1S4 Jcsiis CbrisT, j3l Job cbaraacrj5nc5 TTIIXUJ CJCVV
InfUjciwe Srt»f\»wcr Wormi)
Kj (raining. 220
b'i'jfnKtt.m
177
of tkem, 160-6i
Iniprmement cijiwnual, and ouali^ juana^mc/ir, mnDDunin improvement jxpcess. 198 ptrr/bnnance appraisal, 225-26 actual process ot, 73 -SI Zncencvtj, ^fo’A/indc^dcfl al reman IT devcfopUJCnti 75—76 blcwiipBtibilj^ and conflict, 163 bounded ration^bryJ 7^-74 liidwdiiat rlerisi<jii inakinR, 69-83 rhoiccs:^! J heuristics, nbout. 69 70 creaDTit)’ lu, 71-72 oiktual influences on» 91 diftucavws between individuals, 7 7-SO wnorions, 40 rlliics, S294-95 \'s. ^xip> unplita^^s for iTiatapcfth b5 indnitlua) djffcrences, 77-bO inrcndonal procc^ of, 70-7 J intuition, ?4-T^ idenuficarion, 75 radonai model, 70-71 sn Its, 77-7Q lnjividuali>m, IH, 19,5i (iuiivid\ttKs) UWicr of, >rnpii«tinns for managvn,
i,
in oTganixati*inal culrure, 231 siimulaboH of 9-10. 360, 262-63 Innovadon stratesy z1 .rfnrP*gT /or nvan an4 nniiiue J92 wvw inskletb<'weh.ixini, 204 InsTTWHoral values i'nfer.vMf ef bfbainr w* Z5. 16 intRgreuv'e targaming >ic^otra&n jrrh a«r nrT^tjtfi frrrZempmy
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7/e A powertoi tool For tlie Organizational Behavior course!
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ures: MvUOtl bondages lor SlOdeOIS and faortty. These pages provide easy, oneclick navigation co our vast, dynamic database of online teaching and learning resoufces. Faculcy and students can organize the online resources for all of their classes on this single, cusronaizable homepage.
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