Sst-9-class-mp-board.pdf

SOCIAL SCIENCE Class - 9

MADHYA PRADESH RAJYA SHIKSHA KENDRA, BHOPAL

YEAR 2012

Rs. (i)

Publicaiton year-2007 Reprint-2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012 © Rajya Siksha Kendra, Bhopal

Direction

M.K. Singh, Commissioner Rajya Siksha Kendra, Bhopal

Co-ordination Shakuntala Shrivastav Co-ordinator, Text Books Rajya Siksha Kendra, Bhopal

Subject Co-ordinator Dr. Sadhna Singh Academic Consultant, Rajya Siksha Kendra, Bhopal

Writers

wDr. Anita Sharma, Lect., Govt. Boys Higher Secondary School, Station Area, Bhopal wDr. Ashok Tyagi, Asstt. Proff., M.L.B., Govt. Excellence College, Gwalior w Kamal Bhardwaj, Asstt. Prof., P.G. Excellence College, Ambah, Morena w Dr. Mahaveer Prasad Modi, Asstt. Prof. Govt. College, Morena w Dr. Manoj Awasthi, Asstt. Prof. Madhav College, Gwalior w Dr. Neeraj Goyal, Asstt. Prof. Govt. P.G. College, Morena w Dr. Rajendra Saxena, Rtd., Vice Principal, DIET, Ujjain w Ramesh Chandra Tripathi, Rtd. Gwalior w Shakun Dhoot, Lect., KNG, Bhopal w S.S.Patel, Sr. Lecuturer, DIET, Pachmari w ShushmaDixit, Lect., Boys Higher Secondary School, Bairagrah w ShushmaSaran, Govt. Girls K.N.H.S., Bhopal Moderation

w Dr. Anjali Jain, Asstt. Prof., S.N.K. P.G. Autonomous College, Bhopal w Dr. A.L. Naik, Retd., Deputy Commissoner, Deptt. of Tribal Welfare w Dr. Rajeshwari Duby, Asstt. Prof., S.N.K., P.G. Autonomous College, Bhopal w Dr. Sadhna Singh R.S.K. w Dr. R.P. Singh Retd., Principal, DIET, Vidisha w Dr. S.K. Trivedi, Lecturer, Govt. Hamidia College, Bhopal. Editing

w Dr. J.P. Singh, Retd., Proff., Regional Educational Research and Trainng Institute, Bhopal w Dr. M.K. Mathur, Retd., Principal P.G. College, Gwalior w Dr. Nalini Rewadikar, Retd., Principal, Govt. College, Ujjain, w Dr. S.K. Shukla, H.O.D., Jivaji University, Gwalior Translators

w Jaishree Nair, TGT, Social Science, KV-3, Bhopal w Dr. Rajeshwari Dubey, Astt. Prof., SNK, PG. College, Bhopal w Dr. Sangeeta Pethiya, TGT, Social Science, DPS, Bhopal w Shushma Saran, Lecturer, Govt. K.N.H.S.S., Bhopal Mapping & Picturaisation - Vikas Malviya (RSK), Vinay Sapre, Dr. R. Saxena l l

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© Government of India copyright Act 2008 The correct depiction of internal description of maps is the responsibility of publishers. The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the appropriate base line. The interstate boundaries between Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and Meghalaya shown in this publication are as interpreted from the North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act, 1971 but yet to be verified. The international and coastal boundaries of India with the verified record/main copy certified by survey of India. The state boundaries between Uttaranchal & Utterpradesh, Bihar & Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh & Madhyapradesh have not been verified by the Concerned Government .

Composing - Akshar Graphics, Ph.: 2559213 (ii)

Approved by Madhya Pradesh Textbook Standing Committee S.No. Name and Address Designation 1 Dr. Govind Sharma Chairman Former Additional Director, Higher Education, Govt. of M.P., Gwalior 2. Mr. Bhagirath Kumrawat Member Educationist, Bhopal 3. Prof. Sureshwar Sharma Member Former Vice Chancellor, Rani Durgawati Vishwavidyalaya, Jabalpur 4. Dr. Manmohan Upadhyaya Member Educationist and Deputy Chairman, M.P. Sanskrit Board, Bhopal 5. Dr. Umrao Singh Choudhary Member Former Vice Chancellor, Devi Ahiliya Unicersity, Indore 6. Prof. Udai Jain Member Former Principal, Vaishnav College, Indore 7. Dr. Subhash Gupta Member Dean, Student Welfare, Devi Ahilya University, Indore 8. Dr. Prakash Bartunia Member Assistant General Manager, IDBI, Bhopal 9. Dr. (Smt.) Binay Rajaram Member Trustee, Bharat Bhawan (Literature) Professor and Head of the Department Shri Satya Sai Women’s College, Bhopal 10. Commissioner Member Secretary Rajya Shiksha Kendra, M.P., Bhopal 11. Commissioner, Member Public Instruction, M.P., Bhopal 12. Secretary, Member Board of Secondary Education, M.P., Bhopal 13. Managing Director, Member M.P. Text Book Corporation, Bhopal 14. Representative - NCERT Member 15. Representative - Navodaya Vidyalaya Sangathan Member Acknowledgement M.P. Rajya Shiksha Kendra gratefully acknowledges the contribution of Dr. Prem Bharati, Educationist and member, State Level General Body and working committee M.P. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, in the development of textbooks. (iii)

Preface The new text book is an attempt to execute the national curriculum 2005, in which investment in information, associating children with life outside school, reducing the tradition of textual knowledge and learning by memorization and to work in the direction of child centered learning. To meet these aims of education, M.P. Education Deptt. and M.P. Board of Secondary education have developed an intergrated a new curriculum.

In this subject matter related to Environment,

Geography, History, Political Science and Economics has been incorporated. The new textbook of class 9 has been prepared on the basis of a new integrated curriculum keeping in mind the cognitive development of students of class 9. Children will be able to create new learning by relating to the information and contents of the book. Its hoped that the new textbook of Social Science will help the learners to grasp the information related to the subject in an easy and simple manner. It will also help to develop their skills and qualitative development in the subject. The book will help in childrens' participation in learning, reducing mental pressure and making the contents interesting. The Board of Secondary Education is grateful to all the people and institutions who have given their valuable contribution in the preparation of the book. The Board also expresses its heartfelt gratitude to the author whose literature has been used in book writing. In the end the Board of Secondary Education expresses its gratitude to the teachers/educationists and parents who have given their valuable suggestions for the improvement of the book. Its a collective effort of writers, moderators and subject coordinators, under the guidance of a standing committee. It has been our endeavour to develop a book without errors but improvement is a continuous process, in human effort there is always a scope for improvement. Therefore suggestions are invited for improving the book. Commissioner Rajya Siksha Kendra, Bhopal

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About the Book Social Science is a very interesting subject as it is related to our social environment. But the teaching of it is very generalized. This also affects the desired results. Therefore while teaching, realistic picturisation of subject matter is very important. Keeping the above fact in mind an effort has been made to incorporate the subject matters of Environment, Geography, History, Political Science and Economics in an interesting manner. The following efforts have been made in the book u

The contents and skills related to the chapters have been given under the heading of ‘We will study’ in the beginning. This will help the teachers while teaching and evaluation.

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The book has been made in two colours and important information has been shown in bold and in boxes.

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Maximum efforts to provide information through graphs, pictures and maps have been made.

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Colourful maps have been given which will make the subject interesting and learning easy. This will also help in developing skills and understanding.

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Difficult words have been given at the end so that an understanding of the definition of words develops in the students.

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Exercises towards the end of the lessons have been given to develop the writing skills, self thinking, relating facts with each other developing the skill of drawing conclusions, and the ability to express information. Very short questions, short questions and long questions and map work has been included for the same. Objective type questions have been included so that children get familiarized with the pattern of competitive exam. In the exercises, knowledge understanding, application and skill based questions have been included which will help in the correct evaluation of the level of students learning.

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Project work has been included in the activities which will help in developing the potential of the child. Besides students will also learn to relate with surrounding environment and daily life and acquire knowledge. Writers (v)

Curriculum Social Science Class - 9 01. Man and Environment Meaning of environment, Elements and Importance, Natural and cultural environment. Man and environment relationship, types and effect of envionmental pollution, corrective measures. Ecological degradation and changing patterns of landuse, Factors responsible for this: Population growth, Industrialisation and Urbanisation, Transport, Encroachment on water bodies, Facilities for tourism, pilgrimage, Recreation and adventure, Construction of large dams, Mining and war. Resources of Natural environment, utilization and conservation. Some success stories of environmental conservation e.g., C.N.G., Chipko Movement, Silent Valley, Water Harvesting. Role of Envionmental Impact Assessment (EIA).

08

02. India: Location, Physical Divisions Geographical Location of India, Physical division.

04

03. Climate & Drainage Pattern Factors affecting climate, Monsoon and its Characteristics, Rainfall and Temperature Distribution, Effect of Weather and Climate on Human Life. Rivers: Major & Minor, Lakes and Seas, Role of Rivers in Economic development of the Country, River Pollution and measures for control.

04

04. Natural Vegetation and Wild life Types of Vegetation, Altitudinal Variation in Vegetation, Major wild life species, and their distribution, need & various measures for conservation Wild Animals, National Parks and Sanctuaries of Madhya Pradesh.

04

05. Population Distribution, Sex Ratio, Literacy & Introduction to National Population Policy.

05

06. Map : Study and Depiction

05

07. Ancient India:Indus valley Civilization, Vedic civilization, Mauryan Period, Gupta Period, Brief introduction to the political history of Harsha period.

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08. Medieval India Invasion of the Arabs, Ghazni and Ghori, Delhi Sultanat and a brief introduction to the Mughal period. Vijayanagar and Bahamani Empires, brief history of Maharana Pratap, Rani Durgawati and Maharaja Shivaji, Fall of the Mughals

10

09. Major Cultural Trends From the early history to the fall of the Mughals, Literature, painting, Architecture, Sculpture, Dance and Music etc.

10

10. Concept of Democracy Meaning and Definition, Basic Principles, Types and Importance. Evolution of Democracy in India: Concept of Democracy in ancient India, Necessity & Importance of Constitution for democracy.

06

11. Election Party System: Meaning and Importance; Indian Electoral Process and the Role of Election Commission; Voting rights,:- Meaning & Definition, Conditions for acquiring voting right.

07

12. Constitutional Rights and Duties of Citizen Fundamental Rights granted by the Constitution; Fundamental duties, Right to Information

07

13. Development of Rural Economy An introduction to Village based economy in ancient India, Concept an Ideal Village, A study of Village economy in Madhya Pradesh.

06

14. Economic Challenges Facing India Poverty : Meaning, Causes, Poverty alleviation Programme, Various Types of Heavy Medium, Small and Cottage Industries in India.

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15. Food Security Varieties of food grains in India, Need of Food Security, Role of Government, Public distribution System and Fair Price shops.

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Social Science Unitwise marks distribution Unit

Subject content / Lesson

Marks

Period

1.

Man and Environment

04

06

2.

Conservation of Environment

04

06

3.

India : Location, Physical Division

04

06

4.

Drainage System

02

02

5.

Climate

02

04

6.

Natural Vegetation and wild life

04

05

7.

Population

05

08

8.

Map - Study and Depiction

05

05

9.

Ancient India

10

14

10.

Medieval India

10

14

11.

Major Cultural Trends

10

15

12.

Democracy

06

10

13.

Election

07

12

14.

Constitutional Rights and Duties

07

14

of citizens 15.

Rural Economy

06

12

16.

Poverty - An Economic challenge for India

04

07

17.

State of Industries in India

04

08

18.

Food Security

06

12

Revision

20

Total

100

Marks Distribution as per objectives Objectives Knowledge Understanding Application Total

Percentage 35 50 15 100 (viii)

180

INDEX Chapter No. 1.

Subject

Geography

Chapter

Man and Environment

Page

1

2.

Efforts and successes of Environmental Conservation

15

3.

India : Location and Physical Division

23

4.

India : Drainage System

38

5.

India : Climate

45

6.

India : Natural Vegetation and Wild Life

56

7.

India : Population

69

8.

Map : Reading and Numbering

82

Appendix

93

History of Ancient India

96

9.

History

10.

Medieval India

117

11.

Major Cultural Trends

143

Democracy

161

13.

Election

173

14.

Constitutional Rights and Duties of Citizens

187

Growth of Rural Economy

205

Poverty : An Economic Challenge

225

12.

15. 16.

Civics

Economics

for India 17.

State of Industries in India

234

18.

Food Security in India

245

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Chapter-1

Man and Environment We Will Study

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1.1 Indian concept of Environment 1.2 Natural and Cultural Environment 1.3 Resources of Natural Environment 1.4 Relationship of Man and Environment and its effects 1.5 Types and Impact of Environmental Pollution 1.6 Change in land use and its effects

1.1

Indian Concept of Environment:

Since ancient times detailed descriptions of the mutual relationship between man and nature are found in literature. Nature is represented in the form of Mother in the Vedas. In the hope of having a healthy environment man has maintained passionate relations with the environment in his life style. His debt towards the environment is exposed in the form of sensitivity, honour, passion and safety. Man and Environment are the creator, parent and saviour of each other.

It is evident from the Vedas and Puranas that we have always worshiped nature and its various sources. We offer our prayers to water sources such as the Ganga, the Yamuna, the Saraswati, to trees plants like the Banyan, Peepal, Neem and Tulsi. We also bow before the Sun, the Moon and the Earth and mother nature has sustaned like her children. Nature is infact life. It is believed that the environment receives fragrance as we burn Dhoop. The Upanishads assume earth as the body of the supernatural, heaven? as his brain, the Sun and the Moon as his eyes and skies as his mind. Therefore it isn't proper to cut trees and to pollute sources of water. It is believed in Hinduism that the God of rains (Indra) is pleased by the worship of Agni, Jal, Vayu and Prathvi and performance of yagya, and he pours rain water a result nature flourishes and fulfils human necessities. The religion of Christianity considers nature as a Goddess. Wordsworth, Keats and Shelley became great poets of the world in the lap of Nature. The Verses of Islam taboo killing of lives and instruct to save flora and fauna. Hazrat Abu Bakra asks not to destroy the fruit giving trees, crops and animals. Prophet Mohammad used to sit besides a palm tree delivering sermons to his disciples. Badshah Akbar used to believe in Havan, Yagya, Veda, Surya Namaskar and worship of Tulsi and Peepal trees. The propogator of Buaddissm Lord Buddha received enlightenment under the People tree. In Jainism also all sages are required to spend time in natural (1) (1)

environment. In Jainism any kind of violence against living beings is a taboo. Thus all religions have the provision of conservation of Nature.

1.2 Natural and Cultural Environment: Environment is a broad term. By environment we mean all those conditions which are necessary for the existence of living things. The literal meaning of environment is all that surrounds us, such as air, water, flora and fauna, the Earth, the Sun, the Moon, the stars and the sky etc. The villages, cities, dams, roads etc. made by man are also part of environment. Environment is basically of two types; one which is made by nature such as hills, plains, plateau, flora and fauna, rivers, animals, birds etc. The other is that which man has made to fulfil his needs such as villages, cities, houses, roads, railways, dams etc. The first type of environment is known as physical or natural environment. It is of two types: organic and inorganic, The second type of environment is called the Sociocultural environment, it is also of two types - first that which is physically observable such as the houses, roads, dams, fields etc. and second which is observed in various behaviors such as religion, rites and rituals, food habits, festivals etc.

Man & Environment Elements of Natural Environment

Elements of Cultural Environment

Physical

Food

Features

Clothing Housing

Climate

Habitat

Drainage system

Occupation

Vegetation

Religious rituals

Soil

Social Practices

Water

Transport

Living organisms

Politics

Mineral Resources

Art's Technology

Natural or Physical Environment : This includes all natural elements in nature such as location, geomorphology, rocks, climate, vegetation, wild life, minerals, water bodies, ocean etc. Man's existence depends upon these elements. Cultural and Social Environment : The socio-cultural environment develops due to the mutual relationship between man and natural environment. This includes the economic and social activities created, developed and conducted by man such as farming, (2)

industry, rites and rituals, settlement, roads, railways, air services, means of irrigation, government system and science and technology. Man keeps changing and modifying his natural environment.

l Environment is a combination of physical and cultural l l l l l l

elements. The elements of environment are sources of immense power. The impact of the environment is both visible and invisible. Environment is changeable. Environment has regional diversity. Environment has terrestrial unity. There is regularity in the functioning of the environment.

List the natural and cultural elements of environment found in the surroundings of your school and discuss them in your class.

1.3

Resources of Natural Environment

Nature has given many gifts to man for the fulfilment of his needs such as rocks, minerals, soil, rivers, plants and animals etc. The Value of any resource is expressed with reference to economy, law morality and aesthetics. When any physical thing or matter is useful or valuable to man it is called a resource. Resources are generally of three types.

Type of Resources

Natural Resources

Renewable ❖ Air ❖ Agriculture ❖ Water ❖ Forests

Non Renewable ❖ Non cyclic Fossil fuel (coal, petrol) ❖ Cyclic-metallic Minerals

Human Resource ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖

Population Health Education Working efficie

The resources which are given to us by nature and where man's role in its creation is nil are called Natural Resources. Renewable Resources : Resources, which are reproduceable after use or can be used again e.g.: forests, pastures, agricultural land. Non Renewable Resources : Those resources which once exploited cannot be reproduced or supplied in the near future such as petroleum, coal. (3) (3)

Human Resources Human resource means the number and quality of human beings. Education and health increase man's physical and mental capacity. Man himself is a major resource who uses the natural elements as resource on the basis of his knowledge, labour and technical know how. He is the producer and the consumer of resources. Man made Resources Man-made resources are those which are produced by man to utilize the physical environment such as machines, buildings, tools etc. Land Resources Land is an important natural resource. It is the basis of the whole living world. Land is used for housing, roads, railways, farming, pastures and mining etc. Land use is not the same in different areas. 29% of the earth is landmass and 71% is covered with water. Agricultural Resources Land, soil and water are the fundamental means of farming. Farming is easier in coastal areas and in the alluvial soil of the river valleys. The per acre crop production has increased with the help of fertilizers, pesticides, various means of irrigation, hybrid seeds and machines. Water Resources Water on the earth's surface is obtained through rains, rivers, lakes, ponds, glaciers, waterfall wells, tube wells. The water is used for irrigation, industry, domestic supply, fish farming and water transport. In the whole world, most of the water is used for farming. Much water is wasted in floods and this leads to loss of property and crops every year. For better use and management of water, multipurpose river valley projects have been prepared. Soil Resources Good soil is essential for the growth of vegetation. Living beings are dependent on plants for their food. Soil formation is a slow process. In soil formation types of rocks, climate, land slope, types of vegetation have specific contribution. Fertility of soil depends on all these. Forest Resources 30% of the total land area of the world is covered by forests. Forests are found only in those areas which have adequate rains. Forests do not grow in dry and snowy areas. Forests have specific importance for us. The trees absorb Carbon-di-oxide from the atmosphere and release Oxygen, therefore forests are considered as the store house of life giving Oxygen for all living beings. Forests conserve water and soil. They increase (4)

the underground water level. They also prevent soil erosion and trauma of floods. Forests are safe habitat for wild life. Many industries are based on wood and medicinal plants found in forests.

1.4

Relationship of Man and Environment and its Effects

Man and environment are dependent on each other, environment nurtures the human race and in turn is also influenced by man. Man is directly related to environment and like man, other living beings are also dependent on environment for food, water, air and shelter. Man and other living beings use things given by nature. Man is dependent on the factors of environment for his physical, cultural, industrial and economic progress. By using the elements of the natural environment he has built farms, factories, towns, cities, roads, railways, dams and canals. Religion, beliefs and practices and culture have all developed on the same basis. The environment has deteriorated due to human interference with the natural environment. As a result of population growth, urbanization, industrialization, farming, transportation and progress in technology the natural structure has changed. Previously man considered nature as a means of sustaining life but in the modern industrial era he wants to dominate nature by exploiting its treasures in irrational ways. This has polluted the air, water and soil and food. At some places forests are being destroyed where as in other places vegetation is being destroyed. Thousands of people are suffering from droughts, floods and land slides. The stores of natural resources are gradually being exhausted. Fertile land is being transformed into barren land, deserts are increasing and agricultural land is decreasing. Even the increasing means of irrigation and modern ways of farming are proving inadequate to supply sufficient food for the growing population. Actually all these conditions are created by man himself. Man creates an imbalance in the environment by the injudicious exploitation of nature for short term profit which results in environmental pollution. This state of imbalance is also hazardous for the vegetation and other living things. Man has created his cultural environment with the help of good food, housing accessibility, desire to rest and cognitive skills. Pollution : The unwanted change occurring in the natural formation and balance of the environment is known as environmental pollution. Pollutants : The unusable substances responsible for pollution which are present in excess quantity are called pollutants. Pollutants are of two types. 1. Natural Pollutants 2. man- made pollutants such as pesticides, fertilizers, glass, plastic, radio active substances, metals, lead, various types of chemicals.

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1.5

Types of Pollution and their Impact on the Environment

Air Pollution : Disturbance of balance among the various gases in the air or the presence of unwanted gases is known as air pollution. It is produced due to smoke coming out of factories, use of pesticides, chemical tests and decomposition of litter and dead organic matter. Increase of Carbon-di-oxide in the atmosphere has increased the temperature of the atmosphere. As a result the polar ice caps are melting and sea level may rise by about a meter causing submergence of coastal regions. Burning of coal and mineral oil also adds Sulphur di oxide in the atmosphere which results in the burning of the eyes, hoarseness of the throat, respiratory and lung diseases. Air pollution also causes acid rains. The danger of increase in the hole in the Ozone layer is also on the rise because of air pollution. Acid Rain : The Sulphur-di-oxide and Nitrogen gases coming out of the factories mixup in the atmosphere, they react with the existing vapours and produce sulphuric acid and nitric acid respectively. This acid pours down with the rain water on the earth. It is called acid rain. The term 'acid rain' was first coined by a British scientist in 1873. In India the concentration of gases producing acid rain in the atmosphere of cities such as Agra, Mumbai and Delhi is on the rise. Acid rain destroys the green covering of the earth. Leaves start falling from the trees and the immunity of the plants is reduced. Standing crops in the fields are destroyed. Ozone hole : It is about 20-35 km. above the sea level in the atmosphere. This layer absorbs the ultraviolet rays coming from the sun and thus protects the living beings on the earth. Ozone is a composite group of atoms. Due to the excessive use of Chloro Flouro Carbon (CFC) in appliances such as refrigerators and air conditioners, a hole is caused in the ozone layer. This hole was first of all observed above Antartica in 1985, now the hole has got extended to South Australia, North America and Europe. Due to the hole in the Ozone layer the wrath of ultraviolet rays on the earth's surface is spreading. As a result the possibility of skin cancer is increasing. It also reduces the immunity of the human body. Due to the decreasing rate of photosynthesis, growth of flora and fauna is hampered and forests are drying up. Carbon-di-oxide and other heat resistant gases absorb some part of the heat and reflect it back to the earth's surface. As a result extra heat is stored in the lower atmosphere and its temperature increases. This is called Global warming. Water Pollution: The entry of some unwanted substances in the natural water which reduce its purity is known as water pollution. Polluted water is not suitable for man, animals, vegetation, sea animals and irrigation. The causes of water pollution are (6)

soil erosion, leaves of trees, domestic ● Approximately 90% surface water is drainage and sewage, effluents from polluted in India. factories, fertilizers and pesticides and The Ganga, Hugli, Damodar, Gomti, the hot water flowing from nuclear ● Yamuna, Godawari rivers are polluted reactors and spreading of mineral oil on due to the industrial and the urban sea surface. Lead, Mercury, Chromium wastes and sewerage. dissolved in the polluted water destroy the intestines and cells of the kidney. The polluted water results in the excessive growth of algae in rivers and lakes. This results in the depletion of dissolved oxygen due to which fishes and other aquatic animals die of suffocation. Noise Pollution : Any sound that disturbs the mental activities is known as noise pollution. Therefore ● Unit of noise is Decibel noise is an unwanted 66-75 decibel sound is considered as a normal noise. sound. Any sound which ● is at a high pitch than ● Noise level of 140 decibels causes nervous disorder. normal voice is called Rio-de-Janeiro is the city having highest noise in the noise. Fast increasing ● world, where noise pollution is 120 decibel. population, factories, According to a survey in Mumbai metropolis of India railways, means of road ● transport, aeroplanes, people are suffering from lack of peace, tension and radio speakers, crackers uneasiness due to noise pollution. and sound producing instruments are the sources of noise. Due to noise pollution man becomes disturbed and tense. This increases irritability and headaches and also has ill effects on the health. Soil Pollution: Any unwanted change in the physical, chemical or biological attributes of the earth which destroys the fertility and utility of land, is soil pollution. Excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers, industrialization, urbanization, plastic and polythene, continuous irrigation with salty water, domestic litter, waste from hospitals, waste from mines etc. are various causes of soil pollution. Soil pollution and litter make the visible land dirty. Due to the deposition of the waste or coarse material the land becomes unsuitable for other uses. There is danger of soil erosion, land slides and conversion of land into ravines. Hundreds of acres of land around the destitute Magraha coal mine has sunk. The hoardings placed around it read 'Danger Zone', 'Don't go ahead' meaning that the earth's crust has been destroyed. Radioactive Pollution: Due to the use of nuclear elements for various purposes radioactive particles enter the atmosphere and produce radio active pollution. Uranium,

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Thorium, Schizium, Plutonium, Cobalt, Strontium etc. are radioactive substances used in nuclear processes. They are the causes of Radioactive pollution. The effects of radiation spreading from radio active substances are long lasting. The excessive energy released during nuclear tests destroys human and animal cells. The harmful radio active substances such as strontium destroy fertility of soil. ● ● ● ●

Radio active pollution has both direct and indirect effects on our bodies. Radio active radiation directly enters our bodies through the respiratory track in the form of air and gases. It indirectly affects our bodies through the food chain. The radio active substances harm the bone-marrow, white blood corpuscles, lymphocytes and spleen in our bodies and causes cancer and infertility.

Thermal Pollution : An unwanted increase in normal temperature in the world which affects the biosphere is Thermal Pollution. Carbon dioxide, Methane, C.F.C., Nitrous oxide, heat from thermal power stations, water from industries, Ozone hole, forest fire and nuclear tests increase atmospheric temperature. Drought, floods, drying of permanent water sources, increase in sea level, extinction of water animals, low agricultural production due to climate change, ozone depletion etc. are the ill effects of thermal pollution.

1.6

Change in land use and its effects

Primitive man used to collect food from nature for his sustenance. Then he was totally dependent on nature. Available water and air were adequately pure in those times. As time passed, science and technology developed. In his efforts to win over nature, man started influencing the environment to fullfill his own needs. He made unnecessary disturbances in the natural environment. As a result of rapid progress by man and consequent urbanization and industrialization the natural environment underwent significant changes. The major cause of decline of the natural environment in the world is the changing form of land use. In India forests are being destroyed to increase agricultural fields. For human settlement rural areas are being captured by urban people. Open areas are gradually disappearing. Deforestation, construction of big dams for hydro-electricity and irrigation, spread of new roads and railways and development of factories has transformed land use in India to a great extent. This has disturbed the natural balance. The habitat of various types of animals have been destroyed and thousands of species of flora and fauna have become extinct. The continuous interference with the environment for the sake of human settlement and industrial and economic development is causing environmental degradation. (8)

The degradation of the natural environment is the result of continuous and irrational exploitation of natural resources by man. Many factors are responsible for the changing form of land all over the world; The following factors are responsible for this Population growth and reproduction : Today in various countries enormous growth in the number of human beings has resulted in population explosion. Human life span has improved due to progress in the field of medicine. The mortality rate has come down. Deaths due to ailments, drought, war etc. are on the decline. As a result mortality rate has unexpectedly gone down and population has gone up. Due to growth in population problems such as crowds, unemployment, scarcity of resources, pollution, mental and social tensions have come up. Deforestation : Deforestation means irrational cutting of forests or plants from some regions. Reduction of forests is the result of human efforts. In the old method of shifting cultivation, trees were cut and burnt. The land was used for farming for sometime and then discarded. This method of farming harmed the forests. Due to the construction of huge dams, building of hydro electricity projects, distribution of electricity and spread of railways and roads, extension of habitat areas and cutting of trees for fuel and industries, forests have been harmed. For environmental balance in India, 33% of the total land should be covered by forests, but this percentage is only 21 at present. The excessive deforestation in Himalayan and northeastern border areas have resulted in soil erosion. Land slides in these areas are a common occurrence. The underground water level in Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana has gone down. The desert areas have increased. Excessive Grazing : Excessive use of forest land for grazing and intake of vegetation by domestic animals is called excessive grazing. As a result vegetation does not grow again very fast in these areas. The ill effect is that the layer of vegetation from land is destroyed. Due to soil erosion the danger of spread of deserts arises. In such areas soil absorbs less water and plants do not get adequate water. Such a situation has developed in the highlands of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Western Madhya Pradesh. Harmful Experiments in Agriculture : In order to fulfil the increasing demand of food crops there is a common practice to use plenty of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and weed killing chemicals to enhance production. Salination has increased as a result of inadequate drainage of water from the fields. Nutrients of the soil are reduced due to (9) (9)

prevalence of excessive water . About 33 lakh hectares of land falling in the areas of the Chambal, the Mahi, the Yamuna, the Sabarmati and their tributaries have turned into ravines. Excessive mining means digging of land for extracting minerals and other substances. In India about 80 lakh hectares of land is under mining. Trees are being cut from the land. As a result currents of underground water are hampered, land slides, deposition of waste material, soil erosion and formation of new land forms occur. The ill effects of excessive mining can be observed in Doon valley formed by the Ganga and Yamuna, which are surrounded by the Himalayan ranges. Previously this valley area was world famous for the production of Basmati Rice, Litchi and Tea. But now due to uncontrolled mining of lime stone only 12% valley area has greenery. In the Jaipur, Jodhpur and Udaipur districts due to mining of stones the surrounding greenery has been destroyed. The Kanger valley national park is in danger because of Dolomite mines of Bastar. Urbanization : Cities are extended by including nearby rural areas. For extension generally the farms, forests and pasture land are captured. The process of extension of cities is urbanization. As a result of urbanization there is increase in population density and transport facilities, roads, railways, hospitals, community centers etc. are on rise. All these increase the pollution. The increasing deposition of waste influences human health. About 5 crore people in India reside in the four metropolises of Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai. These cities are suffering from drinking water problem, urban pollution, unemployment and lack of peace. Industrialization and Extension of slums : Keeping in mind the present and future needs, factories producing various goods are increasing in number. The process of establishment and extension of industries is called Industrialization. In the process, on the one hand farms and forests are used and on the other hand raw materials from the mines have to be supplied. These factories release poisonous gases in the atmosphere. This disturbs atmospheric balance and increases air pollution. The waste materials are left open in surrounding areas. The polluted water is drained in the rivers which directly influences human health and environment. Industrialization is the main source of air, water, noise, land, chemical and radio active pollution. In Kolkata a metropolis of India the water of Damodar and Hugli rivers has been poisoned by the effluents of the hearby steel factories, chemical industries, distillaries and paper and jute mills. The same is true of the Ganga, Yamuna and Chambal rivers. Therefore industry is a boon but a curse for the environment. Construction of Huge Dams : Exploitation of natural resources is indispensable, for the fulfilment of the needs of growing population. Along with land, forest and mineral resources, water resources have also been exploited. Dams are being constructed on big rivers for purposes of irrigation, hydroelectricity, canals, fishing, water transportation and flood control. About 700 dams have (10)

been constructed after independence. These dams are useful for the generation of electricity, storing water for irrigation and drinking purposes, recreation facilities like boating, fishery development etc. However along with these benefits, large dams also have some adverse effects on the environment. Whenever a river valley project is started the construction of houses for the workers, construction of roads, railways and underground tunnels becomes essential. As a result the greenery of large areas surrounding the construction site disappears. The artificial lakes made from the huge dams drowns forests and farm land. The alkalinity of the land increases due to water drained from the canals of the dam and its fertility decreases. Due to the prevalence of continuous water in dam and canal areas the nearby land becomes unsuitable for agriculture. Human settlements are displaced from the dam areas. Many families were displaced from dam areas such as in the Bhakra dam and Pong dam . The later were rehabilitated in desert areas. Big dams bring in their wake displacement of human population, irrepairable loss to wild life, diversion of agricultural land and shrinkage of forest cover. The golden rule therefore is that the above problems be kept in mind while constructing big dams. For the construction of Indira Sagar and Sardar Sarovar dams at Narmada river many families were displaced. What were the problems faced by them? Discuss in your class. Facilities for Tourism, Pilgrimage, Entertainment and adventure activities Progress of the means of tourism, pilgrimage and entertainment is also an effective cause of environmental degradation. Generally all these facilities are developed in those areas which are the source of natural environment and fresh water. In India such places are basically the national parks, sanctuaries, areas of biodiversity, origin of rivers and peaks of mountains. The main cause of environmental degradation in areas used for tourism, pilgrimage, and adventures is human activities. Tourists going to Amarnath throw polythene bags and litter on their way. Mountaineers also leave the left overs on their route. Besides the arrangement of stay at these places also encourage environmental degradation.

Terms Environment

: Surroundings or the conditions under which a person or thing exists and develops his or its character. It covers both physical and cultural elements. Natural resources : Wealth provided by nature like mineral deposits, soil fertility, timber, fuel, water potential, aquatic animals and wild life. (11) (11)

Resource

: Any thing on the earth which is useful for man.

Creater

: one who creates.

Conservation

: To save or to preserve.

Multipurpose

: Something which has more than one objective or purpose.

Land Slide

: Land sliding down under the force of gravity of a mass of land on a mountain or hill side

Nitric Acid

: When Nitrous oxide reacts with water it forms nitric acid which is a poisonous gas.

Disease Resistant

: To have the capacity to resist a disease.

Ozone Layer

: An allotropic form of oxygen, Ozone consists of three atoms of oxygen. It is a thick layer in the atmosphere which prevents harmful ultra violet rays from reaching the earth and protect life on the earth.

Exercises I. Choose the correct answer. 1.

Unit of measuring noise is (i)

Centimeter

(ii) Decibel

(iii) Celsius 2.

(iv) Millibar

City with the highest intensity of noise in the world (i)

Mumbai

(ii) New York

(iii) Rio-de-Janeiro 3.

(iv) Tokyo

Where was the Ozone hole observed in 1985 ? (i)

Australia

(ii) Antartica

(iii) Western Europe 4.

(iv) Alaska

Ozone layer is (i)

15 km above the earth's surface

(ii) 5-10 km above the earth's surface (iii) 75-100 km above the earth's surface (iv) 32-80 km above the earth's surface 5.

Main cause of environmental degradation is (i)

Increase in tourism

(ii) Shifting cultivation

(iii) Changing nature of land use (12)

(iv) All the above

6.

Population explosion is (i)

Migration

(ii) Equal death rate and birth rate (iii) Crowding (iv) Continuous increase in number of humans 7.

'Cut and Burn' is related to(i)

Shifting cultivation

(ii) Tourism and pilgrimage

(iii) Mining

(iv) Construction of dam

II. Fill in the blanks : 1.

Any physical thing or matter, which is valuable to man is called ............. .

2.

................% of the earth is landmass and .............% is covered with mater.

3.

............% of the total land area of the world is covered by forests.

4.

The term 'acid rain' was first coined by a British Scientists in ............ .

5.

Bastar is famous for .................... mines.

Very short answer type of questions 1.

What do you mean by environment ?

2.

What is the meaning of cultural environment ?

3.

Name five polluted rivers of India.

4.

What is global warming ?

Short answer type questions 1.

How does air or noise pollution affect human health? Explain.

2.

How do radio active substances spread pollution ?

3.

Differentiate between pollution and pollutants ?

4.

Explain the problem of Ozone depletion.

5.

What is soil pollution ? What are its ill effects ?

6.

What do you understand by population explosion ?

7.

How does overgrazing affect the quality of land ?

8.

Describe the process of shifting agriculture.

9.

What is deforestation ? List the reasons of deforestation.

10. Insecticides should not be used in excess amount. Why? 11. What are the harmful effects of mining on the environment of a region ? (13) (13)

12. How does urbanization destroy the environment ? Long answer type questions 1.

Explaining the Indian concept of environment. Describe how man is related to his environment ?

2.

What is environment ? What are the main elements of environment ? How has man affected the environment ? Explain.

3.

What do you mean by pollution ? Describe different types of pollution.

4.

What is the meaning of resource ? Describe various types of resources with examples.

5.

How does changing use of land affect the environment ? Explain.

6.

How does over population affect human life? Explain.

7.

How is the construction of huge dams harmful for the environment? Explain.

8.

Centralization of industries is very dangerous for the environment. Explain with examples.

9.

What do you mean by water pollution? River pollution is increasing in India. Describe.

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Chapter-2

Efforts and successes of Environmental Conservation We Will Study



2.1 Need for Environmental Conservation 2.2 A study of Environmental Effects 2.3 Role of Environment Impact Assessment (E.I.A.) 2.4 'Chipko' movement 2.5 Silent valley 2.6 C.N.G. 2.7 Efforts for water conservation

2.2

2.1 Need for Environmental Conservation A variety of plants and animals live on the earth. Man is the most intelligent and powerful living being, but nature has not given him the right to destroy the resources. It is necessary to use them carefully. Today environmental imbalance is the burning problem of the world. To rectify the problems of pollution it is necessary to make people aware of the need to protect the environment. Environmental conservation is possible only when environmentalists, leaders and policy makers make collective efforts.

Study of Environmental Effects

Environmental conservation is the planned management of the environment and the resources to prevent its destruction and exploitation. World population is increasing at an alarming rate, due to which natural resources are in great demand. Pollution is increasing day by day due to rapid and irrational exploitation. Keeping in mind the needs of the future it is necessary to conserve plants, animals and other natural resources (water, air, minerals). Man is also a component of nature. Human existence without nature is possible for a short time but not for ever. If human beings want to exist in future they have to be friendly with nature. For which we should keep in mind the following points. ●

Use of family planning and birth control measures to control population growth.

●

Use of biofertilizers and vermicomposting in agriculture.

●

Pumping underground water by using solar energy.

●

Use of biogas for cooking.

●

Construction of dams and water dividers for irrigation. (15) (15)

●

Encouragement plantation.

●

Following crop rotation.

●

Conservation of wildlife, plants and animals and development of National parks and Sanctuaries.

●

Enforcing Prohibition of bird and animal hunting.

●

Enforcing Prohibition of use of plastic.

●

Use of non-conventional energy sources (as solar energy, wind energy).

●

Management of urban waste by municipal corporations.

●

Recycling of industrial waste and products.

●

Maintenance of machines in industries and control of noise pollution

World Forest day, Water day, Population day and Environment Day with social participation to increase people's awareness towards environment should be organised.

2.2

Study of Environmental Effects

The progress of man in different fields of life is the result of uncontrolled exploitation of natural resources. Currently environmental pollution has reached its highest level. It is very dangerous for human society. Till now while preparing a project for development we have concentrated on three objectives1.

The project should maximize economic return.

2.

The project should be technically feasible

3.

It should be minimally harmful for the environment.

Now we are concentrating more on the third objective. To fulfil this objective Envionmental Impact Assessment is necessary.

2.3

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

The Environmental Impact Assessment aims to achieve sustained development with minimum harm to the environment and to prevent any short-term and long-term adverse effects on the environment. EIA evaluates the beneficial and adverse effects of development projects, both qualitatively and quantitatively. The aim of EIA is to ensure that development is achieved with minimal degradation of the environment. Envrionmental Impact Assessment is a concept which seeks to find ways to ensure that the developmental process and protection of the environment progress in harmony. Whenever a new development project is planned, it is necessary to know its effects on the climate of that particular area, vegetation, animals and society. How will the development projects such as power plants, dams, iron and steel industries affect the environment? It is very (16)

necessary in edible oil, paper and cement industry therefore it is mandatory to prepare an Environment Impact Statement (EIS) before implementation of these projects. Environmental Impact Assessment is an important technique of maintaining environmental quality. Its aims and objectives are as follows ●

Development without causing damage to environment

●

Maintenance of quality of environment

●

Sustainable development so that the present as well as future generations are able to meet their needs

●

Emphasis on prevention rather than cure of envionmental degradation

●

Use of EIA as an effective tool of design making on development action

Environmental Impact Statement is prepared before planning a project which includes information related to land, surface, soil, animals, socio-economic effects, pollution and disaster management.

Elements of EIA ●

Effect on land including land degradation

●

possibility of earthquakes

●

possible effects on surface and ground water quality, soil and air quality

●

possible effects on plants, wild life and endangered species

●

Estimation of level of noise pollution

●

Socio-economic impact

●

Recycling and reduction of waste

●

Efficient use of wastes and residuals

●

Risk analysis and disaster management

Methods of Environmental Impact Assessment Environmental Impact Assessment is conducted in three stages. These three stages are Initial Scrutiny, Rapid Envionmental Impact Assessment and Comprehensive Impact Assessment. Initial screening of a project is done to decide whether the impact assessment is actually needed for the project being undertaken or not. If it is felt that the project is likely to cause some adverse effects on the environment, it is subjected to Rapid Environmental Assessment. Rapid Assessment attempts to identify the key issues in a project. Comprehensive Environmental Assessment is undertaken after the Initial and (17) (17)

Rapid Impact Assessment have been performed. Critical aspects of the project are taken up at this stage. If needed, the project may not be approved for implementation. In India, the Environmental Impact Assessment of development projects is the responsibility of the Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India. The ministry constitutes Environmental Appraisal Committee for different sectors of development projects. These projects are related to river valley and irrigation, mining, industries, thermal power projects, tourism, metallurgy, textile, rubber, leather, paper, transport and chemical industries etc. special expert committees are formed for different projects and EIA is prepared by them.

2.4 Chipko movement The Chipko movement proved a successful strategy for protecting natural resources. It is not only a movement to save trees, but it also provides the basis for permanent economic welfare (in terms of food, grass, fuel, fertilizers and clothing) by making a demand for a total transformation in land policy. The scope of this movement is not confined to India but it extends to Switzerland, Germany and Holland. Women's participation in this movement is remarkable. The success of the Chipko movement has proved that the solution to intense problems is not possible by only making laws, rather public awareness and comprehension of rights are also essential for it. The Chipko movement was started in 1974. That year an Allahabad based sports production company named Simond was given the contract of cutting trees of the Angu species in Chamoli district. The wood of the trees of Angu species is used to make agricultural tools. The use of this wood was prohibited for local people. The decision to auction off hundreds of acres of forest area in the Renigaon of Chamoli created much dissatisfaction among the people. The forest department tried to pacify their revolt by inviting the menfolk of Renigaon and nearby villages to Chamoli for payment of compensation for the role they had played during war time. At the same time the forest workers and labourers reached Renigaon to cut trees, creating much disturbance in the village. In the absence of the menfolk, an ordinary woman named Gangadevi came forward to resist cutting of trees by the forest labourers. She went door to door and motivated girls and women to register their revolt. Under the leadership of Murarilal and Gangadevi about 27 women and girls embraced the trees. Thus a non-violent technique of Chipko was used to save trees under the leadership of Gangadevi. The women said that the forest was their parental home. They would not let it be cut at any cost. Even the guns of contractors and forest employees and the bribery offered by them could not discourage the women's. Their resistance finally transformed the forest labourers' hearts. The women kept on surrounding and embracing trees for two days and nights continuously. They also broke the one and only bridge at the entrance of the forest. After this event

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of 26th March 1974, Renigaon became the battlefield of the Chipko movement. All over the Uttarakhand, people witnessed a new zeal to protect forests after this event. Afterwards Shri Sundarlal Bahuguna walked 2800 km. in order to speed up this movement. Looking at the direction and intensity of the movement, the State Govt. finally banned felling of forests in Renigaon area and the practice of giving contracts also came to an end with the establishment of the U.P. Forest Development Corporation. The Chipko movement got national publicity. The demand of the Chipko movement activists to declare the forests of the Himalayan region as protected area was also accepted. For the next 15 years the cutting of the green trees of the Himalayan forests was prohibited. In the second phase, the Chipko movement took a creative mode in the form of speedy plantation. Due to mass support to the Chipko movements for protection of trees, the felling of forests came to a halt. All this made possible the conservation of forests, increase in fertility of land and control of hunting.

2.5

The Silent valley

The Silent valley is a small forest area of Kerala. It is located in the Western Ghats on the South-west slopes of the Niligiri hills. Its total area is 90 Kms. It is surrounded by high hills on all sides. Due to unapproachable tracts, this area is uninhabited. This valley is a treasure of unique and valuable vegetation and animals. The Kuntipooja river flows from the centre of the Silent Valley. The Kerala Electricity Board wants to produce hydro electricity by constructing a dam on the Kuntipooja river. This proposal has given rise to much environmental debate. The Department of Environment in the Central Govt. has asked the Kerala Govt. to reconsider the construction of the dam. A committee has been formed to look into this issue. According to a report of this Committee the Silent Valley is the homeland of certain unique types of vegetation and forest animals. The equatorial rain forests of this area are safe only in the absence of human disturbances. The committee under the chairmanship of M.G.K. Menon has recommended that no dam should be constructed as it will do irreversible loss to the environment. The Silent Valley was declared a national park in 1985. Due to public movement the valuable rain forests, rarely available vegetation and animals could be protected.

2.6 C.N.G. Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is a cheaper, more efficient and less polluting energy resource, which is useful for vehicles. CNG is less polluting than diesel; keeping in mind its benefits the Delhi High Court has ordered the use of CNG in place of biofuel in buses, tempo, autorickshaw running in Delhi. Delhi Bus Transport System has thus become the biggest CNG run transport system in the world. Air pollution has decreased (19) (19)

in Delhi after the use of CNG begun. Now-a-days the idea of using CNG for other purposes is under consideration.

2.7

Efforts for water conservation

A few years back the forests in Jhabua district of Madhya Pradesh were ruthlessly cut. This resulted in the decreasing fertility of land, increasing soil erosion and reducing employment opportunities. Consequently the local population was forced to migrate. In the year 1994 the Rajeev Gandhi Water Storage Mission was started to eliminate the problems of draught and deforestation. This mission involves the consumer at the end point with the land and water conservation programme, specially stressing on his participation in the on going process and in its maintenance. Under this mission stop dams and ponds were constructed for water storage on local public demand. As a result the quantity of available water increased, soil erosion was prevented, water became easily available for irrigation, plants and animals. Consequently the agriculture products and live stock increased. In 1999 the state Govt. made it compulsory for the Sarpanch of every Panchayat under 'Ek Panch Ek Talab' scheme to construct at least one new pond and repair the old one during his office of five years. Thus about 3412 ponds were rebuilt and 500 new ponds were constructed in a duration of less than 15 months. One-fourth of the cost was borne by the people. In the year 2000 under the 'Pani Roko Abhiyan' water storage was increased by making small dams. This resulted in the development of 7 lacs water catchment areas. Under the 'Gaon ka pani Gaon mein Evam khet ka pani khet mein" programme, water was stored in the farms by constructing hedges. This benefitted about 20,000 villages. All the above efforts of water conservation were made in Madhya Pradesh followed by other states. Environmental conservation is the crucial need of today's human society. The Chipko movement, the Silent Valley project, use of CNG in Delhi for protection from air pollution and water catchment and conservation efforts of Madhya Pradesh are some of the landmarks in the area of envionmental Protection.

Terms Crop Rotation

: It is a method through which the imbalance in the soil created by nutrient loss is corrected. Different crops are sown according to season to increase the fertility of the soil.

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Recycling

: Recycling means salvaging material in order to reuse them.

Organic Farming : In this type of farming artificial chemical fertilizers are not used. Instead organic forms of manures such as cow dung or green manures are used for growing crops. Biofertilizer

: They are the organisms which bring about enrichment of soil nutrients, such as bacteria and fungi.

Exercise I. Choose the correct answer: a.

In modern agriculture encouragement is given to (i)

Organic farming

(ii) Use of biofertilizers

(iii) Use of biological pest control (iv) All the above. b.

Last stage of EIA is(i)

Comprehensive Environmental Assessment

(ii) Study of critical aspects (iii) Rapid Environment Assessment (iv) Risk analysis. c.

In India EIA is the responsibility of(i)

Ministry of Environment and forest (ii)

(iii) Ministry of Tourism d.

(iv)

Ministry of Agriculture

Chipko Movement was started in (i)

Karnataka

(ii) Eastern India

(iii) UttaraKhand e.

Ministry of Defense

(iv) Kerala

First of all the use of CNG in India was started in (i)

Mumbai

(ii) Delhi

(iii) Kolkata

(iv) Chennai

II. Fill in the blanks : 1.

Silent valley is a small forest area of ................... .

2.

The chipko movement was started in .................. .

Very short answer type questions 1.

What is the meaning of environmental conservation? Explain.

2.

What do you understand by Environmental Impact Assessment?

3.

Which ministry in India is responsible for making EIA?

4.

What is modern farming? (21) (21)

5.

What do you understand by organic farming?

6.

Name three stages of EIA.

7.

Why do we need envionmental conservation?

Short answer type questions 1.

What is the Chipko movement? What are its basic elements?

2.

To fulfil which important objectives is environmental conservation necessary? Explain.

3.

What is the role of EIA? What are the basic contents for preparing EIS? Describe.

4.

What is the meaning of CNG? In which field its use is maximum in India?

Long answer type questions 1.

What is the meaning of the Chipko movement? How was it started and what were the reasons of its international fame?

2.

Write a short note on the Silent Valley.

3.

Describe in detail the efforts for water conservation in Madhya Pradesh.

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Chapter-3

India : Location and Physical Divisions We will study



3.1 India-Geographical Location and Extent

3.1 India - Geographical

India is one of the oldest countries of the world. Location and Extent When the western countries were still at the preliminary 3.2 India - Administrative stage of development, the culture of this country was at its peak. India is also known as Aryavarta, Hindustan and units Bharat. India is developing rapidly after Independence. It 3.3 India -Physical is the world's largest democracy. From the point of view Divisions of economy and military power also, India has established its position as a rising power. The geographical situation of India gives it a marked advantage for international trade. Location : See the location of India in the given map of the world. You will find that India is situated in the Northern Hemisphere in the southern part of the continentAsia. Towards its south lies the Indian Ocean, the Bay of Bengal is in the east and the Arabian sea is in the west. The latitudinal extent of the main land of India is 8°4' North to 37°6' North and the longitudinal extent is from 68°7' East to 97°25' East. The tropic of Cancer (23°30'N)

(23) (23)

divides the country into almost two equal parts. 82°30'E is the standard meridian for Indian Standard Time. The standard time for the country is calculated from the standard meridian. See the location and extent of India from the map and find out which of the states does the standard meridian pass through. Also find out through which states does the tropic of Cancer pass. Apart from the main land Andaman Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal and the Lakshdweep in the Arabian Sea are also part of India. ●

Tropic of Cancer divides the country into almost two equal parts.

●

Less area of India is situated on the eastern part of the standard meridian.

●

The western most state of the country is Gujarat and the eastern most state is Arunachal Pradesh.

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●

The northern most state of India is Jammu and Kashmir and the southern most state is Tamil Nadu.

●

The extreme southern point of India is Indira point located in the Andman and Nicobar Islands.

In the given map of India see the location of the neighbouring countries of India. India is bounded by Pakistan and Afghanistan in the north-west, China, Nepal and Bhutan in the north, Bangladesh and Myanmar in the east and Sri Lanka in the south. Palk Strait is between India and Sri Lanka.

Coastal boundaries of India Areawise, India is the seventh largest country in the world. 2.42% area of the world is in India. Find out the East-West and North-South extent from the location map of India. India covers an area of 32,87,263 Km2. ●

India is a union of States, it has 28 States and 7 Union territories.

●

The Capital of India is New Delhi.

●

Areawise Rajasthan is the largest and Goa is the smallest state in the country.

●

Andaman and Nicobar group of island is the largest and Lakshadweep island is the smallest Union territory of India.

●

Pondicherry is a Union territory, some areas of which are situated on the eastern coast and some areas on the western coast.

●

The seven states of the North-East are known as 'The Seven Sisters'.

●

There are 593 districts in India. The largest district is Kachchh (Gujarat) and the smallest district is Mahe (Pondicherry).

●

There are 5470 Tehsils /Talukas in the country.

●

There are 6,38,588 villages (including uninhabited villages) in the country.

Administratively India is divided into 28 states and 7 union territories. Prepare a list of States and Union territories of India from the given political map of India. New Delhi is the capital of India.

3.3

Physiographic Divisions of India

India is a country of diverse surface features. Every type of surface features like mountains, plateau, plains, river valleys, deserts and Islands is found in our country. On the basis of these surface features, gifted by nature, India can be divided into the following physiographic regions-

(25) (25)

1. The Northern Mountains 2. The Great Northern Plains 3. The Peninsular Plateau 4. The Coastal Region 5. Islands (26)

1.

The Northern Mountains

Extending along the northern boundary of India, the Himalayas are the highest mountain range of the world, they are young folded mountains. These ranges extend from the Indus river in the west to the Brahmaputra in the east. The Himalayas form an arc between these two extremes, covering a distance of 2400 Kms. The width of the Himalayas varies from 400 Km. in Kashmir to 150 Km. in Arunachal Pradesh. On the basis of extent and height the Himalayas can be divided into three parts.

(27) (27)

(i) The Greater Himalayas or the Inner Himalayas- The northern most ranges are known as the Greater Himalayas or Inner- Himalayas or Himadri. This range has all the highest peaks with an average height of 6000 metres. The core of these ranges is made up of granite. This range is always covered with

snow and many glaciers flow in this region. Mt. Everest, the highest peak in the world (8848 mtrs.) is located in Nepal. All the main peaks of India like Kanchenjunga (8598 metres), Nanga Parbat, Nandadevi, Namcha Barwa etc. belong to this range. Locate these mountain ranges in the given map. (ii)

The Middle Himalayas or the Himachal - Parallel and to the South of the Greater Himalayas lie the ranges known as the Middle Himalaya or Himachal. They are composed of highly compressed metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. Slate and quartzite are the main rocks. The height of these mountains varies between 3700 metres to 4500 metres and the average width is 50 Km. The Kashmir valley and the Kangra and Kullu valleys of Himachal are situated in these ranges. Pirpanjal and Dhauladhar are important ranges of this area . Hill stations like Shimla, Mussoorie, Nainital and Darjeeling belong to Middle Himalayas.

(iii)

Shiwalik Ranges - Shiwalik ranges are the southern-most ranges of the Himalayas. Locate these ranges in the given map of the Himalayas. The altitude (28)

of these ranges is 900 to 1100 metres with the width ranging from 10 to 50 Km. This range is made up of sedimentary rocks. The valleys of this region are covered with a thick layer of Alluvial soil and unconsolidated river deposits. In between the middle Himalayas and Shiwaliks are the flat bottom longitudinal valleys termed as 'Duns', such as in Dehrad Dun, Kothri Dun and Patli Dun. ●The

Himalayas are also known as Punjab Himalaya (From Indus river to Satluj river), Kumaon Himalaya ( from Satluj to Kali river) Nepal Himalaya ( from Kali river to Tista river) and Assam Himalaya ( from Tista river to Brahmaputra river) on the basis of regions.

●There are some important passes in the Himalayas, such as the Karakoram

( Jammu and Kashmir), Shipkila (Himachal Pradesh), Nathula (Sikkim, and Bomdila (Arunachal Pradesh) etc. The Himalayan mountains protect us from the cold blizzards of central Asia. Himalayan mountains are of great importance due to the fact that they have perennial rivers, wild life and forest resources rich in medicines, scenic beauty, crops and production of electricity. They are a store house of mineral resources.

2.

The Great Northern Plains The Northern Plains of India are made up of the deposition of fine silt by three

(29) (29)

main river systems which are those of the Indus, the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and their tributaries. It is also known as the plains of the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. This is approximately 3,200 Km long and 150 to 300 Km. wide. It is almost a flat plain with little relief. The deep fertile soil of this region, sufficient water and favourable climate are very helpful in the development of agriculture. It is a densely populated area. It can be divided into three parts -1 Western Plains. 2. Central Plains 3. Eastern Plains. The Western Plains- It extends in Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. It slopes from North-East to South-West. Its western part is a desert known as The Thar desert. Luni is the main river here. Satluj, Beas and Ravi rivers flow in the western side of Yamuna. It is a very fertile land and in Punjab it is known as Khadar . Central Plains - It stretches from the Yamuna river to Bangladesh covering a distance of about 1400 Km. It is known as the Ganga plain. Its slope is from West to East. The regions where the flood water reaches every year is known as 'Khadar' and where it does not reach is known as 'Bangar'. The foothill region of the Himalayas is known as the 'Tarai'. The soil of this region is known as Alluvial soil. Bangar Land

Khadar Land

1. It is the upland of the Northern Plains made by older deposition. Pebbles are also found here.

1.

It is the lowland of the Northern plains made by the newer alluvium.

2. Flood water does not reach here.

2.

This land is submerged in flood water.

3. Water level is deep.

3.

Underground water level is high.

4. It extends mainly in Punjab and . the plains of Uttar Pradesh

4.

It extends in eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Bengal.

Eastern Plains - This plain is 650 Km. long and 100 Km. wide. It is also known as the Brahmaputra Plain. It slopes from North -East to South-West. The Central plain covers approximately one fourth area of India which supports 45% population of the country. This plain is made up of the alluvial soil of the Indus, the Satluj, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra rivers has irrigation facilities, therefore, it is called the ‘gift’ of the Himalaya. The Northern plain is agriculturally important. it is densely populated. It possesses a network of canals, roads and railways. This plain has been the birth place of civilization. Several centres of pilgrimage like Amritsar, Kurukshetra, Mathura, Vrindavan, Prayag, Kashi, Gaya, Garhmukteshwar etc. are situated in these plains.

3.

The Peninsular Plateau It is a part of the oldest landmass- the Gondwana land. Its average height from the (30)

sea level is 600 to 900 metres. It is surrounded by seas on three sides and by landmass on one side so it is also known as the Peninsular plateau. It is a triangular plateau with its base in the north, from Delhi and Rajmahal hills to the northern plain. It is bordered by the Eastern Ghats in the east and by the Western Ghats in the west and Kanyakumari is at the southern tip. Areawise, the peninsular plateau is the largest physiographic division of the country. The peninsular plateau is subdivided into two parts, the Central Highlands and the Deccan Plateau.

(31) (31)

The Central Highlands : The Northern part of the Peninsular Plateau comprises of plateaus, uncovered mountain ranges and low mountains. It is made up of hard igneous rocks. In the north-west it is flanked by the Aravallis which are very old fold mountains. On the southern boundary of the central Highlands lies the Vindhyachal Mountains and it continues as the Kaimur range eastward. The Malwa Plateau lies in between Amrawati and Vindhyachal mountains. This plateau is drained by the Betwa, the Parvati, the Kali Sindh, the Chambal and the Mahi. The eastern part of the Central Highlands is known as the Bundelkhand. The Baghelkhand plateau is situated in the east of Kaimur and Bhander hills. In the central part of the Highlands, Vindhyachal and Kaimur hills form an escarpment between the valleys of the Narmada and Son rivers, towards the east of the Son river. The Chota Nagpur plateau of Jharkhand is also a part of this region. This plateau is drained by the Mahanadi, the Son, the Subarnarekha and the Damodar. It is rich in minerals. The Deccan Plateau - The Deccan plateau extends from the Satpura, Mahadev and Maikal hills in the north to the southern tip of the peninsula. The north-western part of the plateau is mainly made up of volcanic deposits. The western Ghats, form the western edge of the Deccan plateau, which runs discontinuously from north to south almost parallel to the Arabian Sea. In Maharashtra and Karnataka they are called the Sahyadri. The Ghats are crossed by three gaps known as Thalghat, Bhorghat and Palghat. They are called the Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu and along Kerala and Tamil Nadu border they are known as the Annamalai and the Cardamom Hills. The Palghat gap separates the Nilgiri and the cardamom Hills. The Palni Hills and the Cardamom Hills are branches of Anaimalai Hills. The highest peak of Southern India, the Anai Mudi (2695 metres) is in Palni Hills. The Eastern Ghat is 800 Km.long. Its highest peak is Mahendragiri. Gneiss rocks are mainly found here. The Peninsular plateau is made up of old rocks so it is rich in minerals. Gold is found in Karnataka, Diamond, Marble, limestone and Manganese in Madhya Pradesh, coal in West Bengal and Iron is found in Bihar and Orissa. Maharashtra is famous for growing cotton because of the black cotton soil. The South-Western Peninsular Plateau is known for the production of spices, tea and Coffee. This region has the potential of generating hydro-electricity. Several hill resorts like Ootacamund, Pachmarhi and Mahabaleshwar are located in the plateau region.

5.

Coastal Plains

The Peninslar Plateau of India from Kutch to Orissa is flanked by a narrow strip of coastal lowlands or plains. Due to difference in their formation, this coastal plain is divided into two parts- The West Coastal plain and the East Coastal Plain. (32)

The West Coastal Plain extends from Gujarat to Kerala along the Arabian Sea. These plains are narrow and are known as Konkan in the north and Malabar in the south of Goa. The maximum width here is 40 Km. Here the rivers are small and fast flowing. This region has very few major rivers like the Narmada and the Tapi. The rivers of the West Coast form a tidal mouth. The coastal plains of Kutch and Gujarat are arid.

The East coastal plain extends in the delta region of rivers Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri flowing in the Bay of Bengal. Fertile alluvial soil is found here. Chilka, Koleru and Pullicat lakes are situated on this coast. The northern part of the East coast is known as the Northern Circars and its Southern part is called the Coromandel coast. West Coastal Plains

East Coastal Plains

1. They extend along the Arabian Coast. 1.

They extend along the Bay of Bengal.

2. These plains are narrow.

2.

These plains are wider.

3. They are formed due to small but fast flowing rivers.

3.

They are formed due to the deposition by the rivers Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri.

4. Deltas are not found on this coast.

4.

Deltas are found here.

(33) (33)

5.

Indian Islands

The origin of the Indian Islands- Lakshadweep and Andaman Nicobar is of different types. Lakshadweep Islands, lying opposite to the coast of Kerala in the Arabian Sea, are formed by numerous small Islands. These islands are formed by the deposition of the coral polyps and are known as Atolls. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal are bigger islands and are more in number. They are scattered in a large area and are far away from the main land. These islands are the peaks of submerged hilly ranges. Some of them are of volcanic origin. There are nearly 300 known and unknown Islands in the Andaman and Nicobar covering an area of about 8249 Km2.

Terms Standard Time

: The Local time of the meridian 82°30' E is the standard time of India.

Granite

: Rocks formed by the slow cooling of a large intrusion of Magma.

Metamorphic Rocks : A rock resulting from the sedimentary and igneous rocks changing their original character and appearance as a result of extreme heat, pressure or chemical action inside the earth's crust. Deposition

: Accumulation of sediments

(34)

Relief

: Inequalities or variations in physical shapes and forms of the earth's surface.

Bangar

: Old alluvium of the plains

Khadar

: New alluvium of flood plains

Alluvial Plains

: Plains formed due to the deposition of alluvium by a river.

Gondwana Land

: The southern part of the great Precambrian landmass, Pangaea. It includes today's Africa, Australia and Antarctica.

Coral

: Sedentary marine animals that live in Colonies. They are found in clear, warm and shallow seas. A hard, calcareous rock like substance is secreted by them which is deposited and coral reefs are formed.

Submergence

: Geologically, submergence means downward movement of the earth surface.

EXERCISE Choose the correct Answer: 1.

The standard time of India is calculated from (i)

72° E. longitude

(iii) 82°30' E. Longitude 2.

Gujarat

(iii) Chhattisgarh

(iv) Orissa.

Andaman Nicobar Islands (ii) Dadra and Nagar Haveli

(iii) Lakshadweep

(iv) Pondicherry.

The Indian Peninsular Plateau is made of which type of rocks? (i)

Metamorphic

(iii) Oldest rock 2.

(ii) Maharashtra

The largest Union Territory of India is : (i)

4.

(iv) 85° E. longitude.

The tropic of Cancer does not pass through which state of India? (i)

3.

(ii) 80°30' W. longitude

(ii) Sedimentary (iv) None of the above.

Very short answer type questions: 1.

What are the different names of India?

2.

What is the area of India?

3.

How many states and union territories are there in India?

4.

Name two neighbouring Island countries of India. (35) (35)

3.

4.

5.

6.

5.

Name any two lakes situated on the East Coast of India.

6.

Which Islands of India are formed by corals?

7.

Name two important peaks of the Himalayan range.

8.

What is the West-East extent of India?

Short answer type questions 1.

Explain the importance of the geographical location of India.

2.

Describe the Great Plains of northern India.

3.

Describe briefly the Southern plateau.

4.

What is the importance of the Himalayas for India? Explain.

5.

Differentiate between Bangar and Khadar.

6.

Describe briefly the east coastal plain.

Long answer type questions 1.

Describe the physiographic divisions of India.

2.

Describe the location and extent of India.

3

Describe the Himalayan Mountain range.

4.

Describe the Peninsular Plateau.

5.

Write short notes on - Indian Coastal Region, Indian Islands.

Answer the following questions referring to the Map of India. 1.

The Latitude of Northern boundary of India.

2.

Name the states adjoining China.

3.

Name the States through which the Tropic of Cancer passes.

4.

Name the rivers which join the Bay of Bengal.

5.

Name any three passes located in the Himalayas.

True or false : 1.

Indian ocean is situated in the south of India.

2.

The seven states of North-west are called "The seven Sisters'.

3.

The Andman and Nicobar Islands are situated in the Arabian sea.

(36)

7.

Show the following in the outline map of India. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Tropic of Cancer and 82°30' E. longitude Union Territories - Chandigarh and Pondicherry Bomdila and Nathula passes Raipur and Bhopal The Narmada River and the Mahanadi The Himalayas and the Vindhyas

Project Work : ●

Divide the class into five groups and ask them to prepare a model and give a presentation in the class on different physiographic features of India.

❖❖

❖❖ (37) (37)

❖❖

Chapter-4

India : Drainage System We will study



4.1 Meaning of Drainage System 4.2 Indian drainage system 4.3 Lakes of India 4.4 Adjoining seas 4.5 Role of rivers in the economy of the country 4.6 River pollution and control

4.1

Meaning of the Drainage System

The Drainage System means the river system of a particular area. If we see a physical map we find that small streams from different directions join the main river. This main river flows and joins a huge water body like a lake, a sea or an ocean.

The Amount of rainfall and topography form the drainage system. The river and its tributaries drain the area and form the physical features of that region. This is known as the drainage system or the drainage area of that river. Rivers form various land forms or features by cutting, flowing and depositing. According to the topographical structure rivers flow in various drainage patterns. Observing the river map of India we find that any highland like mountains separate two neighboring drainage basins. This high land is known as the water divide. When one river captures the water of the other river it is called river capturing. See the drainage pattern of the rivers of India and find out the source and the mouth of the rivers.

4.2 Indian Drainage System There is a difference in the drainage system of India due to its varied topography. Indian rivers are divided into two categories. 1. Rivers of the Himalayas

2. Rivers of Peninsular India

1. Rivers of the Himalayas The main feature of the Himalayan rivers is that they receive water throughout the year. The rivers of this region receive water from rainfall as well as from the melting of snow from ice capped mountains. As these rivers flow through high mountains they form deep valleys, gorges and waterfalls. In their mature stage deposition in the plains takes place. They form meanders, ox-bow lakes and flood plains in their middle and lower course. Three large rivers originate from the Himalayas The Indus System : This system comprises the Indus and its tributaries. The length of the Indus river is (38)

about 2900 Km. It rises in Tibet near Mansarovar and flows towards the west forming a beautiful 500 metre deep gorge in the Laddakh district of Jammu and Kashmir. From here it flows towards the Southwest, enters Pakistan and finally joins the Arabian Sea. The five tributaries of the Indus are the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj. This (39) (39)

region of five rivers is known as the Punjab. The water of these rivers is used in Punjab, Haryana and the South Western part of Rajasthan for irrigation. The Ganges System : The length of river Ganga is more than 2500 Km. Its source is near the Gangotri. The Ganga enters the plains near Haridwar. Its main tributaries are the Yamuna, the Ghaghra, the Gandak and the Kosi. These rivers form a fertile flood plain. They form meanders and oxbow lakes. Near Ambala a water divide separates the Ganga and the Indus drainage systems. The Ganga receives some of its tributaries like the Chambal, the Ken, the Betwa, the Son and the Damodar form the Peninsular Plateau. Big dams have been built on these rivers which are used for hydroelectricity and irrigation. Flowing southward it forms a delta and finally joins the Bay of Bengal. The main stream of the Ganges enters Bangladesh and when it joins the Brahmaputra river it is called the Meghana. The Brahmaputra System : It rises near the Mansarovar Lake and the Kailash mountains. It flows parallel to the Himalayas and enters Arunachal Pradesh. In India it flows for 1400 Km. Its tributaries include Dibang, Luhit, Dhansiri, Kalang etc. It is heavily laden with silt and often becomes sluggish. It is notorious for its annual floods due to heavy rainfall. The river course often shifts during floods. River islands are also formed. It is known as Tsangpo in Tibet, Brahmaputra in India and Padma and Meghana in Bangladesh. It forms a large delta and finally drains into the Bay of Bengal.

2.

Rivers of Peninsular India

The rivers of Peninsular India are seasonal. They flow from a dry area. Their length is also less than those that originate from the Himalayas. They do not form plains. The main water divides in Peninsular India are the Western Ghats which extend north-south near the western coast. Rivers of Peninsular India like the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri flow eastward and drain into the Bay of Bengal. They form deltas. The rivers flowing into the Western Ghats are small. The Narmada and the Tapi are the two large westward flowing rivers. They flow in a rift valley and forming a tidal mouth where these joins the Arabian Sea. The Narmada It rises from the Amarkantak plateau in Madhya Pradesh, flowing1312 Km. through a rift valley and finally drains into the Arabian Sea. It drains Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. It forms "Dhuandhar" falls in the marble rocks of Bhedaghat near Jabalpur. Its tributaries are very small. The Tapi : It rises near Multai in Betul district in the Satpura ranges of Madhya Pradesh, It is 724 kms. long. It flows in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat and finally reaches (40)

the Gulf of Cambay. The Godavari It rises from the western Ghats near Nasik and flows for 1500 Km. in Orissa and Andhra Pradesh and drains in the Bay of Bengal. Wardha, Manjra, Venganga and Penganga are its tributaries. It is the largest river system of Peninsular India. Due to its large area it is also called Dakshin Ganga. The Mahanadi It rises in Sihawa a highland of Chhattisgarh. It is 858 Km. long. Its drainage basin lies in Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Orissa. Hirakund Dam is built on this river. The Krishna It rises in Maharashtra near Mahabaleshwar. It is 1400 Km. long. It flows in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The Koyna, Panchganga, Malprabha, Ghat prabha, Bhima, Musi and Tungbhadra are its major tributaries. Almati and Nagarjun Sagar Dams are built on this river. The Kaveri It rises in the Brahmagiri hills in Coorg district. It is 760 Km. long. Hemavati, Amaravati, Bhavani are its tributaries. The main waterfall on this river is Shivasamudram waterfall. The water of this river is used for hydroelectricity and irrigation. Rivers of Northern and Southern India 1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

4.3

Rivers of Northern India Rivers of Southern India The rivers of Northern India have 1. The rivers of the Southern India have their origin in the Himalayas and the their origin in the Western Ghats, Northern slopes of the Peninsular India. Satpura and Peninsular Plateau. The waterfalls are less in number. 2. Waterfalls are more in number. They are navigable. 3. They are Not navigable. These rivers form deep valleys. 4. They flow in broad valleys. These rivers form meanders. 5. Meanders are not formed. the river courses often shift. Receive water from ice and snow. 6. The flow of water depends only on Monsoon rainfall.

Lakes of India

A Lake is an accumulation of water lying in a depression in the earth's surface. Lakes are formed due to various reasons. The Amount of salt dissolved in water makes the lake water salty or fresh. Artificial lakes are also built by constructing dams on rivers. Lakes are important for tourism, fish farming, formation of salt etc. (41) (41)

Some important lakes of India Wular lake is the glacial lake of Kashmir. There are a few lakes in South India like the Lonar in Buldhana district of Maharashtra, the Chilka in Orissa, the Koleru in Andhra Pradesh and the Pullicat in Tamil Nadu. Lakes formed due to glacial erosion in Uttra Khand are Nainital, Bhimtal and Rakshastal etc. The Sambhar Lake of Rajasthan is famous as a salt-water lake. Prepare a list of rivers and dams from the map.

4.4

Adjoining seas

The Indian Peninsula is surrounded by seas on three sides. To its south lies the Indian Ocean, the Arabian sea in the west and the Bay of Bengal in the east. The Andaman Sea is in the east of Andaman & Nicobar Islands. The Gulf of Mannar separates India and Sri Lanka. The Gulf of Cambay and Rann of Kutch are located in the coastal part of Gujarat.

4.5

Role of Rivers in the Economy of the country

Our country has an important contribution of rivers in its economy. Rivers play an important role in the economy of our country. Alluvial plains formed by rivers are used for agriculture. Rivers provide fresh drinking water. In the ancient times villages and cities were located on the banks of the rivers. Religious and cultural centres are located on the banks of rivers. Dams are built for hydroelectricity and irrigation.

4.6

River pollution and control

On one hand we consider rivers as sacred and on the other hand we are polluting them. Effluents from industries and sewage from houses are discharged in the rivers, dead animals are thrown in the rivers, all this increases pollution. Spread of Water Hyacinth also pollutes the rivers. Rivers are the basis of our economy. Discharging industrial effluents in the rivers is banned by the Govt. to overcome the problem of pollution. The water of sewage line is purified. Rivers are cleaned. Awareness is being created regarding this problem.

Terms Inland drainage Lake Fault Meanders

: Rivers crossing the deserts get lost in the sandy surface and are unable to reach the Sea. : A water body lying in a depression in the earth's surface and surrounded by landmass on all sides. : A plane along which there has been a fracture of rock layers leading to displacement of strata. : A loop like structure or a curve formed by the deposition work of a river in the plains.

(42)

Exercise: I.

Choose the correct Answers: 1. River in its last stage forms(i) Waterfall (iii) Delta or Estuary

(ii) Flood plains (iv) Ox-Bow lake

2.

Which of the following is not a characteristic of the rivers of Northern India? (i) Less number of Waterfalls (ii) Used for transportation (iii) Meanders are not formed (iv) Receives water fom snow and rainfall.

3.

Which of the following separates India and Sri Lanka? (i) The Gulf of Cambay (ii) The Rann of Kutch (iii) The Bay of Bengal (iv) The Gulf of Mannar

4.

Which of the following rivers is known as Dakshin Ganga? (i) The Narmada (ii) The Krishna (iii) The Kaveri (iv) The Godavari

5.

II.

Which states are drained by river Krishna? (i) Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh (ii) Maharashtra, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh. (iii) Maharashtra, Kerala, Tamil Nadu (iv) Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisagrh, Orissa. Fill in the blanks : 1. The state of five rivers is known as ...................... . 2. The river Ganga rises from ............. glacier. 3. The Narmada rises from the ........... plateau in Madhya Pradesh. 4. Hirakund Dam is built on the river ............................... . 5. Nagarjun Sagar Dam is built on the river ......................... .

Very short answer type questions 1. What do you mean by a Drainage System? 2. What do you mean by River capturing? 3. Name four tributaries of river Ganga. 4. Name five tributaries of river Indus. 5. What are the different names of river Brahmaputra in Bangladesh? 6. Name five major lakes of India. 7. Name two rivers which drain in the Arabian Sea. 8. Which place is known as the region of five rivers? Short answer type questions 1. Explain the Indus river system. 2. Describe the characteristics of the rivers of Northern India. (43) (43)

3. How do rivers affect the economy? Explain. 4. Explain the location of adjoining seas of India. 5. What is river pollution? How could river pollution be prevented? Long answer type questions 1. Describe the drainage system of Northern India. 2. Compare the rivers of Northern and Southern India. 3. What is the importance of rivers in the economy? Explain. Questions related to skill Development Show the following in the outline map of India (i) The Nilgiri Mountains (ii) The Narmada River (iii) The Sardar Sarovar Dam (iv) The Krishna River (v) The Hirakud Dam or (i) The Himalayan Mountain (ii) The Satpura Ranges (iii) The Ganga drainage system (iv) The Chambal river (v) The Gandhi Sagar Dam

Project work ● The Students should prepare a model of a river originating from the Himalayas. ● Prepare a model or chart of dams/Canals or different projects made by man on the rivers and give a classroom presentation.

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Chapter-5

India : Climate We Will Study



5.1 Meaning of weather and climate 5.2 Factors affecting climate of India 5.3 Monsoon - Meaning, origin and characteristics 5.4 Distribution of temperature and rainfall 5.5 Effect of climate on human life

In the geographical study of a place, country or a region the study of climate is of great significance. Climate not only affect the land, soil, vegetation, agriculture and animals of that place but also help in the economic, social, religious and cultural activities of the human beings. In this way climate is the most potent element out of all elements of geographical environment.

5.1

Meaning of weather and climate

Weather is the study of the atmospheric conditions like temperature, pressure, wind, humidity and rainfall over a short period of time or at a specific time at a particular place. These atmospheric conditions are called the elements of weather and climate. These elements are not stable, they change from place to place and time to time. So, the total atmospheric conditions of a place for a short period of time (days or weeks) is known as weather whereas climate is the sum total of the atmospheric conditions for a long period of time. In other words, the average weather conditions, over a long period of time of a particular place are known as climate. India has a monsoon type of climate. The typical geographical location and vast area of India is responsible for a great diversity of climatic conditions.

5.2

Factors affecting climate of India Factors affecting climate of India are as follows (1)

Latitude: Latitudinal location of India plays an important role in affecting its climate. India is situated in the northern hemisphere to the south of the continent of Asia. The Tropic of Cancer passes through the centre of the country. Due to this specific location, its southern part has a tropical climate and the northern part has a continental type of climate.

(2)

Distance from the sea : The Tropic of Cancer divides India into two zones - the tropical and the sub-tropical zone but the effect of the distance from the sea is very clearly seen on the distribution of temperature in India that is why the northern plains have a continental type of climate. (45) (45)

(3)

Relief features : The relief features of the country influence the temperatures as well as the rainfall. The Himalayas on the northern boundary of the country extending from east to west protect India from the cold breeze coming fom the North in the winter season. They intercept the moisture bearing monsoon winds and help in precipitation. (4) Distribution of water and land : Peninsular India is surrounded by seas on three sides. The bay of Bengal is in the east, the Arabian Sea in the west and the Indian Ocean in the south. India is a part of the Asian continent. During summers the northwestern plains of India get very heated and a centre of low pressure is established here. This low-pressure area attracts the winds coming from the Indian Ocean. During winters this area becomes colder and a centre of high pressure develops here and wind starts blowing from land to sea. In other words these land breezes and sea breeze are the monsoon winds which influence the climate of India. Rainfall occurs due to the winds coming from the sea. (5) Jet streams blowing in the upper atmosphere : The climate of India is also affected by the movement of the jet streams blowing in the upper atmosphere. A westerly jet stream blows above northern India in winter season but in the rainy season it moves northwards above the Tibetian plateau. Easterly jet stream develops at about 15° N latitude. The nature of these jet streams is responsible for the summer monsoon. The shifting of jet streams towards north and south is the cause of uncertainity and irregularity of the southwest monsoon in India. (6) Monsoon winds : India lies in the belt of trade winds but the effect of the monsoon winds is seen on its climate. In our country in the summer season these winds blow from the sea to the landmass and in winter season from landmass to sea. This change in monsoon winds changes the weather and seasons in India.

5.3

Monsoon - Meaning, origin and characteristics

India possesses a monsoon type of climate. To understand the monsoon type of climate it is necessary to understand the meaning of monsoon. Monsoon means the winds blowing on the earth's surface which change their direction in summer and winter season. The word monsoon has been derived from the Arabic word "Mausim" which means 'season' or blowing of wind according to season. This word was first of all used for winds blowing on the Arabian Sea, which blow from North -East for six months and from South-West for the next six months. On the basis of this wind, the regions which change their direction seasonally are known as the Monsoon winds. The regions where monsoon winds blow are called regions of monsoon climate. India also comes under this climatic region. (46)

Origin of Monsoon winds Monsoon winds are related to the weather because they blow from land to sea for six months and from sea to land for the next six months. Several concepts have been put forward to explain the origin of monsoons but the thermal concept is important.

Summer Monsoon

Winter Monsoon (47) (47)

According to this concept, the monsoon winds are infact land and sea breezes on a large scale. By differential heating of the land and the sea winds blow from sea to land in the daytime and from land to sea in the night, similarly in the summer season winds blow from the high pressure system on the sea to low pressure system on lands. During winters, a complete reversal takes place with high pressure on the land and a low pressure over the sea. At this time winds start blowing from land to sea. This is called the monsoon (see this concept in the map.)

Characteristics of Monsoon

5.4

●

Monsoon winds are seasonal winds. They blow according to season.

●

Seasonal winds blowing in the summer season are called the summer monsoon and winds blowing in the winter season are called the winter monsoon.

●

Due to the peninsular shape of India summer monsoon winds divide into two parts. The Arabian Sea monsoon and the Bay of Bengal monsoon.

●

In summer season these winds blow from the south-west to the Northeast and in winters from the North-east to the south-west in India.

●

These winds are hot and humid in summer season as they blow fom sea to land whereas in winters they are cold and dry because they blow from land to sea.

●

Rainfall in India is due to monsoon winds. The maximum amount of rainfall is received from the Southwest monsoon winds.

●

Rainfall received from Indian monsoon is uncertain many times. The time of monsoon and amount of rainfall vary. Rainfall is the main source of irrigation in India. So the amount of rainfall affects agriculture.

Distribution of temperature and Rainfall

There is a complete reversal in the direction of the monsoon winds, as a result of which a cycle of season goes on. Therefore on the basis of monsoon and rainfall four seasons are recognised in India. A.

The North East monsoon season

(1)

Winter season - December to February

(2)

Summer Season _ March to May

B.

The South West monsoon season.

(1)

Rainy season - June to September

(2)

Retreating Monsoon season - October to November (48)

Winter season :

Western Cyclonic disturbances: They originate in the winter season due to the westerly Jet Steams coming fom the Mediterranean Sea. The North and northwest regions of India are affected by these disturbances.

This season starts from December. In this season the temperature goes on decreasing as one goes from the from south to the North. See the temperature of January in the given Temperature Map of India. In January temperature in Kerala and South Tamil Nadu are around 25°c, they are between 10°c to 15°c in the Northern plains. The weather is fine and delightful, borne out by the Tropical cyclones originate facts such as clear skies, low temperatures and in October and November also humidity, cool breeze and rainless days. During apart from is the monsoon this season, Northern India experiences a slight months and affect the coastal rainfall from the Western disturbances. These areas of the country. disturbances cause heavy snowfall in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. Occasionally these disturbances are followed by cold waves.

(49) (49)

In the winter season the north-east monsoon absorbs moisture from the Bay of Bengal and the Coromandal coast receives rainfall. This is also called rainfall from retreating monsoon.

Summer Season : The Summer season is from March to May. In these three months the highest temperatures are found in the Deccan plateau, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and North west India. See the temperature of July in the given Temperature Map of India. You will find that the maximum temperatures are in the Northwest region of India. During this time due to high temperatures a low-pressure area develops from Chota Nagpur plateau to the Thar Desert. The moisture-laden winds are attracted towards the periphery of the trough. A sudden contact between dry and moist air masses gives rise

(50)

to local storms of great intensity. These storms are associated with violent winds, torrential rains and even hailstorms. Pre monsoon showers are a common phenomenon in the peninsular plateau. Locally they are known as 'Mango showers'. They are also known as 'blossom showers' in Kerala because they are beneficial to the coffee plantation as flowering starts with these rains. Assam and Bengal receive showers with thunder and lightning, locally known as ‘Kalbaisakhi’ (Calamity of the month of Baisakh).

Rainy Season In the northwestern part of India due to the rise in temperature high pressure of the winter season is replaced by intense low pressure. This low pressure attracts winds from the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. The trade winds of the Southern Hemisphere join the winds of the southern monsoon winds and are known as the south west monsoon. Slowly the winds move from South to North and by the end of June the monsoon covers maximum parts of the country. There are two branches of the south west monsoon in India- (1) the Arabian Sea branch, which causes rain in maximum parts of peninsular plateau. (2) the Bay of Bengal branch, which turns towards low pressure areas causing rainfall in the plains of the Ganga. A branch of it turns eastward causing widespread rains in Northeast India, Myanmar and Thailand. The monsoon engulfs the entire country. The amount of rainfall decreases westward in the Northern India and eastward in the peninsular plateau region.

Retreating Monsoon The months of October and November are known for the retreating monsoons. During this season, the trough of pressure in northwest India becomes weaker and shifts southward. In the first week of September the monsoon winds withdraw from Rajasthan. In November the winds are above Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. By mid December the monsoon retires completely from the peninsular plateau. Tamil Nadu receives sufficient rainfall from the retreating monsoon whereas the rest of India remains dry.

Distribution of Rainfall India receives 75% of its total rainfall from southwest monsoon in the rainy Season, 10% in summer season, 13% during the retreating monsoons and 2% in the winter season. The average annual rainfall of India is 105 cms, but the spatial distribution is highly uneven. On the basis of the total annual rainfall India can be divided into four regions. (See these regions in the map of Average Annual Rainfall) ●

Areas of Very High Rainfall : This includes the Western Ghats (Kerala, Goa, Coastal Karnataka and coastal Maharashtra) Assam, Meghalaya and Eastern Himalayas. Here the rainfall is above 200cms.

●

Areas of High Rainfall : This includes Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, Eastern Utter Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. The annual average rainfall is (51) (51)

100 to 200 cms.

5.5

●

Areas of Normal Rainfall : This region includes Madhya Pradesh, Western Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab and Haryana. Average rainfall is 50 cm to 100cms. Uncertainty of rainfall results in drought.

●

Areas of Low Rainfall : Rajasthan, Laddakh plateau, rain shadow area of Southern plateau are included in this area, where average annual rainfall is less than 50 cms.

Effect of climate on Human life

The climate of a country affects its socio-economic life. The effect of diversities of climatic conditions can be seen in our country also. Monsoon is said to be the center (52)

of Indian economic life. 1.

Due to the climates of India. agriculture is normally possible throughout the year. Here temperatures are suitable throughout the year for various crops. Agriculture is possible even in the months of May and June with the help of irrigation facilities.

2.

Amount of monsoon rainfall is sufficient for agriculture.

3.

Different climates create a favourable environment for the production of various crops. The climate of Punjab and Uttar Pradesh is suitable for wheat, the climatic conditions of West Bengal for Jute and rice and the climatic conditions of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra are favorable for cotton. So, the crops of both the tropical and the temperate regions are sown in the country.

4.

The maximum rainfall is in the months of June, July and August, which is beneficial for early ripening of crops like jawar, bajra, maize.

5.

Fodder is also available due to rains which helps in cattle rearing.

6.

The country remains dry or there are no rains for a long period of the year during which the grasses dry up resulting in scarcity of fodder. That is why there are no evergreen pastures or grazing land in the country.

7.

Sultry hot weather is followed by widespead rains, which gives rise to many diseases. Water is stored in the pots and ponds, which become the birthplace of mosquitoes and these spread diseases.

8.

The uncertainty of rainfall largely affects the agriculture.

9.

Drought and famine are the serious problems of Indian farmers. Heavy rainfall some times causes floods.

10. Hot and humid climate in the summer season affects health badly. It makes us lazy and affects the efficiency and working capacity. 11. "Loo" hot winds blowing in the summer season makes outdoor life impossible, due to which working hours in our country are less than in other developing countries. 12. Good quantity of crops is produced when adequate amount of rain is received at the proper time, but if monsoon is late and the amount of rainfall is less it adversely affects agriculture. That is why Indian agriculture is said to be a ‘gamble in monsoon’ because in many areas agriculture depends on monsoon. 13. Climatic diversities result in diversity in the forest resources, animal resources, industries, transport and human life. These are the important elements of our economic life.

(53) (53)

Terms Tropical Climate

: Average temperature is above 18°c.

Continental type of climate: A wide annual range of temperature with warm summers, cold winters and low relative humidity. The phenomenon is called continentality. Jet stream

: A high altitude wind blowing at approximately 7.5-15 Km. above the earth's surface. It has a high velocity. Jet steams occur in various latitudes. However, one of the most important is that associated with the mid latitude frontal zone with a strong, though discontinuous flow from west to east along the junction between polar and tropical air. They cause western cyclonic disturbances in north and northwest India.

Trade winds

: Winds that blow from the area of high pressure in the tropics to the low pressure area that is a permanent feature in the equatorial region.

Rain shadow Area

: A comparatively dry area on the leeward side of the highland which stands in the path of rain bearing clouds.

Cyclone

: A low pressure system in the lower atmosphere where winds tend to converge towards the centre of low pressure. Mid-latitudinal cyclones are called Depressions.

Exercise I. Choose the correct answer1.

2.

3.

The time of the south west monsoon in India is(i) October to November (ii) June to September (iii) March to May (iv) December to February Which state receives the lowest rainfall due to southwest monsoon? (i) Rajasthan (ii) Karnataka (iii) Tamilnadu (iv) Punjab Coromandal coast in India receives maximum rainfall in(i) January - February (ii) June - September (iii) March -May (iv) October - November (54)

4.

Maximum variation in the amount of rainfall is found in (i)

Maharashtra

(iii) Andhra Pradesh

(ii)

Assam

(iv)

Rajasthan

II. Very short answer type questions : 1.

what do you mean by chimate?

2.

Which type of climate region is India called?

3.

What is the meaning of "Monsoon"?

4.

What are the main branches of monson?

III. Match the following : A

B

1. Jet stream

1. Hot winds of the summer season

2. Assam

2. The region which receives rainfall from retreating monsoon

3. Tamilnadu

3. Area of less than 50 c.m. rainfall

4. Rain shadow area 4. Area of very high rainfall 5. Loo

5. High wind blowing at 270 to 300 north latitude.

Very short answer type questions (1)

How do the relief features of India affect the climate?

(2)

Why is the climate of northern India uneven?

(3)

Why does the Tamil Nadu coast receive rainfall in the winter season?

(4)

Which are the high rainfall areas of India?

(5)

Why is Indian agriculture called a gamble of monsoon?

(6)

How does climate affect health?

(7)

How do monsoon winds originate?

Long answer type questions (1)

Explain the factors influencing the Indian climate.

(2)

Explain the main characteristics of the monsoon and describe the different seasons.

(3)

Show the distribution of rainfall in the map of India and name the different areas.

(4)

Describe the effect of climate on human life.

❖❖

❖❖ (55) (55)

❖❖

Chapter-6

India : Natural Vegetation and Wild Life We Will Study 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8

&

The meaning of Natural Vegetation Elements affecting Vegetation Types of forests and distribution of wild life Medicinal Herbs Importance of forests Measures of forest conservation Conservation of wild life Animal life, National Parks and Sanctuaries in Madhya Pradesh

6.1 Meaning of Natural Vegetation Plants, trees, grasses and bushes that grow naturally without man's interference are called natural vegetation. It includes forests and vegetation. Our country is one of the twelve countries having biodiversity. Approximately 47,000 different types of plants are found here. So India is at the tenth place in the world and at the fourth place in Asia. In 2003 the total forest area in the country was 6.8 lakh kms. which was 20.55 percent of the total geographical area of India.

The vegetation which is basically Indian is known as endemic vegetation but plants which are brought from out of India are called exotic plants. In India endemic and exotic both types of vegetation is found. Many exotic plants have created problems for us. They reduce the coverage of useful vegetation and also hamper the growth of economically profitable plants. Some of them such as lantana and Water Hyacinth have become problematic. Lantana have spread in our forest and grazing fields and the Water hyacinth has closed the source area of rivers and entrance of drains and ponds to a great extent. In West Bengal water hyacinth is called the terror of Bengal with reference to its growth in rivers and drains.

6.2

Factors affecting Vegetation

The geographical factors or elements affect the development of vegetation of a particular area. The important elements are rainfall, temperature, humidity, soil, altitude and geological structure.

1.

Earth Surface : It includes relief features and nature of soil.

Land : Land affects Vegetation directly and indirectly. Mountains, Plateaus and Plains do not have the same type of Vegetation. Plains are useful for agriculture. Forests and grasslands are found on rugged and uneven surface, which are the habitat of wild life. (56)

Soil : Different types of soil are found in different places which is a base for different types of vegetation. Mangrove forests are found in the delta regions of rivers. Whereas conical forests on the slopes of high mountains areas are favourable for agriculture and deciduous forests are found on plateau regions normally.

2.

Climate:

Temperature : A favourable temperature is required for the germination, growth and reproduction of plants. A variety of plants grow in the tropical zone because of high temperatures and humidity. Increase in temperature by 6°C to 9°C results in a stunted growth of the plants. Temperatures are low on high mountains therefore the growth period of the vegetation is short. Sunlight : Duration of sunlight at any place depends on latitude, altitude from sea level and the season. Plants grow rapidly in the summer season because in summers the duration of day light is more. As the Southern slopes of the Himalayan mountainous regions receives more sunlight as compared to northern slopes, dense vegetation is found here. Rainfall : In the areas of heavy rainfall the forests are very dense with tall trees. In the areas of low rainfall dwarf trees, grasses and shrubs are found sparsely. In desert areas plants have long roots. To prevent the loss of moisture due to transpiration some plants have wax-coated and thorny leaves. Vegetation of the Thar desert is thorny due to scanty water.

6.3

Types of forests and distribution of wild life

A large area covered by plants Forest Area in India and shrubs is called a forest. We can study Indian forests by l From the point of view of the total forested area, North East India ranks first. 70% of the total area classifying them from the is under forest in Arunachal Pradesh. Meghalaya, administrative viewpoint and on the Mizoram and Nagaland. basis of nature. l 44% area in Sikkim and 55% in Tripura is under 1. Administrative forests. classification : Forests are l More than 25% area is covered by forests in Assam, Kerela and Goa. classified in three categories from l 30% area is under forest in Madhya Pradesh and the administrative viewpoint. Chhattisgarh. Reserved forests: The forest l Only 9% area is under forests in West Bengal. which are permanently reserved for l In Punjab, Delhi, Rajasthan and Gujarat 5% area timber or other forest produce; is under forests. agriculture and grazing is strictly l Lowest forest area is in Haryana i.e. only 1.2% banned, such forests are called of the total area. (57) (57)

Reserved Forests. Protected Forests: The forests where local inhabitants are allowed to graze their cattle and have permission for agriculture with normal restrictions is given are called protected forests. Unclassified forests: The forests, which are neither reserved nor protected, are unclassified forests.

2.

Natural classification: On the basis of natural classification forests are

classified into five divisions. Tropical Evergreen Forests: These forests are of two types. (A)

Tropical wet evergreen forests: These forests thrive in areas having annual rainfall above 300cms. and dry season is short. These forests are similar to equatorial type of vegetation. These forests are very dense, length of the trees is 60m or more. Layers of different heights can be seen in these forests. Shrubs, climbers and creepers are found under tall trees. Grass is generally not found in this region. The maximum varieties of plant species are found per unit area due to which commercial utilization is not possible. The wood of these trees is hard and heavy, so cutting and transportation requires more labour. These forests do not have a distinct season of shedding of leaves, so these forests appear to be evergreen. The main trees found here are Rubber, Mahogony, Cincona, Bamboo and Palm.

(B)

Tropical wet semi evergreen forests: These forests are restricted to the areas where annual rainfall is between 200 to 300 cms. So these evergreen forests are found in the Central parts of temperate moist deciduous forests. These forests are found in Meghalaya, Mizoram and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. They are less dense than wet evergreen forests. The important plants here are Rosewood, Ebony, Telsur, Champa, Jun, Gurjan, Icewood and Laurel. These forests are being destroyed due to shifting agriculture and excessive exploitation.

Wild life of Tropical evergreen forests: Elephants, monkeys, lemur, deer and one horned rhino are mainly found in Assam and the marshy areas of west Bengal. Along with these many types of birds, bats and reptiles are also found here. (C)

Tropical Deciduous forests: This is the largest belt of India, these forests are also known as monsoon forests. They cover 39% of the total forest area. (See the distribution of these forests in the vegetation map)

On the basis of availability of water these forests are classified into two parts, moist deciduous forests and dry deciduous forests. Moist deciduous forests (58)

are found in the area of 100 to 200 cm. rainfall in India, North-east states, foot-hills of Himalayas, Jharkhand, Western Orissa, Chhattisgarh and the eastern slopes of Western Ghats. Teak is the main species of these forests. Other trees are Bamboo, Sal, Sheesham, Chandan, Khair, Kusum, Arjun and Mulberry. Trees of these forests shed their leaves during the dry season for 6 to 8 weeks. To fulfill the demand of wood, these forest have been exploited and cleared for cultivation. The areas with 70 to 100 cms. rainfall are Dry deciduous forests. The main areas (59) (59)

of these forests are Peninsular Plateau, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The main trees are Teak, Sal, Peepal, Neem and Mango. Wild life in Deciduous forests: Lion, Tiger, Bison, Blue bull, Wild boar, Deer, Elephant, different types of birds, Lizards, snakes and Turtles is the main wild life of these forest.

3.

Mountainous Forests

There is a difference in vegetation in the mountain areas due to low temperatures and high altitudes as compared to other areas. This difference is like that of the Tropical region to the Tundra region. Mountainous vegetation can be divided in two parts. (A)

(B)

Peninsular mountain forests 1.

On the high altitudes of the Peninsular Plateau open wavy grasslands are found with shrubs or undeveloped forests.

2.

Dense vegetation is found under tall trees in these forests. Heterotrophic plants, mosses and plants with small leaves are found in these areas.

3.

Maglonia, Laurel, Elm are the common trees where as Cincona and Eucalyptus were brought from foreign countries and planted here.

4.

These forests are found in the Nilgiris, Palni, Annamalai, the Western Ghats, Mahabaleshwar and Satpura and Maikal ranges.

Mountainous forests of Himalayan Ranges : In the Himalayan mountainous region due to increasing altitude and decreasing temperature a difference in natural vegetation is seen. In the Shivalik ranges, at an altitude of 1000 meters in the foothill region, Bhabar and Tarai tropical deciduous forests are found. It is then succeeded by temperate moist evergreen forests between 1000 and 2000 meters. These are the dense forests with tall trees. Oak and Chestnut are found on eastern Himalayas and Pine on western Himalayas. At an altitude of 2000 to 3000 meters forests of Deodar, Silver fur, and Spruce are sparsely distributed. Sal is mainly found at low altitudes. On the slopes of the high altitude mountains, where temperatures are low and rainfall is less than 100cms dry temperate vegetation similar to that of the Mediterranean vegetation, is found. Olive, Babool and hard Savanna grass is found with Oak and Deodar trees. Alpine vegetation is found between the altitude of 3000 to 4000 meters. These are less dense forests and the height of the trees decreases towards the Snowline. At higher altitudes alpine pastures are found. Silver fur, Juniper, Birch and Pine are the main species of these forests.

4.

Mangrove forests or Tidal forests

Mangrove or Tidal vegetation is found on the coastal areas of India where the tides occur. Mangrove is a type of vegetation with submerged roots. This vegetation is found (60)

in the delta region of the Ganga, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri rivers. Sundari is a well-known mangrove tree found in the delta region of the GangaBrahmaputra. Coconut, Palm and Angar trees are also found in this region. Wild life of Mangrove forests: The Royal Bengal Tiger is famous in these forests. Tortoise, Crocodile, Alligators and different types of snakes are also found here.

5.

Tropical thorny forests

The areas with less than 70 cm annual rainfall have thorny forests and shrubs. This type of vegetation is found in the northwestern parts of the country. It includes Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and semi arid regions of Haryana. Date Palms, Babul, Cactus is the main vegetation here. These plants have long roots spread in a radial pattern in search of water. Leaves are small to reduce evaporation. Wild life in thorny forests and Shrubs : Rats, rabbits, fox, wolf, wild asses, horses, camel, tiger and lion are found in the thorny shrubs. Some of the marshy areas are famous for the migratory birds. A large number of Siberian cranes can be seen in winters. Their favourite place is the Rann of Kutch. The place where the desert land meets the ocean, thousands of flamingoes with beautiful pinkish to scarlet plumage can be seen.

6.4

Medicinal Herbs

From the ancient times India is famous for medicinal herbs. About 2000 plant species are described in Ayurveda, out of which at least 500 are in continuous use. Some of the important plant species used as medicine are Sarpgandha, Tulsi, Neem, Jamun, Babul, Kachnar and Arjun etc.

6.5

Sarpgandha

-

To control blood pressure

Tulsi

-

For cough and cold.

Neem

-

As an antibiotic

Jamun

-

To improve digestion, useful in Diabetes.

Babul

-

Useful in boils and to increase physical strength

Kachnar

-

Useful in boils and Asthma.

Arjun

-

To control blood pressure and ear pain.

Importance of forests

Forest is a national wealth. It has various uses for human beings. Forests contribute in the economic development of the country in two ways — production activities and conservation activities. We have two types of benefits from the forests. Direct benefit and Indirect benefit. (61) (61)

Direct benefits They give us timber, fuel wood, fodder, raw material for small and cottage industries, valuable minor products (fruits, flower, grass and leaves) and raw material for medicines. It is a main source of livelihood for many people.

Indirect benefits

6.6

1.

Indirect benefits of forests are more important than direct benefits. They are an essential part of our nature and culture. They increase human values, provide spiritual strength and are the habitat of entertainment and recreation.

2.

Forests affect the temperature of the air. Control the speed of wind and control the climate helping rainfall.

3.

Forests control floods and soil erosion by controlling the flow of rivers.

4.

Forests increase the fertility of soil by adding humus formed due to the decomposition of the leaves and branches of the trees.

5.

Forests are natural habitat of birds and animals.

6.

Forests are the symbols of natural beauty.

7.

Forests are the source of natural balance.

Measures of forest conservation

The forest is a national wealth. Looking at the problems which have originated due to decreasing forest resources, their conservation is very necessary. Human needs are unlimited whereas the natural resources are limited. So, efforts for afforestation are being encouraged by the government. The following measures have been taken for the conservation of forests1.

The dangerous tendency of the destruction of forests should be immediately controlled. The main objective of the National Forest Policy is the maintenance of environmental stability and restoration of ecological balance.

2.

Forest Conservation Act, 1980 is to prevent the destruction of forests and to prevent use of forest land for other purposes.

3.

The main objective of social forestry and agro-forestry is to provide fuel wood and minor wooden resources to the farmers. Farmers are encouraged to do plantation.

4.

Afforestation and development of waste and degraded land.

5.

Reforestation in the existing forest areas.

6.

Controlled cutting of forests by scientific method.

7.

Establishment of Watch Towers and surveillance to prevent forest fire.

8.

Ban on grazing, poaching and cutting trees and shrubs for fuel wood.

9.

Controlled and limited trade of timber. (62)

10. Controlled Jhuming agriculture. 11. Controlling harmful insects like termites, cockroaches and gubrela. 12. Creating awareness among people regarding ago-forestry, extensive forestry, development of social forestry and forest conservation, Chipko Movement and Van Mahotsava are all included as the measures of forest conservation.

6.7

Wild Life Conservation

(63) (63)

India has a rich wild life. 6.5% wild life species of the world are found in India. Lion, tiger, elephant, deer, kashmir stage, leopard, rhinoceros, the great Indian bustard, ducks, crocodiles, turtles, lizards and python belong to the forests. Due to destruction of forests the existence of plants and animals is in danger and many species of wild animals and birds are on the verge of extinction. Earlier elephants were found in the whole country but now they are disappearing from Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh. The Great Indian bustard and one horned Rhinos are also no longer in existence. Wild animals are on the verge of extinction due to hunting by British officers, kings and princes in the past and poaching. So wild life conservation is necessary. For the protection and conservation of wild life, 89 National Parks and 449, wild life sanctuaries and many zoos have been established in the country. They cover an area of about 1.56 lakh km2 which is 4.7% of the total geographical area of the country. See the National Parks and sanctuaries in the given map of India.

Measures for conservation Out of 5 lakh animal species of the world 75,000 are found in India. Similarly about 12,000 species and 900 sub species of birds are available in India. The Beginning of wild life conservation was an effort of the ecologists' movement. 1. In 1972 the Wild Life Conservation Act was passed in India. This act gives protection and preservation to endangered species of wild life and bans the trading of related species. 2. The Tiger Development Programme Project was launched in 1973. Today there are 27 Tiger Reserves in 14 states of the country. 3. Crocodile Breeding and Management Project was started in 1975 to conserve Crocodiles. 4. To increase the number of elephants, the Elephant Project was launched. Economic and scientific assistance was made available for this project. 5. Project Tiger movement was started to conserve the endangered species of the Tiger. 17 Tiger Reserves were established for this purpose. The natural habitat of lions in the country is the Gir forest of Gujarat. 6. For the management and upkeep of zoos The Central Zoo Authority has been established. Responsibility of 200 zoos established in India has been given to this authority. 7. There are 14 Biosphere Reserves set up in different regions of the country. Out of which Sunderbans (West Bangal), Nanda Devi (Uttaranchal), Gulf of Mannar (Tamilnadu), Nilgiri (Kerala, Karnataka and Tamilnadu) are included in the Biosphere Reserves of the world. Other Biosphere Reserves are Nakrak, Great Nicobar, Manas, Simlipal, Dihang-Dibang, Dibru-Saikhova, Augustmalai, Kanchenjunga, Pachmarhi, Achanakmar-Amarkantak. See the statewise location of the main Biosphere Reserves (64)

of the country in a map.

6.8

Animals, National Parks and Sanctuaries in madhya pradesh

Madhya Pradesh is rich in forest wealth. 30% of the total land is covered with forests in which a variety of wild animals are found.

National Parks A National Park is relatively a large area where different ecosystems exist. Exploitation and acquisition could not change this region. For special scientific, educative and recreative interests plant and animal species, with their geomorphological sites and habitats are persevered here. Hunting, grazing and human interference are totally banned in national parks.

Wild Life Sanctuary A wild life Sanctuary is similar to a national park, but is dedicated to protect wild life and conserve species. Without permission hunting is restricted in a Sanctuary but grazing and regular movement of cows and other animals is permitted. Human activities are allowed in a sanctuary.

Multipurpose Biosphere Reserve These areas are reserved to preserve the biodiversity, plants, animals and microorganisms together. These natural areas are suitable for scientific study. Human interference is not allowed in this area. Black buck, Leopard, Chinkara, Monkey, Bluebull, Spotted deer, Sambhar, Tiger, Bear, Alligator, Crocodile, Turtles and the great Indian Bustard are the main wild life, animals and birds of Madhya Pradesh. National Parks and wild life Sanctuaries are developed to provide safe habitat and a secure place for all the species of wild life. See Appendix No. 1 Detailed information of the wild life sanctuaries is given in Appendix No.1

National Parks of Madhya Pradesh S.No.

Name

District

Area (Sq. Km.)

Wild Animals

1.

Kanha

Mandla

940.00

Tiger, Leopard, Spotted deer, Sambhar

2.

Bandhavgarh Umaria

437.00

Tiger, Leopard, Spotted deer, Sambhar

3.

Madhav

Shivpuri

375.00

Leopard, Spotted deer, Sambhar

4.

Panna

Panna

543.00

Tiger, Leopard, Spotted deer, Sambhar, Chinkara (65) (65)

5.

Sanjay

Sidhi

467.00

Tiger, Leopard, spotted deer

6.

Pench

Seoni293.00 Chhindwara

Tiger, Leopard, Spotted deer, Sambhar

7.

Satpura

Hoshangabad 585.00

Tiger, Leopard, Spotted deer, Sambhar

8.

Van Vihar

Bhopal

4.45

All types of animals found in state.

9.

Jeevashm

Mandla

0.27

Fossils of vegetation

National parks of Madhya Pradesh are shown in the above table. See the location in the wild life Conservation Map of India.

Terms Deciduous forests

: Heavy trees which shed their leaves during a part of the year.

Bhabhar

: In the foot hills of the Himalayas there is a narrow belt of pebbles parallel to the river stream which is 8 to 16 Km. wide and is known as Bhabhar.

Tarai

: Wet and marshy area near Bhabhar where dense forests and a variety of wild life exists.

Social forestry

: A programme to encourage plantation in urban habited area.

Ecosystem

: A system, which comprises the physical environment, and the organisms, which live therein.

Migratory Birds

: Birds coming from North Asia to India for a short period of time are called migratory birds.

Biosphere Reserve

: A protected area to preserve the genetic diversity and conservation of an ecosystem.

Exercise Choose the correct answer. 1.

State with the minimum forest area in India is(i) Assam (ii) Rajasthan (iii) Jharkhand (iv) Haryana

2.

Sundari trees are found in(i) Tropical forests (iii) Mangrove forests

3.

(ii) Himalayan forests (iv) Tropical deciduous forests

Natural vegetation of Rajasthan is(66)

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) 4.

Tropical moist evergreen forests Tropical moist semi-evergreen Tropical thorny forest Alpine forests

Natural habitat reserved for Indian lion is (i) Gujarat Gir forest (ii) Kaziranga forest area of Assam (iii) Sundarban of West Bengal (iv) Nilgiri forest area.

Very short answer type questions 1.

What do you mean by Natural vegetation?

2.

What is a forest?

3.

What are Mangrove forests?

4.

What is the meaning of Endemic and Exotic vegetation?

5.

What is a sanctuary?

6.

Classify the forests on the basis of administration.

Short answer type questions 1.

What are migratory birds?

2.

What is the meaning of forest conservation?

3.

Describe the vegetation of the Himalayan region of India.

4.

Differentiate between a National Park and a Sanctuary.

5.

Distribution of plants and vegetation depend on which factors in India? Explain.

6.

Differentiate between evergreen and deciduous forests.

7.

Explain the chief characteristics of Tropical moist evergreen forests.

8.

Describe how forests are useful to man.

9.

How are indirect benefits of forests more important as compared to direct benefits? Explain.

Long answer type questions 1.

Describe various types of vegetation in India.

2.

Why is conservation of forest resources is necessary? Give examples of different measures for their conservation.

3.

Write about the different measures taken for wild life conservation.

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Map work Show the following areas in the outline map of India. 1.

Tropical evergreen forests and tidal forest

2.

Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary and Silent Valley

3.

Kanha Kesli and Corbett National Park

4.

Nanda Devi, Nilgiri and Sundarban Biosphere Reserve

Project work ●

Collect the medicinal herbs from your surroundings and prepare a list and write the uses of medicinal herbs.

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Chapter-7

India : Population We Will Study



7.1 The Population of India 7.2 Distribution of Population 7.3 Factors affecting distribution and density of population 7.4 Population Growth in India 7.5 Causes of Population Growth 7.6 Measures to control population growth 7.7 Sex-ratio in India 7.8 Status and distribution of literacy in India 7.9 Population policy of India

7.1 Population of India India is the second most populous country of the world next to China. According to the census of 2001 the population of India was 102,70,15,247. 16% of the world population lives here, whereas the total geographical area is only 2.41 percent of the total area of the world. Thus, populationwise India is the second largest and areawise the seventh largest country of the world. How large is India's population can be gauged from the fact that it is more than the total population of North America, South America and Australia put together. In other words every sixth person of the world lives in India.

The first census of India was held in 1872. But, the first complete census was done in 1881 only. Since then Censuses have been held regularly every tenth year. On 11th July 1987 the world population touched the figure of 500 crores. The 500 croreth child was born in Yugoslavia. In this reference 11th July is celebrated as world population day every year. This huge population of our country is dependent on limited resources, which presents a wide range of social, economic and political challenges. Poverty and environmental degradation are two major problems of India. Besides the huge size, social inequality, predominantly rural structure and unequal distribution of population are the other aspects of the problem, which are influencing the process and pace of socioeconomic development. As a human resource, the population of any country becomes significantly useful when it is of high quality. For economic development, high quality of population is also essential along with high quantity.

7.2

Distribution of Population

The distribution of population is unequal in India. The density is more in the plains than in the hilly, forest and desert areas. Similarly population is found more in the fertile plains of rivers and coastal areas. The statewise distribution of population is given in (69) (69)

Appendix No.2, on the basis of this we find many statewise inequalities. For example, the population of the small Himalayan state of Sikkim, is only 5.4 lacs. On the contrary, the population of the big state of Uttar Pradesh is 16.6 crores. On the whole, there are about 10 States which have more than 5 crore population each. Some states are of low population inspite of having a large area. For e.g., Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh both are large States areawise. More than half of the country's population lives only in five States (U.P., Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh) Density of Population: The ratio of population of a country or state and its per unit area (square km). is called its density. The following formula is used to calculate the density of the population of a country or State. Population of a country or State ___________________________________

Population Density =

Area of a country or State (in Square Km.) In the year 2001 the population density of India was 324 persons per square km., whereas that of the most populated country of China was 129 persons per square Km. Among the countries of the highest population density in the world Bangladesh is the first (with 849 persons per square km.) and Japan is the second ( with 334 persons per square km.). India stands at the third place. Hence, the excessive pressure of population on land is a serious problem in the way of the country's economic development. The density is also continuously increasing. In 1921, it was only 81 persons per km2; it increased to 117 persons in 1951 and 267 in 1991 and at present it is 324 persons. The density of population is also unequal in India. This is evident from the fact that on the one hand according to the census of 2001, the population density was only 13 persons per km2 in Arunachal Pradesh, whereas on the other hand, it is 9294 persons per sq. km2 in Delhi. On the basis of population density India can be divided into four categories. Areas of high density, medium density, normal density and low density See the statewise distribution of population in the density map of India. 1.

High Density Areas :

If we look at the population density map of India, we find that more than 501 persons reside in per square km. area in Uttar Padesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Kerala. The fertile land and availability of water provide enough facilities of sustenance. In these areas urbanization and industrialization have provided people with sufficient employment opportunities and services. 2.

Medium Density Areas :

These include areas having population density of 251 to 500 persons per sq.km. Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Goa, Maharashtra, Tamilnadu, Jharkhand, Punjab, Haryana, (70)

Tripura, Dadra and Nagar Haveli fall under this category. Developed agriculture, availability of minerals and industrial development are some of the reasons for high population density in these areas. 3.

Areas of Normal Density :

These include all those states which have a population density ranging from 101 to 250 persons per sq. km. The States included in this category are M.P., Rajasthan, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Uttaranchal, Meghalaya, Manipur and Nagaland. These are hilly and dissected (71) (71)

semi arid, forest covered regions. Here the means of livelihood are quite limited. 4.

Low density Areas :

These include Jammu and Kashmir, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Sikkim and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Hilly areas, lack of transport facilities, under development of agriculture and industries are the responsible factors for low density. The means of livelihood are very limited here. In Arunachal Pradesh, density of population is as low as 13 persons per sq. km.

2.2 Factors affecting Distribution and Density of Population. Following factors affect the distribution and density of population. (1) Physical factors (2) Socio-economic factors. 1. Physical factors : Terrain, climate, soil and minerals are the main physical factors. Terrain affects distribution of population the most. On the one hand, dense population is found in the plains of the Ganga - Yamuna and coastal areas, whereas on the other hand in the hilly state of Arunachal Pradesh density of population is the lowest. Climatic conditions also influence density and distribution of population. Suitable climate is helpful to the health and efficiency of man. The dry deserts of western Rajasthan and Arunachal Pradesh are sparsely populated due to bad climate. A fertile soil is ideal for agriculture. The agricultural crops are the fundamental bases of livelihood and sustenance. Therefore, population clusters around the fertile plains of rivers. Availability of minerals and industrial development based on them has attracted population in the mineral areas of the Chota Nagpur Plateau. Thus population has become very dense in the Chota Nagpur Plateau region. 2. Socio-economic and cultural factors : Socio-economic and cultural factors also play an important role in the distribution and density of population. The cultural, social, historical and political factors have together raised the size and density of population in the Mumbai-Pune industrial area. Many years ago, the Mumbai area was in significant, but after the advent of the Europeans its importance kept increasing and gradually it turned into a commercial and industrial centre. As a result, its population increased. ●

The birth rate is calculated in terms of the number of live births per thousand population per year.

●

The death rate is known as the number of deaths per thousand population per year in a given area.

●

The difference between these two is called the natural growth rate per year.

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Growth rate in India (1901-2001) Census Year

Population in crores

1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

23.84 25.21 25.13 27.90 31.87 36.11 43.92 54.82 68.33 84.63 102.70

decemial growth (%)

5.75 -0.31 11.00 14.22 13.31 21.15 24.80 24.66 23.87 21.54

Today a large group of people goes to stay from one place to another and from one country to another. This is called population migration. Population migration also affects a country's population growth. The growth rate of population may be positive or negative. Positive growth rate means growth in the number of people living in an area, whereas negative growth means the number of people living in that area declines. Find out the population growth rate in India from the table given above and see when the growth was negative.

7.5 Causes of population Growth In India causes of population growth are as follows 1. Birth rate and death rate : During 1911 to 1921 birth rate and death rate were 48.1 and 47.2 respectively, i.e. both were quite high. From 1921 to 1951 ever though the birth rate decreased slowly, the death rate also decreased rapidly. Between 1991 and 2001 the difference between the two increased to 17.4 resulting in continuous growth of population. The cause of decline in death rate was because of the increase in health facilities and adequate facilities of livelihood. 2.

Increase in life expectancy : The difference between birth rate and death

rate is called the natural growth rate. The average age of life is known as life expectancy. In our country, life expectancy (average age) was 50 years in 1921 which increased to 62 years in 1991. Hence due to longevity, population kept on increasing. 3.

Lack of Education : Illiteracy gives birth to superstitions. Most of the (73) (73)

uneducated people believe that children are the gift of God. Believing this they keep on begeting children and hence population also increases. Desire for sons is also responsible for many children in one family. The lower class hesitate in adopting family planning programmes. 4.

Other causes : Poverty, lack of means of entertainment, low standard of

living, child marriage etc. are other causes of population growth. Due to the growth in population many problems have come up in our country, such as poverty, unemployment, decline of standard of living, hunger, increasing crimes, housing problem, transport problems, lack of medical facilities and increasing pollution etc.

7.6 Measures to control population growth If the population growth is not checked immediately, the pace of development will be hampered in the future. The following measures are essential to control the growth of population. 1. 2.

7.7

Family planning programmes should be adopted. Spread of education, especially among the rural people including women, should be increased.

3.

Child marriage should be prevented.

4.

Standard of living should be improved.

5.

Social security should be rapidly extended.

Sex Ratio in India

Sex ratio means the number of females per thousand males. According to the census of 2001 the sex ratio for the country is 933 (there are 933 females per thousand males) meaning that the number of females is far less than the number of males. This means that the sex ratio in India is adverse. When number of females is more than that of males then the sex ratio is said to be favourable. There are wide regional disparities in the sex ratio in India. See the map of the distribution of male-female ratio. Kerala record a favourable sex ratio (1058) whereas in Chandigarh it is adverse (773) The status of the sex ratio in India is shown in the table given on the next page. On the basis of the data of the last hundred years it can be said that the sex ratio in India has continuously been declining. The sex ratio in 1901 was 972 which has declined to 933 in 2001. (74)

(75) (75)

Sex Ratio in India from 1901 to 2001 Year 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

No. of females per thousand males 972 964 955 950 945 946 941 930 934 927 933

Decline in sex ratio in India may be attributed to the factors given below. 1.

Literacy is low among females.

2.

High maternal mortality rate.

3.

Desire of male child in a male dominated society.

4.

Increasing female foeticide.

5.

Neglecting girl child and considering girl child a liability.

6.

Dowry system in the society causes female foeticide and encourages females to commit suicide.

Socio-religious superstitions and traditional beliefs are responsible for the decreasing sex ratio in our country.

7.8

Distribution and status of literacy in India

If any person who can read and write after understanding any language he/she is called literate. If one can read but can not write he/she is not literate. For being literate formal education is not essential. Our country is the second most populous and the seventh largest country in the world, but literacywise still she is far behind. After independence we had fast development in all fields but in the field of literacy continuous efforts are still needed. The literacy rate has increased in the last hundred years. It is evident from the table of the status of literacy in India given on the next page that in the beginning of the century in 1911 the literacy rate was about 6%. After independence by 1951 it had increased to 18.3%. It has increased from 52.21% in 1991 to 65.38% in 2001. The female literacy rate was 1.1% in 1911 which has since increased to 54.16 % in 2001. It is the outcome of the policy of the Central Government which aims at providing free primary education to all. (76)

Status of literacy in India ( In percentages) Census Year 1911 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

Total literacy 6.0 18.33 28.30 34.45 43.57 52.21 65.38

Male

Female

N.A.

1. 1 8.86 15.35 21.97 29.76 39.29 54.16

27.17 40.40 45.96 56.38 64.13 75.85 (77) (77)

Disparities in literacy rates : There are wide regional disparities in the literacy rate. See the state wise distribution of literacy in the map. It varies from 47.5 % in Bihar to 90.9 percent in Kerala. Kerala is closely followed by Lakshadweep (87.5 percent) and Mizoram (88.4 percent). Bihar ranks last in literacy among the states and union territories of India. The male female differentials are also wide. Only 54.16 percent of the females are literate as against 75.85 percent of males. There is much difference in the literacy rate of rural and urban populations. In 2001 the literacy rate in urban areas was 79.9 percent, whereas in rural areas it was only 58.7 percent. Detailed information of state wise literacy in India is given in Appendix No.3

Population 2001 At a Glance No.

Area

India

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Density of population 324 Total population 1027015247 Percentage of total Urban population 27.82% Percentage of total Rural population 72.18% Total Literacy 65.38% Male Literacy 75.85% Female Literacy 54.16%

Madhya Pradesh 196 60385118 26.46% 73.54% 64.11% 76.80% 50.28%

7.9 National population policy 2000 According to the new population policy, qualitative change of life is essential for socio-economic development. This will ensure use of man as a productive capital for society. The policy has three objectives: 1.

Short term objective : To develop health and basic infrastructure for the extension of contraceptive measures.

2.

Mid term objective : To reduce the total rate of reproduction by 2010.

3.

Long Term objective : To achieve the target of a stable population for sustainable economic development by 2045.

In order to meet the above objectives following socio-demographic aims were also declared under the new policy●

To pay attention to all the needs related to basic reproduction and health services, supplies and basic infrastructure.

●

To impart free and compulsory school education till the age of 14 years. To reduce the number of dropouts among primary and middle standard boy and girl students up to 20%.

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●

To bring down the infant mortality rate below 100 per one lakh live births.

●

To implement universal vaccination against diseases.

●

To encourage late marriage among girls. To stress the importance of marriage at the age of 20 or above.

●

To ensure 100% presence of trained midwives at all maternity homes.

●

To find out cheaper alternatives of contraception.

●

100% registration of birth, death, marriage and conception.

●

To check the spread of AIDS, encourage integration between Aids control organizations with regard to Reproductive Track Infection (RTI) and Veneral diseases (VD).

●

To make ample efforts for the prevention and control of infectious diseases.

●

To integrate various types of Indian medicinal systems for providing reproductive and child health services at the doorstep.

●

To solidly encourage the norm of a small family in order to reduce fertility rate.

●

To develop family welfare as a people oriented programme.

National Commission on population Following the National Population Policy 2000, a National Commission on Population has been established. The Prime Minister is the president of this commission. Chief ministers of all states and Union territories, administrators and ministers, in charge of all related departments and central ministers, renowned demographers and the representatives of public health and professional organizations and non-government organization are its members. Following the National Population policy 2000, state level population commissions like the National level population commission have also been formed. The chief ministers of the respective states are their presidents.

Terms Census

:

Official enumeration of population after a fixed time interval. In our country it is conducted every ten years.

Birth Rate

:

The number of live births for thousand persons.

Death Rate

:

The number of deaths per thousand population in a year.

(79) (79)

Life expectancy

:

The average age of people calculated on the basis of specified parameters.

Sex Ratio

:

Number of women per thousand men in the population.

Population Growth Rate : It shows the rate of growth of population. The population of the base year is compared with the increased population from the growth rate. Annual or decinneal growth rate is calculated.

Exercise I. Choose the correct answer 1.

In which of the following periods did the growth of population increase steadily? (i)

1901-21

(ii) 1921-51

(iii) 1951-81 2.

(iv) 1981-2001

According to 2001 census which is the most densely populated state? (i)

Uttar Pradesh

(ii) Bihar

(iii) Kerala 3.

(iv) West Bengal

Which state has the highest percentage of literacy? (i)

Uttar Pradesh

(ii) Kerala

(iii) Goa 4.

(iv)

Delhi

Which is the most densely populated Union Territory? (i)

Chandigarh

(ii) Pondicherry

(iii) Delhi

(iv) Lakshadweep

II. Fill in the blanks : a.

World population day is celebrated on .................... every year.

b.

Populationwise India is the................ country in the world.

c.

In India the female population is ............... than male population.

III. True or False : a.

Population density is unequal in India.

b.

Madhya Pradesh has the highest percentage of literacy in India.

c.

The National Population policy has been decleared in the year 2000.

Very short answer type questions 1.

What is Birth rate?

2.

What is Death rate? (80)

3.

What was the density of population in India in 2001?

4.

What was the sex ratio in India in 2001?

5.

Population wise and area wise what is the position of India in the world?

Short answer type questions 1.

Write about any three problems resulting from population growth.

2.

Why is the sex ratio declining in India? Give reasons.

3.

What do you understand by National Population commission?

4.

What do you mean by sex ratio? Explain its distribution in the country.

Long answer type questions 1.

Give the main causes of population growth in India and the measures being taken to control it.

2.

Explain with examples the factors affecting the density of population in India.

3.

In how many parts can India be divided on the basis of density of population?

4.

What is National Population Policy 2000?

5.

What is the status of growth in literacy rate in India? Suggest ideas to increase female literacy.

❖❖

❖❖

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❖❖

Chapter-8

Map : Reading and Numbering We Will Study  8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6

Meaning of Map Importance of Maps Elements of Maps Types of Maps Representation of Relief Features Numbering and Interpretation of a topographical sheet

8.1 Meaning of Map In the study of Geography, maps have a special importance. Without maps the geographical study of a country or a part of the earth is incomplete because a map shows pictorial features of a particular area. In Geography we not only study the physical features of the earth's surface, but also the interaction between man and nature and their effects on each other. To know this interrelationship understanding of maps is very essential. Maps help in understanding the physical, political and other features.

Maps can be seen in books, Atlases and on walls. These maps are two dimensional (length and breadth). We know that the earth is spherical. It has three dimensions length, breadth and height. The surface of the earth is spherical (i.e. three dimensional) but the maps are plane or flat (i.e. two dimensional). Different projections are used to represent the spherical surface on the plane surface. Map projection is a systematic drawing of parallels of latitudes and meridians of longitude ( graticule) on a plane paper or cloth for the whole earth or a part of it on a certain scale. There are certain standard signs and symbols to represent the topographical features on the map known as conventional signs. So with the help of a scale, suitable projection and conventional signs and symbols the location and the description of topographic features of the earth or a part of it is represented. A Map is a representation of selected features of the whole earth or a part of it on a plane surface, with conventional signs, drawn to a scale and projection so that each and every point corresponds to the actual terrestrial position.

8.2

Importance of Maps The importance of Maps is increasing in recent times because : ● Any part of the earth's surface can be studied with the help of a map. ● It is a technique of representing a fact in an interesting manner and in brief.

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● ● ●

● ●

●

●

● ●

A map is a language of social science which can be understood in every country. A lot of information is provided by maps in a short period of time. A map is an authentic document to solve the boundary dispute between two adjacent countries. Topographical maps are used in regional planning. Maps help in the economic development of a region by showing the location of the available resources on the map. Maps are useful for the State Reorganization Commission when the boundary of the new state, district or tehsil is marked. Topographical maps are most important for military purposes. At the time of war maps are useful for soldiers. Maps are very useful in the Tourism Industry for showing tourist places and routes. Maps are also useful in other sciences like Climatology, Oceanography, Botany, Political Science, History, Geology etc.

8.3 Elements of Maps There are certain points which are necessary in a geogrpahical map called Elements of a Map Without these elements a map is incomplete and we call it a sketch map. Elements of a map are as follows:-

Direction A direction is indicated on a map at a suitable place with which different directions on the ground are (N,S,E,W) identified. Generally the North direction is represented by the alphabet 'N' or with an arrow at the top indicating 'N' direction. Other directions are identified from the North.

Title and Sub-Title Each map represents the physical, political or any other feature of an area. Names of the area, title, features shown in the map and the sub title are mentioned either below the map or above the map or on the right side of the map.

Conventional Signs (83) (83)

N Direction Symbol

Conventional Signs The topographical features like mountains, Plateaus, plains, rivers and man made structures like settlements, railway tracks, roads etc. are shown with the help of pictures in the map. They are called conventional signs. Apart from this, some geographical features are shown with the help of symbols. A list of conventional signs is released by The Survey Department. Understanding these signs is necessary is order to read a map. A list of conventional signs is given.

Map - Meaning, Uses and Types A map can not be drawn without a scale. It is not possible to draw a map of the whole earth's surface on a paper because finding a huge paper is difficult. Suppose we did get a huge paper even then it would be impossible to draw a map and transport it from one place to another. So to draw a suitable map we use scale, according to which some topographic features are drawn on a plane paper in a map. There is a ratio between the distance of two points on a map and the distance between the corresponding points on the actual ground. This ratio is known as scale. Scale is the ratio between the distance of two points on a map and the actual distance between the corresponding points on the ground. For example the distance between two points on a map is 1cm. and the actual distance on the ground between the same two points is 10 km. So the scale of such a map will be 1 cm represents 10,00,000 cm. or 10 km. 1 cm . 1 0 ,0 0 0 × 1 0 0 cm .

=

1 cm . 1 0 ,0 0 ,0 0 0

1 m . = 1 0 0 cm . 1 km . = 1000 m 1 k m . = 1 ,0 0 ,0 0

There are three ways in which scale is represented on the map. They are as follows:

Statement Scale : Scale represented in the form of a statement like 1 cm to 10 kms. is called statement scale. This scale shows that 1 cm represents a distance of 10 km. on the ground.

Linear scale : This is a pictorial scale in which a line of 10 to 15 cms is drawn. This line is divided into primary and secondary divisions. First primary division is again divided into secondary divisions. After the first primary division 0 is numbered and then distances according to scale are numbered, as shown in the fig. below. This is also known as graphical scale. km.

km.

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Representative Fractions The scale of a map is also indicated by a fraction called the representative fraction (RF) in which the numerator is 1 and represents the distance on the map and the denominator represents the distance on the ground. The Representative Fraction is independent of any particular unit of measurement. The advantage here is that one can judge distances on a map even if he is not familiar with the linear measurements of that country. So this is a standard method of representing scale and therefore in all the maps scale is represented in R.F. with a linear scale in standard units. For example, if the R.F. in a map is stated to be 1:1,00,000 this means that one unit on the map represents 1,00,000 of the same unit on the ground. If this unit is centimeter, then 1 cms on the map represents 100,000 cm on the ground i.e.: 1 cm represents 1 Kilometer. If it is an inch then 1" on the map represents 100,000" or 2778 yards or 1 mile 4 furlong 138 yards on the ground.

8.4

Types of Maps

There are different types of Maps. They may be classified on the basis of scale, size or purpose. Maps drawn on the basis of utility may be classified into four parts.

1. Physical Map : On these maps relief features like Mountains, Plateau, Plains,

(85) (85)

Valleys etc. are shown by different colours such as brown, yellow and green according to contour lines. So mountainous regions are shown with dark brown colour in the given map of M.P.

2. Political Maps : These maps show different countries, their administrative units, capitals, cities, transportation routes etc. Physical and cultural features are also sometimes seen in the background. Find out the location of different districts of Madhya Pradesh, their headquarters and the neighbouring states of Madhya Pradesh from the given Political Map (Administrative Blocks) .

3. Distribution Maps : These maps display the distribution of elements found on the Earth, Continent, Country or on any part of the country. Distribution of rainfall, temperature, presssure, crop production, minerals, flora, fauna, industries, trade, means of transport, population and tourist places etc. are shown on these maps. Locations of tourist places of M.P. are shown in the given map.

(86)

4.

Special Maps: These maps are drawn for some special purpose and are

used for giving specific information. These include many types of maps as- Relief Maps, Geological Maps, City planning Maps, Weather maps, Ocean routes and air route maps, Military maps etc.

8.5 Representation of Relief Features The surface of the earth is not the same everywhere. It has various landforms like mountains, plateaus, plains, rivers, valleys etc. The three dimensional representation of various relief features is known as representation of relief features. The height or depth of a place is measured from the sea level. The imaginary lines joining places having the same elevation above or below the sea level are called contour lines. The height of the contour lines is measured from the mean sea level. This level is known as Datum Plane. The height at this plane is considered as zero and with reference to this base line the height of a place is measured. In small scale maps like wall maps and atlas maps, relief features are indicated by a scheme of graded colours. Each altitudinal zone is indicated by a particular colour. Usually low lands are indicated by shades of green. Higher elevations are represented by shades of yellow, brown, red and violet. Snow capped peaks are shown as white or left uncoloured. Heights are indicated in metres or feet. Depth of the sea is shown by varying shades of blue. Darker shades indicate greater depth of the Ocean. Thus the highest part (mountains) or the deepest part (Oceans) are indicated by the darker shades and less deeper parts are represented by lighter shades. In this way relief features like mountains, plateaus and plains are represented. Study your atlas map and prepare a scheme of layer colouring. Are similar shades of colour used to indicate the same height in all maps? On lage scale maps, like topographic maps relief features are shown by contour lines. In the maps places of the same height above sea level are shown (87) (87)

by contour lines. Contour lines are based on a detailed survey of heights of several places in an area. The heights of each one of these places is marked on a map and contour lines are drawn by interpolation. These lines are drawn at definite intervals such as 20, 50 or 100 metres. It should always be in numbers ending with zero. Spacing of contours gives an idea of the slope or gradient. If contour lines are closer, it indicates a steep slope and gentle slope is indicated when contours are widely spaced. Contour diagrams of some of the major landforms are given in the figure which will help you understanding the slopes. See the contour diagrams of slopes, hills, plateaus, escarpments, cliffs, river valleys and lakes and differentiate between the contour lines. Now you can easily understand a topographical sheet.

8.6 Numbering and Interpretation of Topographical Sheet The maps of our country are made by the National Survey of India. Its head office is in Dehradoon (Uttaranchal). The maps in which the relief and other features are represented by conventional signs and symbols are known as topographical sheets. These sheets are drawn on a large scale- when the scale is 1:250,000 or 1 Inch = 4 miles then it is said to be a large scale. If the actual distance is more than this then it is called a small scale. In a large scale map small objects can also be represented clearly. Topographical sheets are not easily available.

Interpretation of toposheet The interpretation of a toposheet is an art. We can collect sufficient information of the related area successfully by continuous practice. The descreption of landforms is shown by conventional signs and symbols in the map. So understanding of conventional signs and symbols is very necessary. Some conventional signs are given on the previous page. Keeping them in mind interpret a topographical sheet. Map interpretation is an interesting subject. Two or three students can interpret a map together. Each conclusion should be written pointwise. The Toposheet of district Sehore can be interpreted as follows: (88)

(89) (89)

Title: The given topographical sheet is of district Sehore of Madhya Pradesh. Its sheet No. is 55

E 4

Scale: The scale of the sheet is 2 cm represents 1 km. RF is 1:50,000. Latitudinal and Longitudinal Extent : It extends from 23° N to 23°10' N and 77° to 77°10' E. Physical Features : In a topographical sheet landforms are identified on the basis of the height of the contours. The maximum contour lines are showing the height of 500 mtrs. which is flat plain region and its height above sea level is 500 mtrs. The contour interval is 20 mts.The southern part of the region is comparatively high. A 560 meter high hill is shown in the sheet, identify it. Water Bodies : Sewan river is shown in the north west region. Jahangirpur pond is in the south east and a dry pond named Jamunia pond is in the north east. See the location of a river and a pond in the sheet. Settlement : Sehore and its adjoining areas are shown in this sheet. Apart from Sehore the other settlement areas are Jahangirpura, Mogram and Bijouri. Means of communication : Sehore is connected by rail-route and roads to other regions. The rail route runs towards Ujjain in north-west of the sheet and towards Bhopal in the north-east and Ashta, Ichhawar, Shyampur and Bhopal are connected by road. Forest Areas : The south-west part of the sheet is shown with green colour which represents a forest area. In the nearby areas some trees are shown which represent vegetation. Apart from the above points if some other important features are shown in the sheet they should be mentioned. In this way we can collect geographical information by interpreting a topographical sheet.

Terms Atlas

: A collection of maps or a book of maps.

Projection

: A grid of latitudes and longitudes drawn according to scale and rules.

Scale

: The ratio which a distance between any two points on a map bears to the actual distance between the corresponding points on the ground.

Contour lines : Imaginary lines joining all the points of equal elevation or altitude above the mean sea level. Gorge

: A deep narrow valley with steep sides formed as a result of rapid (90)

down cutting by a stream. Cliff

: Along the sea coast soft rocks are eroded by sea waves but the hard rocks can be seen above sea level, a high, steep or perpendicular face of rock is known as a cliff.

Escarpment

: Perpendicular or steep slope of a hill is known as escarpment. It is formed by the erosion of gently inclined strata or from faulting.

Valley

: An elongated depression between hills, with a river flowing at the base is called a valley.

Conical Hill

: A cone shaped elevated landform whose height is less than 1000 metres from the surrounding area.

Plateau

: An elevated tract of comparatively flat or level land, is called a plateau.

Convex Slope : A type of slope with steep slope in the lower part and less slope in the upper parts. Concave slope : Steep slope in the upper part and less slope in the lower part.

Exercise I. Choose the correct answer: 1.

Which element is related in proportion to distance in a map? (i) Scale (ii) use of colour (iii) Grid of Latitudes and Longitudes (iv) Use of conventional signs. 2. Which is not a type of map? (i) Physical map of Kerala (ii) Political map (iii) Sketch map of India (iv) Distribution map. 3. Which scale is a Representative Fraction (R.F.)? (i) One inch is equal to ten miles (ii) 1 cm = 1 km. (iii) One cm for ten Km. (iv) 1:10,000. 4. Conventional signs are certified by(i) Central Information Department (ii) Indian Constitution (iii) Survey Department (iv) Parliament of India. II. Match the following : A. B. 1. Physical map 1. Land features 2. Political map 2. Town & country Planning 3. Distribution map 3. Administrative Boundries 4. City map 4. Industries and trade (91) (91)

Very short answer type questions: 1. What is a map? 2. Write the important elements of a map. 3. Name different types of scale. 4. What is represented by a physical map? Short answer type questions 1. Differentiate between a Sketch map and a map. 2. What is the importance of scale in a map? 3. What is Representative Fraction? 4. Explain statement scale. 5. What is the utility of interpretation of a map? 6. What are contour lines? Long answer type questions 1. How many types of maps are there on the basis of utility? 2. What are maps? Write the importance of maps. 3. Explain numbering of maps. 4. Explain the types of maps on the basis of utility. Questions related to development of skills 1. If the distance between two place is 5 cm and the actual distance between the same places on the ground is 50 km. then what is the scale? 2.

Identify and name the relief features in the given contour maps.

800M

M 600M 400M 200M

800M 400M

600M

Mark the following in the outline map of India (1) Tropic of Cancer (2) Nilgiri Mountains (3) Narmada river (4) Tidal forests (5) Mumbai or (1) Standard meridian for India 82°30' (2) Satpura Ranges (3) River Ganga (4) Western Ghats (5) Delhi

❖❖ ❖❖ ❖❖ (92)

Appendix - 1

Wild Life Sancturaries of Madhya Pradesh No.

Name

District

Area (Sq. K.m.)

1.

Bagdara

Sidhi

478.90

2.

Bori

Hoshangabad

518.00

3.

Fen

Mandala

110.74

4. 5.

Gandhisagar Ghatigaon

Mandsaur Gwalior

368.62 512.00

6.

Karera

Shivpuri

202.21

7. 8. 9.

Chhatarpur /Panna Dewas /Sehore Morena

45.00 55.00 3902.00

10.

Ken Khivani National Chambal Noradehi

Sagar

1034.52

11.

Pachmarhi

Hoshangabad

461.85

12.

Panpatha

Shahdol

245.84

13.

Panpur

Morena

345.00

14.

Pench

449.39

15.

Ratapani

Seoni / Chhindwara Raisen

688.79

16.

Sidhi

364.59

17.

Sanjay (Dubari) Singhari

Raisen

287.91

18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

Son Sardarpur Sailana Orchha Narsinghgarh

Sidhi-Shahdol Dhar Ratlam Tikamgarh Rajgarh

209.00 248.12 12.96 45.00 57.19 (93) (93)

Wild Animals Black buck, Leopard, Chinkara, Blue bull Tiger, Leopard, Spotted deer, Sambhar, Bison Tiger, Leopard, Spotted deer, Sambhar Blue bull, Chinkara, Leopard The great Indian Bustard, Black buck The great Indian Bustard, Black buck Alligator, Crocodile Leopard, Sambhar, spotted deer Alligator, Crocodile, Tortoise, Dolphin Blue bull, Black buck, Spotted deer, Sambhar, Chinkara Tiger, Leopard, Spotted deer, Sambhar, Chinkara Tiger, Leopard, Spotted deer, Sambhar, Blue bull, Four horned Antelope Tiger, Leopard, Spotted deer, Chinkara, Black buck, Sambhar Tiger, Leopard, Sambhar, Spotted deer, Bison, Sambhar Tiger, Leopard, Sambhar, Spotted deer, Blue bull, Chinkara Tiger, Leopard, Spotted deer, blue bull, Chinkara Tiger, Leopard, Spotted deer, Sambhar, Blue bull, Chinkara Alligator, Crocodile, Tortoise Kharmour Kharmour Spotted deer, Blue bull Leopard, Spotted deer, Sambhar, Blue bull, Bison, Crane

Appendix - 2

India - States and Union Territories : Population and Density (2001) S.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35.

State/ Union Territory

Population (In thousands)

Uttar Pradesh 166,198 Maharashtra 96,879 Bihar 82,999 West Bengal 80,176 Andhra Pradesh 76,210 Tamil Nadu 62,406 Madhya Pradesh 60,348 Rajasthan 56,507 Karnataka 52,851 Gujarat 50,671 Orissa 36,805 Kerala 31,841 Jharkhand 26,946 Assam 26,656 Punjab 24,359 Haryana 21,145 Chhattisgarh 20,834 Delhi 13,851 Jammu and Kashmir 10,144 Uttaranchal 8,489 Himachal Pradesh 6,078 Tripura 3,199 Meghalaya 2,319 Manipur 2,294 Nagaland 1,190 Goa 1,348 Arunachal Pradesh 1,098 Pondicherry 974 Chandigarh 901 Mizoram 889 Sikkim 541 Andaman &Nicobar Islands 356 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 220 Daman and Diu 158 Lakshadweep 61 Total 1028737

Source : Government of India Census Report, 2001

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Percentage of population 16.16 9.42 8.07 7.79 7.41 6.07 5.87 5.49 5.14 4.93 3.58 3.10 2.62 2.59 2.37 0.06 2.03 1.35 0.99 0.83 0.59 0.31 0.23 0.22 0.19 0.13 0.00 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01 100.00

Density/Km2 (2001) 689 314 880 904 275 478 196 165 275 258 236 819 338 340 482 477 154 9294 99 159 109 304 103 107 120 363 13 2029 7903 42 76 43 449 1411 1894 324

Appendix - 3 Literacy status of states and union territories of India (in percentage) (2001) S.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35.

State/ Union Territory Jammu & Kashmir Himachal Pradesh Punjab Chandigarh Uttaranchal Haryana Delhi Rajasthan Uttar Pradesh Bihar Sikkim Arunachal Pradesh Nagaland Manipur Mizoram Tripura Meghalaya Assam Jharkhand Orissa Chhattisgarh Madhya Pradesh Gujarat Daman and Diu Dadra and Nagar Haveli Andaman and Nicobar Islands West Bengal Pondicherry Maharashtra Andhra Pradesh Karnataka Goa Lakshadweep Kerala Tamil Nadu India

Male literacy

Female literacy

Total literacy

65.75 86.02 75.6 85.65 84.01 79.25 87.3 76.46 70.23 60.32 76.73 64.07 71.77 77.87 90.69 81.47 66.14 71.93 67.94 75.95 77.86 76.80 80.50 88.40 73.32 86.07 77.58 88.89 86.27 70.85 76.29 88.88 93.15 94.20 82.33 75.85

41.82 68.08 63.5 76.65 60.26 56.31 74.7 44.34 42.98 33.57 61.46 44.24 61.92 57.70 86.13 65.41 60.41 56.03 39.38 50.97 52.40 50.28 58.60 70.37 42.99 75.29 60.22 74.13 67.51 51.17 57.45 75.51 81.56 87.86 64.55 54.16

54.46 77.13 69.9 81.76 72.28 68.59 81.82 61.03 57.36 47.53 69.68 54.74 67.11 68.87 88.49 73.66 63.31 64.28 54.13 63.61 65.18 64.11 69.97 81.9 60.03 81.18 69.23 81.49 77.27 61.11 67.04 82.32 87.52 90.92 73.47 65.38

Source : Government of India Census Report, 2001

(95) (95)

Chapter-9

History of Ancient India We will Study



9.1 Historical Chronology of Ancient India.

9.1 Historical Chronology of Ancient India 9.2

9.3 9.4 9.5

India's archaeological, cultural and historical tradition has been extremely rich and glorious. The Indus valley history of ancient India includes the Indus or Harappan civilization or civilization, Vedic civilization, the Epic period, Jainism Harappa civilization and Buddhism the Mauryan Empire, the Gupta Empire Vedic civilization and the rule of Harshavardhan. These civilizations and Civilization of the Epic dynasties had their own distinct identities. Indians had period a strong historical apititude since ancient times. The Age of Janpads and There are enough sources to throw light on ancient Mahajanpads Indian history. These include:-

9.6 Jainism and Buddhism

1. Literary Sources:- Indian literature has worldly and religious elements. Vedas (Rigveda, 9.8 Gupta Empire Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda) Aranyakas, Upanishads, Vedangs, Sutras, Epics ( Mahabharat and 9.9 Harsha's Empire Ramayana) Smrities, Puranas, Buddhist literature, Jain literature, Vishakhadutta's Mudrarakshas, Kautilya's Arthashastra, Patanjali's Mahabhashya, Panini's Ashtadhyayi, Kalhan's Rajtarangini and other literary Chief Civilizations and Chronological sources are the chief sources dynasties of Ancient India order of information about ancient (Approximately) Indian geographical, political, ● Indus civilization 2500 B.C. 1750 B.C. cultural, religious and ● Vedic civilization 1500 B.C. - 600 B.C. economic life. ● Janpads and Mahajanpads 600 B.C. - 400 B.C. 9.7 Mauryan Empire

322 B.C.- 187 B.C. 2. Archaeological ● Mauryan Empire 320 A.D. - 570 A.D. Sources: They are the most ● Gupta Empire 606 A.D. - 646 A.D. important sources of ● Harshavardhan's Empire information about ancient India. The discovery, excavation and study of inscriptions - rock edicts, writings on copper plates, birch bark, currency, statues and monuments are of a great help in the study of ancient history. (96)

3. Accounts of foreign travellers - writings of foreigners give us useful information. Persian, Greek, Chinese, Tibetan and Arab merchants, travellers, diplomats and philosophers' descriptions help in the study of the stages of development of ancient Indian society. Though many of the accounts of the foreign travellers are influenced by folk lore and therefore cannot be fully relied upon yet they have an important place in the study of Indian history.

9.2 Indus Valley Civilization or Harappan Civilization The urban culture that developed in India and Pakistan's north western part in the Indus river basin and its tributaries is generally called the Indus valley civilization. From the geographical point of view it was the world's largest civilization. This civilization spread to Pakistan, Southern Afghanistan, and in India in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Western U.P. and Maharashtra. The main sites of this civiliztion are- Mohenjodaro, Harappa and Chanhudaro (Pakistan) Ropar (Punjab) Rangpur (Saurashtra), Lothal Surkotda, Dhaulavira (Gujarat) Kalibangan, Banawali, Rakhigarhi (Haryana) Manda (Jammu and Kashmir), Alamgirpur, Hulaas (Uttar Pradesh) etc. Look at the above mentioned cities in the given map. The Indus valley civilization was discovered in 1921 by Dr. Dayaram Sahni in a place called Harappa which is situated on the banks of river Ravi. Mohenjodaro which literary means 'The Mound of the Dead' was discovered in 1927 by Rakhaldas Banerjee. The famous Great Bath was found here : Kalibangan situated in Hanumangarh district of Rajasthan on the bank of river Ghaghar (ancient Saraswati) is also an important city of this civilization. According to the archaeologists tradition they have named this civilization on the name of the first known site as the Harappan Civilization. In due course of time (97) (97)

abundant remains of this civilization were found far away, from the Indus valley, in the extinct Saraswati river basin and in the GangaYamuna basin and in the Narmada-Tapti basin. On this basis some archaeologists have named this civilization as the Indus-Saraswati civilization.

Saraswati River Whether or not there is Pictures obtained from geo stationery satellite of a mutual relationship between ancient Saraswati and Yamuna and its tributaries. the initial civilizations namely the Indus civilization and the Vedic civlization is a very big historical question. Latest researches and possibilities indicate that these two civilizations were not two individual civilizations, but to some extent both were interlinked. New discoveries have revealed that almost two-thirds of the Indus civilization was spread in the areas of the extinct Saraswati river and its tributaries. The contribution of Dr. Vishnu Shreedhar Wakankar's research on the river Saraswati is of vital importance. During the Vedic period the Saraswati was a very big river. It has been constantly referred to in the Vedas. Efforts have been made in the last 20 years through airial and land surveys to mark the area drained by the Saraswati river. It is believed that the river Saraswati must have originated from the Shivalik ranges of the Himalayas and from there it flowed to Ambala, Thaneshar, Kurukshetra, Pahova, Sirsa, Hansi, Agroha, Hanumangari and via Kalibanga to Anupgarh to Suratgarh. In due course of time due to ecological changes the Saraswati river slowly dried up and became extinct after some time. There is a continuous research going on about the civilization that developed around the Sarswati river. In the 20th century, while writing the history of ancient India, historians and archaeologists devised an order of the development of the ancient civilization in India. The first in this order came the Harappan (Indus) civilization, then the advent of the Aryans and after that came the decline of the Indus civilization. A new cvilization developed afterwards known as the Vedic civilization. But some modern historians and archaeologists on the basis of latest researches do not agree with the above chronology. They do not accept that Aryans came from outside, they believe that Harappan and Vedic civilizations both developed and flourished in one region (the Sapta - Sindhu reign) therefore both these civilization are in inseparable. They stake three established parameters for this claim - first, both the civilizations developed in the same geographical region. Secondly, the time period of both (98)

these civilization is almost the same or both the periods were entwined together. Thirdly the cultural structure of both the civilizations is amazingly similar. Archaeologists draw attention to the fact that no literary evidence about the origin of the Harappan culture is available and no archaeological evidence of the Vedic literature have been known. The scholars believe that both the cultures are in fact two facets of the same coin. City culture became well known as Harappan civlilization and the spiritual aspect of the culture came to be known as the Vedic civlization. However more research and publication of facts in this direction is required. Social life in the Indus civilization : The study of the archaeological sources of the Harappan civilization proves that the society was divided into various groups. The prominent among them were potters, carpenters, weavers, plumbers, masons, artisans, brick makers, beadmakers and sculptors. During the period, priests must have occupied an important position and performed special duties. The remains found at Mohenjodaro Male statue coveed point in this direction. with Shawl Besides these, Ornamanets obtained from Harappa bureaucrats, military and government officials, intellectuals, traders and labourers also resided here. The people of the Harappan civilization had an artistic bent of mind. The people of the Harappan civilization were well versed in the art of hairstyling, and indulged in ornaments and cosmetics. During this period people excelled in singing, music, dance etc. The statue of a dancing girl found during the excavation certifies the same. Food habits of this period included both vegetarian and non-vegetarian food. Ornaments were made of copper, bronze, shells, ivory, clay beads, beads made of horn and bones, hair clips, finger rings, bangles, necklaces, armulets, bracelets, anklets and earrings which were worn as ornaments. They were also fond of hunting. From the remains found at Mohenjodaro a Yogi's image on one of the seals (resembling Pashupatinath - Shiva) Rock Lingas (resembling Shiv Linga) we can form an idea of the religious beliefs of the people. Besides these, evidences of worship of snake, trees, the sun and water have also been found from the excavations. Economic Life in the Indus civilization : The economy of this period was well developed. Agriculture was the main occupation. Besides agriculture, animal rearing, industry, internal and external trade, statue making industry, bricks industry, sculpture etc. were the chief industries. Indus valley people had trade relations with foreign (99) (99)

countries. The contact with foreigners was both through land and water route. On land bullock carts and in water ships were used. The uniformity of various objects found from the Indus civilization indicates that the control of a well-organized system of administration in the economic sphere must have existed. Public Bath : In the excavations of Mohenjodaro a big bath has been found which is rectangular. It has a balcony on all the four sides and there are rooms behind the balconies, swimming pool and big wells to fill in water. Every corner of the bath has a

Great Bath Mohanjodaroo

staircase and the bath is made of baked bricks. This bath probably had a religious significance and on sacred occasions people bathed in it. The great bath was so well constructed that it exists even today. Political Structure : Much information about the political organization of the Harappan civilization has not been found. On the basis of sources found from the site well-planned city, agriculture and industry it can be concluded that there must have been a centralized system of control in the Indus region. Perhaps officials ruled over different cities. For maintaining and keeping the city clean waste disposal terracota pots (dustbins) and tins were placed at different places. Every city must have had an institution similar to the Municipality for the construction and renovation of roads, bridges, canals, public buildings, for controlling shops and types of construction of individual homes buildings, windows, drains etc. and for monitoring labour, prices, weights and measures as per rules and regulations.

Charecteristics of Indus Valley Civilization ● ● ●

The Indus civilization was familiar with city culture. It had a well-organized city planning system. It has knowledge of an efficient water drainage management. They were familiar with sea trade. (100)

●

It made magnificent contribution (building construction, painting, statue making, utensils and art of ornament making)

●

Religious belief and worship of nature was present.

Downfall of Indus valley civilization Historians have different opinions regarding the downfall of the Indus valley civilization. It must not have declined suddenly. It was perhaps because of the occurrence of floods in the river, changing of the river course, perhaps due to the occurrence of earthquakes, or change in climatic conditions or spread of an epidemic which must have resulted in the downfall of the Indus valley civilization.

9.3 The Vedic Civilization Life as shown in the Vedas the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samveda and the Atharvaveda together with other contemporary literary works depict and tell us about the Vedic civilization. The entire vedic Veda mean knowledge of sacred spiritual period tested an extensive period ● knowledge. of time. The entire vedic period indicates an extensive time period. ● There are four Vedas - Rigvieda, Yajueveda, For study purposes we can divide it Samveda and Atharvaveda. into two parts. The Early Rigvedic ● Rigveda is the most ancient epic. period in which the Rigveda was ● Rigveda Yajurveda and Samveda are known as composed. This period is believed Vedatrayi (Three veda) to extend from 1500 B.C. to 1000 B.C.The rest of the three vedas were composed in the Later vedic period. This period is believed to have been between 600 B.C. to 1000 B.C. The Purans, the Upanishadas, the Epics and the Smritis have also been placed in the same period. Social Life : The Indian society during the Vedic period was formed of 'Aryans'. Aryans had thousands of domesticated animals. They settled wherever food and fodder for animals was available. The chief basis of social organization of the Aryans was the family or the clan. The oldest male member was the head of the family. Joint family system was prevalent during the period in which people of many generations lived together. Varnasystem was prevalent during the Vedic period. There were 4 Varnas - Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. These Varnas were however not hereditary. For regulation of the social system Aryans considered life expectancy to be 100 years and divided it into four Ashrams. These were Brahamcharya, (for learning and education), Grahastha (family life), Vanprastha (retirement from family life), Sanyas (renouncing the worldly affairs) Women enjoyed a high status in the society. They participated in all social and religious activities. They received higher education. Social evils like dowry, Purdah system and child marriages were not prevalent. (101) (101)

Cotton, woollen, Silk clothes were used. Women took a keen interest in dressing up. Vedic literature refers to different hairstyles and use of scented oil and ornaments. Rice, barley, ghee ( processed butter) and, milk formed the main food of the Aryans. Chariot racing, horse riding, hunting, dancing, gambling, and games of dice were the chief means of entertainment. Economic Life : The Vedic civilization was rural and was primarily agrarian. Wheat, Jowar, Urad, Masoor (pulses) and sesame were basically cultivated. The Irrigation system was well developed. Along with agriculture, animal husbandry was the chief occupation. The status of a person in society was determined by the number of cows one had. Horses, cows, buffaloes, sheep goats etc. were domesticated. Domestic system of production and artisanship were highly developed. Carpenters, blacksmiths, goldsmiths, cobblers, had great importance. Both Internal and external trade flourished. Barter system was prevalent. Initially the cow was the chief medium of exchange. Rigveda refers to exchange of Indras statues for ten cows. After the cow, 'Nishka' as a medium of exchange was used. Religious Life : Aryans made great progress in the religious and the spiritual sphere. The chief features of their religious lives were as follows: ●

Vedic Aryans were nature worshippers. They worshipped various forms of nature. Sun, moon, wind, clouds (Megh) Usha (Goddess of Light) were their chief Gods and Goddesses.

●

There was a provision of "Yagya' for every Aryan. They believed that Yagyas please God and fulfill all wishes. Yagyas were the chief basis of rites and rituals.

●

Though Aryans worshipped many Gods, they still believed in Monotheism.

In the Later Vedic period the religious canvas of society changed and religious refinement and complexities came in. Maha Yagyans like Ashwamedha, Rajsurya and Vajpai were performed during this period. Atharvaveda refers to worldly religion and beliefs. Moral behaviour was estblished in the Grahastha ashram through five Mahayagyans and three Rynas (Loans). Different philosophical thoughts developed during the same period. Political Life : ●

Vedic Aryans were organized into various 'Janas' or tribes. A tribe had members of the same clan or family.

●

The basis of the political system was the clan. The father was head of the clan. Many clans together formed a 'tribe or village'

●

Many villages together formed the 'Vish', the head of the Vish was called the Vishapati. (102)

Many 'Vish' together formed 'Jana' the head of which was "Gopa". ● 'Janpads' were established during the Later Vedic period. The Rigvedic people organized themselves into communities which were called "Janas". The chief of the tribe the Pradhan or leader was called 'Rajan' or Gopit, who was responsible for the safety of his community and animals. The Vedic period administrative system was primarily monarchical. The position of the king was hereditary. The position and powers of the King increased during the Later Vedic period. The chief duties of the king were - protection of the subjects, waging wars, maintaining peace and giving justice to the subjects. ●

There were many subordinates to assist the King. The chief among them were the Purohits or the priest. The commander of the army Senani, Gramin (village officer Sangrahita or the treasurer, revenue collector, charioteer, Palagal' (Kings friend and amuser) these were the others who helped the king. Sabha and Samiti : The Sabha and the Samiti were important and effective political organizations of the vedic period. Probably they checked the arbitrary decisions of the King. The Rigveda refers to these institutions. Military Organization : Military Organization and the art of warfare were considerably developed during this period. Infantry, cavalry and charioteers formed the main army. The main objective of wars was self defence to gain, victory and the destruction of the glory of neighbouring kingdoms. The above description clarifies that the administrative and cultural values of the vedic civilization are relevant even today.

9.4 Epic period Civilizaton India's two great epics are the Ramayana and the Mahabharat. Nothing certain about the period of their composition can be said, but the Ramayana was composed much earlier than the Mahabharat. The reference to cities like Ayodhya and Mithila are found in the Ramayana whereas the Mahabharata refers of cities of Kurukshetra, Indraprastha, Hastinapur and Dwarika. Archaeological excavations have proved that probably most of these towns existed. Republican and monarchical, both types of states existed during the period. The position of the king was hereditary. But the King was not an autocrat, and was regulated by his duties and religion. There were two institutions to assist the King. A Council of ministers (mantri parishad) and the Sabha (General Assembly). For administrative convenience the state was divided into many units. There are references of many republics in the Mahabharata

(103) (103)

9.5

The Age of Janpads and the Mahajanpads

During the early phase, Aryans settled in the valleys of the rivers Sutlej, Jhelum, Vyas (Beas) and the Saraswati. Slowly they settled in the fertile plains of the Ganga in the southwest. They cleared the forests and prepared land for agriculture. They established Janpads here. Janpad means a region of human settlements. The nomenclature of these Janpads was on the Jana or clans who established them. The Mahabharata refers to many Janpads. Big and powerful Janpads were called Mahajanpads. Some small Janpads were under their domination. There were many states during the period where the post of the king was not hereditary. These states were called Republics. Unlike in the Janpads and Mahajanpads, the position of the King was not hereditary in the Republics. The King of these states was elected by the people just like we elect our Government today. Some of the Republics were very small such as the Vajjis of Mithila, the Shakyas of Kapilvastu and the Mallas of Pava etc. There were matrimonial relations between the people of various Janpads, Mahajanpads and Republics. Inspite of the matrimonial relations, there were wars between these Janpads, Mahajanpads and the Republics over the expansion of their Empires. Slowly 4 powerful Mahajanpads were formed from 16 Mahajanpads. These were Avanti, Magadh, Kaushal and Vatsya. Magadh was always at war for increasing its power and expanding its empire. As a result, it became the most powerful among all Janpads and Mahajanpads. After the later Vedic period, Janpads and Republics regulated the political systems. In course of time out of the 16 chief Janpads and 4 chief Mahajanpads there was a rise of the Magadha empire. Magadha was ruled by Haryanka dynasty, Shishunag dynasty and Nanda dynasty respectively. After defeating Dhanand of the Nanda dynasty, the Mauryan Empire was established over Magadha under the leadership of Chandra Gupta. Its Prime Minister was Kautilya (Chanakya) who wrote the Arthashastra. Advent of Alexander to India : This Greek ruler came to India as a part of his world victory campaign. He was the son of Philip, the ruler of Macedonia. After the death of his father, he inherited the throne at the age of 20 years. He was a highly ambitious ruler. After defeating Persia he entered India which was called the golden bird ( Sone Ki Chidiya), Alexander had to fight against the tribal ruler Hasti, called Asthus by the Greek who gave a tough resistance to Alexander. After the death of Hasti his Queen and other women continued to defend their state and fought till their last breath. Finally Alexander emerged victorious. and he marched ahead. The ruler of Takshashila Ambhi surrendered before him. But the ruler of the Jhelum region Porus refused to surrender. Both the armies confronted each other across the river Jhelum. Alexander realised that in the face of the (104)

opposition by the enemy, it would not be possible to cross the river. Therefore, he attacked Porus at night. Porus fought bravely against Alexander but finally Alexander emerged victorious. Later, looking at the bravery and self-respect with which Porus defended his kingdom, Alexander treated Porus as one King treats another King and returned his kingdom. Alexander died enroute in 332 B.C. while returning to his kingdom.

9.6

Jainism and Buddhism

The period 6th century B.C. has a prominent place in Indian history. Jainism and Buddhism rose during this period. The purpose of these was to remove the superstitious and malpractices that had creptin, in religion. Jainism : Vardhaman Mahavir was the 24th Tirthankar of the Jain religion. Mahavir was born to King Siddharth of Kundgrama. Vardhaman (Mahavir) was thoughtful and sober since childhood. He renounced the world after the death of his father. He attained Kaivalya (highest knowledge) after 12 years of penance and meditation. He was called a Jina (or victor over the senses) as he got victory over his senses; and his followers were called Jains. The main principle of Jainism is Ahimsa or non-violence. According to Jainism non violence is not only refraining from violence but violence in thought, speech and allowing violence by others. Mahavir stated the importance of the five vows (Ahimsa, Satya, Achorya, Aparigrah, Brahmchrya). Buddhist Religion : The founder of Buddhism was the Buddha who was born in the royal family of King Shuddhodana, the ruler of Kapilvastu, at a place called Lumbini. Right from his childhood, Siddharth was thoughtful, quiet and composed. In the search of salvation and freedom from the worldly pains, Siddharth left his home and wife and after wandering, meditated under a pipal tree. On the day of Vaishakh Poornima he attained enlightenment. The tree under which he attained enlightenment is called the 'Bodhi tree' and the place became famous as Bodh Gaya. The disciples of Buddha compiled Buddha's sermons and lectures in the form of Tripatikas. The Buddha was primarily a religious reformer who tried to remove the evils that had crept into religion. Mahatma Buddha was of the opinion that man's life was full of suffering from the beginning till the end. In order to be free from sufferings, he stated the four noble truths and the ‘Eight fold path’. Besides India, Buddhism spread to Srilanka, China, Japan, Java, Sumatra and many other countries.

9.7 Mauryan Empire The Mauryan Empire was one of the greatest Empires in India. During the reign of Chandragupta, Mauryan political unity was established in India for the first time. During the same period.

The famous rulers of the Mauryan Empire (The time period approximately) ● ● ●

Chandragupta Maurya 322 B.C. to 298 B.C. Bindusar 298 B.C. to 273 B.C. Ashoka the great (105) (105)

273 B.C. to 236 B.C.

chronological writing began. We get information about the Mauryan period chiefly from Kautilya's Arthshastra, Vishakhdutta's, Mudrarakshas, Megasthenese's Indica, description of Greek writers, various inscriptions of Asoka, and from the books 'Deepvamsha' and 'Mahavamsha' Chandra Gupta Maurya is considered to be one of the greatest rulers of India. With the help of Kautilya he defeated the Nandas and laid the foundation of the Mauryan

dynasty. Greek writers have referred to him as, 'Sandro Kottis'. Chandra Gupta Maurya great victor, great diplomat, able administrator, religious, benevolent ruler. He was the first ruler in ancient India to implement a new political system. He gave direction to central, provincial, city and village administrative system. (106)

Chandra Gupta defeated the Greek Commander Selucus Nector around 305 B.C. and expanded his kingdom to regions of Kabul, Kandahar, Hirat and Baluchistan. Selecus married his daughter to Chandra Gupta and entered into a treaty. Megasthenes came as an Ambassador to Chandra Gupta's court. He has described the then society in his book, Indica. After his victory over Northern India Chandragupta won over Kathiawar, Saurashtra, and parts of southern India. In his last days Chandra Gupta embraced Jainism. He renounced his throne and the grandeur of his kingdom and went to the Sravanbelagola hills of Southern India and later died there. Administrative system : We learn about Chandra Gupta's administrative system through Megastheneses; 'Indica and Kautilya's Arthashastra. The chief featues of his administration were as follows: 1.

The King was the highest official of the Empire. He was the head of the army and the administrator of justice. He was involved in the works concerning the welfare of his subjects.

2.

There was a council of ministers to assist the King.

3.

An Espionage system, a Judicial system and military organization was strong.

4.

Land revenue was the main source of the state's income; 1/6th of the produce was taken as the tax.

5.

The officer collecting taxes was called Samaharta.

6.

The Empire was divided into provinces. They were governed by Princes or members of the royal family.

7.

There were six commitee for city administration. Each had 5 members.

8.

The military system was very strong. It was looked after by six commitee. These were - Admiral commitee, Infantry, Cavalry, war chariots, elephant army commitee which managed military transport.

9.

Code of punishment was very strict.

10.

From Kautilya's Arthashastra we come to know that there were two types of Courts - civil (Diwani) and criminal (Faujdari).

Bindusar Chandra Gupta Maurya was succeeded by his son Bindusar. He has been given the title of Amitraghat or slayer of enemies. He was brave, courageous and daring. He had friendly relations with the Greek ruler of western Asia. He was successful in defending and organising the kingdom inherited from his father.

(107) (107)

Ashoka the Great Ashoka was the third and most famous Emperor of the Mauryan dynasty. He proved his ability and talent during his father Bindusar's reign. Asoka was crowned in around 269 B.C. In the initial years of his rule he pursued his Grandfather Chandra Gupta Maurya's legacy of imperialism and Digvijay (military conquests). He fought a war with Kalinga. The province of Kalinga is in Orissa. There was a tough war between the armies of Asoka and Kalinga. Asoka emerged victrious in the end. According to the 13th rock edict of Asoka, 1,50,000 persons were carried away as captives, 1,00,000 persons were slain, and many times that number died. Asoka was filled with profound sorrow and grief after the bloodshed in the war and also with remorse and self realisation. The important result of this war was a change in Asoka's attitude and he began to follow a policy of peace rather than that of war. The era of military Chief features of Ashoka's Dhamma. conquests or Digvijay was over and an Sovereignity era of spiritual conquest or Dhammavijay ● Importance given to self-discipline and began. He also became a follower of ● ettiquette. Buddhism. The Kalinga war gave a new direction to Asoka's life.

●

Non-violence and religious tolerance.

Ashoka's Dhamma ( Religion)

●

Prominence of moral values.

Emphasis on practising truth in life. After the Kalinga war, Ashoka's ● embraced Buddhism. In his inscriptions he not only propagated the fundamental principles of Buddhism but also moral principles. His Dhamma was the summary of all religions. Ashoka's Dhamma aims for the welfare of all, and aims at mental, moral and spiritual upliftment of all living beings. His Dhamma was extremely simple and practical. Mercy for all beings, speaking the truth, wishing for the well being of all, respect to parents and teachers, were the chief features of Ashoka's Dhamma. He sent messengers for the spread of Buddhism in foreign countries. Ashoka's got many rock inscriptions and pillar inscriptions made. His son and daughter Mahendra and Sanghamitra went to Srilanka for propogating Buddhism. He got Stupas constructed, inscribed religious inscriptions, established a department of religion and appointed officers called Dhamma Mahamatras. Most of the inscriptions of Asoka describe him as 'Devanam Priyadasi' which means favourite of the Gods.

Causes of the Downfall of the Mauryan Empire 1. 2.

The successors of Asoka were incapable. They divided the Empire among themselves and could not keep the Empire of their ancestors intact. The oppression of Provincial officers. (108)

3. 4.

Lack of nationalism in the subjects. Asoka's policy of non-violence made Military administration weak. There was lethargy also in the administrative system. The last ruler of the Mauryan Empire Brihadrath was killed by his commander Pushyamitra Sunga, and the Mauryan dynasty came to an end. Pushyamutra Sunga performed the Aswamedha Yagya. After the Mauryas, the Sungas, the Kanvas, the Satvahanas, the Sakas and the Kushansdynastics ruled over India. During the rule of Kanishka the "Fourth Buddhist council" was called in Prominent rulers of the Gupta Dynasty. (Approximate Chronology) Kundan Van in Shri Gupta (founder) 275 A.D. to 300 A.D. Kashmir. Ghatotkacha 300 A.D. to 319 A.D.

9.8 The Gupta Chandra Gupta I Empire

319 to 335 A.D.

Samudra Gupta 335 to 375 A.D. After the Ram Gupta 375 A.D. Mauryas, the Gupta 380 A.D. to 412 A.D. rulers re-established Chandra Gupta II 'Vikramaditya' 413 A.D. to 455 A.D. the political unity in Kumar Gupta India. There was Skanda Gupta 455 A.D. to 467 A.D. unprecedented progress in the economic, social, literary, cultural and artistic fields during the period. The Gupta period is known as the golden period in Indian history. Shri Gupta The founder of the Gupta dynasty was Sri Gupta. He was succeeded by Ghatotkatch (300 A.D.- 319 A.D.) Chandra Gupta I Ghatotkatcha's son Chandra Gupta I, took over the reigns of the Gupta Empire after him. He is described as 'Maharajadhiraj' or King of Kings. Chandra Gupta was married to a Lichhavi princess Kumar Devi. During the same period the 'Gupta Era' began. He laid the foundation of a powerful empire and expanded his empire. Samudra Gupta After Chandra Gupta I his son Samudra Gupta inherited the throne. He extended the boundaries of the Empire inherited by him and gave political unity to India. In his victory campaigns Samudra Gupta conquered nine powerful states of northern India and merged them with his Kingdom. He also conquered the Atavika states of central India. In his conquest of the south 'Dakshinapath he won over 12 states but returned them to the Kings. These states gave annual taxes to the Gupta rulers. Due to his victory over Aryavrata and Dakshinapath the frontier states and republics got scared and they accepted (109) (109)

the sovereignity of Samudra Gupta. After his victory he performed the Ashvamedha

Yagyan and issued gold currencies. References of his victories are mentioned in Harisen's Allahabad pillar inscription. Samudra Gupta was a great military commander, efficient politician and an invincilble warrior. The famous historian Smith has called Samudra Gupta the ‘Indian Napoleon.’ Some of the Indian historians call Samudra Gupta greater and more practical than Napoleon because Samudra Gupta accomplished many victories but never incorporated the states he won into his Empire nor did he try to impose his will upon these states. He only took gifts or taxes from the rulers and allowed the rulers to be independent and friendly states. (110)

Samudra Gupta left behind a very well organised and extensive empire to his successors, where there was peace, prosperity and well being, where all around there were vanquished but friendly rulers. There was an excellent environment for cultural development. During his reign art, literature, trade and occupation, music, religion etc. made progress. In short, the country was on the path of development. The Dasavatar ( Ten incarnation) statues related to the Vaishnav religion were first carved out during the Gupta Empire. Chandra Gupta II, Vikramaditya Chandra Gupta II consolidated and stengthened the Gupta Empire inherited from his father. Subhudra gupta ●

Chandra Gupta II married Kubernaga of the Naga dynasty. This led to friendly relations between both the dynasties. He married his daughter Prabhavati Gupta to Rudrasena II the Vakataka King. This relationship secured Chandra Gupta's control over the Sakas. These matrimonial alliances proved to be politically very important. The daughter of Kadama dynasty was also married into the Gupta dynasty. Due to this matrimonial alliance the glory of Chandra Gupta II spread to southern India as well.

●

An important achievement of Chandra Gupta II's reign was victory over the Sakas. As a result of this victory western Malwa, Gujarat, Saurashtra, states of Kathiawad came under the Gupta Empire. The western boundaries of the Gupta empire reached the Arabian sea.

●

Chandra Gupta II is also described as Vikramaditya. He was an able poltician. He was a great victor, able administrator, admirer of knowledge, benevolent, and protector of intellectuals. Among the Navratnas (nine Gems) in his court Kalidas held a prominent place. During Chandra Gupta's period, science, architecture and sculpture saw remarkable progress. The Chinese traveller Fahein came during his reign and stayed in India from 405-411 A.D. In his travelogues, he has described the contemporary political social and economic condition of India.

Vikramditya was a lover of justice ruler of Ujjain, he won over the Sakas and started a new era, which is known as the Vikram Era. Presently, the Vikram Era is prevalant in India and the Chaitra Shukla Pratipada marks the beginning of the new year. Kumar Gupta He was the successor of Chandra Gupta II. He inherited the empire from his forerunners. The Gupta Empire reached its pinnacle of glory due to peace, stability and good organization. (111) (111)

Skanda Gupta After Kumar Gupta, Skanda Gupta ascended the throne. He protected India from the Hun attacks. He realized the importance of western frontier states and made arrangements for their defence. Thereafter, he was succeded by Puru Gupta, Kumar Gupta, Buddh Gupta, Vanya Gupta, Bhanu Gupta, Narsingh Gupta, Kumar Gupta III, Vishnu Gupta and others. Administrative Organization Like the Maurya rulers, the Gupta rulers also made public welfare the basic foundation of their administration. The King was the highest official of the state. The final authority of the state was in his hands. There was a council of ministers and other officials to assist the King. The chief source of income was land revenue, which was called 'Bhaga'. This was generally one sixth of the produce. The Gupta Empire was divided into three parts- Central, Provincial and Local administration. The chief objective of the Gupta rulers was public welfare. For this they made hospitals, Dharamshalas, or resthouses schools, roads etc. Administrative Organization during the Gupta period. Central Administration

Provincial Administration

● King

●

Bhukti (Province) Pradesh

●

Council of Ministers

●

●

Officials

● Vishaya

● Judicial

Organization

● Military

Administration

●

Local Administration ● City

administration.

● Village

Administration

Revenue Organization

Gupta Period - The Golden period of Ancient Indian history There was all round development during the Gupta period. Therefore this period is referred to as the golden period. During this period there were great rulers like Chandra Gupta I, Samudra Gupta and Chandra Gupta II, Vikramaditya.

Reasons why the Gupta age is called the Golden age– 1. Era of great rulers 2. Era of peace 3. Era of political unity 4. Ear of Economic prosperity 5. Era of Artistic progress 6. Era of Literary progress 7. Ear of Scientific progress 8. Security from foreign aggression

The rulers paid great attention towards the welfare of their subjects. They maintained peace and good administration. Each ruler made efforts to organize India into one political unit. There was economic prosperity every where. Consequently art and literature saw remarkable growth. The period produced mathematician and astronomers like (112)

Varahmihira Aryabhatta and Bhramagupta. Aryabhatta in his 'Surya-Siddhanta explained the causes of solar and lunar eclipses. He also declared that the earth revolves round its axis. He also wrote a book 'Aryabhatiya'. The invention of zero and decimal system was also introduced during this period. The prominent mathematicians of the Gupta period were also skilled in astrology. Besides, astrology and mathematics, literature, painting, architecture, physics, metallurgy and knowledge of astronomical occurrences was at its peak. Causes of Downfall of Gupta Empire 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

9.9

There were no able rulers after Skanda Gupta in the Gupta dynasty. They failed to protect their Empire from internal revolts and foreign attacks. Attacks of the Huns gave a severe blow to the Gupta Empire. The law of inheritance was not well defined. This resulted in increase in mutual conflicts which weakened their power. Economic conditions became weak during the later Guptas. Increasing ambitions of the provincial administrators became an important reason for the downfall of the Guptas. Another important reason for the downfall of the Guptas was too much power being given to the Feudal Lords.

Harshas Empire

Emperor Harshavardhan was the son of the ruler of Thaneshar Prabhakar Vardhan. After Prabhakar Vardhan his son Rajyvardhan ascended the throne. When Rajyavardhan learnt of war between the rulers of Kanauj, Grahavarman, husband of his sister Rajshree, he fought against the King of Malwa Devgupta who had killed Grahavarman. Rajyhavardhan defeated Dev Gupta but the king of Bengal Shashank, who was also the friend of Dev Gupta treacherously killed Rajyavardhan. Under these circumstances Harsha became the ruler of Thanesar. He ascended the throne in 606 A.D. at the age of 16. Since his sister Rajshree did not have any issues the throne of Kannauj also came into his hands. In this way he became the ruler of both Kannauj and Thanesar. His empire spread from the Himalayas in the north to the river Narmada in the south, to Bengal in the East to the Indus in the west. He had political relations with China and Persia (Political Expansion Map). Administrative Organization : Besides being a conqueror, Harsha was also an able administrator. With a few changes he followed the Gupta organization. The pattern of Harshas administration was monarchical. The Emperor had the most prominent place in the central administration. He was the chief of the army and the highest court of appeal. The main aim of the rule was the welfare of the subjects. There were many ministers and secretaries to assist the Emperor. The King was not bound by the decisions of the council of ministers. There were departmental heads like Mahabaladhi krut (Commander in chief) and Maha Sandhivigrahadhikrit (secretary of war and power). (113) (113)

For administrative convenience the vast empire was divided into provinces. Provinces were called Bhukti or Desh. The administrator of Bhukti was called Uparik. Only the princes of the royal dynasty or members of the royal family were appointed to these positions. Each province was divided into various Vishayas (districts). The administrators of these vishays were called Vishayapati. He supervised the Various activities of the district. The smallest unit of administration was the village. Harsha had a large army. The code of punishment during Harsha's period was very strict. There was capital punishment for some crimes. Due to the strict code of punishment the rate of crime was low. The sources of information on Harsha have been derived from Bana's Harsha Charita and the Chinese traveller Huen Tsang's travelogues. (114)

The Chief source of the state's income was land revenue. Generally land revenue was one/sixth of the produce. Taxes could be paid in the form of grain. Besides markets river banks, tax on traders and fines were the chief sources of state income. Harsha was one of the greatest rulers of India. It is generally believed that Harshvardhan had control over the entire northern India. He was a great conqueror, able administrator and promoted the welfare of the people. He was a religious person and a patron of learning. Due to his victories and spread of religious works he has been called a person with Virtues of both Samudra Gupta and Asoka.

Terms Excavation Nishka Monarchy Republic

: : : :

Janpad Epic Tripitaka

: : :

Eight fold path

:

Tirthankar Five Vows

: :

Asteya

:

Aparigraha

:

Aryavarta Dakshinapalth

: :

digging Vedic period coins used for exchange. Hereditary rule of the king. A type of Government in which the head of the subjects/people is elected. State with defined boundaries Eloborate poetic composition related to a great character. Compilation of Buddha's words and lectures. His close disciples. Organized into Vinay Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhi Dhamma Pitaka. According to Gautam Buddha the path that leads to liberation from sufferings and attainment of Nirvana is called the eight fold path. Jain sages. Founders of the Jain religion. Five vows prescribed for Jain disciples- non injury (ahimsa) speaking the truth (Satya), non-stealing (asteya) non-adultery (Brahmacharya) and non-possession (aparigraha) Donot take or think to take anybodies object without his permission. (non-possession) - Refraining from acquiring material possessions. Northern India. Southern India.

Exercise I. Choose the right answer 1. Which of the following cities is not related to the Indus civilization? (i) Mohenjodaro (ii) Kalibanga (iii) Lothal (iv) Pataliputra (115) (115)

2.

Which was the foreign traveller came to India during Chandra Gupta Maurya's period? (i) Fahien (ii) Arian (iii) Hieun Tsang (iv) Megasthenese II. Match the following : A B 1. Chandragupta Maurya 1. Kautilya 2. Arthshastra 2. Mahatma Buddha 3. Lumbini 3. Vikramaditya 4. Chandragupta II 4. Magadh 5. Ashoka 5. Kalinga war III. Fill in the blanks : 1. Founder of the Jain religion ................................ . 2. Mahatama Buddha attained enlightenment under the ................. tree. 3. India's two great epics are the ................. and .................... . 4. Founder of the Gupta's dynasty ........................ . Very short answer type questions 1. Write the names and the number of Vedas. 2. Write the names of the four chief cities of the Indus civilization. 3. Who was Megasthenese? Name the book written by him. 4. Write the names of the Chief Education Institutions of ancient India. 5. Who was Kautilya? Write the name of the book written by him. 6. Which Gupta ruler was succesful in repulsing the Huna attacks? Short answer type question 1. Who discovered the cities of Mohenjodaro and Harappa? 2. Write about the new information received about river Saraswati. 3. What is the importance of the Kalinga war in Indian history? 4. State the political significance of matrimonial alliances formed by Chandra Gupta II. 5. Write about the chief features of the administrative organization during the Gupta period. 6. Write about the expansion of Harsha's Empire. Long answer type questions 1. Write about the contribution of the Indus civilization. 2. Describe the Vedic civilization. 3. State the chief features of Chandra Gupta Maurya's administrative organization. 4. Write about Ashoka's Dhamma and mention its chief features. 5. “Gupta period is known as the golden period of India history.” Justify the statement. 6. Briefly describe the victory campaign of Samudra Gupta. 7. Write about the administrative organization of Harshavardhan.

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Chapter-10

Medieval India We Will Study



10.1 Meaning of the Medieval period

The period between the ancient period 10.1 Meaning of medieval period and modern period is referred to as the medieval and sources of medieval period. Historians have called the 8th century history A.D. as the beginning and the 18th century A.D. 10.2 Kingdoms of South India as the end of the medieval period. The 8th 10.3 Kingdoms of North India century A.D. is considered as the beginning of 10.4 Attacks of the Arabs and the the medieval period because a lot of changes Turks were taking place in the social life of India and 10.5 Struggle with the Turks these changes affected various aspects of social 10.6 Delhi Sultanate life in India. These changes influenced the 10.7 Vijaynagar and Bahmani political and economic life of India viz. social Kingdoms life, religion, language, art etc. Therefore 8th 10.8 Mughal Empire century A.D. marks the beginning of the 10.9 Opposition to Mughal medieval period. Similarly the downfall of power in India Mughal Empire and the advent of the British in India in the 18th Century also brought about many changes. Therefore the 18th Century A.D. marks the end of the medieval period.

Sources of Medieval Indian History: We have adequate archaeological and literary sources to study the history of this period, which are as follows:

Sources of Medieval Indian Histo

Archae

Literary Sources ● ● ● ● ●

Rajtarangini Tuzukh-e- Babri Prithvi Raj Raso Padmavat Akbarnama etc.

● ● ● ● ● ●

(117) (117)

Monuments Coins Copper plates Statues Temples, Mo and paintings

After the death of Harshavardhan there was a political vacuum in India. The forces of decentralization led to the rise of feudal powers which destroyed the political unity of India. There was the rise of new dynasties during this period. For example the Gurjar Pratihars, the Pala dynasty, the Chalukyas, the Parmars and the Chauhans in northern India were the chief dynasties. In southern India the Pallavas, the Rashtrakutas, the Chalukyas of Kalyani, the Cheras, the Pandyas and the Cholas were the chief kingdoms. From the point of view of study, the medieval period has been divided into two parts. The period from 8th Century A.D. to 12 th Century A.D. is known as the early medieval period.

10.2 States of South India In the 8th Century A.D. South India was divided into numerous small states. The chief among them were the following:The Pallavas - The Pallavas rose in the southern region of river Krishna (Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu). Pallava Kings ruled for nearly 500 years. NarasimhavarmanI and Narasimhavarman II were valiant rulers. In due course of time the Pallavas entered into a continuous struggle with the Chalukyas, Pandyas and the Rashtrakutas. The Cholas defeated the last ruler of this dynasty, Aparajit Varman and established their rule over the kingdom. The Pallavas had a well organized administrative system. Chalukyas - The Chalukya dynasty ruled Characteristics of Chalukya in southern India from the 6th Century A.D. till the middle of the 8th Century A.D. Its capital Administration: ● The Chalukyas ruled for nearly was Vatapi (Karnatak) from where the dynasty rose to political power. Therefore these 200 years. ● Monarchical form of Government Chalukyas are also known as Chalukyas of was prevalant. The Emperor was Badami (Vatapi). The Chalukya kings tried to the pivot of the administrative unite southern India into one political power. The prominent rulers of the Chalukya dynasty system. ● They gave the feudal lords the were- Pulakesin I, Kirtivarman, Mangalesh, right to govern over their Pulakesin II Vikramaditya, Tailap II, Vikramaditya V, Jaya Singh II, Someshwar I, conquered territories. ● The Village was the smallest unit and Vishnuwardhan. The Chalukya king Pulakesin II defeated the Cheras and the of administration. Pallavas and expanded his Empire. The Chola Empire - The most powerful ancient dynasty in Southern India was that of the Cholas. The ancient Chola rulers have been described in the Sangam literature. The most valiant ruler of the dynasty was Karikal. During his period the Chola Empire reached its pinnacle. Raja Raja of this dynasty was also a famous and valiant ruler, who ruled from about 985 - 1014 A.D. During King Raja Raja's period his boundaries included the entire (118)

southern India up to the Tungabhadra river. Parts of Maldives and Srilanka also formed his Empire. Rajendra III (1279 A.D.) was the last ruler of this dynasty. The Chola dynasty is known in history for its administrative reforms. Their naval power was highly developed during the period and they had a big naval fleet. Characteristics of the Chola Administration ● ● ● ●

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The King was the highest official of the State. Administration was done with the help of a Council of ministers. The Empire was divided into provinces, Mandalams, Valanadus (districts). The smallest unit of administration was the Gram and this important unit Grama was divided into 3 parts - i.e. (assembly of the common people) Sabha (intellectuals, Brahmins) Nagaram (trades, shopkeepers, sculptors). There were several committees for the administrative organization of the Grama. Agriculture and trade were well developed. The chief source of the state's income was land revenue and tax on trade. Trade and means of communication were developed and there was foreign trade too.

Rashtrakutas - The name of the first ruler of the dynasty was Nanraj (630-650 A.D. approx.) The second ruler of the dynasty Dantidurga ( 650-665 A.D.) made a lot of efforts for the expansion of his Empire. Rashtrakutas are known for their power and political expansion in south India. Krishna I, Govind II, King Dhruva, Dharavarsh Govind III, Amoghvarsha and Krishna II were the other prominent rulers of this dynasty. Their capital was at Mankhet. Rashtra Kutas had to fight consistently for establishing their domination over Kannauj in Northern India against the Gurjar, the Pratihars and the Pala dynasty. This weakened their power. In about 973 A.D. Chalukya King Tailap II defeated the last Rastrakuta ruler Karka II and established his domination over his empire. Chera State - According to Asoka's rock edicts the Chera dynasty was established in the ancient period. Their kingdom included the Malabar, Trivendrum, and Cochin. The harbours of the Chera Kingdom were big centers of trade. The Chola dynasty had matrimonial alliances with the Chera dynasty. They ruled for a very short period. In the 8th Century A.D. the Pallavas, in 10th Century A.D. the Cholas and in the 13th Century A.D. the Pandyas established their control over the Cheras. The Pandya Kingdom - The Pandya state was a prominent state among the ancient Tamil states. Their capital was Madurai. Atikeshari Marvarman was a famous Pandya ruler. (119) (119)

10.3

The Kingdoms of Northern India The chief kingdoms of the 8th Century A.D. of North India were as follows:

The Gurjar Pratihar - The Gurjar Pratihar dynasty ruled from the 8th to the 11th Century A.D. They not only ruled for a long time over a large geographical area of India but also checked the Muslim attacks from the Indus region into north India. Nagabhatt I was the founder of this dynasty. The rulers of this dynasty ruled over Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, and some parts of Rajasthan for a long time. Nagabhatt I, Vatsraj, Nagabhatt II, Mihirbhoja, Mahendra Pala etc. were the prominent rulers of this dynasty. There was a struggle for control over Kannauj between the Pratihars and the Palas and the Rashtrakutas of the south for about 200 years. This is known as the Tripartite struggle.

The Pala dynasty - The rulers of the Pala dynasty of Bengal established a big empire in the middle of the 8th century in north India. The founder of this dynasty was Gopala. The Palas had conflicts with the Pratihars and the Rashtrakutas for control over Kannauj . The prominent rulers of this dynasty were Dharmapala and Devpala. The famous Vikramshila University was founded by Dharmpala. It was an important center of learning of Buddhism. The Pala rulers were patrons of learning and religion.

The Chalukya dynasty (Solanki) - The founder of the Solanki dynasty of Gujarat was Moolraj. Mahmood Gaznavi attacked Gujarat during the reign of Bhima I of this dynasty, in which Bhima I was defeated. After Bhimdev's death his son Karandev sat on the throne in 1064 A.D. The most able king of the Solanki dynasty is considerded to be Jaysingh Siddharaj. After Siddharaj, Kumarpal became the ruler. Jainacharya Hemchandra Acharya was Kumarpala's advisor. After Kumarpala, Bhimdev II sat on the throne. The attack of Monammad Ghori took place around this time.

The Parmar dynasty - The founder of the Parmar dynasty was Upendra Raj. The prominent rulers of this dynasty were Siyak II Munj, Sindhraj, Bhoja, Jai Singh, and Udaiaditya. Siyak II defeated the Rashtrakutas and established an The famous Bhojpur independent kingdom in Malwa. King Bhoja was the most valiant temple and lake of ruler of this dynasty. He was a great warrior, writer, poet, patron Bhopal belong to the reign of Raja of learning and an intellectual. Many intellectuals and poets found patronage in his court. He got many temples and ponds constructed. Bhoj. During his reign the city of Dhara ( present district of Dhar in Madhya Pradesh) was an important melting pot of literature and culture. This dynasty ruled over Gujarat and Rajasthan along with Madhya Pradesh. This dynasty is chiefly

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known in history for its temple construction. During this period many temples of architectural splendour were constructed.

The Chahman (Chauhan) dynasty - The rule of this dynasty spread from the central Sambhar region of Jodhpur and Jaipur. Later, this dynasty became famous as the Chauhan dynasty. The first independent ruler of the dynasty was Vigrahraj II. Ajayraj of the same dynasty laid the foundation of the city of Ajaymeru (Ajmer). He got splendid palaces and buildings constructed here. The last and most powerful ruler of the Chauhan dynasty was Prithiviraj Chauhan.

The Chandel Dynasty - The Chandela rulers had supremacy over the Bundelkhand region. The capital of this kingdom was Khajuraho. The prominent rulers of this dynasty were Nanuk, Yashovarman, Dhanga, Vidyadhar, Kirtivarman and Parmadridev. The reign of the Chandela rulers is famous for the progress made in the temple architecture. The famous temples of Khajuraho were constructed by the rulers of this dynasty. The period from the 13th century A.D. to the 18th century A.D. is known as the later medieval period. During this period, foreign invaders carried on their destructive activities one after the other (on India) which Indians strongly resisted from time to time. However after a hard struggle the invaders were able to establish their rule in India.

10.4 Arab and Turk Attacks During the Rajput period, foreign invaders attacked India a number of times. Arabs attacked in the beginning but they could not achieve any major success. Mohammad bin 'Quasim attacked Sindh where Dahir and later his queen struggled with courage and bravery, but they were defeated. After the death of Quasim, Junaed attacked the regions of Rajasthan and Gujarat but the powerful rulers of northern India prevented him from entering India. Pulakesin Raj the Chalukya ruler, the Pratihar ruler Nagabhatt II, Lalitaditya Muktpeed and Yashovarma defeated the Arabs. The extremely powerful Indian kings were the chief reason for the failure of the Arabs. The invasion of the Turks into India began in the middle of the period between 974 - 977 A.D. The chief among them were the invasions of Mahmood Ghazni and Mohammad Ghori.

The Invasions of Mahamood Ghaznavi - Mahmood was an ambitious ruler of a small principality of Western Asia. He needed money for his army. He had heard many legends about Indian wealth. In order to plunder India's wealth, he invaded many parts of northern India from about 1000 to 1027 A.D. Mahmood made 17 (seventeen) successful attacks on India. Punjab, Multan, Bhatinda, Nagarkot, Narainpur, Kashmir, Thanesar, Mathura, Kalinjar and Somnath were prominent centers of invasion. Look at the above places on the given map. Ghaznavi destroyed many religious places, looted and (121) (121)

carried away immense wealth to Ghazni. The famous writer Alberuni who came to India with Mahmood Ghaznavi has written about the carnage of Mahmood's destruction. His attacks led to great economic and cultural loss to the country. The contemporary Hindu rulers faced Mahmood Ghaznavi but were unsuccessful due to lack of political unity. Mahmood Ghaznavi died in 1030 A.D. (Approx.).

Mohammad Ghori's invasion - After 150 years of Mahmood Ghaznavi's invasion, Mohammed Ghori the ruler of a small principality, Ghor, in Afghanistan, invaded north west India. Taking advantage of the mutual conflicts of the Indian rulers Ghori first invaded India in about 1175 A.D. and brought Multtan and Sindh under his domination. The objective of Mohammad Ghori's invasion of India was acquiring wealth (122)

and propagating Islam. During this time, the Hindu states in northern India included - the Chouhan state of Delhi and Ajmer, the Solanki Kingdom in Kannauj, the Sena Kingdom in Bengal- Bihar, and the Chandel kingdom in Bundelkhand. In southern India Devgiri and Warangal and Hoysal were prominent states.

10.5

The Struggle with the Turks

Prithviraj Chauhan's struggle with the Turks: Mohammad Ghori attacked Gujarat around 1178 A.D. where Bhimdev II was ruling. Bhimdev's army defeated Mohammad Ghori. Ghori had to run away to save his life. He did not dare to attack Gujarat again. After his victory over the Punjab, Multan and Sindh, he attacked the fort of Bhatinda on the Punjab border with a view to attack the prominent Emperor Prithviraj Chauhan of north India. Prithvi Raj Chouhan was an able, brave, valiant and powerful Emperor. He had a fine army and army commanders. Prithviraj faced Ghori in 1191 A.D. on the plains of Tarain, this is known as the first Battle of Tarain. Ghori's army could not withstand the massive attack launched by Prithviraj Chauhan's army and was forced to flee. Ghori also fled in a wounded state. Prithviraj did not chase the fleeing army as it was against the Rajput honour and tradition to chase a fleeing army. Consequently Ghori managed to escape. Ghori could not forget his disgraceful Prithvi Raj Chauhan defeat and again made preparations for the war and attacked India the very next year. There was another battle fought in the plains of Tarain in 1192, which is known as the second battle of Tarain. Prithviraj fought valiantly and compelled the forces of Ghori to retreat but through diplomatic manovers Ghori imprisoned Prithviraj Chauhan. Historians are not unanimous about how Prithviraj Chauhan died. However Hasan Nizami's view is that Mahmood Ghori got him killed. In this manner Md. Ghori gained control over Ajmer and Delhi. Many Rajput kings supported Prithviraj Chauhan but the king of Kannauj Jaichand did not support him due to personal enemity. In about 1194 A.D. Ghori attacked Kannauj and defeated Jaichand.

10.6 Delhi Sultanate The Slave dynasty : The first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanat was the Slave dynasty. The credit for its foundation goes to Qutubud-din Aibak. Md. Ghori died in 1206 A.D. He had handed over the charge of the organization of the Indian states to his slave and commander Qutub-ud- din Aibak. After the death of Ghori, Qutub-ud-din Aibak became the ruler of Delhi and its dominant states. He ruled from 1206 to 1210 A.D. He won many battles for his master Md. Ghori. He won over Hansi, Ajmer, Meerut, Aligarh, (123) (123)

Ranthambhor. The credit of the construction of the Qutubminar goes to him. He died while playing Chaugan (Polo) in 1210 Iltutmish started a A.D. After the death of Qutub-ud-din, Aramshah was declared new Arab style Coin the Sultan of Delhi but he could rule only for a few months. Tanka and bronze coin Jital. Tanka was Iltutmish made of silver and The most efficient ruler in the Slave dynasty was Iltutmish. gold. He was an Ilbari Turk. Qutub-ud-din freed him from slavery as a reward of his bravery against Khokhars on the recommendation of Md. Ghori. Iltutmish became the Sultan of Delhi after removing Aram Shah in 1211 A.D. There were many difficulties faced by Iltutmish after coming to the throne. The north western frontiers were not secure due to Mongol attacks and other foreign invaders. Yaldoz of Ghazni and Qubacha of Sindh and Multan along with the Subedars and Sardars of the Sultanat were against him. He crushed the power of the rebel Subedars and Sardars and formed a union of the Turks. Due to his far sightedness and diplomacy he saved Delhi from the attacks of the Mongol leader Chengiz Khan. Iltutmish attacked Ranthambor, Mandor, Nagod, Sambhar, Nayana, Jalore, and Gwalior to contain the rising Rajput power. He won the Gwalior fort in 1232 A.D. The Sultan attacked Bhelsa and Ujjain, parts of Malwa empire in 1234 A.D. and won them. He died in 1236 A.D.

Raziya Sultan (1236 A.D.-1240 A.D.) The sons of Iltutmish were incapable of ruling. Therefore he appointed his able daughter Razia as his successor. Raziya sat in the court and led the army. Crowning a daughter instead of a son was a novel step in medieval history. In the whole of the history of the medieval period, Raziya was the first and only Muslim woman Sultan of Delhi. Amir Turk Sardars could not tolerate a women Sultan and started conspiring against her and revolted. The most powerful among the revolts was the one led by Altunia of Bhatinda, Raziya attacked Lahore to crush the revolt. In the war her military commander Yakut was killed and Raziya was murdered.

Raziya Sultan

After Raziya, Bahram Shah, Alauddin Masood Shah and Nasiruddin Mahmood became the rulers of the Delhi Sultanat, only for name's sake while the real power was in the hands of the Amir Sardars.

Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (1266-1286 A.D.) Balban was bought by Sultan Iltutmish. Balban impressed his master with his ability (124)

and services and was soon made a member of the Group of 40 Amirs, 'Chalisa'. Balban served Iltutmish and his successors with full loyalty. He sat on the throne in 1266 A.D. after the death of Nasruddin Mahmood. Balban followed the policy of 'blood and Iron' for regulating his administration. He did not hesitate even a bit in finishing off his opponents. He organized a despotic monarchical administrative organization. He believed in the divine right of kings. He believed the position of the Sultan to be superior and glorious. He gave strict punishments to those who did not obey his orders. He reorganized the army for the security of his kingdom and established a powerful espionage system.

The Khilji Dynasty The Khilji dynasty was established by Sultan Jalal-ud-din Khilji in 1290 A.D. He occupied a prominent place among the other commanders of the armies of Delhi before becoming the Sultan. He killed Kaikubad the weak successor of Balban and became the Sultan himself. After becoming the Sultan, he liberally distributed offices and gifts amongst his loyal supporters. He married his daughter to his nephew Allaudin and made him his son-in-law. He appointed Allauddin as the Subedar of Kara and Manikpur. But Jalal-ud-din proved to be an inefficient and weak ruler. As a result there were revolts in the state. In 1296 A.D. Alauddin killed Jalal-ud-din Khilji and himself became the Sultan.

Alauddin Khilji- (1296 A.D. to 1316 A.D.) -Allauddin was very ambitious. His desire was to become the Emperor of the whole of India. In order to accomplish this aim, he attacked Sindh, Multan, Gujarat, Jalore, Jaisalmer, Ranthambor, Chittor, Ujjain and Chanderi and won them. In order to win over the four kingdoms of the south, Devgiri, Warangal, Dwar Samudra and Madura he sent his military commander Malik Kafur. He organized a big army and an espionage department. He crushed the power of the revolting Sardars and Amirs. In order to make goods available to his army at a low prices he implemented market control in Delhi, which benefitted the people of Delhi. He also implemented the rationing system He made Government granaries keeping in view the sudden changes in the weather. He fixed the rates of goods not on the basis of one's wishes but in accordance to the cost of production. Barni in his book Tarikh-i-Firozshai has given a descriptive account of market control and a list of prices of goods. Excessive taxes were imposed on farmers, traders and Hindus. Taxes were collected strictly and without respite. With the death of Alauddin Khilji in 1316 A.D. the Khilji dynasty also declined. Meanwhile the danger of Mongol attacks loomed large over India. For about a century Mongol danger remained a matter of concern for the Muslim Empire.

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Tughlaq dynasty In 1320 A.D. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq removed the last ruler of the Khilji dynasty Nasir-ud-din Khusro and became the Sultan of Delhi. He led military campaigns to Warangal Orissa and Bengal after becoming the Sultan.

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (1325-1351 A.D.) - Juna Khan meaning Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq became the Sultan of Delhi by killing his father Ghiyasuddin. He was the most controversial Sultan of the Delhi Sultanat. He is considered to be an able, talented, progressive and intelligent Sultan. He became famous in world history due to his ambitious plans. Increase in taxes in the doab region, transfer of capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (Devgiri) issue of copper currency in place of gold and silver currency plans of victory, were planned and subsequently taken back. Making of plans, implementing and then withdrawing them was a waste of time and money. Due to these plans and torture of his subjects he has been called by various adjectives like mad, blood thirsty, egoist, adamant, 'before his time' and a 'mixture of opposites'.

Firoz Shah Tuglaq ( 1351-1388 A.D.) Muhammad bin-Tughlaq died in 1351 A.D. After his death his cousin Firozshah Tughlaq became the next Sultan of Delhi. After coming to the throne Firoz made successful attacks on Bengal, Jajnagar, Nagarkot, Thatta etc. He took several steps to remove the administrative complacency of Muhamman-bin Tughlaq's period.

Attack of Taimur Lang The ruler of Samarkand Taimur was extremely brave, courageous and ambitious. The immense wealth of India lured him to attack India. Besides, the aim of his attack on India was religious. In 1398 A.D. he entered India with a large army and soon established his control over Delhi. He had no desire to rule over India so after plundering, carnage and a great setback to agriculture he went back to Samarkand.

The Sayyed dynasty ( 1414 A.D.-1451 A.D.) After the downfall of the Tuglaq dynasty the Sayyed dynasty established their domination over Delhi. In this dynasty Khizr Khan, Mubarakshah, Muhammed Shah and Alam Shah became the Delhi Sultans who did not make any special contribution worth mentioning in history.

The Lodi dynasty ( 1451-1526 A.D.) In 1451 A.D. Bahlol Lodi became the Sultan of Delhi. He spent most of his time in making Delhi safe from his opponents. In 1489 A.D. his son Sikander Lodi became the Sultan. Sikander died in 1517 A.D. and his son Ibrahim Lodi became the Sultan of Delhi. He had to face internal rebellion. He entered into a war with Rana Sanga of Mewar and Mansingh of Gwalior. His attack on Gwalior was successful. (126)

During the reign of Ibrahim Lodi the Delhi Sultanat was attacked by Babur, the ruler of Kabul. There was a tough battle fought at Panipat between the two armies in 1526 A.D. It is known as the first battle of Panipat. Ibrahim was killed. Delhi and Agra came under Babur's control. With Babur's victory, Delhi Sultanat also declined.

10.7 Vijaynagar and Bahmani kingdoms Alauddin-Khilji's period was a great blow to Hindu religion and culture of south India. Slowly the Hindus started protesting for self-defence, religion and their culture. The famous religious leader and intellectual of Southern India Madhav Vidyaranya contributed a lot to this. The feeling of Hindu renaissance was responsible for the establishment of the Vijaynagar Empire. The misgovernance and revolts during Muhammedbin-Tughlaq's period gave momentum to this movement.

The credit for the establishment of Vijaynagar goes to two brothers Harihar and Bukka. Their father's name was Sangam. Therefore their dynasty is also known as the Sangam dynasty. When Muhammed Tughlaq attacked Warangal and won it, both the brothers were imprisoned and sent to Delhi. The Sultan was impressed with their ability and service and took them in his army. (127) (127)

Both the brothers were sent to South India to crush the revolt. Here they came in contact with the famous Saint Madhav Vidyaranya of South India. Here they were also inspired to protect Hindu culture. In 1336 A.D. Harihar laid the foundation of the HampiHastinavati Kingdom on the southern banks of river Tungabhadra. The city was named Vijaynagar, which later took the form of a big Empire. Look at the borders of Vijaynagar Kingdom in the given map.

Harihar I - The first ruler of Vijaynagar was Harihar. He ruled with the help of his brother Bukka and expanded his Empire. In a short span of time he extended his Empire from Krishna river in the north to Kaveri river in the south and till the sea coast in the east and the west. He established a firm administration.

Bukka - After the death of his brother Harihar he became the ruler of Vijaynagar. Traditional rivalry with the Bahmani Kingdom started with Bukka's period. Bukka won the Muslim state of Madurai and expanded his Kingdom to Rameshwaram in the farthest south. He did a lot of work for the protection of Hindu culture and took the title of 'Vedmarg- pak. He gave religious freedom to the believers of Jainism, Buddhism and Islam. He encouraged Telugu literature and centralized administration. He also sent his ambassador to China.

Harihar II - Harihar II became the ruler in about 1377 A.D. He took the title of 'Maharajadhiraj'. He won the cities of Mysore, Kanjivaram, Chingalpur, Trichinapaly etc. He fought a battle with the Bahmani Kingdom. He invested most of his time in proper organization of administration and religious works. He got many Hindu temples constructed and donated liberally. Sayan the famous scholar was his Prime Minister. After the death of Harihar II in 1406 A.D. there was a war of succession among his sons Virupaksha I, Bukka II and Devraya I became the rulers. After this Ramchandra and Veer Vijay became the kings.

Devraya II - Devraya II was the most efficient ruler of the Sangam dynasty. There were two terrible wars with the Bahmani Kingdom during Devraya's period in which Vijaynagar had to face severe losses. Devraya attacked Lanka and collected taxes. He promoted sea trade. He patronized literature and Shaivism.

The End of the Sangam the dynasty - After Devraya II Malikarjun (14461465 A.D.) and Virupaksha II (1465-1485 A.D.) came to the throne but were weak rulers. In the end, the feudal leader of Chandragiri Narsingh Sulva in around 1486 A.D. established his control over the Kingdom and laid the foundation of the Sulva dynasty in Vijaynagar.

The Sulva dynasty - The Sulva dynasty ruled over Vijaynagar from around 1486 A.D. to 1505 A.D.

Narsihma Sulva (1486-1490 A.D.) - Narsihma Sulva was a brave, powerful (128)

and able ruler. He crushed the revolts taking place in the Empire and re-established his control over the states won by the Bahmani Empire. For the organization of a powerful army he bought fine horses from Arab traders. He patronized literature. During his period, the famous book Jemini Bharatam was written. Narsingh Sulva died in 1490 A.D. His son Imadi Narsihma became the ruler but he was weak because of which the responsibility of administration came to Naras Nayak the military leader.

The Tulva dynastyVeer Narsimha (1505-1509 A.D.) - after the death of his father Naras Nayak Veer Narsimha killed Imadi Narsimha and laid the foundation of the Tulva dynasty in Vijaynagar. Veer Narsinhma ruled till around 1509 A.D.

Krishna Dev Rai (1509-1529 A.D.) - The most efficient ruler of the Tulva dynasty was Krishna Dev Raya. He was the cousin of Veer Narsihma. He was a brave soldier, successful military commander and able administrator. He established peace in his kingdom and paid attention towards economic progress. He crushed the revolts and by defeating the neighbouring states, made his frontiers secure. He waged successful wars against the Bahmani states - Orissa, Golkunda and Bijapur. He established friendly relations with the Portuguese for political reasons and promotion of trade. He was an admirer of knowledge and art. His court had eight of the finest poets and artists. The Portuguese traveller Peida has praised him a lot. Krishnadev Raya himself was a great scholar of Telugu and Sanskrit. He wrote many books of which Ayukta Malyad and Jambvanti Kalyanam are available even today. Due to his admiration of literature, he is also called the "Bhoja of Andhra". He got Mandaps and Gopurams with a hundred pillars constructed in various parts of his Empire. He got Vijay Bhavan, Hazaram temple and Vitthal temple constructed. He also founded a city called Naglapur. After Krishnadev Raya his cousin Achyut Devraya beame the King in about 1529 A.D. Krishnadev Raya's son-in-law was also given a share in the administration. The state of the kingdom started becoming bad. Many influential people started controlling power. Achyut died in 1542 A.D. His minor son Venkat I became the ruler but power remained in the hands of his maternal uncle Salakraj Sirumal. After some time Achyut's nephew Sadasivraj became the ruler, but he also proved to be a weak ruler. The real power to govern came in the hands of the minister Ram Rai.

Battle of Talikota- The minister of the Vijaynagar kingdom, Ram Rai was a diplomat. He wanted to follow a policy of planting seeds of disunity between the five Kingdoms which were formed after the collapse of the Bahmani Empire. But all the five Kingdoms - Bijapur, Bidar, Berar, Golkunda and Ahmednagar got united in the name of (129) (129)

religion. All five Kingdoms together attacked Vijaynagar. In about 1566 A.D. the battle of Talikota was fought. The armies of Vijaynagar were defeated and Islamic armies destroyed Vijaynagar.

The AarVeedu dynasty - Ram Rai's brother Tirumal made Pendugonda the capital and made an attempt to preserve the existence of the Vijaynagar Empire. In around 1570 A.D. he removed Sadasiv from the throne and laid the foundation of the Aarveedu dynasty. Tirumal died in 1572 A.D. His successors were not able to take care of the declining Vijaynagar Empire and soon Vijaynagar Empire was divided into many small independent states.

Administrative Organization of Vijaynagar The form of administration of Vijaynagar Empire was despotic monarchy. The powers of the king were un-controlled and unlimited. The basis of the state was Hindu religion. The administration of Vijaynagar was divided into Central, provincial and local administration. In the Central administration of Vijaynagar the Emperor, the ministers council, the King's assembly and the prince played an important role. The Emperor had the chief position in the State and was called the Raja. All powers of the state were concentrated in his hands. He himself administered the state. Declaration of war and treaty, appointment of officers and workers, organization of law and justice etc. were in his hands. There was a central secretariate for the administration of the state in which there were various departments, their Chairmen, secretaries and officers. The officials and workers of the state received land in lieu of salaries. This arrangement was called the Naykat arrangement. Military officials were also given cultivable land. Military officers were called Nayaks and the land that was given was called Amaram. The king was the highest judge for the administration of justice. He himself appointed the judges. Provincial officers (Prantapati) in the provinces and Panchayats in the villages administered justice. No delay was done in the administration of justice. Hindu code of justice was prevalant. The laws of criminal cases (Faujdari) were severe. Amputation of hands feet and death punishment were mostly given. The state made efforts for the development of agriculture and irrigation. Spices were exported. The state encouraged irrigation work. The construction of canals and ponds was considered to be a nobel deed. The land revenue was determined according to the fertility of the land. Land revenue was not uniform throughout the state. Grazing tax, marriage tax, property tax, tax on trade, garden tax, tax on handicrafts were imposed by the State. The subjects were (130)

happy inspite of heavy taxation.

Provincial administration - The Empire was divided into provinces. Provinces were divided into Kottams or Valanadus. Kottam was a district which was divided into Nadus. Nadus were divided into cities. A Village was the smallest unit of the state. The responsibility of the province was in the hands of a member of the royal family or powerful feudal lord. Local Administration - The smallest unit of administration was the village. There was representative body ( Pratinidhi Sabha) for the administration of the village which had the representatives of the village. The Pradhan ( chief) of the Gram Panchayat was called Iyengar. He was also given some powers to give justice and punishment. He also collected royal taxes. The Gram Sabha could donate or sell the land under it. The Gram Sabha was given the power to decide some diwani ( revenue) and Fauijdari (criminal) cases.

The Bahmani Kingdom After the establishment of the Delhi Sultanat in the north, the various states of the south remained independent. Due to the difficulties in communication and being located in distant regions the Sultans of Delhi remained away from the politics of the south. Alauddin Khilji was the first Sultan of Delhi who estalished his supermacy over the southern states through force. But after his death, the southern states became independent once again. Muhammad bin Tughlaq made efforts to establish his supremacy over the southern states, and also became successful but within a short span of time he had to face continuous revolts. During Muhammad bin Tughlaq's reign the Muslim amirs of the south revolted and the Bahmani Kingdom was founded. The Bahmani Kingdom emerged as a powerful Muslim state. The Muslim amirs of south India became angry with the policies, oppression and plans of the Delhi Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq and revolted. The armies of the Sultan were unsuccessful in crushing the revolt. The revolting people established their control over Devgiri. In about 1357 A.D. Hasan Gangu Kohsan Abdul Muzzafar sat on the throne with the name of Allaudin Bahman Shah. The Bahmani Kingdom flourished in south India from 1347 to 1526 A.D. The inefficiency of the Sultans, and torture of the people, continuous wars with the neighbouring states, struggle between the southern and foreign amirs, the murder of Mahmood Gavan, differences amongst the Amirs and other causes led to the decline of the Bahmani Kingdom.

10.8 The Mughal Empire Babur, who laid the foundation of the Mughal Empire in India was the son of the ruler of Fargana state in Central Asia and a descendant of Taimur. During the time of Babur's attack there was political instability in north and south India. There was (131) (131)

predominance of mutual fightings, struggle and conspiracies. Babur took full advantage of this political disorder. Babur attacked the borders of India and he was succesful. In 1526 tanks came to the plains of Panipat where Ibrahim Lodi the ruler of Delhi faced him. Ibrahim was killed in the battle and success came to Babur. Babur got control over Delhi and Agra. Babur wanted to crush the Rajput power to rule over India. On the other hand the Rajput rulers, under the leadership of Rana Sanga, were determined to out the Mughals from India. There was a fierce battle between the armies of Babur and Rana Sanga in 1527 A.D. on the plains of Khanwa which Rana Sanga faced bravely but due to the use of tanks and the Tulguma warfare Babur got a decisive victory. Babur died in 1530 A.D. Babur has described his life, the beauty of India and contemporary politics in his book 'Tuzukh-e-Baburi' . (132)

Humayun - After the death of Babur his elder son Humayun sat on the throne in 1530 A.D. Humayun had to face the discontent of his relatives, brothers, Rajputs, Afghans, his subjects and also an emptry treasurey. The Afghan Sardars were his rivals among whom Sher Shah was the chief. Sher Shah defeated Humayun in 1539 A.D. in the battle of Chousa and forced him to leave Delhi. During the times of difficulty the Rajput king of Amarkot, king Veersal gave him asylum. Akbar was born in Amarkot in 1542 A.D. Sher Shah Suri - Sher Shah Suri was the son of an Afghan chief of a small Jagir in Bihar. Even after the defeat at the hands of Mughals in Panipat and Ghagra the Afghans were not completely crushed. Sher Shah reorganized them and removing Humayun from the throne of Delhi conquered Delhi. Humayun had to live a life of exile for about 15 years. During this period Sher Shah and his successors ruled over Delhi. Sher Shah's brief period of rule has an important place in Indian history because he restored the lost Afghan pride and rekindled the old administrative system with fundamental reforms which proved to be the foundation for the future. Sher Shah gave utmost importance to the welfare of the people and laid the foundation of a strong administration, the advantage of which went to the Mughals. He started many works in the field of military administration, judicial system, and land revenue system which were later adopted by Akbar. Sher Shah divided his empire into Sarkars and the Sarkars into Parganas. He made reforms in the currency system. The silver coin started by him was known as the 'Rupaiya'. In the field of education he constructed Madarsas. For travellers he made arrangements for Sarais (Guest houses) and wells and got trees planted. Sher Shah got the entire land surveyed and measured. He reconstructed the old royal road from Kolkata to Peshawar the 'Grand Trunk road' (Present G.T. road), from Agra to Rajasthan and Gujarat and in the south to Burhan he got new roads constructed. He had a strong espionage system. In 1545 A.D. Sher Shah Suri while laying the seige to Kalinjar died when a fire broke out due to explosives. The successors of Sher Shah Suri proved to be ineffective. Chief Sardars and officers started fighting amongst themselves. Humayun took advantage of this situation With the help of the Shah of Persia, Humayun won over Kandhar, Kabul, Punjab, Delhi and Agra and became the ruler. He slipped from the staircase of his library and died in 1556 A.D.

Akbar (1556-1605 A.D) - At the time of Humayun's death Akbar was with his guardian Bairam Khan in Gurdaspur district in Punjab at a place called Kalanaur. Bairamkhan crowned him there in Kalanaur in 1556 A.D. Akbar was 13 years old at that time. Soon after the death of Humayun the Afghan ruler Adilshah Suri's minister Hemu captured Delhi. He assumed the title of Vikramaditya and sat on the throne of Delhi. In 1556 A.D. Akbar reached the plains of Panipat with his guardian Bairamkhan. There was a fierce battle between Hemu and Akbar's forces. This is known as the second battle of (133) (133)

Panipat An arrow struck Hemu's eye from the enemy's side. Hemu was caught and Bairamkhan killed him. In this way Akbar gained control over Delhi and Agra. In the beginning Akbar ruled under the guardianship of Bairamkhan but started ruling independently in 1560 A.D. In 1562 he abolished the system of enslaving the war prisoners and in 1563 abolished the pilgrimage tax. In 1564 A.D. he abolished Jeziya which was imposed on Hindus. In this manner he was able to make Hindus his friends. Akbar followed a policy of diplomacy and friendship to win over entire India. Akbar won Malwa, Jaunpur, Chinnaur, Meerut, Gondwana, Ranthambhor, Kalinjar, Marwar, Gujarat, Bihar, Bengal, Kabul, Kashmir, Sindh, Orissa and many parts of south India. After a long struggle in 1567-1588 A.D. he conquered Chittor. Rajputs gave a tough challenge to Akbar under the leadership of Jaimal and Fatta. The prominent powers which challenged Akbar's authority was from Gondwana under Rani Durgavati and the ruler of Mewar Maharana Pratap. Though both the powers were defeated by Akbar's army still Akbar had to struggle and work hard to win their kingdoms. Akbar was a clever ruler. He understood that Rajputs were loyal and served their masters even at the cost of their lives, it was therefore necessary to work in association with the Rajputs. He did not have the courage to finish the entire Rajput states therefore he followed a separate policy towards the Rajputs. Akbar befriended the Rajputs and took fine and loyal and brave Rajputs in his service, which prolonged the duration of Mughal empire. Akbar gave high mansabs to some Rajput kings like Bhagwandas, Raja Mansingh, Birbal and Todarmal. Akbar also established friendly and matrimonial alliances with the Rajputs. Akbar married the princess of Amer (Jaipur) Bikaner and Jaisalmer. In this manner Rajputs had an important contribution in the realization of Akbar's dream of a powerful and extensive empire. He waged wars against the Rajput Kingdoms who did not accept his soverignity. Akbar established a universal religion. Din-e-Illahi. He got as Ibadatkhana constructed in Fatehpur Sikri where he held religious discussions with the followers of all religions.

Jehangir (1605-1627 A.D.) - After Akbar's death his son Jehangir sat on the throne. Jehangir was born in 1569 A.D. Jehangir got married many times, prominent among which was the marriage with the widow of Sher Afghan–Noor Jahan. Jehangir was so influenced by the personality of Noorjahan, that he entrusted the entire responsibility of administration on Noor Jahan. The result of this was that his last days were spent in sorrow. One of Jehangir's son Khurram (Shah Jahan) revolted due to which the situation of the state became a cause of worry. Jehangir died in 1627 A.D. and Shah Jahan acquired the throne after killing his brothers.

Shah Jahan (1627-1658 A.D.) - After Jehangir, Shah Jahan became the Emperor. Soon, he had to face and crush the revolt of Khanjahan Lodi, a revolt of feudal (134)

Lord Jagatsingh of Bundelkhand and Nurpur. He fought a war against the Portuguese and defeated them. In order to strengthen his empire he attacked Ahmednagar, Golkunda, and Bijapur in south India. The Mughals also had to fight against the Maratha armies. The four sons of Shahjahan were Darashikoh, Shahshuja, Aurangzeb and Murad. The war of succession for the throne started during Shahjahan's period itself, in which Aurangzeb was successful. He imprisoned Shahjahan. Shahjahan was an admirer of architecture, so he got a number of buildings constructed. The money spent on the construction of buildings was collected by the imposition of heavy taxes on the subjects, due to which people had to face several severe hardships.

Aurangzeb (1658-1707 A.D.) - The war of succession between the sons of Shahjahan started during his period itself. Aurangzeb emerged victorious in the war of succession and sat on the throne after killing his three brothers. He imprisoned his father in the Red Fort of Agra where he died after 8 years in 1666 A.D. Aurangzeb made the Rajputs, the Jats, the Sikhs and the Marathas his rivals due to which there were continuous revolts in the kingdom. Shivaji fought against him due to his anti-Hindu policy and laid the foundation of an independent Maratha Kingdom. The Sikh Guru Teg Bahadur was killed after torture. After this, Guru Gobind Singh organized the Sikh army (Khalsa) to face Aurangzeb. Rajputs like Durgadas Rathor challenged Aurangzeb.Tarabai gave a tough resistance to Aurangzeb for the independence of Marathas. Aurangzeb died in 1707 A.D. and with him the decline of the Mughal empire also started. Though the Mughal Empire continued in Delhi from 1707 to 1857 A.D. but it was only in name.

10.9 Opposition to Mughal Power in India Babur had laid the foundation of the Mughal empire in India in 1526 A.D. by defeating Ibrahim Lodi. The Mughal empire established in 1526 A.D. continued till 1707 A.D. From 1707 A.D. - 1857 A.D. the Mughal empire was only in name in Delhi from 1526 to 1707 A.D. Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jehangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb followed all methods and tactics, diplomacy and war, friendship and alliances in order to keep the entire India under their sovereignity in which they were successful. Kings from different parts of India kept challenging them. In order to deal with the problems of the state Hindu Rajput kings had two options - surrender like other Rajput kings had in front of Akbar, and become a part of the Mughal organization and live a dependent life. The Second option was to maintain their independence and defend the glory of their nation. For following this policy they had to be prepared for fierce wars and to leave all pleasures and family life. To protect their values, thoughts and respect of India some Rajput kings determined to follow the other path, i.e. they decided to fight against the Mughals. These Indian kings and rulers neither befriended nor surrendered, but gave a (135) (135)

tough challenge to the Mughal rulers with bravery. The prominent among them were the rulers of Mewar Rana Sanga, Maharana Pratap, Rani Durgawati of Gondwana, the Maratha ruler Shivaji, and the Sikh leader Govind Singh.

The ruler of Mewar Maharana Pratap Rana Sanga gave stiff resistance in the plains of Khanua. Unfortunately, Rana Sanga was defeated but till he was alive he did not accept defeat. After the death of Rana Sanga in 1528 A.D. Babur led his expedition forward. After the death of Rana Sanga Mughal power was resisted by Maharana Udai Singh (1537-1572 A.D.). After Udai Singh's death in 1572 A.D. his son Rana Pratap became the ruler of Mewar. He had to face many problems at home and outside after becoming the king. He spent a tough time with his father in jungles, valleys and mountains. He was very popular with the people of the mountainous Maharana Pratap region. The People of the hilly region addressed him as Kika (small child). Mewar had faced many attacks of the Mughals therefore the administration of Mewar was not satisfactory. There was no social and political stability. The Mughals had established their control over many parts of the kingdom due to which the income and prestige of the state declined. Maharana Pratap gave a tough challenge to Akbar till he lived. Rana Pratap started organizing Mewar to give the Mughals a fight. He organized feudal lords (Samants) and Bheels. For the first time Rana Pratap included the Bheels in his army and honoured them by giving them high positions. He shifted his residence from Kumbhalgarh to Gogunde so that Akbar could not attack it easily. Through public relations he created awareness against the Mughal power. These efforts brought unity and the entire Mewar rose against the Mughal power.

The battle of Halidighati (1576 A.D.) - The independence of Mewar was a sore in the eyes of Akbar. Rana Pratap refused to accept the sovereignity, friendship or offer of entering into a matrimonial alliance with Akbar. Akbar made several attempts to convince Rana Pratap but was not successful. In the end Akbar had to resort to a war to destroy the independence of Mewar. War started between the two armies on 21st June 1576 A.D. Akbar's armies were led by Mansingh. Thousands of soldiers on both the sides were killed. Rana Pratap with his aides Lunakarna, Ramshah, Tarachand, Poonja, Hakim Sur reached near Mansingh's elephant piercing the enemy's armies Rana's horse Chetak kept his front feet on the elephant's tusk. Rana attacked Mansingh with a spear but he escaped. Enemy forces encircled Rana, but the brave Rajputs whisked Rana away from the enemies. Wounded Chetak died on the way, but the war went on. Akbar's armies conquered Gogunde. (136)

Rana Pratap had to lose a part of his Empire but he did not accept defeat. He carried on war against the Mughals and managed to win back many of the lost areas of his state. He made a new capital at Chawan and established good administration in the state. He died on 19th Jan 1597 A.D. Akbar remained unsuccessful in suppressing Maharana Pratap till the end. In this way Maharana Pratap fought with bravery and courage till his death and crushed Akbar's ego.

Rani Durgawati - Rani Durgawati was, one of the most a valiant warrior's of medieval Indian history. She faced the Mughal emperor Akbar's greed for expansion of the Empire with bravery, courage and patience. Rani Durgawati a the Chandel princess of Mahoba. She was trained in horseriding, armaments and kisher (iron claw) right from childhood. She was married to the king of Garha Dalpat Shah. The kingdom of Garha also included the northern districts of present Madhya Pradesh. Dalpatshah transferred the capital of his state from Garha to Singorgarh. About eight years after his marriage Dalpatshah Rani Durgawati died. Durgawati had to shoulder the responsibility of the state as guardian to her minor son Veernarayan. The Rani managed the affairs of the state with courage and bravery. She cleverly repilsed Baj Bahadur's (ruler of Malwa) attacks. When Akbar the ruler of Delhi heard about the economic prosperity of Garha state, he sent Asaf Khan with a big army to attack Garha state for extending his empire. Rani Durgawati decided to fight rather than surrender. Asaf Khan attacked Garha in 1564 A.D. Rani Durgavati along with her son Veernarayan faced Asafkhan. Veernarayan was wounded. Rani Durgavati bravely fought against the forces of Asaf Khan but in the end was wounded seriously. In the wounded state brave Durgavati was unable to continue the war but she did not want Akbar's soldiers to imprison and humilate her. Therefore she killed herself with a sword and her son Veernarayan died while fighting. Finding themselves unsafe the women of the palace committed Jauhar. In this manner Asaf Khan conquered Garha and obtained the kingdom, palace and money and wealth. Though Garha was defeated, Rani Durgawati through her bravery proved that Emperor Akbar could not conquer a woman's empire without fighting the war on Garha. Garha is a blot on Akbar's administration. He imposed a war on a peaceful state and won it.

Chatrapati Shivaji - The strongest opposition to the Mughal Empire was given by the Marathas under the leadership of Shivaji. In the rise of Shivaji and the Marathas the Mughals lust for increasing their Empire, anti Hindu policy and religious orthodox policy were the important factors. (137) (137)

Religious leaders like Saint Tukaram, Ram Das, Vaman Pandit and Eknath sowed the seeds of a national religion among the Marathas. The feeling of national religion played an important role in arousing the feeling of nationalism among Marathas. Maharaja Shivaji was born on 20 April 1627 A.D. in the hilly fort of Shivner in Maharashtra. His mother's name was Jeejabai and father's name was Shahji Bhonsle. Shivaji received the education of the Hindu religion and rites from his mother and teacher and guardian Dadaji Konddev. During his childhood he also received military education. He learnt the lessons of honesty, charracter, bravery and religiousness from his mother. Shivaji did not like his father serving under the Sultan of Bijapur. Chatrapati Shivaji Therefore he decided to fight against the Sultan and organized an army. He won the first Fort Torana in 1646 A.D. from Bijapur. He got fort Raigarh constructed five miles east of Torna. Hereafter he won one fort after the other. He won over Chakan, Kondana, Purandar, Javali, Konkan etc. The Sultan of Bijapur sent Afzal Khan under the pretex of talks for a peace. Shivaji anticipated Afzal Khan's designs and killed him. Aurangzeb made several plans to trap Shivaji, but was not successful. Disappointed after many defeats Aurangzeb sent the famous militry commander Raja Jai Singh against Shivaji. There were many confrontations between the armies of Jai Singh and Shivaji but as there was no outcome both the sides signed the Treaty of Purandhar in 1665 A.D. Shivaji went to meet Aurangzeb with Raja Jai Singh but Aurangzeb trecherously imprisioned him. Aurangzeb wanted to kill him in jail. Shivaji pretended to be sick and to get cured, started distributing sweets amongst saints. One day Shivaji and his son Shambhaji escaped from Agra in one of the sweet baskets. Aurangzeb became extremely angry on Shivaji's safe escape. Shivaji crowned himself in 1674 and became Chhatrapati. He made Raigarh his capital. After his coronation Shivaji organized the entire state and the states administrative system. Shivaji's administration was based on public welfare. In his administration Ashtapradhan was important. By Ashtapradhan is meant the eight ministers who were responsible towards Shivaji. He died in 1680 A.D. In management and administration Shivaji attained the highest success. He built a powerful state. Shivaji played an important role in routing out Mughal power from southern India. After Shivaji his successors Shahji, Raja Ram Sahu, Tarabai etc. continued their struggle against the Mughals. Later, the Peshwas gaves serious challenge to the (138)

Mughal power at Delhi. The goal with which Shivaji laid the foundation of the Maratha State was carried forward by the Maratha Commanders who worked in the direction of national interests.

Sikhs The followers of the religion established by Gurunanak are called Sikhs. By the 17th century Sikh religion had become the religion of many artisans and farmers of Punjab. Gurunanak was the first Sikh Guru. After him other Sikh leaders (Gurus) took the Sikh community ahead. The last Sikh Guru was Guru Gobind Singh. The initial Gurus paid attention only towards the religious aspects but slowly the Sikh Gurus also became their military Guru Govindsingh leaders. After the death of the seventh Guru, Aurangzeb tried to take advantage of a quarrel for succession among the Gurus. Meanwhile the power of the Sikh Gurus was steadily increasing. To check this rising power Mughal administration in 1675 A.D. ordered Guru Tegbahadur to be hanged which made the Sikh community very angry with Aurangzeb. Guru Gobind Singh the tenth Guru organized the Sikhs into a military organization to fight against the Mughal armies. Guru Gobind Singh established an organization called Khalsa in 1699 A.D. Khalsa was a casteless organization in which there was a provision to include everyone without caste discrimination. The members of the Khalsa organization had to adopt the five K's - kada (Bangle), kripan (Sword), kesh (hair), kaccha (under pant) and kangha (comb). He started the practise of prefixing the word 'Singh' among Sikhs. The Sikh community put many challenges before the Mughal Empire.

Causes of the decline of the Mughal Empire The Mughal Empire, the foundation of which was laid by Babur, declined from the period of Aurangzeb. After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 Mughal power declined rapidly. The chief causes of the decline of this massive empire were as follows:

Aurangzeb's Empire, his policys and war - Aurangzeb's policies can mainly held responsible for the decline of the Mughal Empire. His orthodox religious policy and anti Hindu policy was one of the chief cause. Due to his policy of opression he made the Jats, the Rajputs, the Marathas, the Sikhs etc. his enemies. He oppresed the Hindus, due to which he stopped getting the support of the Rajputs. The Marathas and the Jats gave severe blows to his Empire, due to which the Mughal Empire declined. To bring the kingdoms of the south under his subordination Aurangzeb fought for 25 years with different states of South India, in which he had to face severe loss of men and money. These wars shook the foundation of the empire. (139) (139)

Excessive Taxes - The Mughal rulers imposed heavy taxes on the people for their pleasures and wars, paying which became impossible for the people. There were voices of revolt among the common people.

Vastness of the Empire - The vasteness of the Mughal Empire in and outside India also became a cause of decline of the Mughal Empire. A vast Empire could have only been regulated through a centralized authority. Due to a weak central authority the Mughal Empire also started breaking up. Akbar had saved the Empire by his diplomacy but his successors were not successful in this.

Revolts of Chieftains and Prince - Revolts of Loyal Chieftains and Princes also helped in the decline of the Mughal Empire. The revolts of royal leaders like Saleem, Khusro, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb also gave a blow to the unity of the Empire.

War of Succession - The war of succession for power also harmed the Mughal Empire. There was no certain rule of succession in Muslim royal power. There were many claimants to the throne due to which the successor was decided on the point of a bayonet. The war of succession between the sons of Jehangir and among the sons of Shahjahan for power aided the decline of the Mughal Empire.

Moral decline of Mughal rulers - Early Mughal rulers were loyal and virtuous towards their state. But the Mughal rulers after Jehangir were pleasure seeking and complacent.

Religious Policy - The religious policy of the Mughals was based on Islam. Most of the rulers were staunch followers of Islam. They supported the spread and growth of Islam, harmed other religions and their followers, due to which the Mughal Empire could not get their support.

Rise of Hindu powers - The rise of new Hindu powers also played a role in the decline of the Mughal Empire. The Marathas, the Jats, the Sikhs, the Rajputs etc. reorganized themselves and rose against the Mughal empire. Continuous wars and autocratic rule, decline of military power, moral decline of Amirs (nobles), groupism and other reasons also aided the decline of THE Mughal Empire.

Terms Amirs

:

Turk leaders

Subedars

:

The highest officer of a Suba.

Policy of blood and iron :

The policy of sword and war.

Tulguma warfare

Military formation of the Mughals.

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Jeziya

:

A tax levied on non-Muslims

Mandalam

:

Province

Valanadu

:

District

Gopuram

:

Entrance door of a temple

Wazir

:

Chief military commander or Prime Minister.

Jauhar

:

Self immolation collectively done by Rajput women for guarding their self-respect and honour.

Din-e-Illahi

:

A religious policy started by Akbar. Din-i-Ilahi means a religion of worship of one God.

Ashtapradhan-

:

Shivaji's committee of eight ministers which gave advice to the Maratha king in matters of administration

Khalsa

:

Guru Gobind Singh organized the Sikhs and gave them a military form which was called Khalsa which means pure.

Exercise I. Choose the correct alternative: 1.

Mahmood Ghazani was the ruler of(i)

Multan

(ii) Ghazni

(iii) Bahmani 2.

(iv) Iraq

The founder of the Slave dynasty was(i)

Iltutmish

(ii) Mohammad Ghori

(iii) Qutub-ud-din Aibak 4.

(iv) Balban

Who injured Ghori in the Ist battle of Tarain(i)

Prithiviraj

(ii) Krishnaraya

(iii) Govindraj 5.

(iv) Deepakraj

Which empire did Harihar and Bukka found? (i)

Bahmani Empire

(ii) Vijaynagar Empire

(iii) Delhi Sultanate 6.

(iv) Mohammad Nagar

Who killed Afzal Khan(i)

Shivaji

(ii) Raja Ram

(iii) Sahu

(iii) Tarabai

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II. Fill in the blanks : 1. The ancient chola rulers have been described in the ...................... . 2. The founder of the Parmar Dynasty was ...................... . 3. Mahmood Ghaznavi made ........................ successful attacks on India. 4. Balban followed the policy of ....................... for regulating his administration. III. True or false : 1. The name of Shivaji's mother was Jijabai. 2. The battle of Haldighati held between Akbar and Rani Durgavati. 3. After Jehangir, Shah Jahan became the Emperor. 4. Humayun was the elder son of "Babur." 5. Krishna Dev Rai had wrote a book named "Jambvanti Kalyanam". Very short answer type questions 1. How many times did Mahamood Ghaznavi attack India? 2. Who laid the foundation of the Mughal Empire in India? 3. Who founded the Vijaynagar Empire? 4. Who was the founder of the Bahmani Empire? 5. Who started the religion 'Din-I-Illahi? 6. Who was Guru Gobind Singh? Short answer type Questions 1. Who was Iltutmish? How did he overcome his difficulties? 2. What was the market policy of Allaudin? 3. How did the Tughlaq dynasty establish power over the Delhi Sultanate? Examine. 4. Write the contribuiton of Shershah's administrative organization in Indian history. 5. Write the contribution of Prithiviraj Chauhan in India history. 6. Describe why Maharana Pratap is famous in Indian history. Long answer type questions 1. What were the objectives of Mahmud Ghaznavi's and Mohammed Ghori's attack on India? Write the causes of their success. 2. Describe the administrative organization of King Krishna Dev Raja and its impact on the people. 3. Examine the Rajput and religious policy of Akbar. 4. Who were the Indian Kings and rulers who resisted the Mughal power in India and what role did they play? Describe. 5. Write down the causes responsible for the decline of the Mughal Empire.

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Chapter-11

Major Cultural Trends We Will Study



11.1 Meaning of cultural trends and chief cultural trends 11.2 Cultural trends from the ancient period to the Rajput period- Literature, painting, architecture, sculpture, dance and music, the performing arts 11.3 Cultural trends from the Sultanate to the Mughal periodLiterature, painting, architecture, sculpture, dance and music fine arts.

11.1 Meaning of cultural trends and chief cultural trends. Cultural trends familiarize us with the ancient historical background. The History of a country is only important when its cultural parameters are studied on a scientific basis. Indian culture is one of the world's most ancient cultures. Since ancient times, India has been known in the world for its rich culture. Its chief speciality, along with continuity, are forces of antiquity, spirituality, unity and integrity. Indian culture is a valuable asset of human society. The meaning of culture in itself is very broad.

The stages of development of every civilization attain a level where it establishes mental, moral and spiritual ideals. They intermingle in such a way in man's comunity life that the entire society gets absorbed in its major and minute specialities. The creative progress and flourishing of major and minor elements of civilization is called culture. The major elements of a progressive culture are its quest for truth, expression of beauty and love for humanity. It is easy to outline the broader elements of civilization but for the actual understanding of culture, is possible only through unbiased research and deep thinking. In a nutshell we can say that if civilization is the body then culture is its soul.

11.2

Cultural trends from the ancient period to the Rajput period

The contemporary social, cultural and political life can be understood through literature, painting, architecture, sculpture, dance and music and other performing arts. By cultural trends we mean the form of Indian culture which includes literature, painting architecture, sculpture, dance, music and other performing arts. In this chapter we will study these in a sequential manner.

Literature : Literature is considered as the mirror of society. Indian literature is as prosperous and glorious in Indian history. Literature is written Indus Script (143) (143)

Vedic Literature

Rigvedic Literature ● Rigveda

Later Rigvedic Literature ● Yajurveda ● Saamveda ● Atharvaved ● Brahmanas ● Aranyakas ● Upanishads

Sutra pe Literatur ● Srautash ● Grahast ● Dharma

evidence. Indian literature has a vast store of Sanskrit literature. The Indus civilization had the knowledge of script. We find many evidences of this though the script still remains a mystery for scholars. Some scholars have claimed to have deciphered it. More that 2500 inscriptions has been found here till now. The longest inscriptions have 17 alphabets. The Indus script seems to be pictographic. But there is a stronger possibility of it depicting alphabets. The development of a script among the Indus inhabitants points towards their literary interest. Vedic period literature is very prosperous from the creativity point of view. The literature of this period has a very lively description of ancient life and values. Vedic literature includes- the Vedas, the Brahamanas, the Aranyaka, the Upanishads, the Vedanta, the Epics, the Smritis, the Puranas etc. The Vedas are four in number-the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samveda, the Atharvaveda. The oldest of Vedic literature is the Rigveda. During the epic period epics like the Mahabharat and the Ramayana were written which depict the social and political life during the period. The Ramayana was composed by Maharishi Valmiki and the Mahabharat was composed by Vedvyas. Jain literature has three branches. Religious books, philosophical and secular writings. These chiefly have prose, legends, grammar and dramas. Out of these most of the compositions are still in the form of manuscripts and are found in the Chaityas of Gujarat and Rajasthan. The compositions are-Angas, Pangas, Prakirn, Cheda, Sutra and Malsutra. Towards the last stages while writing discourses, the Sanskrit language was used instead of Prakrit. The work in grammar and poetry writing in Sanskrit contributed a lot to the growth of this language. The prominent books in Jain literature are Kalpasutra of Bhadrabahu, Parishisht Parwan of Hemachandra. Buddhism has greatly enriched the Pali and Sanskrit language. Buddhism has Tripitikas meaning three baskets- Vinaypitika, Sutta pitika and Abidhamma pitika. Vinaypitika contains the rules of daily life. The Sutta pitika contains virtues and Buddha's discourses and sayings (144)

on the four eternal truths. Abhidhamma pitika contains the philosophical development of teachings of Buddha. Buddhist literature also includes Deepvansh, Mahavansa, Divya Dan, Milind Panha, Mahabodhi Vishakhdatta Vansa, Mahavansa like Shudraka Aryamanjushree, Mulkalp etc. Vajjika There are sufficient eviVishnu Sharmadences of Mauryan period litAryabhatta erature. Through the inscripVarahmihir tions of Asoka, it seems that two types of scripts were usedBrahmi and Kharosthi. Kautilya wrote the Arthashastra during this period. During the same time the third Buddhist council compiled the tripitakas and composed the contents of the Abhidamma pitaka. Many scholars believe that most of the Acharsutra and Bhagvati Sutra of Jain religion were composed during this period. During the Sunga Satvahana period there were scholars like Patanjali who wrote the Mahabhashya on Panini's Ashtaadhyas and presented the rules of Sanskrit language revised form. Kalidasa's Malvikagnimitram describes the Ashvamegh yagya of Pushya Mitra Sunga and Agnimitra's war with the state of Vidharbha. The famous book Charak Samhita was written during this period. The Buddhist book "questions of Milind" (Milind panha) was written by Nagasena. The Gupta period was the Golden age of literature. The Gupta period gave Sanskrit the status of a state Author Books language. The form in which literature flourished during Bharvi Kiratarjunya the period of the Gupta rulers is unparalleled. During this Magha Shishupala Vadha period there were literary creations in many fields of Kalhan Rajtarangini science and knowledge. Smriti Literature was composed Vilhan Vikramank Charitra during this period. Yajanvalkya, Narad Smriti, Kavya Smriti Parimal Navsahasank Charitra are the chief among them. The Ramayana and the Ballah Bhao Praband Mahabharat were written in this period. The Buddhist philosopher Asanga composed the Mahayan The introduction of the principle of Sutranka and Yogacharya Bhoomi Shastra. Vasubandh zero and the decimal system is to the composed the Abhidarma Kosha. The chief Jain credit of the mathematicians of the writers were Jenchandra, Siddhasena and Devnandini. Gupta period, in which the Kapithya school (present Kayatha, Ujjain) esFrom the Gupta period literature, we can understand tablished by Varahmihir had an importhat the prevailing education system must have been tant role Author Harisena Kalidas

literary work Allahabad pillar inscription Abhigyan Shakutalam, Malvikagnimitram, Meghduta, Kumar Sambhava, Raghuvansham, Ritu Sambhara Mudrarakshsa, Devi Chandraguptam Mricha Katikam Kaumudi Mahotsava Panchtantra Aryabhatiyam Vrihta Sahita

(145) (145)

excellent. The Nalanda University was established during this period. Kashi, Mathura, Ayodhya and Pataliputra were the chief centers of education. Harshavardhan respected the scholars. Banabhatta was a great writer of the period who wrote two books-Harsha Charitra and Kadambari. Harshavardhan himself wrote three Sanskrit plays-Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarsika. They are important in Sanskrit literature. In Harsha's court besides Bana, Mayur, Haridutt,Jayasena, Matang, Divakar were other famous writers and poets. The creation of literary and extremely flowery language work was on the rise during the Rajput period. Literature was predominantly romantic. Rajput rulers were scholars of the highest order. King Munja, Bhoja, Amoghvarsha were prominent among them. King Bhoja's intelligence and poetic skills were well known. During this period books were written on medicine, astrology, grammar, sculpture and various other subjects. Along with North India there was a lot of literary creation worth mentioning in South India as well. Pulkesin's vassal wrote a book called Shabdavatar. Scholar Udaidev wrote a book called Jainendra Vyakaran. South India made a special contribution to Sanskrit literature during the Pallava rule.Bharvi who lived in Travancore wrote the epic 'Kirat Arjun'. Mehandra Verman I wrote a book "Matvilas Prahsan". There was growth of Tamil language during the time of the Pallavas and the Cholas. The most or famous writer of the Tamil period was Jaigondar who wrote Kaligtuprani. Kamban wrote the Ramayana in Tamil. The famous books of Ramanuj are-Shree Bhashya, Vedarth Sangraha, Vedant Deep etc. Kanchi was the chief centre of learning where people from far off places came for education. Painting : Expression of man's thoughts are depicted artistically through paintings. The rich tradition of Indian painting reflects the sensitivity of Indian art towards colours. During different periods paintings have been made by the painters of contemporary society. In India paintings of prehistoric times can be seen on various rocks and stones. In the Bhimbetka caves near Bhopal, we can see fine example of this art.

Rock Art of Bhimbetka

The People of the Indus valley civilization had a knowledge of painting. We have enough evidence of this. Many paintings can be seen in the utensils and seals found here. Painting was also done on the walls of the buildings. In the paintings natural scenes and animals both can be seen. Col- Specimens of paintings on the pots of Indus civilization ours were also used in the paintings. On the basis of their literature it can be said that these people expressed their feelings (146)

on walls, utensils and also through embroidery on the clothes. Mauryan period painting grew as folk-art. Paintings were depicted on Mauryan buildings and pillars. Some of the paintings in the Ajanta caves belong to the 1st century B.C. The painting of Chhadat Jatak in cave No. 10 is worth mentioning. Painting was based on scientific lines during the Gupta period. The finest examples of paintings are in the Ajanta caves. These have been included in the world heritage sites. These paintings are mostly based on religious themes. They depict the Buddha and the Bhodisattva. Descriptive scenes from Jataka stories can also be Paintings of seen. These paintings are original, lively and impressive. The paintings Ajanta caves of this period can be seen in the caves of Bagh (in M.P., Dhar district). The themes of the pictures in these caves are worldly. During this period beautiful colours have been used in the pictures. During Harsha's period paintings were made on cloth. References to skilled painters during marriage celebrations have been found. These painters have painted various scenes. Women on such occasions, painted on utensils of clay. During the Rajput period the art of painting had developed fully. During this period many regional styles of painting had developed. Such as the Gujarat style, the Rajputana style etc. The Gujarat style has scenes depicting the Jain life style and religion. In the Rajputana style, romantic scenes of Radha Krishna have been depicted. Frescoes were made to decorate temples and palaces. The art of miniature painting also developed during this period. These paintings were made to decorate books. Architecture : Architecture throws light on the customs and traditions of life and culture and the organizations of that period. The history of a period can be understood by the buildings constructed during that period. Architecture depicts the local, economic, religious, political and cultural history of the period. The excavations in the Indus valley provide information about the contemporary architecture. People of this period were experts in the field of architecture. Big granaries, well planned houses and cities, big palaces, ports, the great bath throw sufficient light on the architecture. The modern developed cities can be compared to the buildings of the period. Covered drains, doors and windows of buildings, direction away from the main road, kitchen inside the building, bathroom, adequate provision of ventilators, construction of ordinary and state buildings etc. are unique examples of architectures of the Indus civilization. It is an evidence of the first urbanization of towns in India. The knowledge of architecture existed during the Vedic period. Different aspects of life have been mentioned in the Rig-Veda and the many other Vedas. There is a reference to Yagyavedi, Havan Kunda (for performing yagyans), Yagyanshalas, stone palaces, buildings (147) (147)

with pillars, ashrams etc. We find references to big royal palaces and buildings, the architecture of which is splendid. Mauryan architecture includes the palaces at Patalipurta rock cut sanctuaries on the Barabar hill and Nagarjun hill. Asoka's pillars, Buddhist stupas constructed by Ashoka, Chaityas, Viharas are prominent among them. Rock cut caves built during the period have an extremely glossy polish which reflects the expertise of the period. There is a reference to eighty four thousand stupas being constructed during this period by Asoka. Of these Sarnath, Bodh Gaya and Sanchi Sanchi Stupa stupas are famous. The best specimens of administration, war and public life. These are descriptions written Mauryan archion stones, pillars, caves, rocks etc. tecture are the = Stupa: Inverted bowl shaped dome constructed with stones or pillars of Asoka, bricks to keep Buddha or Boddhisatvas relics safely. which were con= Chaitya: Temples of collective worship. structed by him = Vihars: Maths for Buddhist monks. for propagation = Caves: Caves constructed by cutting rocks. of the the teachings of Baudha Dhamma. = Inscriptions : The written description regarding contemporary

These pillars are nearly 20 in number and located in various parts of India, such as Sarnath, Prayag and Kaushambhi in Uttar Pradesh. Pillars have been found in Lumbini and Nigilva in the plains of Nepal. Besides these in Sanchi, Lorya, Nandgarh and at various other places too. Besides these, Asoka pillars have been found in Sanchi, Lorya, Nandgarh and Various other places. The capital on the pillars was extremely creative. The famous architecture of the Mauryan period are the pillar edicts of Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh) and of Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh. The cave edicts of Barabara, Nagarjun (Bihar), the Stupas at Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh) in Bodhgaya (Bihar). There was a change in the style during the Sunga and Satvahana period from the Mauryan period. Wood and brick was primarily used. During this period the use of stones started. Architecture was at its peak during the Gupta period, the specimens of which can be seen. The special achievement of the period was in the field of temple construction. Temples were constructed with stones and bricks. The temples constructed during the Gupta period had flat roofs. (148)

The first 'shikhar' was constructed at the Dasavatara in the Devgarh temple (Jhansi U.P.). After the construction of this temple, the construction of shikhars in the temples started. Many of these temples still exist- such as - the Buddhist Shrine in Sanchi, in Vidisha district of M.P., Bheetargaon in Uttar Pradesh and the temple at Deogarh are a few examples. The Ajanta caves no 16,17 and 19 are believed to be of the Gupta period. Udaigiri caves (in Vidisha dist. M.P.) Bagh caves (Dhar, M.P.) were also constructed during the Gupta period. The sculptors of the Gupta period were experts in working with iron and bronze. The iron pillar at Mehrauli in New Delhi is an exceptional specimen of technology. It was built in the 4th century A.D. and has not rusted till date. Architecture was at its peak during Harsha's period. Harsha got a building constructed for holding assemblies at Kannauj which had two massive rooms. In each of the rooms 1000 people could be seated. Besides, buildings, Stupas and Viharas were constructed which throw light on the architecture of that period. In the early medieval period rulers constructed magnificient temples to show their splendor. Therefore the architecture of this period can be seen in the temples. The most prominent among these are the group of temples at Khajuraho which were constructed by the Chandella rulers. There are nearly 30 Brahmanical and Jain temples in Losia near Jaipur. The Kalika devi temple at Chittorgarh is worth seeing .The Jain temples at Mt. Abu are fine specimens of the period.

Prominent temples of Rajput period Name Place Kandariya Mahadev Khajuraho Dilwara temple

Mt. Abu

Lingraja temple

Bhubaneshwar

Mukteshwar temple

Bhubaneshwar

Sun temple

Konark

Rath temple of Mahabalipuram

Tamil Nadu

Brihadeshwar temple

Tanjore

Kandariya Mahadev temple of Khajuraho

Besides north India many temples were constructed in the South and East India. The temples constructed during this period are classified into two styles - the Nagar style and the Dravidian style.

(149) (149)

Nagar Style Temple

Dravida Style Temple

The Nagar style temples were mainly constructed in north India and the Dravid a style temples were constructed in south India. The difference between the Nagar and Dravidian style temples can be seen in the 'shikhars' of these temples. In the Nagar style the 'shikhar' is nearly spiral. On the top is found a round dome and a kalash. In the Dravidian style temples the 'shikhars' are rectangular, constructed by placing rectangular blocks, one over the other. Sculpture : "The Art of making statues". With reference to art, traditionally India uses the wood 'sculpture'. Sculpture is handwork, the expertise of hand and intellect. Very few stone statues have been found in the Indus civilization. The reason behind it could have been availability of less stones in the adjoining regions of civilization. The statues of this period have been made from baked clay, lime stone, sandstone and slate stone. The practice of making metal statues started during this period. A bronze statue of a dancing girl has been found in Mohenjodaro. A statue of a bronze chariot of this civilization has also been found. The two-wheeled chariot is being pulled by two bulls and a man is driving the chariot. The artists depicted their artistic skills on seals in the form of elephants, rhinoceros and Buffaloes. The Humped bull is found on most of the seals found here. Other animals on the seals include dogs, pigs, monkeys and other birds and animals. The clay statues of women are found in large numbers in the Indus civilization. The sealb of the Indus civilization are rectangular and spherical. They are made of 'Gomed', 'Chirt' and clay. Copper seals have been found from Desalpur in Lothal. On one of them is Pasupati Siva seated on a stool surrounded by an elephant, a cheetah, a rhinoceros, a buffalo etc. During the Mauryan period the art of sculpture grew. The sculpture of the Mauryan period has a Persian influence. Bronze statue of a dancer (150)

Some scholars consider it to be Indian influence. The Asoka npillars, the animal statues in the capital, beautifully decorated with plants, point towards the sculpture of the stone statues that have been found from Pataliputra, Mathura, Vidisha and other regions. A distinct glossy polish can be seen on those. The statues of the Yaksha and Yakshinis are very beautiful and realistic. A new era started in the field of sculpture during the 1st century B.C. Mention of the Mathura and the Gandhara schools of art has been found during the Kushana period. The caves of the period are sculpted with various Gods-Goddess, Yakshas, Nagas, Sharduls etc. The Haledourus's Garuda-pillar found at Basenagar in Vidisha is a unique example of Sunga art. The Gandhara style developed near Pushkalavati, Taxila, Purushpur (Peshawar) whereas the Mathura art developed in Rajasthan and the Uttar Pradesh regions. The coins of the Kushan period show Greek influence. Sungas and Satvahanas : While renovating the stupas at Sanchi and Barhut got realistic statues constructed on the Sungas and Satvahavas of gateways and pillars which gives information about their excellent sculpture base. Two main schools of sculpture developed during the Kushana period-Gandhara art and Mathura art. Characteristics of Gandhara art : ●

The subjects of Gandhara art were Indian while the technique was Greek.

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Statues were mostly built of slate.

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Creased clothes have been shown on the statues.

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Mahatma Buddha is also shown seated on a throne.

Features of Mathura art: ●

Remains of Buddhist, Jain and Brahmanical all three religions have been found at Mathura.

Buddha Statue in Gandhara style

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The statues of Lord Buddha and Boddhisatvas have been found in the Mathura art.

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The statues of Buddha are covered with drapery.

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Statues have been constructed using sand stone.

Buddha Statue in Mathura style

The art of sculpture attained new heights during the Gupta period. The statues sculpted during this period were completely Indian and Greek influence was fading slowly. (151) (151)

The statues of the period started showing spiritual beauty. In the Gupta period statues, emphasis was laid on shape, pose, emotions and beautification due to which they became more realistic and lively. The most important accomplishment of the Gupta period was the sculpting of Dasavatar statues of Vishnu and many other statues of Brahmanical religion. Sculpture during this period reached maturity and became more refined. No separate information about sculpture during Harsha's period has been found. He got Stupas and Viharas constructed for the propagation of Buddhism. The art of sculpture flourished moderately in that period. Early medieval period : The statues of Buddhist and Brahmanical religion of this time are comparatively more beautiful. The statues of the period have more religious expressions. The influence of Tantric ideology during the later Rajput period can be seen on the statues. Multihanded statues started to be sculpted during the period. In this the four handed statue of Vishnu and statues of Goddesses are famous. Linga statues of Shiva are found in large numbers. Many statues of Boddhisatvas of that time have been found in North India. The double storeyed Kailash temple at Ellora is a fine example of sculpture in which the temple has been chiseled out of rock. The Shal Bhanjika Statue of the early medieval period to the 10th -11th century found from Gyaraspur in Vidisha is famous in the world for its decoration and expression. Presently it is kept in the Gujari palace museum at Gwalior. Beautiful specimens of stone and metal sculpture have also been found from southern India. Various Gods and Goddesses have been sculpted. The Natraj bronze statue is famous for being artistic. Dance-music: The tradition of dance and music is very ancient in India. The artist expresses his art through dance. Whereas music was the need for entertainment and was played on religious and cultural occasions. Clear evidence of the Indus civilization having a tradition of dance and music are available. The bronze statue of a dancing girl found from Mohenjodaro shows that dance was a form of recreation. The Dholak found on seals also gives an example of the existence of music during the period. In this manner we can say that the art of music and dance must have been popular in the Indus civilization. Dance and music was extremely popular among the Aryans during the Vedic period. The art of music was in a developed form during the Rigvedic period. Vocal and Instrumental, both were well developed. In instrumental music, wind and string instruments were used. These were-the veena, the dundubhi, the flute, the shringa, the shell, the mridanga etc. Singing and dancing was organized during celebrations. This practice continued in the later Vedic period. Music and dance continued to be the chief forms of entertainment during the Mauryan period. Mention of singers, instrumentalists and dancers of the period has been found. Even after the Mauryan period music and dance continued to be the means of entertainment. (152)

The art of dance and music prospered during the Gupta period like in the earlier periods. During this period too, people were fond of music. Dance and music were practised in the contemporary period during Vasant Utsav, Kaumidi Utsav, Deepotsav etc. Information of ‘Ganikas’ in that period is also found; their job was to dance and sing. The Gupta rulers themselves patronized the artists. Samudra Gupta himself was an Picture of Samudra Gupta accomplished Veena player. In order to keep this memory alive playing the Veena he got coins minted showing him playing the veena. In the Bagh caves an important scene of dance and music of the Gupta period has been found, which is a symbol of the splendour of dance and music in that period. From Malvikagnimitra we come to know that there were art institutions for unparting education in music in towns. There were Acharyas (teachers) in the towns for teaching dance. In Malvikagnimitra Ganadas is referred to as a music dance Acharyas (teacher). In this way ample evidence of music and dance during the Gupta period is found. During Harsha's period a tradition of dance culture was maintained in the social organization. Dance and music was a source of entertainment in that period. In the early medieval period too, the tradition of dance-music was carried on. Dancers danced and played instruments in the assemblies of Rajput kings.

Other Fine Arts Other Fine arts include dramas. ‘Rangoli’ (ground dry colours of stone and drawing designs with them) and tribal art can be mentioned. They can be seen as a part of the Indian tradition from most ancient times. Fine arts were in practice during the Indus civilization. The ‘Agnivedica’ built on a raised platform found at Rakhigahri, decorated bricks found on the floor of Kalibanga made of baked brick, statues, decorated ornaments, glossy paint on the utensils and circles on them. geometrical lines and depiction of birds and animals, sacred symbols of well being like the swastik, chakra, the sun etc. throw light on the practice of fine arts of the contemporary society. Besides a place like a theatre has also been mentioned in the contemporary time which was probably used for drama, dance and music. A mention of fine art has been found in the Vedic period. During this period folk culture developed along with religion. During this period also sacred symbols, decoration of buildings art of magic and references of Yagyavedika have been found. Folk art was prevalent during the Maurya period. There were many people who performed shows for entertaining people. References to dancers, people imitating voices to entertain, dancing on ropes, people working in dramatics for livelihood have been mentioned. Fine arts were also prevalent during the Gupta period. Beautiful depiction on coins as the best example of this period. Many dramas were written in the contemporary period (153) (153)

in Sanskrit. Interesting themes have been brought alive through these dramas, romantic songs along with these, wood sculpture, stone sculpture, metals sculpture, talisman, ivory ornaments are examples of contemporary art. Ornamentation in caves, temples, paintings on the walls, dancing girls, sentries with spears, statues with elaborate hairstyles. yaksha, birds, animals, depiction of fountains etc. are unique examples of the same. Theatre also developed in that period. Terms like 'Prekshagraha' and 'Rangshala' have been used for dramat schools. Harsha Period - The growth of fine arts continued in the Harsha period as well. These arts were prevalent in the early medieval period also. References to nata, magicians, craftsmen who worked with ivory are found in context with beautiful art work. In the same way beautiful decorations are found on Rajput coins. Statues made on the walls of temples, raga-ragini, pictures of actors-actresses, plants flowers and animals are also there. Besides, historical and Puranic dance drama also had an important place in the early medieval contemporary art.

11.3

Cultural trends from the Sultanate period to the Mughal period

The growth of literature continued in the medieval period. The literature of the period throws ample light on the Author Books Mughal period organization. InBabur Tuzukh-e-Baburi (Baburnama) dividualistic history writing had Gulbadan Humaynama started in that period. Abbas Khan Tarikh-i-Shershahi The creation of religious Abul Fazl Akbarnama, Ain-i-Akbari and secular literature started Malik Mohammad Jayasi Padmavat during the period. The Dohas Surdas Sursawali and puzzles written by Amir Tulsidas Ramcharitmanas Khusro are popular even today. Sanskrit literature was patronized by Hindu rulers. (Vyayapar, Warangal , Gujarat). Turkish sultans were interested in Persian literature. Many languages prevalant today developed during the Mughal period. Compositions of Namdev, Ramanand, Guru Nanak, Kabir etc. have a place of special importance in Hindi. Meera used words from Rajasthani and Maithli. In Bengal the Ramayana and the Mahabharat were translated from Sanskrit to the Bengali language. In MaharashtraNamdev and Eknath were the most famous saints and literary writers of Marathi. Mughal period rulers were admirers of literature. All of them patronized scholars. Literary writing was done in Persian and the Turkish language during the period. The prominent works of the period are as followsUrdu literature developed the most during the Mughal period. Though Urdu evolved during the Sultanate period initially, Urdu was known as 'Zaban-i-Hindarva'. Akbar got many Sanskrit books translated into Persian. (154)

Painting : The art of painting declined during the Sultanate period. Painting was looked down upon by the Sultans. Still painting remained alive in Gujarat, Rajasthan and regions of Malwa. Scenes related to religious and day to day life were presented. Slowly the Malwa and the Rajasthan School of art developed. The books written on 'birch bark' in Gujarat by Jain monks have a very high quality of small illustrations. In Bengal and Bihar too manuscripts written by the Buddhist monks had small images drawn by using leaves. The paintings drawn on the temples of South India also used leaves. Mughal paintings were started during the rule of Humayun. Akbar gave an organised form to Mughal paintings. He established a separate department for the painters and famous painters were housed there. The first Mughal period painting collection in Mughal style painting is the Hamzanama which is also popular as Dastan-e-Amir Hamza, the specialty of these paintings is that they were made form the juice of foreign plants, trees and their leaves and flowers. Minutest details of decoration and architecture and images of women are shown. In Rajasthani paintings with decorative elements. Rajmanama, the Ramayana and Akbarnama are illustrated manuscripts of the period. Fresco painting started for the first time during the Akbar period.

Mughal period painting

Jehangir's period is known as the golden period of Mughal paintings. Jehangir himself was a painter. Jehangir established a painting school (Chitrashala) under the guidance of the famous painter Akarizh. During Jehangir's period portrait painting, natural scenes and paintings related to people's lives started. Jehangir also gave titles to the foreign painters which includes famous painter Ustad Mansoor who painted birds and portrait painter Abul Hasan. During Shahjahan's reign borders and underlines in paintings progressed. Aurangzeb considered painting to be against Islam and banned it. Therefore painting in the courts came to an end and painters settled elsewhere. In this way styles of regional paintings developed.

Architecture The influence of Islamic architecture can be clearly seen on the medieval architecture. In the buildings constructed during the reigns of various Sultans and Mughals, there was intermingling of Indian architecture with Persian, Turkish and Indian styles and the architecture prevalent in other Islamic countries. Primarily mosques, mausoleums, palaces, massive gates (Torans), domes, mehrabs and minars were constructed in Islamic architecture. (155) (155)

The Qutub-ul -Islam mosque in Mehrauli (Delhi) was constructed in 1139 A.D. and is believed to be the first mosque in India. The Qutub minar was constructed during the Sultanate period. It is 238 ft. high and narrow towards the top. At various heights there are open balconies, which makes it distinct. The mosques of the period had minarets on four sides. There are enough evidences of Mughal period architecture. In the history of architecture a new era started during the period. Scholars have called the new architectural style as Mughal architect. The Mughal style developed as a result of fusion between foreign and Indian styles. Hence Mughal period architecture has a mixed influence of Jain, Buddhist, Rajput, Persian, Baghdad styles.

Qutub Minar

The engraving of diamonds in white marble, pietra dura and running water in the palaces are some of the salient features of Mughal architecture. The chief architectural places were Mosque of Kabuli Bagh, Mosque of Panipat, Babri Mosque at Ayodhya,

mosque at Agra fort. Not much progress in the field of achitecture was made duirng Humayun's reign. During his reign two mosques were constructed at Ferozabad in Hissar. Shershah showed great interest in architecture. The most important architectural structure of Shershah's period is a mosque constructed on a raised platform in the midst of a lake at Sasaram in Bihar. A beautiful amalgamation of Indian and Islamic architecture can be seen here. During Akbar's period there was an intermingling of Persian style with Hindu and Buddhist architectural styles. Buildings of Akbar's period were constructed of red sandstone. Akbar got Fatehpur Sikri built. The chief features are the intermingling of Chapakar and Dharnik styles. Fatehpur Sikri's Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan -i-Khas, Agra Fort, Palace of Jodhabai, Panch Mahal, Jama Masjid and Buland darwaza are specimens of Akbar's period architecture. Jehangir got Akbar's and Itmadud-daula's mausoleum built. Raja Mansingh's palace at Gwalior and Jaisingh's palace at Jaipur are unparalleled examples of architecture. Shajahan's period is known as the golden age of Mughal architecture. The chief features of the architecture of the period were carved Mehrabs, and minars. The famous buildings of

Taj Mahal (156)

Shahjahans period are the Red fort, Delhi, the Diwan-i-Khas, the Jama Masjid and the Taj Mahal at Agra. The biggest accomplishment of the period is the Taj Mahal when architecture reached its pinnacle of progress. The Taj Mahal is a 313 Ft. high square mausoleum made of white marble which has been built on a 22 Ft. high platform. The four corners of the Mausoleum have a minar each. It is two storeyed, on top of a dome. The Gurudwara of Harminder Sahib at Amritsar is a unique creation of that period. It was constructed between 588 and 1601 A.D. After Shahjahan, Mughal period architecture started declining.

Sculpture: There was a splendid development in the field of sculpture in south India during the medieval period. Statues and sculptures were used to decorate the interiors and outer parts of the temples. Islam did not believe in idol worship. This affected medieval sculpture.. The art of sculpture began during Akbar's period. Sculpture was also encouraged during reign Jehangir's. In Agra fort Amar Singh's and Karna Singh's statues were put up beneath the window. The Elephant gate entrance at the palace of Fatehpur Sikri is decorated with two massive elephants. The art declined during Auangzeb's reign. On the whole sculpture did not flourish during the medieval period which affected its development.

Dance and Music The tradition of dance and music of the ancient period was carried forward in the medieval period. Some books were compiled on dance and music. Of these Bhoja, Someshwar and Sarangdev's Sangeet Ratnakar are very famous books. In the later period many more books on music were written. Jaydev's Gita Govind in the 13th century can be called an important step in this direction. Bhakti or devotional music received more importance in the medieval period. People sang with devotion the "bhajans" (devotional songs) of Meerabai, Tulsidas, Kabirdas and Surdas. Hindustani music was introduced to new instruments and Ragas in the Sultanate period. Though the Quran prohibits music it was encouraged from time to time by Sultans and Khalifas. The most famous musician of the period was Amir Khusro who has written about his music in the book Noor Siphr. The book tells that Indian music touches the heart and the soul. It not only affects human beings but also hypnotizes animals. Deer stand still while listening to the music and are easily hunted. Amir Khusro invented new ragas through the fusion of Indian and Persian music. The originator of the qawwali was Amir Khusro. Due to new trends in music like Khayal and Tarana there were changes in the form of music in the contemporary period. Music was the chief means of recreation. The art of dance and music flourished during the Mughal period. Babur himself was fond of music. In Tuzukh-i-Babri description of music meetings is found. Humayun and Sher Shah Suri were also fond of music. The Mughal Emperor Akbar patronized musicians. He himself played exquisitely on the Indian instrument Naggarah. He was interested in the (157) (157)

science of music. Of the nine gems in Akbar's court the most renowned was Miya Tansen who was an accomplished singer. Abul Fazil writes about Miyan Tansen that " a singer like him has not been in India for the last thousand years." Tansen received his education in Gwalior. Baba Haridas of Vrindavan was his Guru. Besides Tansen 36 other singers received patronage at Akbar's court. of these Bazbahadur, Baizbaksh, Gopal, Haridas, Ramdas, Sujan Khan, Mianlal, Baiju Bawara were prominent. In course of time Dhrupad singing was replaced by Khayal singing. During the Mughal period in Jehangir's reign Khurram, Dad, Makhu Chatur Khan, Hamja etc. were prominent musicians. Similarly during Shahjhan's reign Ramdas, Jagannath, Sukhsen and Lal Khan were prominent musicians. After the death of Shahjahan the art of music declined as Aurangzeb was against music. The classical styles of Indian dance can be seen in the medieval period. Of these BharatNatyam, Kuchipuddi, Kathakali, classical styles were prevalent in south Indian regions. Bharatnatyam and Kuchipuddi dances were based on Krishnalilas. This was confined to the Bahaman families of southern Indian. Whereas Kathak was initially confined to Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan Punjab and Madhya Pradesh. Dances were based on Krishna Lilas and Puranic stories. Dances and music were a part of the courts.

Fine arts. The creative expression continued during the medieval period. Ras Lilas were staged in Vrindavan and Mathura. During this period, besides epics, dramas were also based on historical characters. Vijaynagar's ruler Harihar II's son Veerupaksha wrote a play Narayana Vilas and Unmata Raghav. Goswami composed Vidaghmadhav, Lalit Madhav and Dankeli Chandrika. In the same sequence Ramchandra wrote a drama Jagannath Vallabh. In staging dramas social and religious dramas were given preference. Calligraphy also developed during that period. Besides decorated utensils, decorated wall carvings on minars and mausoleums, clothes of Zari, Kashidakari, art of Pachikari, carved fountains, carpets etc. throw light on the art of the period.

Terms Arynyakas

: To be read in the forests

Brahmanas

: Explanation of Vedic mantras based on Vedas.

Upanishad

: The knowledge that leads to self-realization.

ShrotaSutra

: The subject of this Yoga.

Grihasutra

: The subject of it is domestic life.

Dharmasutras

: It includes subjects of Dharmasutra and Grihasutra. (158)

Pietra dura

: Inland decoration with precious stones in floral design.

Mride Murti

: Statue made of clay.

Akshyana

: Narrating stories through singing.

Exercise Choose the correct option 1.

Where has the bronze statue of a doneer have been found? (i)

Daimabad

(ii) Mohenjodaro

(iii)Kalibanga 2.

(iv) Punjab

When did the first urbanization take place? (i)

New stone age

(ii) Indus Civilization

(iii) Mauryan period 3.

(iv) Gupta period

Who talked about the scientific basis of teaching? (i)

Vatsayan

(ii) Asoka

(iii) Samudra Gupta 4.

Which dynasty started coins with the Veena emblem? (i)

5.

(iv) Kumar Gupta

Maurya dynasty

(ii) Gupta dynasty

(iii) Vardhan dynasty

(iv) Rajput dynasty

Who was the originator of the Quwali? (i)

Akbar

(ii) Shahjahan

(iii) Tansen

(iv) Amir Khusro

Match the following : A.

B.

1.

Scholar Udaidev

(a) Temple of Khajuraho

2.

Chandell rulers

(b) Mt. Abu

3.

Dilwara Temple

(c) Mohan Jadaro and Haddappa

4.

Indus Valley

(d) Jainendra Vyakaran

5.

Mahendra Verman-I

(e) Gupta period

6.

Udaigiri Caves

(f) Matvilas Prahsan

Very short answer type questions 1.

How many alphabets are there in the longest inscription of the Indus civilization?

2.

To which literature are Deepavansa, Mahavansa and Divyadan related?

3.

To which religion are the literacy creations Kalpasutra and Parishishta Pawan related? (159) (159)

4.

Which Bhakti worship was followed by Tulsidas, Surdas, Meerabai, Raskhan?

5.

In which period were the Ellora temples constructed?

6.

Who built the Taj Mahal?

7.

Who was Tansen?

Short answer type questions 1.

Write the features of the Gupta period paintings.

2.

Write the characteristics of architecture during the Indus civilization.

3.

Write a note on the Asoka npillars.

4.

Mention the features of the temples of the Gupta period.

5.

Write the differences between the Nagara and the Dravidian styles.

6.

Write the differences between the Mathura and the Gandhara art.

7.

State the features of medieval period paintings.

Long answer type questions 1.

Which are the main cultural trends of India? Write a comparative description of any one with reference to ancient and medieval period. Describe.

2.

How did literature grow from the ancient to the medieval period?

3.

Write the features of painting from the ancient to the medieval period.

4.

Describe the Mughal period architecture.

5.

How did sculpture develop in the medieval period? Describe.

6.

Give an analytical description of the growth of music and dance during the medieval period.

7.

How did the fine arts develop from the ancient to the medieval period?

Project work ●

Collect the pictures of Nagar style and Dravid style temples and write the differences.

●

Collect the pictures of Buddhist statues under Gandhara and Mathura Art and write the differences.

●

The Teacher can divide the class into groups and divide the work among them for collection of information on literature, painting, architecture, sculpture, dance, music and other performing arts from the ancient to the Mughal period. Arrange this information in a chronological order and prepare a scrap book on any one which can depict any one cultural trend in a sequential manner.

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Chapter-12

Democracy We Will Study 12.1



Concept of Democracy, meaning and definition Fundamental Principles of Democracy Types of Democracy Features of Democracy Merits and Demerits of Democracy Importance of Democracy Democracy in India

12.1 Concept of Democracy: Meaning and Definition

There have been various administrative systems in the political development of the 12.2 human race of which Democracy is considered to be the most important system. The main 12.3 concept of it is that the entire power of the 12.4 state vests in the people and not in any 12.5 individual, group or a dynasty. Therefore participation of the people is the basic 12.6 foundation of Democracy. All must participate 12.7 in the taking of such decisions or work which affects everyone. In the initial period of Democracy when the population and geographical boundaries of the state were small, the entire population was a part in decision making in administration. Therefore it was practiced in states with limited boundaries and populations. The beginning of direct Democracy is believed to have started from the city states of Greece. Since the geographical boundaries and population of the states in the present times has increased considerably, direct Democracy is no more possible. Therefore people indirectly participate, through the representatives elected by them, to exercise power in administration. Therefore in the present times Democracy is practised in an indirect form. It is an administered Democracy through the representatives of the people. By 'Democracy' is meant a system of governance where public welfare is of utmost importance. Democracy is not confined to a system of governance. It's a form of state and a society. Therefore it is a mixture of state, society and governance. Domocracy gives the power to rule the people, to control and to dismiss the government. As a form of a society Democracy is a social system where the thought and behaviour of equality is strong. There must be equal importance to dignity of individuals and all must have equal opportunities of growth. It's a total way of life. It's a system of values where the individual's welfare is the end and the development of personality its goal. It is based on the pre-conceived notion of freedom, compatibility and mutual cooperation. The word democracy has been derived from two Greek words 'Demos' and 'cratia' which respectively mean 'people' and 'power'. It means a type of governing system where (161) (161)

the power to govern rests with the people and administration is either done directly by the people or through their representatives. It is also referred to as 'Loktantra' or 'Jantantra'. Aristotle has called Democracy as the 'Rule of Many'. ● Abraham Lincoln has called Democracy as a ‘rule of the people, by the people and for the people.’ ● According to Dicey ‘Democracy is a form of government where the ruling community is a comparatively bigger part of the entire nation.’ The import is that the Democratic system is related to a welfare state. It lays emphasis on the freedom and importance of individuals and the fact that sovereignty lies with the people. ●

12.2 Fundamental Principles of Democracy The principles of Democracy are as follows The classical principle of Democracy - According to this principle the basis of governance is the consent of the people, but if the government does not come up to the expectations of the people, then the people can remove the government through next election. The welfare of the people is the aim of the government. This is also known as the liberal principle of Democracy, because it lays emphasis on the freedom of the people and supremacy of the society. The elitist principle of democracy - This principle has been propounded since the beginning of the 20th Century. It lays emphasis on the basic natural inequalities among men and believes that in all political systems there are two classes - the ruling and the ruled. Though the ruling class is in a minority, as a center of power it is still an elite class. The power of governing is in the hands of this elite class. Generally people think that they are participating in the political process but actually their influence is confined to elections. The basis of the elite is selection on the basis of superiority. Their superiority can be on any basis - nature, thought, economic status, social and educational background, which makes them different from the common people. The Elite also consider themselves different and superior but they act and react with the common people. In this way integration of peoples' sovereignty is attained. The Elite have an influential role in deciding the policy or in the money and wealth of the society but in a democracy everyone has an equal opportunity to enter this elite class. On the other hand a regulated and an open election process acts as a hindrance for the elite to work for the welfare of the people. Pluralist Principle - This principle believes that in a democracy a person has the freedom to organize himself into various groups for the fulfillment of various interests. These groups are autonomous in their region and pressurise the Government for fulfillment of their interests. In this way all groups share power to the extent of fulfillment of their (162)

interests. This principle also believes that actually power is divided among these groups therefore its basic concept is decentralization of power. According to this, the state alone does not have the right to supreme power. In a democracy all groups of the society have a share in political power and power to govern. Marxist Principle - In the later 19th century a new principle of democracy based on the ideology of the modern propounders of communism, Karl Marx and Lenin came up. According to this, in classical democracy or a liberal democratic system real democracy is not possible because in this governance is controlled by a small resourceful class whereas actually democracy is based on the welfare of all and equality among all. According to this principle for the establishment of true democracy a classless and stateless society should be established first. The Resourceful class is empowered with political power therefore the state itself becomes a group of exploiters. The Marxist principle believes that political power must be vested in the entire society but for this it is important that the economic power should be in the hands of the entire society. In such a condition alone will the administration be regulated for all and in the interests of all. This principle of democracy lays more emphasis on economic equality rather than on political and civil equality. It recognizes that if a person has no food, clothing or shelter then the right to vote or to get elected is meaningless for him. For the establishment of a real democracy Marxism gives the following suggestions. 1.

Social ownership of means of production and distribution.

2.

Equal distribution of wealth and fulfillment of everyone's fundamental needs.

3.

For the representation of people with similar economic interests the complete power to administer must be in the hands of one party. Marxism believes such a democracy to be the actual and best Democracy.

After the first World War till 1990 this was practised in the Soviet Union. AT Present China is a republic partially based on this principle.

12.3

Type of Democracy

Generally Democracy is of two types, Direct democracy and indirect or representative democracy. Direct Democracy - When the people residing in a state themselves directly discuss public issues on the basis of which policies are decided and laws are made, then such a governance is called direct democracy. Direct democracy is possible only in states with less population and those which are small in size. In the present times when in big states the number of citizens is in crores, direct democracy is not possible. Direct democracy today is prevalent in some cantons of Switzerland and under the Panchayati Raj system in the Gram Sabhas in India. (163) (163)

Indirect Types of Democracy Democracy Democracy (Rule of the People) When the people participate in the making of laws and controlling Direct Democracy Indirect Democ the working of the Direct participation Representative Dem administra-tion of the people in (Participation in through the Governance Government by the elected represethrough elected repres ntatives it is called Indirect Democracy. In the present times indirect democracy is practised. In this the people choose their representatives for a definite period who form the legislature and make laws. In this system the wishes of the people are expressed through the elected representatives.

12.4

Features of Democracy

The aim of every individual is self growth. For this every individual needs some opportunities. Democracy is the only administrative system in which all get equal Features of Democracy opportunities without any discrimination for ● Accountable ruling system. their alround development. The Democratic ● Rule based on equality system is based on the dignity and equality of ● Strengthening system of freedom citizens, freedom, brotherhood and justice. The ● Rule of Law fundamental features of democracy are as ● Free and fair elections ● Existence of written constitution follows ● Independent and Impartial Judiciary. 1. Accountable Ruling System In a democracy people rule directly or through their elected representatives. In this, the people have continuous influence over the ruling class. The people can make the Government work in an accountable manner by asking questions and criticising it. Here the power to govern is basically with the people which is handed over to the representatives for a fixed term. Therefore the accountability of the government is essential for the people, otherwise they have the right to hand over the power to any alternative political party in the next elections. Rule based on Equality - Democracy is based on the principle of equality. In this form of government all citizens without any discrimination have equal civil and political rights. Elections within a fixed time period are essential for democracy. All adult citizens have an equal right to vote and contest elections as candidates in these elections. The present democracies emphasise social and economic equality as well. No discrimination (164)

on the basis of religion, race, caste, gender, social status and availability of minimum economic needs is considered to be the aim of democracy. The basic traits of democracy are equal social and economic opportunities and equal importance to an individual's personality. Therefore one person one vote is the axis of democracy. Strengthening the system of freedom - In a democracy various types of freedom are given to the citizens for their alround development. Besides political freedom, rights to various types of religious and cultural freedoms are also given to the citizen. In a democracy citizens have the right to vote, get elected, hold public offices, give speeches, freedom to express themselves, form associations, organize meetings, address people or practise any profession or trade. If the citizens do not agree with the policies of the Government then they have a right to protest. Freedom is the soul of democracy, without freedom democracy is not possible. Rule of Law - In this system the Government formed on the wishes of the people, works according to law therefore it is also called as Rule of Law. By rule of law is meant that everyone is equal before law. Similar punishment is given for similar crimes, whatever be the status and position of the individual. Its not the rule of any individual or group. Therefore it is important to have a constitution where the fundamental laws are mentioned. Ensuring the rights of the citizens and ensuring that they are abiding by the laws is the responsibility of an independent judiciary. The Judiciary can give verdict against the Government also if it works against the Constitution. In a democratic country the fundamental laws are stated in the constitution. The Government makes laws according to the conditions and requirements. These laws are above all. Independent and Impartial Elections - Conducting elections only is not enough in a democracy but elections must be conducted in an independent and impartial manner so that the possibility of winning or losing an election for the people in power is not there. There should be no pressure on the voters during elections and the election process should also be impartial. The will of the people is supreme in a democracy. In this form of Government elections are held from time to time. For forming the Government various political parties and independent candidates also have the freedom to participate in these elections. Most of democratic countries along with India have a system of open election. The practical aspect of democracy is based on the fearless voting by voters for the candidate of his/her choice. Existence of a Written Constitution - Definite fundamental principles and¢ procedures of administrative organization is the most important feature of Democracy so that any ruling party on the basis of its majority may not define or change it according to its whims and fancies. The constitution of organs of government, procedures etc. must be clearly defined in the Constitution. Therefore a written constitution is considered to be very important. Democracy is based on equality and freedom of the citizens. (165) (165)

Therefore it is necessary to define them in the fundamental laws of the constitution. Independent and Impartial Judiciary - An independent and impartial judiciary is of paramount importance for putting into practice the provisions of the constitution. The judiciary has been made supreme to make the government work in accordance with the constitution, secure the rights of the citizens and punish those who violate the constitution. Therefore in order to make democracy practical an independent and impartial judiciary is very important.

12.5

Merits and Demerits of Democracy The merits of Democracy are as follows -

Based on the highest values of humanity Merits of Democracy Democracy is based on high values like equality, ● Based on higher values of justice and brotherhood and everyone is treated with humanity equality respecting every individuals dignity. It ● Public welfare develops virtues like self respect and self-reliance in ● Political education the citizens as it is based on sovereignty and ● Growth of patriotism partnership of the citizens. ● Minimum possibility of Public Welfare - In a democracy the violent revolution. representatives of the people who are elected by the people for a definite period govern. They are always afraid that if they do not work in accordance with the wishes, feelings and needs of the people then they will be defeated in the next elections. Therefore the government is responsible to the people in a democracy and is always vigilant about their interests. Therefore public welfare is always kept in mind in a democracy. Political Education - Democracy is the best means of political education. People take interest in the political field naturally, due to the right to vote and freedom to hold a political position. Freedom of expression and the use of means of communication, promote the tendency to exchange ideas among citizens. All political parties keep campaigning continuously which gives political education to the masses. Therefore in a democracy citizens receive administrative, political and social education. Growth of the Feeling of Patriotism - A Democracy is the rule of the people for attaining public welfare for the people. People feel associated with the Government and state since they are politically conscious. This association promotes the feelings of love and commitment for the nation. This leads to the cultivation of nationalism. Citizens feel that the Government is formed by them and they alone have all rights and powers. After the 1789 Revolution the French loved their nation because after the Revolution they got freedom and equal participation in the governance of France. Minimum possibility of violent revolution - Democracy is a philosophy of (166)

peace and tolerance. It is based on understanding and consensus. The opposition also has a right to put forth its views. Therefore the opposition also criticises and condemns the Government. If the majority of the people are dissatisfied with the ruling class they can easily remove them through constitutional methods. Therefore there is least possibility of a violent revolution in a democracy. Democracy is the best system based on the rule of the people on theoretical grounds, but there are practical difficulties in putting this system into practice. These are some demerits of the system. The main demerits of the system are as follows Emphasis on quantity rather than on quality - In a democracy more importance is given to quantity than quality. Only the votes are counted in this system. The vote of Demerits of Democracy every voter has equal value irrespective of the ● Emphasis on quality rather than on quantity. fact whether he is capable or incapable, educated or illiterate. The basis of democracy ● Rule of the Incapable is the concept that everyone is equal whereas ● Waste of public time and money. the potential of all in the society is not equal. ● Dominance of the rich. Every voter has right to one vote in a ● Weak during wars and emergencies. democracy meaning that it considers everyone equal. Therefore the views/opinion of more capable people are not correctly evaluated. Rule of the Incapable - Governance is an art. For this special knowledge and qualifications are required. The aim of welfare of the entire society cannot be realized if the ruler does not have the knowledge of this art. Only a few people have the art, capability and the potential to govern. But in a democracy there is a rule of the majority and a capable person is also equated with an incapable one. In developing countries the situation is even more pitiable. Therefore critics also call democracy as a rule of the incapable. Waste of Public time and money - Only after a long and complex procedure is the legislature formed. Sometimes it takes years to make important laws. Lot of money is spent on the election process. A lot of money is also spent on the members of parliament, members of legislative assembly, ministers and officers attached to the legislature. Therefore there is a waste of both time and money in a democracy. Domination of the Wealthy - To say that everyone participates in the political process in a democracy is only theoretical. Practically elections have become so expensive that common people cannot even think of participating in the election for any position. To contest elections based on money has become a common feature of the Democratic system. Candidates contesting elections spend a lot of money in campaigning. (167) (167)

This has led to the transformation of Democracy from 'Rule of the people' to the 'Rule of the Rich.' Partisanships - For the regulation of the present democracy political parties are becoming essential. Ideally political parties are formed on the basis of ideologies but in practice their main aim is to acquire power. Political parties level baseless charges against each other to influence people and win popularity Opposition for the sake of opposing and not for principles or values becomes the aim of the political parties. Political parties become a battle ground for those who influence the feelings of the people through negative campaigning and find ways and means to fulfill their selfish motives and establish their supremacy. Their immoral behavior during elections embitters the entire environment. Partisan interests become more important than public welfare and they also use political power to fulfill their selfish interests. Weak during wars and emergencies - There is a need to take quick decisions during a war or an emergency, but a democracy proves to be ineffective during such times. Due to the distribution of power in a democracy it takes a lot of time to take decisions and enforce them.

12.6 Importance of Democracy Democracy is not only a special type of rule but it has a special perspective towards life. Democracy is a system of governance based on freedom, equality, participation and brotherhood. It can also be called a social system. Under this the entire life of man is based on the democratic belief that every individual has equal importance in the society. If the importance of a person is only in the political field then democracy will remain incomplete. For realization of true democracy it is important that individuals get equal opportunities of growth in the political, social and economic sphere of life. In the political sphere of man's life, democracy means a political system in which the power to take decisions does not vest in an individual but in the hands of the elected representatives of the people. Therefore the rule is based on the feelings of the people. In the social sphere of man's life democracy implies a society where there is no discrimination on the grounds of caste, religion, colour, gender, race, creed or wealth. Everyone must have equal right's and opportunities to grow equally without any discrimination and society must have the underlying feeling of brotherhood and mutual cooperation. In the economic sphere of man's life by democracy is meant a system, where every member of the society gets the freedom and the right to choose his means of livelihood or any profession. An effort to establish such a system is made where there is no exploitation of one by the other. An effort is made to provide basic facilities so that he may fulfill his minimum economic need and live a dignified life. The Government is expected (168)

to provide the facilities of food, clothing, shelter, health, education, employment etc. The Democratic system believes in an organized and regular change of the rulers. Democracy also believes that whatever changes have to be done in the political, social and economic spheres can be done in a peaceful manner. This is the only administrative system which ensures the participation of the people in the political process. Therefore it is valued more than any other system of governance.

Need and importance of a constitution for a Democracy In the present democratic system the government is formed by the elected representatives of the people. The fundamental belief of democracy is that the power of governing must be in the interests of the governed for protecting the rights of the people. In a democracy the common people easily get to know the procedure of formation of the Government and rights and duties of the citizens. There should also be a provision to ensure that the constitution may not be easily changed. In this manner it is important to have a written constitution for safeguarding democracy. Democracy is therefore called the Rule of Law. Here the Law is above an individual or a group of individuals, which is ensured through a written constitution. Therefore a constitution is very important for a Democracy. For strengthening democracies, democratic traditions are also important which give flexibility to a written constitution.

12.7 Democracy in India Form of Democracy in Ancient India - Democracy and ideas of democratic institutions are not new for India. It is believed that from around 3000 BC to 1000 BC during the Vedic period the tradition of representative consultation was prevalent among Indians. During the later Vedic period the Republican form of Government and local self governing institutions were prevalent. In the Rigveda and the Atharvaveda a reference of Sabha and Samiti is found. After the war of Mahabharat big empires started disappearing and many republician states rose. During the Mahajanpad period there was a birth of sixteen Mahajanpads which included Kashi, Kaushal, Magadh, Matsya etc. Some of the Mahajanpads were monarchical and others republic. Mahavir and Gautam Buddha both came from Republics. Many rules of Buddhist monasteries resembled the rules of the modern parliamentary system. For example - Seating arrangement, various types of proposals, calling attention quorum, counting of votes, motion, thoughts related to justice etc. In the Vajji union everyone assembled for a meeting. It was a form of direct democracy. The Union of Vajji was formed by the association of six republics. There was an elaborate system of self government in villages and cities during the Mauryan period in India. Indian society was predominantly agrarian where the fundamental unit was self governing and independent villages. The political structure was based on these village communities. The village was administered by an elected Panchayat. The center of the village was a Panchayat Ghar where young and old assembled. All the members of the (169) (169)

village elected the Panchayat every year. These elected Panchayats had all rights in the matters of the village and the right to administer justice. Panchayats distributed the land and collected taxes for the Government from the entire village. Some committees were formed from the elected members of the Panchayats. Each committee was formed for one year; if any member misbehaved he could be immediately removed. If a member was unable to give a proper account of the public exchequer he was declared incapable. At the central level the king ruled. The king did not have autocratic rights based on Divine rights like kings in Europe. If the king misbehaved the subjects had the right to remove the king. There was a state council to give advice to the king. The king worked in accordance with the wishes of the people and the advisors of the king (ministers / officers) respected the Panchas at the local levels. Therefore in ancient India the meaning of 'Rule of King' was serving the subjects. Democratic Institutions during the British Rule - British rule tried to give limited powers to the Indians. For this the various Acts passed by the British parliament and the laws made by British rule in India can be termed as a partial forerunner of Indian Democracy. The ancient heritage of Indian society and culture has democratic values from the beginning therefore the legal systems of the British rule period were easily accepted by the Indians. Though they only had a formal form of democracy they can still be called as the initial form of a democracy. In 1858, 1861 and 1892 the above systems were limited to local administration only. The Acts of 1909, 1919 and 1935 made a major contribution in the growth of the Parliamentary system in India.

Present Indian Democracy In the present times India is the world's largest democratic country. After independence, the Indian Constitution came into force on 26th Jan. 1950. India became a sovereign democratic republic after the enforcement of the constitution. Citizens were given universal adult suffrage in accordance with the fundamental principles of democracy by the constitution. All adult Indian citizens were given the right to vote without any discrimination, by which the people could elect the representatives of their choice and form a popular Government. Indian citizens have shown an active participation and maturity in all the parliamentary and legislative elections. Barring the exception of emergency (1975-1977) holding of timely and impartial elections is an indicator of perpetual democracy in India. Besides the elections for village panchayats and city municipalities and municipal corporation are also examples of the Indian democracy being broad based. There are some challenges to Indian democracy. Indian democracy is getting affected by illiteracy, casteism, linguism, regionalism, separatism, communalism, political violence, social and economic inequalities, dominance of money and muscle power, corruption and politics of vote banks. Indian democracy can be freed from these demerits by removing social-economic inequalities, expansion of education and establishing moral values. The commitment of (170)

Indian people towards democracy is clear from the various timebound peaceful elections and through change in power from time to time through constitutional methods. Therefore we can hope for perpetuation and success of democracy in India

Terms Sovereignty

: The supreme power of the state.

State

: A group formed by a defined geographical area, population, government and sovereignty is called a state.

Canton

: Switzerland's political or administrative province / unit

Communism

: It is an ideology whose main aim is to establish economic equality so that the minimum needs of each individual are met.

Elite

: A group of such people who have made a special place in the society. This word is also used for leaderships of various regions like a political elite.

Republic

: The head of the state will be elected by the people and not from any dynasty or royal dynasty.

Forerunner

: Beginning background / Preceding.

End

: Aims, for example the aim of the state is to establish a welfare state.

Exercise Choose the correct alternative 1.

Which of the following is not a characteristic of a Democracy? (i)

Government of elected representatives.

(ii) Respect of Rights. (iii) Centralization of power in the hands of one person. (iv) Free and impartial elections. 2.

3.

Which is the Democratic concept? (i) Freedom (iii) Inequality

(ii) Exploitation (iv) Individualism

Which one of the following is not a demerit of democracy? (i) Waste of public time and money (ii) Dominance of the wealthy (171) (171)

(iii) Partisanships (iv) Public welfare 4.

Democracy is a rule of the people, by the people for the people (i) Machiavelli (ii) Lincoln (iii) Rousseau (iv) Hautes

Fill in the blanks : 1.

Aristotle has called Democracy as the ............................ .

2.

The propounders of communism was ....................... and ...................... .

3.

A ................... constitution is essential for a successful Democracy.

4.

There is a wastage of .................. and ..................... in Democracy.

Very short type answer 1.

What has been mentioned with reference to democracy in the later Vedic Period?

2.

What was the basic unit of administration in ancient India?

3.

What right does the Marxist principle of democracy lay emphasis on?

Short answer type questions 1.

Write any two definitions explaining the meaning of democracy.

2.

State the importance of Democracy.

3.

What do you understand by indirect or representative Democracy?

Long answer type questions 1.

What do you understand by democracy? Write down its chief characteristics.

2.

Describe the merits and demerits of democracy.

3.

Describe the fundamental principles of democracy.

4.

Describe the form and importance of democracy in India.

5.

What is the concept of Democracy? Describe the present form of Indian democracy.

Project Work ●

Collect information of the student council elections in your school. Write the process or procedure adopted in the elections of class representatives or student council. Make a beautiful chart of all representatives and office bearers.

●

Collect information of the elections of your village Panchayat. Make a chart of winning and defeated candidates. Write the role of people of the village in the election process of the Panchayat.

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Chapter-13

Elections We Will Study 

13.1 Meaning and need of Election

We have adopted the parliamentary type of government in our country. In this type of government the elected representatives form the government. The people participate in the government through election. Election is a process in which citizens of a country elect their representatives. The representatives are elected for a fixed period. The people of our country exercise their political power by participating in elections. India is a large and multilingual country. In our country every citizen has an equal right to participate in the election of a representative (without any discrimination). This system of franchise is called universal adult franchise. All those citizens who have attained the age of 18 years and whose names are included in the voter's list, have the right of voting. 13.1 Meaning and need of election 13.2 Conditions of receiving franchise 13.3 Political party system characteristics, function and types 13.4 Political parties of India -importance, role of opposition 13.5 The Indian Election procedure 13.6 Election Commission and its functions

India has adopted secret suffrage system. In India the Election Commission has been constituted for holding free and impartial elections. Election is a process through which people of democratic countries elect their representatives for a fixed period of time.

13.2

Franchise

The preamble of the Indian Constitution declares that sovereignty rests in the hands of the people. People exercise their supreme power through their elected representatives. The Public is the source of the entire power of government. Citizens have the right to elect their representatives. The management of the government is done through the elected representatives. The right to elect representatives is called suffrage. This is an important political right. The modern age is an age of Democracy. The public of those countries which do not have democracy also want to adopt it. In our country every adult citizen has been granted the right to vote. This system of suffrage is called Universal Adult Franchise. (173) (173)

Universal Adult Franchise The granting of the right to vote to an adult male and female of the country without any discrimination is called Universal Adult Franchise. In this system after attaining a specified age, all citizens are granted the right to Vote. In our country all males and females who have attained the age of 18 years have the right to vote. But this has to be kept in mind, that suffrage is not only a right but also a duty. Insane or mad persons, declared insolvent by the court or persons who are not citizens of India do not have the right to vote. At the time of framing of our constitution, the citizens of some countries of the world had limited franchises. But the creators of our constitution decided to grant franchise to all the citizens without any discrimination. On 17th November 1949 these words were said in the Constituent Assembly : “Without Universal Adult Franchise, democracy is meaningless.” Franchise is a unique provision of our constitution. It has so many advantages. The following are its characteristics. 1.

Equal importance of vote of every citizen.

2.

It is in conformity with the principle of equality.

3.

All citizens participate in administration.

4.

Change of government is possible peacefully.

5.

Political education to people.

6.

It instills self respect among citizens.

It is a serious question for all democratic systems that what should be the basis of franchise? Whether this right should be given to all citizens of the state or only to some selected Principles of franchise citizens. In this reference the following are the 1. Principle of Tribal Franchise principles of franchise2. Principle of knight. 1. Principle of Tribal Franchise According to this franchise to each individual of the state should be granted, because it is not a specific right or facility but it is a natural and active part which influences the life of every citizen. This opinion was prevalent, within the old meetings of ancient Greece, Rome and other states where franchise was done by raising hands. Probably the compulsion of citizenship in the modern age is its (174)

3. 4. 5. 6.

Principle of nature. Principle of Law. Principle of Moral Principle of universal Adult Franchise. 7. Principle of pluralistic franchise. 8. Principle of weighted franchise.

prototype. 2. Principle of Feudal Franchise- According to this principle only those people who possess property can exercise the right of suffrage. This opinion was especially prevalent in the medieval times when the right of franchise was a symbol of honour. In the modern age, the necessity of having property for the right of suffrage is based on this principle in many countries. 3. Principle of nature - According to this principle the government is a man made machinery. It is based on the consent of the people. Therefore, the right to choose the ruler is a natural right of the people. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries this principle was very popular. 4. Principle of Law - According to this principle franchise is not a natural right of the people but this is a political right. It is only the government which decides to whom the franchise should he granted. Every government decides it according to its conditions and social position. 5. Principle of morals - According to this principle for the development of personality, man should have the right to decide through franchise who will govern him. It gives birth to political sensitivity and makes him aware of the policies and programmes of government. 6. Principle of Universal Adult franchise - This is the most prevalent principle among the democratic states. According to this every adult citizen of the state can exercise the right to vote without any discrimination. The demand for Universal franchise and sovereignty of the people was raised during 17th and 18th centuries. The right of adulthood was included in it .The age of adulthood is eighteen years in America, Britain, Russia and India. In Australia the government can declare it compulsory for citizens to exercise the right to vote and can punish a person who does not exercise his right to vote without some genuine reason. In most countries, this system of adult franchise is exercised. Therefore it is necessary to know its merits and demerits.

Merits ●

As democracy means participation of people in administration therefore universality of franchise is desirable. Participation in administration of people is the life line of democracy.

●

A representative who is related to all should be elected by all.

●

Franchise is the origin of democracy because it is in conformity with the principle of equality.

●

Unless franchise is universal there is no hope of a government which aims at public interest. (175) (175)

Demerits ●

In the opinion of thinkers like Maikale and Hensigen, the uneducated and ignorant people also get the opportunity of franchise.

●

It is also said that franchise should not be granted to a majority of people as it increases political unstability.

7. Principle of Pluralistic Franchise - The principle of "One man one vote" is accepted everywhere in the modern democratic system, but the system of pluralistic franchise has also been prevalent in several states for the last few years. According to the basic concept of this principle of suffrage the number of votes of persons should be made less or more on some basis. 8. Principle of weighed franchise - According to this principle votes are not counted but weightage is given to them. Here weight means importance that is in electing the government the weight of the vote of a person who is adorned with any specialty such as education, wealth or property will be more than that of an ordinary person.

13.3 Political party system Different political parties are essential for the parliamentary type of democracy political parties are organsied groups of citizens having similar ideology. They are committed to their policies and programmes. They work in a form of power and they are always attempting to gain power and continue it. There are some general characteristics of political parties. Functions of political parties. Political parties have many important Characteristic of political parties functions in democracy. The main functions ● To maintain a clear identity are as follows● To opine clearly regarding policy 1. They work as a bridge between the matters government and the public. ● To obtain public opinion in support of 2. They form public opinion about its policy continously various issues of national interest. ● Registraion in election commission 3. They select candidates for elections. ● Be United by one regulation. ● They have in Main aim to win election 4. They make efforts to control the for obtaining power arbitrariness of the ruling party. ● To create public opinion against anti5. The main function of political parties public policies by keeping an eye on is to get victory in elections and to the ruling party form the government. ● Have a Party symbol for identity (176)

6.

They help in preparing voters lists.

7.

They impart political education to people.

8.

They do social and economic work also.

Type of party systems On the basis of the number of political parties the party system is divided into three categoriesa.

Single party system- In a country where there is only one political party, it is called a single party system. In the countries having single party system a single party is recongnised and the existence and idiologies of other parties are restricted.

b.

Bi-party system- In a country if only two main parties exist and the ruling power shifts between these two parties only, then this system is called Biparty system. For example in America the main two parties are the democratic and republican parties, and in Britain Labour and Conservative Parties. Thus the bi-party system is prevalent in the United States of America and Britain.

c.

Multiparty system - When in a country several political parties exist then it is called a multi party system. We have multi party system in our country. In the elections many small and insignificant parties take part, but they are not necessary.

When there is no majority of any single party then a coalition government is formed. Two or more parties are united in a coalition government. Coalition Government When a single party does not get a majority and few parties together form a government, that government is called association government. This is also called as collation government.

The main demerit of the multiparty system is changing of party by politicians. During elections several types of problems arise. In this system it becomes very difficult to differentiate between the policies of different political parties. The number of individual parties increases in the multiple party system. Due to political ambitions, the formation of new parties begins and existing political parties break up.

13.4 Political parties in India, Importance and role of opposition.

In India some major political parties came into existence before independence. After independence the Election Commission was formed. In India political parties are registered and recognised by it. Political parties in India are of three types(177) (177)

1.

National Political Party At the time of the parliamentary election in the year 2004, 6 political parties were recognised as national political parties. These are- 1. The Indian National Congress, 2. The Bhartiya Janta Party, 3. The Bahujan Samaj Party, 4. The Communist Party of India (Marxist), 5. The Communist Party of India, 6. The Nationalist Congress Party The party symbols of national parties are uniform in the whole country. Although a party is a national party, it does not mean that it will have equal popularity in every state. The influence of national parties varies from state to state. To be recognised as a national political party, any one of the following conditions should be fulfilled. Any political party which obtains at least 6% vote in the election of parliament or State Legislative Assembly or if any political party obtains at least 2 percent of total seats of the parliament and this position should be in minimum three states, this party will be considered a national political party. 2. State Political Parties At the time of the parliamentary election in the year 2004, there were 36 regional political parties in India. They are recognised for one or more than one state. Their election symbols are reserved in these states. For example- the Akali Dal in Punjab, the Telugu Desham in Andhra are regional parties. A party can be recognised as a state party if it obtains 6% votes in the related state legislative election or parliamentary election or it obtains three seats in Legislature. State parties are known as regional parties. 3. Registered Political Parties More that 750 parties are registered in the Election Commission. For example the Gondwna Gantantra Party and the Bhartiya Janshakti Party are registered as political parties. During elections such registered parties do not get time slot on radio and television. Their election symbols are not reserved in the entire state. Their influence is restricted to a limited area. Some registered parties merge themselves with other parties if required or form a separate party in case of difference of opinion. Such parties are generally the result of the desire and influence of the president of the party. Importance of Party System The party system makes democratic rule possible. In the modern age the work of government is done with the help of political parties. They help government make policies. With their help it also becomes easier to bring changes in the policies. Due to the party system, the government becomes welfare oriented and works in the interest of people. They stop arbitrariness of the government. The desires and expectations of the public reach the government through them. They impart political education to people. Everybody gets an opportunity to become a part of the government through these parties. Political parties protect the independence of citizens. They establish the unity of the nation.

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Importance of political parties The importance of political parties in democracy can be explained in the following way 1.

Formation and expression of public opinion is possible only through political parties. The political parties organise processions and conferences for the formation of public opinion.

2.

At present adult franchise is adopted by most of the countries of the world. Parties nominate their candidates from their parties and campaign for them.

3.

Today in the huge democratic ruling system, opposition parties are essential. Parties in minority or opposition parties have equal importance in democracy like parties with majority.

Role of Opposition After the general elections, among all the political parties, the party with the majority or coalition of parties form the government or becomes the ruling party and the parties which do not get majority are called parties of the opposition. The party which has gained a majority forms the government. The opposition parties keep a check on the government. In a parliamentary democracy the public do not keep the work of government under direct control. This is done by the opposition party . In our parliamentary based democratic country the ruling party and the opposition are bound to work for the public welfare with alertness due to the active role of the opposition parties in the parliament and legislatures. The opposition parties in parliament and legislative assemblies also suggest new policies and functions. The government performs its responsibilities with more alertness due to the presence of deliberation and discussion. The opposition cooperates to remove the defects of law. During the sessions of legislature and parliament the role of the opposition becomes more important. The opposition pressurises the government by asking questions in the house, calls attention to notices or adjournment motions. Thus the opposition establishes its efficacy before the public and it places the mistakes and weaknesses of government before them. It compels the government to rectify its mistakes by criticising the policies and action of the government. The government gets influenced by the propoganda and tactics of the opposition.

13.5

The Indian Election Procedure

Elections are an important task. They are done through a specific procedure. You are the future citizens of India therefore it is necessary for you to know about it. The election procedure is the same whether it is the general election, mid-term election or (179) (179)

bi-election. The whole procedure of election can be complied in the following way 1. Preparation of Electoral Rolls This is the first and the most important stage of the elections. Before each and every election, electoral rolls are prepared by the District Election Officer's as per the directions of the Election Commission. Any Indian citizen who has attained 18 years of age can get his name included. Voter's identity cards are also prepared by the district election officer. In the absence of voter's identity card the citizens have to bring other documents to show their identity.

General Election Elections which take place at a fixed period of time are known as General Elections. Mid Term Election If the Lok Sabha or State Legislative assemblies are dissolved before their tenure then, the elections which take place are Mid Term elections Bi-Election In any area, if any post is vacant due to the resignation or death of any candidate then such elections are called Bi-Elections.

2. Notification of Election - Every election procedure begins with notification of election. Notification of general, mid-term or bielection to parliament is issued by the President, notification to state legislative assembly is issued by the Governor. After the deliberation with the Election Commission the notification is published in the Government Gazette. After issuing the election notification the Election Commission announces the election programme. Along with this the moral code of conduct is enforced for the political parties. 3. Nomination for Election - Different political parties decide the names of their candidates for participation in the election. The candidates who want to fight election file their nomination papers personally and deposit them in front of the elections officer. After the scrutiny of the nomination papers the list of nominees is announced on a fixed date. Within a fixed period a candidate can withdraw his/her name. The final list of nominees is issued after the time for withdrawal of names is over. 4. Election Symbols - The election symbol of each recognised party is already fixed. The election symbol of their party is allotted to the concerned candidates. At the time of elections, the election symbol of the candidate is printed on the ballot papers or shown on the Electronic voting machine against his name. In India, a large number of voters are illiterate. Therefore the election symbols are helpful for the identification of the candidate. 5. Election Campaign - The Election campaign is an important aspect of the voting procedure. Each candidate presents his party's programme on the election manifesto regarding the work which will be done by his party in the coming five years before the people and tries to get the favour of the voters in different ways. The political (180)

parties issue their election manifesto which consists of their programmes and policies. Public meetings and rallies are organised. News papers, posters, banners, pamphlets are used for canvassing. Now time is given to political parties on radio and television also. Canvassing is stopped forty eight hours before the polling begins. 6. Polling - Each constituency is divided into many polling centers. The polling centers are fixed for each voter, where he casts his vote on the day of polling. An identity card bearing the photograph of the voter is issued to each voter for his identity. This is known as identity card of the voter. The voters who do not possess this identity card, can prove his/her identity through him ration card, driving license or any document related to her/his identity. At a polling booth a presiding officer and polling officers are appointed as per the requirement. On the day of polling, voters come and line up in a queue. Before casting of vote the voter's identity is verified then the voter who has come to cast his vote has to put append his signature / thumb impression on the voters' list. If an electronic voting machine is used then the voter puts his signature or thumb impression on the register. After the marking of indelible ink he can cast his vote. Voting can be done in two ways(1) by Electronic Voting Machine (2) Ballot System. To keep the vote confidential two or more polling booths are made at every polling center, where the electronic voting machine or the ballot box is kept. In the electronic voting machine, the vote is cast by pressing the button in front of the name of the candidate and his corresponding election symbol. In the ballot paper voting system, a ballot paper with the signature of the election officer is given to the voter. The voter goes to the polling room with that ballot paper and puts the seal on the symbol of the desired candidate. The ballot paper is folded and put in the ballot box. After the period of voting is over, the electronic voting machine is closed and sealed. After the ballot boxes are used, these are closed first, then through the special paper seal obtained along with the voting material, these boxes are sealed. 7. Counting - All ballot boxes and electronic voting machines are collected on a fixed date. Counting takes place in front of district election officer. The candidate who obtains maximum number of votes is declared elected. The elected candidate is the representative of his area. The district election offices gives a certificate to the elected candidate after the results of the elections are declared. (181) (181)

The aim of the Election Commission is to conduct impartial and independent elections. On the day of elections a public holiday is declared so that all citizens get an opportunity to cast their vote. On the day of the election all liquor shops of that area are closed. Special security arrangements are made so that nobody scares or threatens the voters. Shortcomings of the Indian Electoral Shortcomings of Elections system System ● Lack of complete participation The future of the democracy depends ● Use of black money in elections upon the fairness of elections and independent ● Influence of muscle power in the voting i.e. without any inducement and pressure. elections The Election Commission makes efforts for ● Misuse of Government machinery an unbiased and independent election. Even ● Teh great number of independent then there are some problems. The following Candidates The attempt to influence the are the main defects of our electoral system- ● sentiments of voters 1. Lack of complete Frauds participation in voting - The aim of universal ● Adult Franchise is to make every citizen participate in the government indirectly. We have seen that a large number of voters do not exercise their right to vote in the parliamentary and state legislative elections. Therefore the elected candidate getting the maximum votes does not represent the public in the real sense. Therefore participation of all citizen in exercising their franchise is desirable. 2. Use of money in elections - The increasing expenses in elections is a big problem. For every election a ceiling on election expenses is fixed but a lot of money is spent by the candidates. Therefore, sometimes due to lack of money honest and wise persons are not able to contest the election. The use of money in elections is an immoral act on the part of a person, which is a very serious problem from the point of view of the reformation of the election system. 3. Influence of muscle power in elections - Sometimes the candidates try to win the election by unfair means. For this they take help of criminals also. Often with the use of muscle power, booth capturing is resorted to and voters are made to vote in some one's favour by threatening them or by voting illegally. 4. Misuse of Government Machinery - Before the time of elections charming promises are made by the ruling party. During the elections, high officials are transferred and government, money and vehicles and other means are misused. They also try to influence the election officers. All these affect the impartiality of the elections. 5. The number of independent candidates- Sometimes there are too many independent candidates in the election race. This creates problems for managing the elections. (182)

6. Attempts to influence the sentiments of the voters - At the time of elections some candidates try to influence the sentiments of the voters on the basis of religion, caste, region and language. Political parties select their candidates on the basis of caste. The biggest defect of the Indian election system is the attempt to influence the election by provoking the sentiments of the public. 7. Impersonation (Fraud franchise) - Some times some persons vote in place of other persons, include their names in more than one electoral rolls, cast votes without the inclusion of their names in the electoral roll etc. all are fraudulent franchise. This is also a big problem of our election system. 8. Other defects - The name of the citizen should compulsorily be included in the electoral roll to allow him to vote for a candidate in an election. We often see that several names of the voters are not included in the electoral roll while the names of persons who have left that constituency or have expired are not deleted from the electoral rolls. The political parties do not make efforts to arouse awareness among the people. A large number of voters on one voting booth is also a problem. Some-times one candidate contests from more than one constituency. If he wins in both the constituencies then the candidate resigns from one constituency. In that condition bi-elections takes place. The government money as well as the money of the candidates is wasted. In our country the Election Commission is continuously trying to make elections free and impartial. The Election Commission makes efforts to remove the defects of the elections. The identity card system of the voters is a valuable step taken by the Election Commission. Continuous efforts are being made to remove the defects of our election system.

13.6

The Election Commission and its functions

The Election Commission is an independent institution constituted under the provisions of the constitution. It conducts free and impartial elections in India. Elections of the parliament, state legislature, office of the President and vice-president are all conducted under the supervision of the Election Commission. The office of the Indian Election Commission is at Delhi. In the Election Commission there are three commissioners. One chief and two others. All the three have equal powers. In cases of difference of opinions, the decisions are taken by a majority. The President appoints the Elections Commissioners. The tenure of the Election Commissioner is 6 years or 65 years of age whichever is earlier. The procedure for the removal of the Election Commissioner is similar to that prescribed for the removal of the Supreme Court judges. It means a resolution, which is passed by a majority of the total members and two third majority of the present and (183) (183)

voting members, is sent to the President from both houses of parliament separately. Then only can he/she be removed from the post.

Functions of the Election Commission In our country the entire responsibility of conducting elections lies with the Election Commission. The constitution is the source of the power and functions of the Election Commissioner. The following are the main functions of the Election Commissioner 1. Delimitation of the Constituencies - Before any election the area of each constituency is demarcated. Earlier the delimitation of constituencies was done by the Election Commissioner in the general elections. Now this is done by a Delimitation Commissioner. The Chief Election Commissioner is the president of this Commission.

●

● ● ●

● ●

●

●

Functions of Election Commission Delimitation of the constituencies Preparation of electoral Rolls Allotment of election symbols Registration and recognition of political parties Holding elections. Giving their opinion for fixation of dualities of members of parliament and legislature Preparation and implementation of the moral code of conduct Miscellaneous functions

2. Preparation of Electoral Rolls - This is the second important function of the Election Commission. the Election Commission prepares a list of citizens who are eligible to vote in accordance with the concerned polling booth before every election. This is called an Electoral roll. The names of the citizens who have attained the age of 18 years is included in the new list and some names of the persons are removed from the list who have either left the constituency or expired. The electoral roll is also known as a voter list. 3. Allotment of Election Symbols - The election symbols of national and regional political parties are fixed and reserved by the Election Commission. The distribution of electoral symbols to the newly formed parties or the parties formed after their division is done by the Election Commission. The election symbols are very important signifiers for the political parties. During the elections the candidates ask for votes on the basis of their party symbols. 4. Registration and Recognition of Political Parties - Registration of political parties and the need, to give them recognition as national or regional parties on the basis of the votes obtained in the last elections of Parliament or Legislative Assembly are the functions of the Commission. The Election Commission takes due care for strict compliance of the election rules. 5. Holding Elections - The election programme is announced by the Election Commission. It makes arrangements and all efforts for holding free and impartial (184)

elections. During elections it issues the code of conduct i.e. directions to be followed by the political parties and candidates. The commission has the right to supervise and control the elections. The Election Commission makes efforts for free and impartial elections. 6. To give their opinion regarding disqualification of the members of Parliament and Legislative Assembly - To give their opinion regarding the disqualification of the representatives is also the function of the Commission. The President had sought advice of the Election Commission in the year 2006 regarding office of profit and on the basis of its advice the membership of some parliamentarians had been terminated. 7. Miscellaneous work - The Election Commission is empowered to fix the limit of expenses of the candidates. It also provides means for the improvement of the election procedure and also for training of candidates.

Terms Polling Area

: Voters of a specific geographical area, who elect a representative for that area. Time Bound Elections Programme :Commencement of elections after a fix period of time, like after every five years. Code of conduct : The terms and condition of maintaining law and order and instructions to be followed by the parties and candidates during elections. Election manifesto : A document, through which political parties describe their policies and programmes. In this the party promises the formation of clean and capable government to the public. Indelible Ink : Ink applied on the fingers of voters so that they are not able to cast votes again in the same election. This gets removed after many days.

Exercise I. Choose the right option and write: 1. Out of these, who can be granted adult franchise (i) Minor male and female (ii) Only male (iii) Adult Male and Female (iv) Only Female 2. Who does not have right to vote? (i) Insane or mentally handicapped (ii) Minor age group (iii) Declared bankrupt by court (iv) All the above (185) (185)

3.

In India, the election procedure is said to start after which of the following(i) After filing of nomination paper by candidate (ii) After notification of election (iii) After beginning of campaigning (iv) With organising of public meetings. II. Fill in the blanks : 1. In our country all males and females who have attained the age of .............. years have the right to vote. 2. When few parties together form a government, that is called as ............ government. 3. .................... commission has been formed for registration and recognition of palitical parties. 4. The granting of the right to vote to an adult male and female of the country without any discrimination is called ............................ . Very short answer type questions 1. What is meant by election? Write. 2. What is franchise? Write. 3. What are political parties? Write. 4. Who appoints the Chief Election Commissioners? 5. In India, where is the office of the Election Commission situated? 6. What is a coalition government? Short answer type questions 1. What is known as a National Political party? Write. 2. Write about the characteristics of political parties. 3. What is a mid term election? 4. Write about the main functions of the Election Commission. 5. What is an electoral roll? Write its uses. 6. Write four functions of political party. 7. Write four characteristics of a political party. 8. Describe the role of the opposition party. 9. Write down the functions of the election commission. Long answer type questions 1. Explain the type of political parties on the basis of the number of political parties. 2. What is the political party system? Explain its importance. 3. Explain the major demerits of the Indian Election procedure. 4. Write about the Indian election procedure. 5. Describe the importance and functions of political parties. 6. Explain the principles of franchise. 7. Write about the functions of the election commission.

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Chapter-14

Constitutional Rights and Duties of Citizens We Will Study

&

14.1 Fundamental rights, Meaning and importance

14.1 Fundamental Rights: Meaning and importance 14.2 Fundamental Rights incorporated in the constitution 14.3 Directive principles of the state policy 14.4 Differences between fundamental rights and directive principles of state policy 14.5 Fundamental Duties 14.6 Legal Rights available to citizens ● Right to Property ● Right to Information

The Indian Constitution is divided into 22 parts. In the Indian Constitution Fundamental Rights have been enumerated in chapter three, Directive Principles of state policy in chapter four and Fundamental Duties in chapter 4(A); this was added to it afterwards. In fact they are parts of the same system. It is an effort to establish the declared aims of the Constitution i.e. justice, freedom, equality, fraternity etc. in practice. These are the foundation and essential parts of the democratic life style adopted in India. Rights are those conditions of life which are essential for the complete development of the people. In a democratic society a citizen needs some rights to lead a free life. These are associated with their basic needs and dignity. Therefore we call them 'Fundamental Rights'. The society recognises them because they are essential for all. The state recongnise them. In case of violation of these rights they can be enforced through the courts. In fact the fundamental rights are a sort of restriction on the arbitrary proceeding of the state government to the officers working is it. These are provided for the physical, mental, moral, cultural and all round development of an individual. A citizen develops his personality to the fullest due to these rights. The rights which are essential for the all round development and dignity of a citizen are incorporated in the constitution of the country, and are protected by the Judiciary and called the Fundamental rights.

(187) (187)

Fundamental Rights

Right to Equality

Right to Freedom

Right to Freedom of religion

Right against Exploitation

Cultural and Educational Rights

Right t Constituti Remedi

14.2 Fundamental Rights incorporated in the Indian constitutionThe following six fundamental rights have been included in the Indian constitution:-

Rights to EqualityThe following rights to equality are provided to usi.Equality before the law : Article 14 of the Constitution guarantees to each citizen equality and protection before the law. Nobody is above the law and the law is considered paramount authority, and every person whatever be his rank or position, is subject to the jurisdiction of an ordinary court regarding a common offence. It aims to restrict the arbitrary power of the legislature as well as the executive body. Article 15 of the constitution provides that no discrimination shall be made by the state between citizens on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex and place of birth. No one can be barred from using shops, public places, hotels and all places of public entertainment on the above grounds. No person or state shall discriminate on any ground for the use of wells, tanks, bathrooms, roads, fairs etc. which have been made for public use. The state is empowered to make special public rules. The state is empowered to make special provisions for women, children and socially backward persons. Such provision shall not be deemed to be inequality. ii. Equal opportunities in Public Appointments : Article 16 of the Constitution provides for equal opportunities for all citizens in matters of public employment. The state will provide equal opportunities for all citizens according to their qualifications. There shall be no discrimination on the basis of religion, caste, sex, race and place of birth in this regard. The state is empowered to lay down the necessary qualification for state services. The state shall make provisions for reservation in accordance with article 16(4) for the services under it for members of any backward classes in case there is no adequate representation of these classes. Under the 77th amendment to the Constitution the state may also make reservations for promotions. (188)

iii. Abolition of untouchability : Article 17 of the constitution has abolished untouchability with a view to bring social equality among its citizens. Civil Right Protection Act of 1955 provides that the practice of untouchability by the state or citizens be a punishable offence. Therefore no person shall be prohibited from entering public institutions, places and religious areas etc. No person can be humiliated on account of there caste or any other basis. Practice of untouchability in any form is a punishable offence under the Indian Constitution. During the Birtish rule citizens were conferred titles such as Rai Bahadur, Khan Bahadur and Sir etc. These titles created impediments in the unity and equality and generated the feeling of being high and low. Therefore with the enforcement of the constitution these titles have been abolished. Special honours relating to military, education and science and non military citations such as the Bharat Ratna, the Padma Vibhushan and the Padamshri conferred by the President of India after independence for laudable works/ services are an exception.

2.

Right to Freedom

Articles 19 to 22 of the constitution guarantee the Right to freedom to citizens. This article provides them the right to freedom of expression, belief, religion and worship. This helps them in developing their personality. We enjoy the following freedoms. i.Freedom of Speech and Expression : All the citizens of India have full freedom to express their ideas. Speech is its powerful means. They can express their ideas through the newspapers, the radio, the television and painting. But a Freedom of speech person should express his ideas and expression keeping in view the sovereignity, integrity, security Freedom to assemble public order, decency, morality, peacefully without arms friendly relations with foreign countries and respect to courts. Freedom to form The state can impose reasonable Associations and Unions restrictions on the aforesaid Right of basis on speech and freedom of Freedom of movement Freedom expression. ii. Freedom to Freedom to live and settle in any part of India assemble peacefully without arms : Under this right citizens Freedom to take up any job have the freedom to assemble or trade anywhere in India for meetings, processions and (189) (189)

demonstrations. These should take place peacefully and without arms. The government can impose reasonable restrictions on this right. Keeping in view the sovereignity, integrity and public security of the country. iii. Freedom to form Associations and Unions : Freedom to form unions. A Union is a group of people assembled and organised to achieve a common objective. The constitution grants the freedom to form unions and associations to the citizens according to their will. These unions may be commercial, economic, political, cultural or any other type of partnership, club, labour, union type of associations. The state may impose restrictions on these unions too, keeping in view the sovereignity, integrity and public order of India. iv Freedom of Movement : India is a vast country in which people of different castes and religions reside. All the citizens of India have the right to move freely in the territory of India without any restrictions. v. Freedom to live and settle in any part of India : The citizens of India can reside and settle in any part of the country. It has been considered essential for the national integrity and unity. Therefore the people of one province and language can reside among the people of another province and in any other part of the county. The rights to move and reside in any part of the country are mutually inter-related, and support the integrity of the nation. The state can impose proper restrictions in the interest of the public at large and for the security of the culture, custom and language on their freedom. vi. Freedom to take up any job or trade anywhere in India - Any citizen of India can choose any legal means of livelihood, trade or occupation. Along with the above what right, he shall have the right to close down close down according to his will. It means a citizen can not be compelled to do a job against his will. The state can prescribe the professional or technical qualifications essential for a particular profession. Restrictions can be imposed on any trade which is considered against the interest of the general public. For example the restriction is imposed on the citizens against trade of dangerous and intoxicating goods, adulterated goods, of trafficking in children and women. Protection against conviction for an offence : No person shall be convicted of any offence except for violation of a law in force at the time of the commission of the act charged as an offence. A person may be subjected to only those penalties which were prescribed by law in force at the time when the offence has been committed. A person can be punished for the same offence only once. No person can be compelled to give evidence against himself. Protection of Life and Personal liberty : According to article 21, no person shall be deprived of his life and personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law. Every person has the right to live with human dignity along with the (190)

right to life and personal liberty. It includes the opportunity of dignified livelihood and freedom from the practice of bonded labour. But no one can exercise the freedom other than the procedure prescribed by the Constitution. Protection against Arrest and Detention - Article 22 provides the following safeguards against arrest and detention -

l

No person can be arrested without being informed about the offence.

l l

No offender can be deprived of his right to consult his lawyer for his defence. No person can be detained without the permission of the court, for more than 24 hours. Meaning thereby that every such person should be produced before the nearest Magistrate within 24 hours.

Preventive Detention - Preventive Detention can be made to restrict a person from committing an illegal act. The person who attempts to disturb national security, peace and public order can be arrested for some period of time. This can not exceed three months. In such cases the person has to be informed of the reasons for his detention and has to be provided the right to file his representation. Suspension of the Right to Freedom - In the event of external aggression and internal disturbances, the right to freedom under article 19 may be suspended under the order of the President, but the right to freedom guaranteed under Article 20 & 21 can not be suspended.

3.

Right against Exploitation -

Articles 23 & 24 of the Constitution prohibit immoral traffic in human beings, begging, forced labour and employment of children below 14 years of age in factories and hazardous employment. Provision has been made against their exploitation. Its aim is that no person or the state can force any other person to work against his will and no person act can be permitted to misuse any human body. The state can impose essential services for public order such as for the armed services.

4.

Right to Freedom of Religion -

The Republic of India has been declared a secular state. It means that the state has no religion of its own or is atheistic and this means that every religion has been given equal respect in the state. There shall be no discrimination on the ground of religion. Every person shall have the right to profess and have equal freedom to practice his/her own religion. Articles 25-28 explains the right to freedom of religion. i.Freedom of conscience and religion - All persons are equally entitled to freedom of conscience and the right to freely profess, practice and propagate their religion. This freedom is also limited for ensuring public order, good conduct and health of the citizens. The state can make rules related to religion for the regulation of state affairs. (191) (191)

ii. Freedom to manage religious affairs - All religious communities shall have the right to establish and maintain religious institutions. They can collect and manage funds. But it should be in accordance with the law. iii.

Taxes can not be imposed for the maintenance of any particular religion.

iv The constitution prohibits imparting of religious education in the government aided educational institutions. In the matter of other institutions no person shall be compelled to acquire religious education or worship.

5.

Cultural and Educational Rights:

Cultural and Educational Rights are provided to all citizens of India under articles 29 and 30 of the Constitution of India. The following are the provisions in this regard. (i) Every citizen of India shall have the right to conserve his/her own language, script or culture. The state shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions, discriminate against any educational institution on the ground of religion caste, sex, language etc. No educational institution can deny admission on these grounds. (ii) All minorities, whether based on religion or language shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their own choice. They shall manage them also. But in the case of maladministration the state shall have the right to interfere.

6.

Right to constitutional remedies:

The arrangements for the security of the Fundamental Rights have been made in the articles of the constitution from 32 to 35. The state cannot enact a law which may limit or abolish fundamental rights. Any person can move the courts for the protection of his fundamental rights. The court can nullify such laws which disregard the fundamental rights. Thus the enforcement of the fundamental rights is guaranteed by the Constitution. The court for this purpose can issue five types of writs.

Writs for Constitutional Remedie

Habeas Corpus

Prohibition

Mandamus

Certio

Court writs (i)

Habeas Corpus - The court can issue an order to the detaining authority to present the detained person before the court. (192)

(ii)

Mandamus - The court issues orders to an officer or institution to perform an act which falls within its jurisdiction.

(iii)

Prohibition - It is a writ issued by High courts to lower courts when they exceed the limits of their power or jurisdiction.

(iv)

Certiorari - The writ of certiorari is exercised by the High Court. The High Court can summon the record file or a case from the lower court in order to verify the records.

(v)

Quo Warranto - When a person, officer or an institution does such a work which is legally not in his jurisdiction then this writ of Quo Warranto is issued by the High Court to the lower courts. These writs are issued for the violation of fundamental rights, against those persons or institutions who have violated them. The constitution provides us with the fundamental right to property also, but from the very beginning it was very controversial. Therefore through the 44th amendment Act of the constitution in 1979 the right to property was eliminated from the list of fundamental rights and it is now an ordinary legal right.

14.3

Directive Principles of State policy

The directive principles of state policy are included in the Constitution, to establish a welfare state and to provide all the citizens social, economic and political justice. The Directive principles of state policy are the directions given to the Central and State government by the framers of the Constitution, to decide their policies. These are the directions which guide every officer of the government and administration regarding their behavior. If functioning is not in accordance with these, then citizens cannot appeal in court, as can be done with respect to the fundamental rights. Directive principles of state policy have been considered as the duties of the state. These are special features of the Indian constitution and have been added keeping in view socialistic and liberal principles. Directive Principles of state policy is the dream of the fulfillment of economic and social revolution in India. These aim to fulfill the basic requirements of the common man and to make the Indian public equal and free in the true sense by bringing about a change in the structure of the society. These are enumerated in the articles 36 to 51 of part 4 in the constitution. They aim at-

(1)

(1)

a welfare state

(2)

developing India in accordance with the ideals of Gandhiji.

(3)

promoting international peace and security by the state.

The Welfare System (i)

to make available equal means of livelihood for both men and women. (193) (193)

(ii) utilisation of resources of the country for the welfare of the people. (iii) wealth and means of production should not be concentrated in the hands of a few but their utilisation should be for public welfare. (iv) there should be equal pay for equal work for both men and women. Their health and their children's health and energy should not be misused. (v) The youth and children should be protected from economic and moral degeneration. (vi) There should be employment and education for all and the state should help in case of unemployment and inability. (vii) The State should provide just and humane working conditions. (viii) All should be provided a dignified standard of living, enough leave and social and cultural facilities, the standard of food and health should be good. (ix) Compulsory and free education should be made available for children. The 86th amendment of the constitution 2002, provides equal opportunities of education to children between 6-14 years of age. (2) Directive principles in accordance with the ideals of Gandhiji (i) To promote cottage industries. (ii) Organisation of village Panchyats and to make them function as self governing units. (iii) Promotion of educational and economic interests of scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward sections and to save them from exploitation. (iv) Prohibition of consumption of intoxicating goods (except medicins). (v) To organise agriculture and animal husbandry on a modern and scientific basis. (vi) To protect and improve the breeds of milk and draught cattle. (vii) Protection and improvement of environment and safeguarding of forests and wild life. (viii) Protection of important national and historical monuments. (ix) Separation of judiciary from the executive in public service. (x) To frame civil and criminal laws for the country. (3) Promotion of international peace(i) To promote international peace and security. (ii) To maintain just and honourable relations between nations. (iii) To respect international laws and treaties. (iv) To make efforts for the settlement of international disputes by arbitration. The above directive principles of state policy will help in the establishment of a (194)

welfare state. The evaluation of success can be made on the basis of implementation. Government can keep a check on political riots for maintaining social economic and democratic order. It will also help in building the nation and establishing world peace. These are the sacred wishes of the framers of the Constitution, and are also the principles of social and economic ideals and are the mirror of public opinion.

14.4

Difference between fundamental rights and Directive principles of state policy-

Following are the major differences between fundamental rights and directive principles of state policy.

14.5

(1)

The constitution stands behind the enforcement of fundamental rights, where as public opinion is the force behind directive principles of state policy. If there is a violation of fundamental rights of citizens by any law of the government then for its protection the court declares the law as null and void. If there is any law against the directive principles of state policy then the court cannot declare those laws as null and void. But the state cannot violate these principles easily due to the fear of public opinion.

(2)

Fundamental Rights are prohibitory whereas directive principles of the state policy are not prohibitory. Fundamental Rights can stop the Government from performing some functions, whereas directive principles of state policy direct the government to fulfill their duties.

(3)

The aim of fundamental rights is to establish political democracy whereas directive principles of policy aims at the establishment of economic and social democracy.

(4)

Fundamental Rights are for citizens whereas directives principles of the state policy is the duty of the government. These are the instructions given to the government for policy making and practice.

Fundamental Duties

When the Indian constitution was framed, only fundamental rights were incorporated in it, there was no discussion on duties in it, whereas rights and duties are two sides of the same coin. Through the incorporation of fundamental rights only, citizens become aware of their rights but remained indifferent about their duties. For correcting this drawback, 10 fundamental duties were enumerated for the citizens by adding part IV-A to the constitution in the year 1976, by the 42nd constitutional amendment by the parliament, which are the following :1.

To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National flag and the National Anthem. (195) (195)

2.

To respect and follow those noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom.

3.

To protect the sovereignity, unity and integrity of India.

4.

To defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so.

5.

To promote harmony and the spirit of brotherhood amongst all the people of India.

6.

To maintain the tradition of rich heritage of our composite culture.

7.

to protect and improve the natural environment.

8.

to develop a scientific temper and curiosity.

9.

to safeguard public property.

10.

to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity.

It is the responsibility of every citizen of the state to follow the fundamental Duties. Duties and Rights are two sides of the same coin. We cannot enjoy rights without fulfilling the duties. If citizens fulfill their fundamental duties then it will be easier for them to enjoy their fundamental rights. If citizens do not follow their duties then there will be irregularities and the environment will be disturbed. Fulfillment of fundamental duties develops a healthy social environment. There is no legal action for violation of fundamental duties in the constitution. There is no provision for punishment if these are disrespected but they are our responsibilities towards our nation. Fundamental duties are the inspiration for strengthening the country's cultural heritage, national property, individual and collective progress, defence system of the country etc. and to protect the environment, to respect national ideals and to maintain social harmony.

14.6

Legal Rights available to citizens

Besides the fundamental rights, certain legal rights are also available to the citizens. Legal rights are those rights which do not fall under the category of fundamental rights but are available to the citizens under Law. Legal rights can be withdrawn by the Government at any time; constitutional amendment is not needed for this purpose. Under this category two rights are important viz. 1.Right to property and 2. Right to information

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Right to property

The right to property was available to the citizens as a fundamental right in the constitution earlier. But this remained debatable right from the beginning. This funda(196)

mental right was therefore withdrawn with effect form June 1979 vide the 44th constitutional Amendment Act of1978, although it is still available as a legal right.

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Right to information -

The Right to Information is an important step in the direction of strengthening the democracy. The Government of India, through an act viz. The Right to Information Act 2005 has given this right to the people of the country to obtain information from any Government office. For the past many years, lot of efforts have been made for ensuring people's participation in the development programmes. Introduction of the Panchayati Raj system and associating the local community in supervision and monitoring of public works is an important step in this direction. However, people were not able to effectively participate in the development programmes, public services and facilities provided by the Government because of lack of information about the rules and regulations relating to those works and schemes, but now it has become possible to ensure transparency in the government schemes and works. This is an important step in preventing favouritism during the process of decision making and putting an end to corruption in government working . Important features of the Right to Information Act

❖

Who has the right to Information - This right is available to every citizen of the country. Any citizen can obtain information from a public authority relating to that organisation. Besides, all public authorities display important notices for public information relating to their day to day functioning. ❖ Meaning of Public Authority - All such authorities ('Pradhikarans') and institutions which have been set up under any law of Parliament or a Legislative assembly, come under the Category of Public Authority. Besides, corporations / Societies etc. which are autonomous or non-government but receive government grant or are under the control of the Central or State government are also covered in the Act. Thus Public Authorities comprising of Government organisations, Departments and bodies constituted under the Constitutions are covered by this Act. What information can be got under Right to Information? ●

Information relating to Government or any department relating to Government.

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Photocopies of Government contracts, payments, estimated expenditure, measurements of construction works etc.

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Samples of material used in the construction of roads, buildings, drains etc.

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To see completed works or works under progress.

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If any complaint has been made and application has been given, then information about the progress in the matter of can be obtained. (197) (197)

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Information about government projects which are implemented by any government department or voluntary organisation.

Under such circumstances the Information Commission may recommend disciplinary action against the Public Information Officer as per the service conduct rules applicable to that P.I.O. Under the Right to Information many types of information can be obtained. Any information relating to Gram Panchayat, services provided in the village like of 'Anganwadis', ration shops, health centres and government hospitals, tahsil office, land records, police station, Forest Department, Agriculture department, 'Krishi Upaj Mandi', bank, post office, Railways department, Public Health Engineering Department, Rural Engineering Services, Court, School, College, University, Janpad Panchayat, Zila Pachayat, Collectorate, office of Superintendent of Police etc. i.e. any sort of information relating to government offices and related bodies can be obtained from Janpad district and state level office under this Act. ●

❖

❖

How to obtain information - Information can be obtained in two ways : 1.

Through published information - Government Departments and organisations publish information about their activities, their achievements, progress etc from time to time; thus information can be had from such publications;

2.

By submitting applications - The applicant has to submit an application on simple paper, to the competent officer of the concerned department or orginisation requesting for the type of information or copy of a document needed. Some fees may be charged for such informaiton / copy of the documents.

Forms in which the information can be had-

Information can be had under the Right to Information from Government Office or organisation in following ways:

❖

1.

Photocopies of documents

2.

Copy of C.D., floppy, video cassette etc. of a document or data

3.

Publications which the concerned organisation may have published

4.

Documents can be perused in the concerned office itself

Exemption from disclosure of any information -

Some informations which can not be made public in the interest of the sovereignty and integrity of the nation, national security, information of strategic importance or disclosure of which may harm the economic or scientific interest. The Government or organsations are not obliged to furnish the following types of information: ●

Disclosure of which is likely to have an adverse effect on the sovereignty and integrity of the country, relating to defense and strategic importance, (198)

which may have an adverse effect on the scientific and economic interests or foreign relations of the nation.

❖

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Which may lead someone to commit a crime.

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Disclosure of that which has been forbidden by any court of Law or Tribunal or may amount to contempt of court.

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That which may amount to breach of privilege of the Parliament or Legislature.

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That which is likely to harm the (commercial or business) interests of any third party.

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Information available to a person in his fiduciary (i.e. based on trust) relationship; unless the competent authority is satisfied that disclosure of it is needed in the larger public interest.

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Information received in confidence from a foreign government.

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Information disclosure of that which would endanger the life or physical safety of any person.

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Information, which is likely to adversely affect investigation of any crime, arrest of a criminal or the prosecution process.

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Papers and documents relating to the cabinet including documents relating to discussions with the cabinet secretaries and other officers.

Fees for obtaining information -

No fees are charged from applicants who are living below the poverty line; for others, a sum of Rs.10/- in cash or in the form of a stamp paper of that amount is charged. Application addressed to the Public Information Officer may be typed or handwritten. Fees for application before the first Appelate officer is Rs. 50/- and for second appeal before the State Information Commission is Rs. 100/-. After submission of the application the applicant is informed by the Public Information Officer about the amount of expenses that the would be required to be paid. A receipt is necessarily to be given by the Department/ Organisation for the fees charged for the application or other costs. There is a provision that the Public Information Officer should ensure disposal of the application within 30 days of its receipt. ❖

Action on complaints and appeals and time limit

In case of incomplete information or information which is not fully correct the applicant may put up an appeal within 30 days before the first Appelate Officer. On receipt of appeal from the Appelate Officer, normally action has to be taken within 30 days and a maximum of 45 days; the applicant should also be informed accordingly. In case the first Appelate Officer does not take action on the complaint within 30 days and (199) (199)

informs the applicant, then the applicant may put up a second appeal, within 90 days, before the State Information Commission. ❖

Punishment for non furnishing of information -

Officers who do not furnish information are punished under the following situations : ●In

case the Public Information Officer or the Assistant Public Information Officer refuses to accept the application.

●The

information is not furnished within the prescribed time limit.

●For

furnishing deliberately wrong, incomplete or misleading information.

●If

an attempt is made to destroy the information asked for.

Under the above circumstances the Information Commission may punish the Public Information Officers with a fine ranging from 250/- per day to a maximum of Rs.25,000/ -. The Commission may also recommend to the concerned Head of the Department, disciplinary action against the Public Information Officer. Constitution of the Information commission Under the Right to Information Act there is a provision of constituting a Central Information Commission at the national level and a state Information Commission at the state level. In the State Information Commission there is a provision of appointment of a Chief State Information Commissioner and a maximum of 9 Information Commissioners. The State Chief Information Commissioner and Information Commissioners are appointed by the Governor as per the advice of a committee headed by the Chief Minister. Other members of this Committee are Leaders of the opposition in the Vidhan Sabha and a minister nominated by the Chief Minister. The term of office of the Chief Information Commissioner and Information Commissioner is 5 years. Functions and powers of the State Commission 1.

The function of the State Information Commission is to enforce the Right to Information. It ensures that the bottlenecks and difficulties experienced by people in obtaining information under the Act are removed; it hears complaints / appeals with regard to the Act.

2.

The commission may order an enquiry in any case relating to the right to information.

3.

The commission is vested with all powers relating to a civil court.

Under these powers, the Commission can issue summons, ensure the presence of the concerned party at the time of hearing and order to put up witnesses.

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Principles behind the Right to Information The Right to Information is mainly based on three principles. These are : 1. Answerability - Ours is a democratic government. The Governments under democracy work for the public good. They do not function only for particular persons or a class. Therefore, the Government and its related organisations and authorities have been made responsible (and answerable) to the people. It is necessary that information should be given to the public by these organisations. 2. Participation - In a democratic set up, most of the works are done for the people and with the cooperation of the people. It is necessary that people are also associated in the formulation of plans so that necessary and timely amendments and corrections are made in the plans in the larger interests of the people. 3. Transparency - The third basis is transparency in the government functioning. Transparency in the work of government is necessary to prevent wastage of time and money spent on government schemes, prevent misappropriation of public funds and also corruption. Transparency will put a check on corrupt people and honest people will be able to work fearlessly and impartially. Importance of right to information Under democracy the government is of the people, for the people and by the people. Well informed people and transparency in information are the basic needs of democracy. The importance of right to information will ensure the following things 1. Enable people to effectively use the fundamental rights - The right to information is inherent in the fundamental rights. It protects the right of freedom of speech and expression. In the absence of information and facts, a person can not frame and express opinions effectively. The Supreme Court has related this right to the provision under Article A 21 of the Constitution relating to the right to live. 2. To make the Government responsible - It makes the Government responsible as it is based on the principle of answerability. So long as Public and other organisations are not made answerable to the people for their deeds and accounts of income and expenditure, the possibilities of slackness in work, corruption and misuse of public funds will increase. 3. To make Government working transparent - One of the important objective of this Act is to bring about transparency in Government functioning whether the peoples' representatives are making proper use of their rights and funds, are being properly used or not, this information should be known to the people. The right to Information will bring about increased transparency in government functioning and pressure will be built in favour of careful use of public funds. (201) (201)

4. To increase peoples' participation in Government functioning - The Indian constitution is based on participatory democracy. Till recently, due to absence of necessary information of schemes and government works, people were not active and their participation in Government functioning was limited only to casting of votes in the elections. Thus this Right will prove to be an effective tool in increasing peoples' participation in government functioning. 5. Check on corruption - The right to work is an effective tool to curb the increasing corruption in the Government. Due to transparency and answerability, corrupt person / persons will immediately be identified and legal action can be taken against them. This will help in preventing people form doing illegal work and this right will be helpful in ensuring good governance. 6. To make Governement schemes successful - Right to information plays an important role in making government schemes successful. The success of government schemes depends on two things - one, schemes are completed in the desired manner and the in scheduled time and secondly, benefits of the scheme reach the real beneficiaries. The Right to information is an effective tool in achieving both the objectives. This helps in curbing procedural delays also. Thus we see that 'Right to Information' is an important right.

Terms Constitution Constitutional Amendment Secular Reservation policy

Writ

: Supreme Law of country. It consists of the fundamental laws for running society and politics of any country. : The changes in the constitution of any country brought about by the Parliament of that country. : Citizens have full right to follow any religion, but there will be no state religion. Government respects all religious beliefs. : Policy to reserve some posts and seats in some educational institutions in government service for victims of discrimination and deprived and backward people and groups. : Formal written order issued by High court or Supreme Court to the government.

Exercise I. Choose the right option and write. 1. Which fundamental right has been eliminated from the list of fundamental rights through 44th amendment Act? (i) Right to property (ii) Right to Freedom (202)

(ii) Right to equality (iv) Cultural and educational rights 2. Which function out of these comes under the category of child labour? (i) A child of less than 14 years of age working in hotels, construction companies. (ii) Movement and acquiring education by a child below 14 years of age. (iii) Playing of children below 14 years of age. (iv) Doing physical exercise by children below 14 years of age. 3. Which of these rights is not associated with the fundamental right of freedom? (i) Right to freedom of speech (ii) abolition of titles (iii) Freedom to reside and settle in any part of India (iv) Freedom of movement 4. Through which writ can the High Court or Supreme court summon any record of life from its lower court? (i) Habeas Corpus (ii) Certiorari (iii) Quo Warrants (iv) Mandamus 5. Right to free and compulsory education of all children between 6 to 14 years of age comes under which fundamental right (i) Right to equality (ii) Cultural & educational rights (iii) Right to freedom (iv) Right to constitutional remedies. 6. Out of the following who protects the fundamental rights (i) Parliament (ii) Legislative Assemblies (iii) Supreme Court (iv) Government of India 7. In case timely information is not furnished, first appeal is made to (i) Head of the Department ii) Public Information Officer (iii) Information Commission (iv) Chief Minister 8. Out of these which is the directive principle of state policy (i) Bound by law (ii) Eligible for justice (iii) Creative directions to the state (iv) Directives of Judiciary II. Fill in the blanks : 1. The ................ stands behind the enforcement of fundamental rights. 2. The Right to information act is a strong medium to stop the .................. . 3. Article ............... of the constitution guarantees to each citizen equality and protection before the law. 4. Practice of .................. in any form is a punishable effence under the Indian constitution. 5. The ................... as a fundamental right had been withdrawn with effect vide the 44th constitutional Amendment. Very short answer type question 1. What is meant by equality before the law? (203) (203)

2. 3.

Write the names of different types of fundamental rights. In the constitution what provisions have been made for abolition of untouchability? 4. For whom are the Directive Principles of policy meant? 5. Who has the right to information? 6. Which Act has been passed in Madhya Pradesh for availing right to information? 7. On which principles is the right to information based? Short answer type questions 1. What is the difference between fundamental rights and directive principles of the state policy? Explain. 2. How do fundamental rights get judicial protection? Explain. 3. Fundamental rights and fundamental duties are two side of the same coin. Explain the above statement. 4. What are the directions for the promotion of international peace in the directive principle of policy? Write. 5. What freedom have been provided to us through the Right to freedom? Long answer type questions 1. What are fundamental rights? Explain the importance of fundamental rights. 2. What are the freedoms enjoyed by the citizens under Right of freedom? 3. What are the main writs issued by the court under right to constitutional remedies? 4. Describe any two principles on which Right to Information is based. In case desired information is not furnished in time, what step should be taken. 5. Explain the importance of Right to Information and write about the constitution of "Information Commission." 6. What are fundamental durites? What are the fundamental duties described in the constitution? 7. Mention and explain the types of directive principles of policy. Project Work ● What are the freedoms you experience in your day-to-day life? Prepare a list and see how they help in your development by this. Try to learn about the fundamental rights related to freedom. Describe it in the form of a project. ● Prepare a chart about the fundamental duties and put that up in your classroom. Read it once daily and try to recollect how many duties you have followed in a day. In this manner inspire your friends also to be aware towards all your duties.

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Chapter-15

Growth of Rural Economy We Will Study 15.1

15.2

15.3

15.4



Measurement of economy and rural economy Development of village based ancient economy of India Steps taken by the government to develop rural economy A comparative study of ancient and modern rural economy Concept of ideal village Economic study of a selected village of Madhya Pradesh.

In a country's economy, are included all kinds of natural resources available in that country and the economic activities being conducted. The term economy is associated with a country but it can also be associated with city, town and village. A city's economy includes factories, shops, offices, schools, banks and all other work places located in that city. Similarly a village economy includes firms, shops, and all other establishments where people work. Thus an economy is a system where people earn their living.

An economy is a system by which people earn their living and it comprises of the production units existing in that area. In 15.5 other words we can say, an economy of a 15.6 country includes shops, mines, banks, roads, schools, colleges, universities, hospitals etc. which provide employment to people and produce goods and services which are used by the people of that place. India is an agriculture based country. It has been the main occupation since the beginning. From the bronze age, the Indus civilization till today agriculture has been the main occupation of Indians. In the Vedic Age, agriculture was the main basis of the economy. The contribution of animal husbandry, hunting and handicrafts was also very important. The chief jobs were of carpenters and black smiths due to excessive number of wars in the medieval period. Inspite of this agriculture was the main occupation in India in the Medieval period too. Due to this reason different rulers made efforts from time to time to develop it. Canals were constructed by Mohammed bin Tughlaq to increase facilities of irrigation. Measurement of land was done by Sher Shah Suri. During Akbar's reign Todarmal got the measurement of land done in an accurate manner and on that basis decided the amount of tax. At that time the main source of income of every big and small state was agricultural production. During this period there was special growth in textile production. As far as quality is concerned Dacca was famous for (205) (205)

its muslin dyeing, weaving of silk cloth, shawls and mats producing industries were also important. Trade and commerce was greatly developed. Therefore the economic structure was sound. On the basis of the characteristics, Indian economy can be divided into two categories - Geographical and work based. If we take the geographical basis then it is of two types - Rural economy and urban economy. We will study in detail about rural economy in this chapter.

15.2 Growth of Rural Economy Most of the population in India resides in villages. Therefore the importance of rural economy is great. We can divide Indian rural economy into three parts for the convenience of study - (i) Rural economy before the arrival of the British, (ii) Rural economy after the arrival of British, (iii) Rural economy of India after Independence. (i) Rural economy before the Arrival of the Britishers. In ancient times also the majority of the population resided in villages. In fact villages were a major unit of the economy. At that time villages were self sufficient, prosperous and happy. The ancient rural economy was very different from the present villages. Its characteristics can be explained on the basis of the following points. Structure of working community : There were three main components of the working population or community in ancient villages - Farmers, artisans and village officers. Farmers : The most important component of the rural economy was the farmer. The special feature was that every farmer in the village had his own house and share in the land. They were resourceful. Livelihood was the primary objective of farming.

Main parts of Working Community

Farmers

Artisans

Cheif Chief

Maal gujaar

Village Officer

Kotwat Kotwaar

Artisans : In every village all types of artisans were there — carpenters, blacksmiths, potters, gold smiths, craftsmen, cobblers, weavers etc. They fulfilled the needs of villages in the village itself. The remuneration for their work was paid in the form of grain or commodities.

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Village officers : The village officers were of three types. (a) Head (Mukhia)- He was the chief officer of the village and was responsible for collecting the rent from the farmers and then paying it to the ruler. (b) Maal gujar- Record keepers of land revenue. (c) Kotwal- Who informed the ruler about criminals and provided other important information to the ruler.

Characteristics of Rural Economy Before the arrival of the British. Structure of rural working community : ● Self Sufficiency ● Barter System ● Simple division of labour ● Immobility of labour ● Lack of contact with the outer world. ● Indifferent attitude towards the state.

Characterstics of the rural economy before the arrival of the British Self sufficiency - Villages were self reliant and self sufficient. Self sufficiency meant that villagers fulfilled their needs through local resources only. It was possible because of two reasons. First the needs of villagers were limited and second there was lack of means of transport and communication. Barter System - Barter system of exchange was prevalent in the ancient rural economy. The farmers obtained the required goods and services from artisans and money lenders and gave them food grains in exchange. All the payments for the services of the pandit, the doctor, the barber, the washerman were made in the form of grains or other things. Barter system of exchange was a system in which goods were exchanged directly with goods or services. Money was not used. Simple division of Labour - Economic activities were divided. The division of work was hereditary or based on tradition as farming and animal husbandry, and on caste or in accordance with traditions e.g. blacksmiths, gold smiths, carpenters, cobblers, barbers, washermen etc. This division of labour was absolutely simple. Immobility of labour - It was a significant characteristic of ancient economy. Due to lack of means of transport, the caste system, the problem of language and food habits, labourers used to stay in their villages. Generally they did not go out of their villages. Indifferent attitude towards the State - The villagers were not interested in the activities of the state. (ii) Rural Economy of India after the arrival of Britishers We know that the Britishers made India their colony and ruled over our country for about 200 years. They exploited India as well as Indians in every way. They adopted such policies due to which prosperous India had to face poverty and starvation. It affected agriculture and industry adversely and the nature of Indian economy also underwent a change. (207) (207)

The following changes were seen in the structure of the economyDecline of workmanship and handicraft - As a result of policies of the British the handicraftsmanship in Indian villages declined. The artisans of the villages became unemployed. Characteristics of Rural Prosperity and wellbeing of villages came to an Economy after arrival of the end. British ● Decline of workmanship and Changes in the structure of rural handicraft community - The rural community which was ● Change in the structure of the divided into three parts - farmers, artisans and rural community village officers. This was now divided into several ● End of self sufficiency of villages parts - Zamindars, farmers, landlords, land-less ● Transfer of agricultural land farmers, cultivators, agricultural labourers etc. ● Backwardness of agriculture This division was an important reason of backwardness of agriculture. End of self sufficiency of villages - As a result of commercialisation of agriculture the crops were transported and sold out of the villages and the required commodities were brought from outside to the villages. Thus, the self sufficiency of villages came to an end. Transfer of agriculture land - Farmers started meeting their requirements by taking loans due to widespread poverty. But due to the inability to repay loans the moneylenders started confiscating their land. Thus the agricultural land was transferred to the money lenders from farmers. As a result the farmers became land-less and homeless. Backwardness of Agriculture - The Zamindari system started by the English had a bad effect on farmers and farming. The farmers became poor and in debt. Neither the government nor the Zamindars showed interest in the improvement and productivity of the land which resulted in the exploitation of farmers and farming. (iii) Modern Rural Economy ( After Independence) Even after half a century of India's Independence 72.2 percent of the total population of India resides in villages and only 27.8 percent population resides in urban areas according to the 2001 census. In the same way the number of villages is 6,38,588 while the number of cities is only 5,161. It means that out of every 10 persons, 7 reside in villages. Today also India is a country of villages, and the economy is Agro based. 2/3rd population of the country directly or indirectly depends upon agriculture for their livelihood. But the contribution of agriculture to the gross product of the country is only 26 percent. Rapid economic growth has taken place through the five year plans and the rural economy has also not been left untouched due to this. The economic condition of the (208)

villages is changing. Several changes can be observed in Characteristics of rural the rural economy. Of those, the chief are as following- economy after Independence The structure of the community on the basis ● Structure of community on the basis of ownership of of ownership of land - We can divide the farmers land. into four categories on the basis of ownership of land ● Multi cropping. available to them ● Migration of population (i) Big farmers - These who own land between towards urban areas. 2-10 hectares. ● Rise of Monetary System (ii) Medium farmers - Those who own 2 hectare ● Inadequate facilities of or a little more than 2 hectare of land. transport and (iii) Small farmers - who own less than 2 communication. hectare of land. ● Development of subsidiary and cottage industry. (iv) Landless farmers - who do not own any land, are tentant farmers or are agricultural labourers. ● Institutional changes ● Extension of education and Multiple cropping- Now mainly three crops health facilities. are produced during a year. Kharif, Rabi and Jayed. Kharif crops are crops of the rainy season which are harvested around SeptemberOctober. Jayed is crop of summer. Today apart from traditional crops cultivation of cash crops is also being practised; for example farming of flowers, oilseeds etc. Percentage of Rural & Urban population after independence. Year

Rural

Urban

1951

82.7

17.3

1971

80.1

19.9

1991

74.3

25.7

2001

72.2

27.8

Migration of population towards cities The rural population is migrating towards urban areas due to poverty, starvation, unemployment, lack of basic facilities etc. In 1951 out of the total population, the percentage of rural population was 82.7 percent which came down to 72.2 percent in 2001 where as the population in 1951 was 17.3 which increased to 27.8 in 2001.

Rise of Monetary System - The earlier system of barter, prevalant in villags is now almost extinct. Today currency is used everywhere. In rural areas also money is used as a medium of exchange for buying and selling. Inadequate facilities of transport and communication- Today a lot of effort is being made to link all villages through means of transport and communication but most of the roads are kachha roads. Therefore in the rainy season many villages are cut off from the neighbouring villages/areas. The rest of the year trucks, buses, trains, Jeeps, motorcycles and cycles are being used. At present villages are also linked by means of television and telephones. (209) (209)

Development of subsidiary and cottage industries - After independence a lot of attention was paid towards cottage and small scale industries to make them strong and developed. According to the availability of local raw material in each village, cottage industries were developed which increased employment opportunities and farmers were able to increase their income by working in their free time. Institutional Changes - Comparatively, in a very short span of time the farmers in the villages have started adopting new technology. Now pumps are being used instead of 'Rahat' for irrigation. The plough is substituted by furrows and bullock carts by trucks and tractor trolleys. Big machines are being used by big farmers. The use of threshers is very common today. Extension of Education and Health Facilities in India - Modern villages are generally becoming aware of the heed for education and health. The children of big farmers are acquiring higher education. In all villages there are primary, middle and higher secondary schools. Girls have also started studying with boys in schools. Health facilities are also available in villages. Through means of communication, the villagers are becoming aware about their health problems and other problems.

15.3 Government Efforts for the Development of Rural Economy From the very beginning, the Central Government and the State Government have endeavoured for the development of villages and village economy through five year plans and have achieved a lot of success. But, planty work is still to be accomplished. The government emphasised on public participation for the development programmes through self help groups and Panchayati Raj institutions. The government efforts can be explained on the basis of the following points 1.

Land Reforms - Through the abolition of the Zamindari system, land ceiling, land consolidation and by bringing cultivable wasteland under cultivation uneconomic land holdings have been made profitable. For restoration of land and to restrict its transfer in rural areas, the government has distributed the wasteland and land obtained through a ceiling of land holdings, and ‘Bhoodan’ among the farmers. Crop insurance policy has also been introduced. Loan facilities have been provided for the modernisation of agriculture by establishing rural banks and government banks for the fulfillment of rural finance. The government decides a minimum support price for the sale of crops at a reasonable price. The facility for storage and marketing is also provided. Efforts have been made to connect all the villages through road network. An aim to connect rural areas throughout the year by roads under the Prime Minister's road scheme of the central government has been made.

2.

Housing, cleanliness and health : The government has introduced Indira Awas Yojna in villages for healthy housing systems in place of unhealthy housing (210)

systems. The Central rural cleanliness programme has contributed a lot towards the cleanliness of rural areas. It has some other aspects also to bring quality to life and to provide dignity to women. Attention is also being paid towards cleanliness, potable drinking water and basic needs in schools. In villages awareness regarding food, health, and education is being spread through family welfare centres and Aaganwadi Kendras. Television and Radio are also playing an important role in this work. 3.

Cottage and small scale industries : Cottage and small scale industries play a significant role in the development of rural areas. The government is continuously making efforts to develop them in rural areas. Several steps have been taken such as 1.

The Government has established special institutions to solve the problems of these industries. All India board of Handloom Industry, Indian Cottage Industry Khadi Gramodhyog etc. are examples of these types of institutions.

2.

Bhartiya Laghu Udhyog has been established for giving financial help.

3.

The government departments give preference to these sectors over other sectors in making purchase of goods produced by small scale industries. Apart from this, fairs, exhibitions, temporary markets etc. are arranged to promote their sale in foreign countries as well as in our country.

4.

Training centres have been set up for technical assistance.

5.

Thus by providing various types of protection to these industries their competition with large industries has been minimised.

In this manner through these steps of the government all efforts are being made for the upliftment of villages. The ideals of Mahatma Gandhi - Father of the nation have been made the basis for strengthening the rural economy and efforts are being made accordingly.

15.4 A Comparitive Study of Ancient and Modern Rural Economy On Comparative Before the arrival pasis of the British

After the arrival of the British

After Independence

1.

Self sufficiency

Villages were completely independent.

Self sufficiency decreased gradually.

Self sufficiency of villages came to an end.

2.

Objective of farming

The type of farming was of subsistence

The type of farming changed from subsistence to commercial

Commercializa-tion has become the chief objective.

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On Comperative Before arrival basis of the British

After arrival of the British

After Independence

3.

Contribution of Contribution agriculture in theof agriculture National Income was maximum

Contribution of agriculture was maximum.

Contribution of agriculture is decreasing.

4.

Economic condition

Prosperity turned into poverty. Excessive expliotation of farmers started.

Poverty, unem-ployment still exists but is decreasing steadily.

5.

Landless farmers Each farmer owned a house and had a share in the land.

The farmers became landless. The land was being transferred to money lenders and Zamindars from farmers.

Zamindari system was abolished but there was no improvement in the condition of landless farmers.

6.

Methods of cultivation

Methods of farming were old and irrigation facilities were traditional.

Ancient methods, manure and irrigation system was traditional.

At present ancient and modern both the methods are in use.

7.

Rural finance system.

Loan was provided by big farmers, moneylenders (Sahukars and Mahajans)

Apart from local moneylenders (Sahukars), Zamindars provided loans. The land was transferred due to non payment of loans.

8.

Mobility of labour.

There was complete absence of geo-graphical and professional mobility of labour.

Labour became mobile though the percentage of mobility was very low.

Today local money lenders (Sahukars) Cooperative Credit Societies, Rural banking institutions, are providing loans Both geographical and professional mobility has increased.

There was prosperity, well being in the villages

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Basis of 9.

Before the arrival of British

After the arrival of British

Transport and There was lack The Britishers laid communication. of roads and railway lines and means of transpconstructed roads -ortation. The only for facilitating means of commun- trade. Due to this -ication was roads and means of through messengers. communication became available. For communication post, telegraph telephone and radio also became available

10. Education and training

Education was limited to the higher section of society only and was not very common. among the rural people. There was no facility for training for formers and

Facility of training was not available. Education was limited to high and middle sections of the society. There was no education among lower income groups and lower castes. artisans

After Independence After independence the network of roads and rail-ways has been greatly extended. The facilities of communication have been extended through post tele-graph, phone, fax, and mobile phones. Comput -ers are available in the gram panchayats. At present train-ing and education has made huge progress. Opport-unity of educat-ion is available to all groups of the society.

Thus at present villages and villagers both have developed sufficiently. The most important fact is that there is greater awareness among the villagers. As soon as they get the resources, they become active for the welfare of themselves and their families. They have knowledge and understanding of education, training, health, cleanliness and politics. Awareness leads to increase in involvement and co-operation of people which ensures the success of plans.

15.5 Concept of an Ideal Village The important heritage of a country is its land and the people residing in it. The spirit of India is in its villages. This is a country of villages. As a building is constructed (213) (213)

brick by brick, similarly villages together constitute the huge republic of India. Today also 72% of population resides in rural areas. We know it quite well that inspite of the efforts made for their improvement the state of villages is still not good. Today also villages are scarcity stricken. As the word village comes to our mind a picture of huts made of hay or 'kuchcha' houses, dry fields, dust, dirty sewers, naked children running and playing animals tied inside the houses, smell of cow dung, flies, illiteracy and malnutrition comes to our mind though the picture is now steadily changing. Characteristics of an ideal village. ● Advanced agriculture system ● Housing facilities ● Drinking water arrangements in place ● Health facilities ● Education facilities ● Facility of transport ● Facility of communication ● Awareness towards energy and environment ● Industrial development ● Administrative system ● Financial facilities

Village reform is essential to make the country a leading country. If this is accomplished then India will be a prosperous, rich and happy nation. We will have to make our villages ideal villages. In an ideal village agriculture should be developed and there should be proper arrangements for education, health and housing. In the village there should be awareness towards cleanliness, and complete use of available resources. Thus an ideal village should have the following characteristics:

1. Advanced agricultural system - For the development of agriculture the small noneconomic farms should be merged into one big farm. Consolidation of land should be adopted. Group farming, use of bio and chemical fertilizers to increase the quality of crop, use of high yielding variety seeds and modern facilities of irrigation should be in practice. There should be proper arrangements for storage of crops and sale of crops through cooperatives and government assistance. 2. Housing facilities - In villages there should be proper facilities of housing. The houses should be clean whether they are 'kuchcha' or 'pucca and' along with this there should be toilets and bathrooms in the houses. There should be separate space for animals and a proper system of preparing biogas by collecting cow dung. 3. Drinking water facilities - The wells, tanks and 'pucca' wells with steps should be renovated for clean and safe drinking water. Arrangements should be such that no villager can dump waste into it. Attention should be paid for raising underground water level in villages. There should be arrangements for proper drinking water for villagers. 4. Health facilities - In every village, there should be primary health centers, as well as doctors and medicines so that the problems of villagers can be solved at the village level itself. The villagers can avail the benefits of the government plans of health. (214)

5. Education facilities - Efforts should be made to educate each and every child of the village. There should be awareness among villagers of the need for the education of girls. There should be provision of adult education in villages along with traditional education. Nutritive and clean midday meal should be provided. 6. Facilities of transportation - For proper facility of transport there should be roads in villages so that it can be connected with nearby villages, small towns and district headquarters. Roads should be such that they can be used in all seasons by all people. 7. Communication facilities - There should be proper provision for communication facilities; telephones, post offices and internet facilities. 8. Awareness towards energy and environment - There should be a provision of electricity for power in villages. If possible, alternative energy should be used. There should be awareness among villagers towards their environment. Such a system should be developed by which the villagers use the refuse in a proper way and if possible recycle it. Villagers should be active towards the use of trees and plantation so that greenery spreads in villages. 9. Industrial Development - The agro-based industries should be developed in the village for example - dairy industry, poultry industry etc. Cottage industry should be developed in villages through which villagers can get employment in their own villages and their income can also be increased. 10. Administrative System - We have a system of Panchayts in our villages. The members of the Gram Panchayat and Sarpanch should be aware of the need and be active for the development of villages so that the facilities of cleanliness, drinking water, health and security can be made available to villages. Administrative transparency should be increased. The employees of each office in which the village secretariat, the Panchayat Bhawan, Aaganwadis, Cooperative societies and school buildings are included. They should be motivated to keep their offices clean. The name of the buildings should be written permanently. 11. Facility of Finance - The villagers mainly depend on local money lenders for finance. They often exploit them. In an ideal village, facilities of rural banks and cooperative banks should be provided, so that villagers may have facilities of finance. The saving habits in villagers can be increased by making them aware towards self-help groups.

15.6 The Economic Study of a selected Village of Madhya Pradesh We all want India to be an advanced, rich, prosperous and happy country. This dream can come true only when we are able to understand the strengths and shortcomings of the conditions of our villages and the life of people in them and bring about an improvement. (215) (215)

We can try to solve the inconveniences and problem of villagers with the cooperation of villagers themselves, by studying a village and the resources and facilities available there. By the term economic study we mean a study of the available resources, population, mean of livelihood, economic conditions means of transport and communication, forestry, park, market, finance and social and common conditions of a specific area. For the economic study of a village, first of all we have to decide the objective of the study and thereafter decide the area of study and VILLAGE DIMNI prepare a study plan. For any study - 383 Hectare knowledge of statistical data is required. Area For this tables and questionnaire are Population - 2,346 prepared. Population Density - 612 person As an example of the study of a village Annual Rainfall of Madhya Pradesh, the economic study of Soil village Dimini of district Morena was taken.

- 70 cm. - Loamy, alluvial rocky

Geographical situation of village : Major - 41% engaged village Dimini is situated on Morena Occupation in Agriculture Mahagaon state highway, 17 km. away from Morena city in the north. From the administrative point of view, on the extreme north Madhya Pradesh is a revenue village of tehsil Ambah of Morena District. The total area of this revenue village is 383 hectares. (216)

Climate : the influence of continental and subtropical climate is clearly seen on the climate of village Dimini. Very hot in summers and very cold in winters is a

Village - Dimni, Distt. - Morena (M.P.) characteristic of this climate. Rains are uncertain and irregular. The average annual rainfall is 70 centimeters. Soil and Vegetation : In fact the economy of village Dimini is agro based. Fertile soil is therefore the basic need of its people. Loamy, alluvial and rocky soil is found here. The village is affected by the River Apardan (Qwari River) erosion caused by the river. The western part of the village is rugged. The productivity of land is affected by soil erosion and spread of its rugged area. The excessive flow of rain water is seen here in the currents of the nearby river and as scanty moisture in soil. Therefore artificial irrigation is necessary for agriculture. The river Qwari on the one hand is beneficial for the village (217) (217)

but on the other hand some times it becomes the cause of floods and of soil erosion. There are semi dry (monsoon) deciduous type forests. Neem is a useful tree here. The thorny Babul vegetation is seen all around the village which is spread in the residential area also. Thorny trees like 'Cheekur' thorny shrubs like 'Kareel' grass type vegetation like 'Sarpatta' and Dwau is found here if which rope is made. These are used in the construction of huts. Banyan trees, Sheesham, Pakri and Peepal are also found here. Oak trees are found in large numbers. Population: In 1971-72, population of village Dimni was 1088 and density of population of this village was 284 person per square kilometer. According to the census of the year 2001 its population increased to 2,346 and its density of population to 612 persons per square kilometer, but according to the data obtained from a survey major part of the population is below 18 years of age. i.e. 46% of the total population. The contribution of the working population i.e. 18-60 years of age group is about 50% of the total population. The percentage of the people above 60 years of age is only 35. In the year 2006 the total population of the village was 2115. There is a possibility of migration of some people from the village. Structure of Populaiton - Village Dimni (2006) S.No.

Age group

Male

Female

Total

Percentage of age group in total population

1.

Children and adolescent

537

435

972

46.0

(Below 18 years) 2.

Young (18 to 35 Years)

385

349

734

34.7

3.

Adult(35 to 60 years)

184

151

335

15.8

4.

Old (Above 60 years)

51

23

74

3.5

Total

1157

958

2115

100

According to the available data the majority of the population is below 18 years of age i.e. 46% Working population (18-60 Years) contributes 50% of the total population. Nature of housing : On the basis of the nature of housing the houses can be divided into four types. Mud houses, cemented houses, mixed houses and hut type houses.

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Nature of Housing S.No.

Nature of Housing

Total No. of houses

Percentage of house out of total houses

1.

Cemented houses

120

56.6

2.

Mud houses (Kuchha house)

25

11.8

3.

Mud and cemented, mixed house

31

14.6

4.

Hut type houses

36

17.0

Total

212

100.0

In the village Dimni out of the total houses 11.8% are mud houses, which are made of local mud and wood, 14.60% are of mixed type (made of mud and cement) The outer parts of these houses are cemented and the internal parts are made of mud. 17% houses of this village are hut type houses of which all the four walls are made up of mud. The huts are situated, on the south western and eastern parts of the village. According to ownership, in the village Dimni 98.6% houses are private and 1.4% (03) are government houses which are rented. Economic structure of the village : Originally the economic structure of village Dimni was also agro-based. The Maximum no. of people of the village practise farming or apart from doing household work directly help in farming. The work of farming is mostly done by the males. Most of the female population is absorbed in household work.

Working population of village Dimni S.No.

Occupation

Working Population Male Female Total

Percentage of total

1.

Farming

310

28

338

41.00

2.

Household work

02

318

320

38

3.

Service

75

07

82

10

4.

Labourer

49

06

55

7.00

5.

Business and trade

35

00

35

4.00

Total

471

359

830

100.0

The majority of the population of Dimni i.e. 40% is involved in agriculture out of which 92% are male and 8% are females, whereas the minimum working population is attached to business and trade, 99% ladies are absorbed in household work. Service class population is only 10% of the total population. Here the main (219) (219)

business and trade is related to different shops of daily requirement goods, agricultural equipment, agricultural products and animals. These commercial centres are developed along the road side. The condition of shops inside the villages is very poor. The other workers are labourers, artisans and members of music bands. There is not a single child labourer in the working population of Dimni, only at home girls help in garland making.

Girls engrossed in the work of making garlands in a village

Family Income village Dimni S.No.

Total annual income per family

No. of families

Level

Percentage of families

1.

Below 5000

70

lowest

33.0

2.

5000 to 10000

39

low

18.4

3.

10000 to 20000

38

Lower medium

17.9

4.

20000 to 50000

37

Medium

17.5

5.

More than 50000

28

High

13.2

Total

212

100%

The annual income of the maximum member of families i.e. one third of the total number of families is below 5000/Standard of living : To measure the standard of living of the villagers the following four criteria were fixed (1) Structure of house (2) Household articles (3) self owned vehicles of daily use and means of communication (4) Supply of water and electricity. To measure the standard of living on the basis of these criteria first the use of each house hold article is evaluated according to its utility, quality and price and then the levels are fixed. The same information is shown in the following table.

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Standard of living of families in village Dimni 2006 S. No. 1.

2.

3.

Category Double storied cemented house (Pucca house) * Colour television, refrigerator, washing machine, gas burner and other articles. * Jeep, car, telephone, mobile phone. * Proper arrangement of water and electricity supply Cemented house (Pucca house) * Moped, scooter, motorcycle, tractor, telephone and mobile phone * Ordinary arrangement of electric light and water supply Mixed mud (Kachha) house and hut type house * Fan, stove and ordinary chulha * Cycle, bullock cart * Minimum necessary arrangement of electricity and water supply Total

Level

Total No. of families (%)

High

23

11.8%

Medium

84

40.0%

Low

105

49.0%

Average

212

100%

About half of the total number of families i.e. 49% have a low standard of living whereas 10.8% families have been viewed as those which are high standard families. Regarding the standard of living 40% families are of medium level and 41.9% are below the poverty line. As a result of the economic study the following problems of this village came to light. 1.

The irrigated area in this village is limited. Irrigation is possible only through tanks and wells. Therefore the productivity of land is low.

2.

The rural area is affected by land erosion and erosion caused by the river. The maximum problems are found in the south western residential area.

3.

There is no proper use of water resources, whatever water resources are available here, they have not been completely utilised. Due to the shortage of electricity full utilisation of electric pumps is not possible. (221) (221)

4.

Though the income is low, people spend too much money on family and social ceremonies/functions, for example twenty thousand to ten lakhs of rupees are spent on marriages. In the same way, Rs. ten thousand to forty thousand are spent on rituals performed on deaths; Rs. 500 to Rs. 2000 is spent on festivals etc.

5.

In a planned residential unit too no proper arrangements have been made for dumping garbage. Therefore garbage spreads all over the roads and cannot be used for making compost manure for agriculture.

6.

There are no job opportunities in the village. The different kinds of work available work and the crops of the village do not provide enough income for the whole year. Villagers migrate from the village for earning money and are exploited. They have to work on low wages.

Suggestions to solve the economic problems of village Dimni: ●

Special efforts should be made to control the spread of Qwari's rugged area. Dams should be built on the banks of the river. Rain water should be stopped at different places and for its drainage cemented pipe lines should be constructed.

●

Training programmes for villagers should be arranged, so that they can get knowledge of preparing bio-manure and realise its importance. Effort should be made for the development of the oil industry.

●

For the economic development of farmers, godowns should be constructed for the storage of agricultural products. Efforts should be made for the development of the oil industry.

●

Opportunities for self-employment should be increased. Attention must be paid towards the development of the dairy industry.

●

Efforts can be made to establish self-help groups to ecourage the people of save money. Discussions can be arranged in the meetings of Gram Panchayat Shikshak Palak Sangh etc. to raese awareness about unnecessary expenditures.

Apart from the above suggestions the villagers should solve their problems themselves through the persons associated with gram Panchayat and education by using the available resources in a better way. The role of teachers is very important in making the villagers aware and active.

Terms Zamindari system : Lord Cornwallis introduced this system in 1793 in Bengal, in which a Zamindar was appointed to collect land revenue. They became mediators between the government and farmers for the collection of land revenue. (222)

Consolidation of land (chakbandi): This is a procedure in which farmers are prepared to be exchange this piece of land of the same size and same quality for another. This consolidation of land is voluntary as well as compulsory. Land reform

: It is related to each and every institutional change of our organisation or land system. Land reform includes in it any reform related to the ownership of land or land holding.

Division of labour : Division of work among the labourer according to their specific abilities. Barter system

: Direct exchange of one commodity for another. This system was prevalent before the use of money as a medium of exchange.

Exercise I. Choose the correct alternative and write. 1.

Who owns resources in a capitalistic economy? (i)

government

(iii) Both 2.

Mohammad Tughlaq

(iii) Shahjahan Currency system

(iii) Imports

(iv) Humayun (ii) Self sufficiency (iv) None of the above

The percentage of rural population India in the year 2001 was(i)

5.

(ii) Akbar

Before the arrival of the Britishers rural economy was based on(i)

4.

(iv) None of the above

Which Mughal ruler gave priority to the construction of canals to increase irrigation facilities? (i)

3.

(ii) Individual

21.4

(ii) 32.0

(iii) 65.1

(iv) 72.2

When was land reform introduced in India? (i)

After independence

(iii) in the Vedic period

(ii) before the arrival of the Britishers (iv) none of the above

II. Fill in the blanks : 1.

An ................. is a system by which people earn their living.

2.

Now mainly .............. crops are produced during a year.

3.

The primary objective of farming was ................ before the arrival of the Britishers.

4.

The Zamindari system started by the ........................ . (223) (223)

III. State true or false : 1.

The government decides a minimum support price for the sale of crops at reasonable price.

2.

Villages got completely independent after the arrival of the British.

3.

For the development of agriculture the small non-economic farms should be merged into one big farm.

4.

Contribution of agriculture in the National income is increasing after Independence.

Very short answer type question 1.

Explain the term "economy".

2.

How were the village economies in India organized before the arrival of the Britishers?

3.

What is meant by self sufficiency of villages?

4.

What were the main categories of the working population of ancient villages?

Short answer type question 1.

State the structure of the Indian rural working community before the arrival of the Britshers?

2.

Why did the transfer of land-holding start after the arrival of the Britishers?

3.

Why did the barter system of exchange prevail in India?

4.

What changes occured in the structure of rural economy after independence?

5.

Why did the population migrate from villages to cities?

Long answer type question 1

Write about the characteristics of ancient rural economy of India.

2.

What efforts did the government take for the development of rural economy after independence?

3.

How do cottage and small industries help in the development of rural economy of India? Explain.

4.

Give a comparative study of rural and modern economy.

5.

What are the characteristics of an ‘ideal village’? Explain.

6.

Discuss the efforts which are needed to make a village self-sufficient and developed.

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Chapter-16

Poverty : An Economic Challenge for India 

India is a country with a developing economy. After Independence, especially during the planning 16.1 Meaning of poverty period the different aspects of Indian economy 16.2 Measurement of poverty improved qualitatively as well as quantitatively. Today in India as a result, Indian economy is placed among the most 16.3 Statewise population powerful economies of the world. Although we have reached high dimensions of economic development below poverty line through the growth of economy, simultaneously many 16.4 Causes of poverty challenges have also arisen, such as - poverty, rapidly 16.5 Major programmes for increasing population, wide spread unemployment, solving poverty in India rapidly increasing prices i.e. problems of price rise, regional imbalance and increasing economic disparities, lack of basic facilities and food shortage etc. The most severe among all these economic challenges is the problem of poverty, which we will discuss in this chapter.

We Will Study

16.1

Meaning of Poverty

Scarcity of wealth is the reason of poverty. The poor economic condition of some people does not lead to poverty but when a majority of the people of a society are unable to fulfill the minimum requirements of life then this situation is known as poverty. If essential facilities of housing, clothing and food are not available to the majority of people of a society then it is called a situation of poverty. It is very easy to identify poverty but it is difficult to define it. When we see shattered dwellings and families living in slums all around us, beggars begging at railway stations and cross roads, labourers working in agricultural farms, then we can call such deprived people as poverty stricken. The people living below the poverty line are defined as poor. By below the poverty line family is meant that the minimum economic standard which is necessary for their livelihood is not available to that family.

16.2. Measurement of Poverty in India: Two criteria are generally used to measure poverty. First absolute poverty and second relative poverty. (225) (225)

Absolute poverty - Absolute poverty is the inability to afford the basic amenities (food, clothing and health). All those people living below poverty line are included under it. Relative Poverty - means disparity of income. It implies international economic inequalities and regional economic disparities. The National Sample Survey Organization measures the population living below poverty line in India from time to time (generally every five years).

16.3

State wise Population below Poverty Line

During the past years there has been a continuous decline in the population of poor people lineing below the poverty line in India. In. 1973-74 it was 54.9 percent in 1983 it was 44.7 percent and in 1993-94 it was 36 percent and in 1999-2000 it was 26.10 percent and in 2006-07 it is 19.3 percent.

Poverty Line According to a team of experts set up by the Planning Commission "Task force on minimum need and effective Consumption Demand", those people are considered below poverty line who are unable to obtain nutrition of 2400 calories per day in rural areas and 2100 calories per day in urban area. The concept of the poverty line was first given by the Indian economist, Shri Dandekar. According to the Central Rural Development Ministry -The poverty line relates to such families whose annual income in different states is between Rs. 13,900 to Population below poverty line in India (in percent) Rs. 16,900 per annum. This income is fixed for an average family of five Area 1993-94 1999-00 2006-07 37.3 27.1 21.1 members. Each state can decide a Rural different limit of poverty line. Urban 32.4 23.6 15.1 Looking at the table indicating the Total 36.0 26.1 19.3 number of poor, we can say that the Source - Indian Economy 2006, Finance Department. percentage of poverty has been Approved by Government of India. continuously declining. The extent of poverty in various states of India is not uniform. According to the report issued by the Planning Commission in September 2005 Dang (Gujrat) is the poorest district in India, Banswada district of Rajasthan and third is Jhabua district of Madhya Pradesh. The estimated situation of poverty in the year 2006-07 in different states is shown in the table. According to the table the numbers of people living below the poverty line in India is maximum in Bihar, Orissa and Sikkim.

(226)

Statewise population below the poverty line in India State / Union Territories

2006 Estimated

State / Union Territories

2006

Orissa

41.04

Andhra Pradesh

8.49

Bihar

43.18

Lakshadweep

4.59

Madhya Pradesh

29.52

Rajasthan

Sikkim

33.78

Gujarat

2.00

Assam

31.33

Kerala

3.61

Tripura

31.88

Haryana

2.00

Meghalaya

31.14

Delhi-National Capital area

2.00

Arunachal Pradesh

29.33

Himachal Pradesh

2.00

Nagaland

31.86

Punjab

2.00

Uttar Pradesh

24.67

Chandigarh

2.00

Manipur

30.52

Daman Diu

2.00

West Bengal

18.30

Goa

2.00

Maharashtra

16.18

Jammu & Kashmir

N.A.

Pondicherry

32.00

Tamil Nadu

6.61

5.82

`Karnataka

7.85

Dadar Nagar Haveli

2.00

12.11

Andman & Nikobar Islands Mizoram

20.76

Source- Indian economy 2006 (awarded by Finance Ministry, Government of India).

India is a rich nation, but Indians are poor. Often it is said about India that - India is a rich nation but its residents are poor. It is an ironical statement. India is a wealthy nation but the second part of the statement infers that Indians are poor. Let us understand the irony of this situation.

India is a rich nation From ancient times India has been considered a geographically and culturally rich nation. Here natural resources are in abundance for development. India's geographical area is very vast, natural resources are good, climate is favourable, forest wealth is in adequate quantity, essential resources of energy are also available in adequate quantity and human power is also enough. The main reasons for calling India a rich country are as below 1.

Geographical Position - The geographical location of India is suitable (227) (227)

from the point of view of development. In the north the Himalayas act as alert watchmen. The peninsular location of the country and the presence of the Indian Ocean links India with different international trade routes. India's location for airways is also very suitable. Thus the geographical location of India is very appropriate for economic development and foreign trade. 2. Monsoon Climate : The climatic conditions of India are monsoon based, as a result of it different types of agricultural products are grown in the country. Different industries of our country get enough raw material from it. Owing to different types of climatic conditions we can grow different types of food and cash crops. 3. Abundant Water Power : We get water throughout the year from the perennial rivers originating from the Himalayas. These rivers play an important role in an agricultural country like India. Today we use this water power for irrigation and to produce thousands of Kilowatt of electricity but we have not been able to make use of this resource to the fullest. 4. Forest Wealth : Out of a total area of India, the percentage of forest area is 19.39. We obtain fuel, oil, gums, timber wood, 'Kattha', lac, leather, dyeing material etc. If the forest wealth of India is used efficiently then it may prove to be very useful in the development of the country. 5. Availability of means of energy and minerals in abundance : India is a rich country in minerals and means of power. Out of the total stock of iron in the world one fourth stock is available in India. India also leads in the production of manganese and mica. We have plenty of stock of coal, bauxite, gypsum, thorium and uranium materials which are used for production of atomic power. 6. Human Resources - The 110 crore population of India is able to face many types of challenges. If this resource is used in a planned way then the development of the country can be enhanced. Inspite of India being rich in the above resources Indians are poor.

16.4 Causes of Poverty in India The main causes responsible for poverty in India are the following 1. Defective Development Strategy - In India a contradiction of poverty with growth is seen because the benefits of development are limited to only some people. As a result of it the poor are becoming poorer and the rich richer. Opportunities for further progress are available to the educated and people who have facilities while the poor are unable to obtain higher and technical education, due to lack of money. The Government has made job opportunities available but its progress is very slow. 2.

Unemployment - Unemployment in India is widespread. According to an (228)

estimate there are about 5 crore unemployed people in India. The number of unemployed persons is increasing continuously, which is an important factor for poverty. In rural areas disguised unmployment also exists along with unemployment and seasonal unemployment. The increasing number of unemployed people decreases the productivity of individuals and the standard of income. 3. Low per capita income : In India poverty is expanding because of low per capita income. As compared to the developed countries of the world The per capita income in India is very low.According to the report of the World Bank of the year 2004 the per capita income in India is only 480 Dollars (about Rs. 24,000/- p.a.). Low per capita income is the chief reason of poverty in India.

The vicious cycle of poverty

Low per capita income results in less saving and less demand for consumer articles. As a result of this capital formation and demand also decreases. Then in a form of chain reaction production employment and income all decrease one by one as a result of each other.

Vicious Cycle of Poverty Low per Capita Income Low Income Less employment Less Saving Less Demand

Less Production Low Capital formation

4. Rapid growth of population : The population in India is increasing rapidly. As regards population India ranks second in the world. Every year about 1.81 crore people are added to the existing population in India. According to the census of 2001 the annual growth of population in India during the decade 1991-2001 was 1.93. This leads to low per capita income and consumption and low standard of living. It promote poverty. 5. Use of natural resources : Minerals, forest wealth and human resources etc. in India are in abundance. But till now they have not been used in a proper way. The under utilisation of natural resources is also a reason of poverty. 6. Inflation and Price rise : A huge amount of wealth is spent on the accomplishment of the development tasks. It generates inflationary pressure on the economy and the prices start increasing. As a result the problem of poverty becomes more severe. 7. Low standard of technical knowledge : There is a scarcity of the facilities for technical education and research etc. in India. About 36 percent of the (229) (229)

population of India is illiterate. The productivity declines as there is lack of technical education and facilities of training. 8. Low Productivity : In India productivity is low, therefore, proper returns from the resources are not obtained and the people remain poor. Low productivity in the agriculture sector is the chief reason for rural poverty. 9. Uncertainity in Agriculture : Indian economy is based on agriculture, which depends on the monsoons. The Monsoon is always uncertain due to which there are fluctuations in the agricultural production. Natural calamities affect agricultural production adversely, which results in poverty. 10. Lack of means of transport and communication : In India the rapid growth of agriculture, industries, and the tertiary sector is not possible as means of transport and communications are not fully developed. 11. Social reason : People of India spend a big amount of their income on various programmes because of socio-cultural customs. On the one hand it decreases savings and on the other hand it increases indebtness. Apart from this, ignorance, fatalism, a conservative attitude are also the causes of poverty in India. Here the question under consideration is that though India is endowed with enough natural wealth even then it is a poor country, and Indians are leading lives in poverty and unemployment. There are means of prosperity in India but due to inadequate use of these means of prosperity, Indians are living in poverty.

16.6 Main programmes for eradication of poverty in India: The Indian planners were concerned from the very beginning about the eradication of poverty. In this direction the government is endeavoring to promote economic growth. It has adopted many poverty- alleviation programmes and has launched many schemes to fulfill the needs of people of the rural areas. The following are the main programmes for the eradication of poverty. 1. Swarnjayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojna (SGSY) : It was started on 1st April, 1999. The programme aims at bringing the poor families above poverty line within a period of three years by organizing them into self help groups through a mix of bank credit and government subsidy. This programme also aims at generating additional income for the rural poor. This is being conducted through the District village Development Agency ( Jila Gramya Vikas Abhikaran). 2. Swarnjayanti Shahri Rojgar Yojna : This scheme was launched on 11th December, 1997 for the eradication of poverty in urban areas. The scheme aims at providing financial aid to the poor in the urban areas for self employment and for creation of useful assets in the village. (230)

3. Prime Minister Rojgar Yojna : The scheme started on 2nd October, 1993. It aims to create self employment opportunities for the educated unemployed youth between the age 18 to 35 years in rural areas and small towns. 4. Grameen Rojgar Srajan Karyakram : This scheme was launched in April 1995 with the aim to establishing projects and creating self employment opportunities in rural areas and small towns. 5. Annapoorna Yojna : This scheme was started on 1st April, 2000. This scheme aims to provide food security to people of 65 years of age and above who were eligible to obtain pension under the National Old Age Pension Scheme but are not getting it. Under this scheme per month per head 10 kilograms of food grains are provided free of cost. In the year 2002-03 the National Social Help Program was merged with it. 6. Janshri Yojna : This scheme was launched in August 2000, to provide social security to the poor section of society. Under this scheme Rs. 20,000 in case of natural death, Rs.50,000 in case of death or permanent disability in an accident and Rs 25,000 in case of partial disability is provided to the concerned person. 7. Sampoorna Grameen Rojgar Yojna : This scheme was launched in the rural areas with the aim of increasing job opportunities along with food security. The labourers working under this scheme are paid a minimum quantity of food i.e. 5 kilogram of cereals and a minimum 20 percent wages in cash. The aim of this scheme is to provide security to the weaker sections of society. 8. Gram Samradhi Yojna : A declaration to launch this scheme was made in March 1999. The present existing Jawahar Rojgar Yojna will be changed in a way that all the funds can be spent by the Gram Panchayats, so that they can use it in rural development progammes. Thus they will have power to prepare and implement annual plans related to this work. 9. Antyodaya Anna Yojna : was launched on 25th December, 2001. The main objective of this scheme is to provide food grains to the people living below the poverty line, who are included under the targeted public distribution system. In this scheme 35 Kilograms of cereal per month is distributed to 1.50 crore poor families on special concessional prices. The Central Issue Prices of wheat and rice under this scheme are Rs.2 and Rs.3 per kilogram respectively. 10. Employment Guarantee Act (2005): Its main aim is to provide 100 days employment every year to at least one adult of each rural or urban poor and low income family. Under this programme it is necessary to provide employment to an applicant within 15 days. If employment is not provided within the due time then an unemployment (231) (231)

allowance will be given to the concerned person. The allowance would be at least one third of the minimum wages. This scheme was implemented on 2nd February, 2006 in 200 most backward districts of the country.

Terms Disguised unemployment : The unemployment seen in the field of agriculture indicates to the zero marginal productivity of the labour. It means if these labourers are transferred elsewhere from agriculture yet it does not affect the productivity of agriculture adversely directly or indirectly. Under employment

: When a person does not get a job according to his efficiency and works below the level of his ability and efficiency then it is categorized as under employment.

Per capita Income

: An average income obtained by a person in a financial year.

Cyclic unemployment

: The unemployment that is generated during the depression period of trade cycle, is called cyclic unemployment.

Inflation

: It is a stage when the value of currency diminishes and prices of goods and services increase in the market.

Price rise

: The difference between the price of the production of a firm and the cost of goods purchased by another firm.

Natural resources

: The free gifts of nature to human beings which help in the economic development.

Exercise I. Choose the correct alternative and write 1.

The basis of the comparison of income level is (i) absolute poverty (ii) Relative poverty (iii) complete poverty (iv) None of these

2.

The state having maximum population of poor, in India (i) Meghalaya (ii) Assam (iii) Bihar (iv) Madhya Pradesh

3.

For how many days is employment provided under the Employment Guarantee Act (2005) (232)

(i) 25 days (ii) 50 days (iii)75 days (iv) 100 days II. Fill in the blanks : 1. An average income obtained by a person in a financial year is called .................. . 2. ...................... porerty means disparity of income. 3. The concept of ................... was first given by the Indian economist Shri Dandekar. 4. The poorest district of Madhya Pradesh is .................. . 5. To measure the poverty in India generally two criteria are used first is absolute poverty and second .................. . III. True or false : 1. Rapid growth of population increases the poverty. 2. Punjab is the poorest state of India. 3. Employment Guarantee Act provides 5 kilograms of cereals and a minimum 20 percent wages in cash. 4. People are considered as below poverty live in India who are unable to obtain nutrition of 2100 calories per day in urban areas. 5. According to the report of planning commission in 2005 Jhabua district of Madhya Pradesh is the poorest district in India. Very short answer type questions 1. What are the main economic challenges before India? 2. What is the poverty line? 3. Mention the names of three states of India having the largest population of poor. 4. Write about the social causes responsible for poverty. Short answer type questions 1. How does growth of population increase poverty? Explain. 2. What changes have occurred in the condition of poverty during the last years in India? Mention. 3. Explain the statewise condition of poverty in India. 4. Write about the main characteristics of the Employment Guarantee Act 2005. 5. What is the basis to measure poverty? Long answer type question 1. What are the reasons responsible for poverty in India? 2. Describe in brief the main programmes for the eradication of poverty in India. 3. ‘India is a rich nation but its citizens are poor’. Explain this statement.

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Chapter-17

State of Industries in India 17.1

We Will Study 

Meaning of industry

Industries play a very important role in the economic development of a country. Industries 17.1 Meaning of industry are helpful in the rapid economic growth of the 17.2 Classification of Industry country. No country can prosper without the 17.3 Status of industries in India development of industries. When many firms produce a homogeneous 17.4 Importance of small scale commodity or service then they all together are industries in India. called an 'industry' for example - Iron and Steel 17.5 Government efforts for Industry of India includes -Rourkela, Durgapur, development of small scale Bokaro, Tata Iron and steel Co. etc. industry. All the entrepreneurs are included in an industry in which goods or services are purchased through a systematic procedure by cooperation of employers and employees to satisfy human needs and aspirations.

17.2

Classification of Industries Thus we can classify industries on the basis of their ownership, utility, size, nature

Classification of Indust

Based on ownership

Based on utility

Basic Industry

Large Scale Industry

Private Sector

Public Sector

Base nature

Based on size

Consumers Goods Industry

Heavy Industries

Medium Small Scale Industry Scale Indu

Co-operative Mixed Sector Sector (234)

Ag I

of goods produced and raw material used. In this chapter we will study the state of industries on the basis of their size. We can divide industries into three parts on the basis of the amount of capital invested- large scale industries, small scale industries and cottage industries. Large Scale Industry : These industrial units are those industries in which the capital invested on plant and machinery is more than Rs.10 crores. They are categorised as large scale industries. for example Tata Iron and Steel Company. Medium Scale Industries : The industrial units in which capital invested on plant and machinery is upto 5 to 10 crores, they are categorised as Medium Scale industries. For industrial units of tertiary sector their limit is upto Rs. 5 crores for example leather industry and silk industry. Small Scale Industry : Those industrial units are included in the small scale industries where capital investment in plant and machinery is upto a limit of Rs. 5 crores. Regarding industrial units of tertiary sector the given limit is Rs. 2 crores. For example - Lac industry and glass industry. Those industrial units are categorised as very small industries where the capital investment on plant and machinery is upto 25 lacs, and for the service sector in industrial units or tertiary sector, the limit is Rs. 10 lacs. Cottage Industry : Those industrial units which are run completely with the help of members of the family in the form of full time or part time business are cottage industries. In these units capital investment is nominal and the production work is done by hands for example - making baskets of bamboo, ivory work. Village Industry : Cottage industries are run in villages as well as towns, but those cottage industries which are run only in villages are known as village industry for example - Handloom, Khadi and Silk Industries.

17.3 Status of Industries in India Cotton Textile Industry: This is the oldest and main industry of India. The first cotton mill in India was set up in 1818 in Kolkata. This is the largest and most extensive industry of India. Its contribution to the total industrial production of the country is 14 percent, whereas its share in the gross export is 19 percent. Its share in imports is 3 percent. The cotton textile industry is mainly localised in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat. The Capital Investment in this industry is about 5,000 crores rupees. This industry is providing employment directly or indirectly to 9 crore people. The Government has freed cotton industry from license through the cloth order (development and exchange) (235) (235)

of 1993. Iron and Steel Industry : India has been famous for its iron and steel industry from ancient times. The first attempt to produce iron and steel by modern methods was made in the year 1830 but failed. After this efforts were made in this direction continuously. First of all Jamshedji Tata established the iron and steel company in Jamshedpur. There are a total of 10 plants in India. Out of these nine are in the Public Sector and only one (Tata Iron and Steel Company) Jamshedpur (West Bengal), is under the private sector. The steel plants of the public sector are Bhilai, Durgapur, Rourkela, Bokaro, Vishakapatnam and Salem. At present there are 196 small scale plants in the country. Out of these 170 units are running and the remaining are closed. The capital investment in this industry is 90,000 crore rupees. It has provided employment to 5 lakh people. It was freed from licensing in the year1991. Jute Industry : India stands first in the production of jute in the world. Out of a total production of the world 50 percent is produced in India. India stands second in the export of the jute products in the world. Gunny bags, rugs, ropes, decorative products and several other items are made of jute. The jute industry in India started in 1855. In India 85 percent jute mills are in Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Assam and Orrisa. Out of the total production 62% is used to manufacture gunny bags. 20 percent as sack cloth and the rest 18 percent for other things. At present there are 73 Jute mills running in India. The capital investment in this industry is about Rs. 300 Crores. 2.61 lakh people are employed in this industry. Sugar Industry : Sugar industry is a major industry of India. It is an ancient industry. It was developed in an organised manner in 1921 when the government granted protection to it. Therefore it is called a Protection Baby. Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra play an important role in the production of sugar in the country. In 1950-51 the number of sugar mills were 138 which has now increased to 566. In the year 1998 it was declared free from license restriction. (236)

Cement Industry : The cement industry in India was started between 1912-1914 at Porbandar in Gujarat and Katni and Lakheri in Madhya Pradesh. At present there are 128 big plants which have 18,209 crore tonnes production capacity. Apart from these, there are 332 small scale cement factories having a production capacity of 111 lakh tonnes. The capital investment in this industry is 800 crore rupees and it provides employment to about 3 lakh people. At present India is the fifth largest cement producer of the world after China, Russia, Japan and America. In 1991 it became free from licensing restriction. The industry has progressed in the field of production capacity, output and processing technology. Information and Technology : The information technology industry is an industry based on technology with the help of computers and its applications, computers, communication, technology and concerned software. The knowledge reaches through means of communication and equipment. It is a knowledge based industry. In India, the development of Information technology is recent, but it is growing rapidly. However, enormous efforts are required for making it competitive with developed countries. In India this industry developed after the International Treaty of 1994. In 1994-95 , this industry earned Rs.6345 crore rupees which increased to 79337 crore, in the year 2002-03. It shows that this is the fastest growing industry of India.

Small scale industries in India Paper Industry : In India the art of paper making by hand developed is the ancient times. The first modern mill was set up at Bali near Kolkata in 1870. At present there are several paper mills in India among which the chief are National News Print and Paper Mill Limited. ( Nepanagar, Madhya Pradesh) and Security Paper Mill ( Hoshangabad, Madhya Pradesh). At present there are 515 paper mills in the country. Paper is produced by all types of production units, small, medium and large. The contribution of small and medium units is 50 percent of the total product. At present in India, around 15 lakh people are employed in this industry. It ranks twentieth in the world in the production of paper. The chief paper producing stages in India are Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Orissa, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Kerala. Leather Industry : It is one of the oldest industries in India. This is a traditional industry. There are several things which are made of leather such as coats, jerseys, (237) (237)

purses, playing material, toys, monkey caps, belts, hand gloves, shoes, foot wear etc. The majority of the leather goods in the country are produced in Tamil Nadu, Kolkata, Kanpur, Mumbai, Aurangabad, Kolhapur, Dewas, Jalandhar and Agra. Out of the total production of leather goods 75 percent is produced by small scale and cottage industries In India, leather and leather goods are included in the top ten lists of the products having maximum export. During the year 2003-04, the leather industry earned 2.1 million American dollars as income from export. Mostly people from the minority and poor sections are employed in the field of leather production. Out of the total of employed people 30 percent are women. It is estimated that 10 percent of the total supply of leather of the world is from India.

Cottage Industries in India Glass industry : The glass industry is a very old industry of India but modernised development of the glass industry started after the second world war only. At present in this industry glass is being produced by modern and latest technology. At present out of 56 big factories of glass 15 are modern factories which manufacture high quality of glass goods, completely with the help of machines. As a cottage industry it is localised mainly at Ferozabad and Belgaon. There are more than 225 small and big factories of glass in Ferozabad, which manufacture bangles. In Atta Shikohabad, Fatehabad and Hathras also it is run as a cottage industry whereas in Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar Tamil Nadu and Orissa it is centralised as a modern industry. The maximum number of factories in the country are situated in West Bengal. India exports manufactured glass goods to Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Afghanistan, Kuwait, Iran, Greece, Saudi Arabia, Burma and Malaysia etc. Silk Industry : From the very beginning the silk industry has been one of the major industries of India. At present of the total production of silk in the world 17 percent is produced in India. There are four major areas of pure silk production in India : (1) Kashmir Valley, (2) Eastern Karnataka and the table land (plateau) and mountainous regions of Tamil Nadu, (3) areas of Hugli in West Bengal, (4) mountainous regions of Assam. This industry provides employment to 58 lakh people. For encouraging this industry "The Central Silk Board" was established in the year 1949. Lac Industry : India is a major producer of lac. Before 1950, India was the only country where lac was cleaned but today this work is also done in Thailand. It has affected the Indian Lac industry. Earlier 85 percent of the total world production of lac (238)

was produced by India which at present has been reduced to 50 percent. In India the maximum lac is produced in the plateau of Chhota Nagpur. Out of the total production of lac in the world 50 percent of lac is produced in India. Apart from this Chhatisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Orissa, Gujarat and Mirzapur district of Uttar Pradesh are major centres of production. In the year 1969-70 the total production of lac was 5,740 tonnes in India which increased to 80,000 tonnes in the year 2000-01. Major buyers of Indian lac are China, America, Russia and Britain. Apart from these countries, Germany, Brazil, Italy, France and Japan are also important buyers. This industry provides employment to about 10,000 people of the country. 60-70 percent of the schedule tribe people do the work of collecting raw lac and pure shellac is extracted from it.

17.4 Importance of small scale and cottage industries Small scale and cottage industries play an important role in Indian economy. These industries are suited to the Indian economy. These industries can be established with less capital and require more human labour. In India due to a large population there is more human labour and also due to poverty there is less capital. For these reasons these are considered an important part of the Indian economy. This can be made clear by the following facts: 1. Suitable for rural economy : Around 50.4 percent of the working population of India depends on agriculture, but the farmers do not get work for the whole year. Therefore small scale industries are important for them and suitable for the Indian economy. 2. Reduces unemployment : The small scale industries reduce unemployment as they have potential of employing a large number of workers with less capital investment for the same. 3. Help in reducing inequalities of incomes : The ownership of smallscale industries is distributed among lakhs of people and families as a result of this economic power cannot be centralised hence it helps in equal distribution of income. 4. Development of individual art : Small-scale industries are helpful in developing individual art. 5. Decrease pressure of population on agriculture : A major part of the population is already dependent on agriculture in India and the increasing population increases pressure on agriculture. If small scale industries are set up in rural areas it will reduce pressure on agriculture which will be beneficial for the country. (239) (239)

6. Help in industrial decentralisation : Small scale industries help in the decentralisation of industries in the country. Large scale industries get centralised in a particular place due to some specific reasons but small scale industries are developed in villages and small towns. 7. Less requirement of technical knowledge : Small scale industries require less technical knowledge and less capital for their establishment. They can run with fewer trained workers. Thus they are best suited for the Indian economy. 8. Fast producing industry : Produced goods can be obtained within a short time after the establishment of these industries. Therefore these are called fast producing industries. There is always a shortage of goods in India and these industries can contribute significantly in removing this shortage. 9. Earning of foreign currency : The export of the goods manufactured by small scale industries is increasing day by day which helps the country in obtaining valuable foreign currency. At present out of the total export of the country the share of the goods produced by small scale industries is 35 percent. 10. Less dependency on imports : We have to depend on imports from foreign countries to establish large scale industries either for technology or for machine or raw material. With small scale industries there is no such requirement, we do not have to import machines or techniques or raw materials. Thus it decreases dependence on imports. 11. Supplementary to large scale industries : The small scale industries can work as supplementary industries to large scale industries for example small scale industries can manufacture intermediate goods which can be used by large scale industries to produce final goods. 12. Use of local resources : Small scale industries utilise local resources. These industries help the rural people and common man to be entrepreneurs and give opportunities of investment of rural savings. In India the contribution of small scale industries in the gross national product is 10 percent, in gross industrial product it is 39 percent and in providing employment it is 32 percent and 35 percent in the total exports of the country. Due to the above reasons small scale industries have been given a significant place in the industrial policies. The production of 590 commodities are reserved for small scale industries.

17.5 Government efforts for the development of small scale industry : 1. Establishment of Boards and corporations : The government has from time to time established different boards and corporations like- The All India Board of Cottage Industries, All India Handicrafts Board, Khadi Gram Udyog Mandal, Board of (240)

Small Scale Industry, Coir Board, National Small Scale Corporation, Indian Handicrafts Development Corporation for the development of the small scale industries. 2. Establishment of the Council of small scale industry : The small scale industry development corporation. Nationalised Banks, State Finance Corporation are the members of this council and help the small scale industries. 3. Financial Assistance : Financial assistance is provided to small scale industries through the Reserve Bank, State Bank of India, The National Small Scale Corporation, State finance Corporation and Cooperative Banks. Loan facilities are provided by the National Small Scale Development Banks. State Governments also provides long terms loan in their area under the Government Assistance to Industries Act. 4. Techinical Assistance : The organisation for development of small scale industries was established to provide technical assistance to the small scale industries. Under these services, Indians are sent to foreign countries for training and experts are invited to India to provide training in India. 5. Exemption from taxes : Concession in taxes is provided to small scale industries. Taxes like production tax are not imposed on the goods produced by these industries, if imposition of tax becomes essential then only a nominal tax is imposed. Apart from the exemption in taxes concessions are provided in the transportation expenditure. 6. Facilities for selling of products : Many facilities are provided for the marketing of products of the small-scale industries. Show rooms or emporiums are being opened at various places by the Central and State Governments and by specific corporations for the selling of products of small-scale industries. Along with this big societies and boards are set up with the help of state governments for the sale of the products of small scale goods. 7. Exemption from licensing : Some goods are reserved under this, to promote small-scale industries. 8. Preference is given by the Government in their purchase : The government gives preference to the products of small scale industries in purchasing goods for the use of its own departments and some goods are purchased exclusively from these industries. 9. Organising exhibitions : The government from time to time organises exhibitions at different places to make people aware about the products of small scale industries. Apart from this, it provides assistance to those representatives of people who organise these exhibitions. 10. To set up research institutes : There are many research institutes established for research work on the products of small scale industries. 11. National Equity Fund : The Central Government has set up a fund in which 5 crore rupees have been provided by the Central Government and 5 crore rupees (241) (241)

by the Industrial Development Bank. The Industrial Development Bank manages these funds, which provides loans to small scale industries in the form of soft loans upto 5 thousand rupees for seed and capital but the unit should be registered in the Directorate of Industry as a small scale industry. 12. Establishment of Indian Development Bank for small scale industry : This bank was established as a co-organisation of Indian Industrial Development Bank. Its capital is rupees 450 crore rupees and its main function is to provide financial assistance to the small-scale industries. Its offices have been opened in different states. 13. Interest on delayed payments : The government has made the arrangement that if a buyer delays the payment for the goods purchased from a small industrial unit then he will have to pay interest on the delayed period. 14. Credit Card Scheme for small entrepreneurs : This scheme was implemented with the aim to make credit easily available to small businessmen, artisans and entrepreneurs in 2002-03. 15. Improvement in the loan given to small scale industries : The following steps were taken for the improvement in the loan given to small scale industries: ● The limit of composing loans is increased from Rupees 25 lakhs to Rs.50 lakhs. The composite loan is also given for working capital along with plant and machinery. ● The expected parallel security on the loan upto Rs. 5 lakhs has been terminated. ●

The Reserve Bank of India has set up a committee to monitor the flow of loans given to small scale industries.

16. Removal of restrictions on ready made garments : Progress of technology, increase in productivity, awareness towards quality, diversity of products, increase in exports and increase in marketing related policies and maximising employment opportunities will help this sector. 17. Setting up of integrated structural Development Centres : Under this scheme in an industrial premises the basic needs of a developed place as electricity, water, drainage system, tele communication is made available along with banks, raw material, storage, sale and technology.

Terms Cottage Industries

: Those industries which are run completely by the members of a family as part time or full time work.

Private Sector

: That sector of production in which economic resources are (242)

controlled by individuals and are used with the objective of individual profit. Developing country : A country having less developed economy as compared to developed countries.

Exercise: Choose and write the correct alternative: 1.

The maximum investment limit of a small scale industrial unit is(i)

2.

Rupees 1 crore

(ii) Rupees 5 crores

(iii) Rupees 3 crore

(iv) Rupees 7 crores

Out of the total production of Jute in the world India produces(i)

25 percent

(ii) 10 percent

(iii) 150 percent 3.

(iv) 35 percent

Which of these is concerned with information technology? (i)

Motor car

(ii) Beautiful clothes

(ii) Computer

(iv) Gold and Silver

Very short answer type questions1.

To which countries does India export glass manufactured goods?

2.

Which are the chief silk producing areas of India?

3.

Which countries are the major buyers of lac products from India?

4.

Mention the agro based industries in India.

5.

What is the capacity of production of the cement factories established in India?

6.

Which states in India are important for the production of silk?

Short answer type questions1.

Explain the basis on which the different industries are classified in India.

2.

Describe the state of the small scale industry of India.

3.

Which articles are produced by the leather industry of India?

4.

Explain the state of the paper industry in India.

5.

Write a note on the glass industry of India.

6.

Information and technology industry is a rapidly growing industry of India. Explain.

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Long answer type questions1.

Describe the state of large scale industries of India.

2.

What efforts have been undertaken by the government to promote the small scale industries? Write.

3.

State the importance of small scale and cottage industries.

4.

Write short notes on (i)

The leather Industry

.

(ii) The iron and steel Industry. (iii) The cotton Industry. (iv) The information and technology.

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Chapter-18

Food Security in India We Will Study



18.1 Meaning of Food Security Food clothing and housing are the three main requirements of life. Out of all these, availability of nutritive food is the most important necessity of human life. Food security is related to the food related needs of man. In simple words food security means availability of nutritive food to all. Also people should have purchasing power (money) for the arrangement and availability of food at reasonable prices. According to the World Development Report, 1986 "Food security is the availability of adequate food at all times for a active and healthy life for all". According to the institute for Food and Agriculture, "Food security ensures availability of basic necessary food for all, physically as well as

18.1 Meaning of food security 18.2 Need and importance of Food security 18.3 Major food crops of India 18.4 Efforts by government for food security ● Promoting Production of food grains ● Minimum support price ● Buffer stock economically." ● Public Distribution Thus on the basis of the above definitions food system security includes the following 18.5 Food grains and ● Availability of food for the whole population of co-operatives ●

the country. Availability of enough money (purchasing power) to purchase the necessary food.

●

Food should be available to all at affordable prices.

●

The quality of the available food should be good.

Food security generally implies that the whole population at all times should have access to the minimum quantity of cereals, but due to continuous changes in a developing country there can be the following stages of food security : 1.

Availability of adequate quantity of food grains.

2.

Availability of food grains and pulses in adequate quantity.

3.

Availability of milk and milk products along with food grains and pulses.

4.

Availability of food grains, pulses milk and milk products, vegetables, fruits etc. (245) (245)

18.2

Need and importance of Food Security

In the present Indian situation food security has become very important. Our economy is developing but the population is also increasing rapidly. So to meet the increasing demand, food security has become necessary. The causes responsible for this can be divided into two parts - internal causes and external causes. 1.

2.

Internal causes - Internal causes include those which are related to the internal conditions of the country. The following factors are included in these. ●

Basis of life - India is a country with a large population and the birth rate is also very high. Therefore food security is necessary.

●

Dependence on Monsoon - The majority of crops in India are dependent on the monsoon for irrigation, but the monsoon is always uncertain and irregular. The distribution of rains is uneven too. consequently droughts and famines are common features of our economy. Therefore food security is necessary.

●

Low Productivity - In India the productivity of food-grains per hectare is low. From this point of view also food security is necessary

●

Natural Calamities - Other than the problem of the monsoon, floods, insects and pests, cold waves, soil erosion etc. also destroy the food crops in some or the other part of the country. So the problem of shortage of food crops arises. In the famine in Orissa of 1835, in Punjab and Madhya Pradesh in 1877 and in West Bengal in 1943, lakhs of people died of hunger. So food security is necessary to face these natural calamities.

●

Continuously rising prices - The prices of food grains are increasing continuously which result in starvation. So food security is necessary to overcome this problem.

●

Progress of the country - No country can progress without self sufficiency in food production, and for this food security is necessary.

External causes - External causes include those causes which are related to the relation of other countries with our country. The following are the external causes●

Dependence on Foreign Countries - Food is the basic need of human beings. So when this requirement is not fulfilled it becomes the primary duty of the government to fulfill these needs of the people. If there is a shortage of food we have to depend on foreign countries. Whenever there is inadequate supply of food grains in our country we have to import even if food grains are costly or cheap, the quality is good or bad. Thus dependence on foreign countries increases.

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18.3

●

Decrease in foreign Exchange - Whenever we import things like food grains we have to spend our foreign exchange unnecessarily. We can meet our demand for food ourselves but we cannot. This results in shortage of foreign exchange to purchase very important commodities.

●

Foreign Pressure - Countries which supply food grains to other countries become influential and then they force them to follow their policies. These countries dominate those countries which import food-grains from them, as a result they lose their freedom to decide their foreign policies. In the year 1965-66 and 1966-67 due to the failure of monsoon India had to face a devastating drought and therefore wheat was imported from America. During these frequent emergencies of food grains India experienced that food security is very essential to save people from starvation, to protect self respect, honour and sovereignty and for the development of the country.

Chief Food Crops of India

Chief crops of India and their cultivation regions ● Paddy (Rice) - West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Chhatisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Orrisa, Punjab, Assam. ● Wheat - Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Uttarakhand, Gujarat. ● Bajra - Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh. ● Jowar - Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh. ● Maize - Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar, Rajasthan, Gujarat. ● Gram & Pulses - Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab, Karnataka.

India is an agricultural country and the chief occupation is farming. Cereals are grown in about 70 to 80 per cent of the total agricultural land. Rice, wheat, millets and maize are the major cereals. Today India has become self sufficient in the production of food grains. Different crops are grown in different seasons. So according to seasons these crops are divided into the following categories 1. Kharif crops - These crops are sown in the month of July and harvested in the month of October. They include paddy (rice) millets, maize etc. 2. Rabi Crops - These crops are sown in the month of October and harvested either in the end of March or in April. They include wheat, Oats, gram etc. In India different kinds of cereals are grown. Regarding the production of food grains India stands third after China and America. The major food grains (cereals) of India are described as follows. Rice - Rice is the staple food of India. It is grown in about 25 percent of the total (247) (247)

cultivated area. Of the total world's production of rice, India is the second largest producer of rice in the world. India accounts for 11.4 per cent of the world production. Important rice growing states in India are West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Chhattisgarh and Assam. The production of rice is increasing continuously. In the field of production of rice, the use of high yielding variety of seeds and chemical fertilizers has shown a huge rise in its production. At present India has become not only self-sufficient in the production of rice but has also started to export it.

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Wheat - In the production of cereals in India the rank of wheat is second after rice. As regards production of wheat India's rank is third after China and the United States of America and as regards area of production India's rank is fifth in the world. In India two kinds of wheat are grown (a) Walgair wheat - It is shining, healthy (well-sapped) soft and white in colour. Generally it is called wheat of bread. (b) Mikrani wheat - It is red in colour small in size and hard. The major wheat growing states of the country are Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat. India is self dependent in the production of wheat. Though in the current year India is importing wheat due to lack of accumulated stock, 5 lacks tonnes of wheat has been imported. Coarse grain Sorghum (jowar) bajra (pearl millet) and maize are included in coarse grains. Sorghum (Jowar) - In India Jowar has been grown from ancient times. It is used as fodder for cattle and as food for human beings. In India it is food of the poor. In foreign countries it is used to prepare starch and glucose. In northern India it is a kharif crop but in southern India it is a crop of kharif and rabi both. About 87 per cent of the total production of Jowar (sorghum) in the country is produced in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Bajra - It is a kharif crop in northern India. In southern India it is a crop of rabi and kharif both. It is used as fodder for cattle. India is the largest producer of Bajra in the world. In India the main Bajra producing states are Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharastra, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Punjab. Of the total production of bajra in the country 96 per cent is grown here. Maize - Maize is the crop of the plains and mountainous regions. It is used as fodder for cattle and as food to eat. Man uses its different varieties for food products. In foreign countries starch and glucose are prepared from this. In India it is grown in nearby all states but mainly it is grown in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Karnataka.

18.4 Efforts of the Government for food security Food security depends upon - Public Distribution System, alertness of government and the measures taken in a situation of crisis. Food security system has been developed in India to make food grains available at reasonable prices to poor and other people during periods of food crisis arising due to some reason or other or due to natural calamities. The important components of this system are as follows (249) (249)

1. Efforts to increase food grains - For food security it is important that the production of food grains should be enough in quantity. In this the contribution of the green revolution is quite important, Under the Green Revolution mechanization of agriculture, use of high yielding hybrid variety of seeds, fertilizers and insecticides and irrigation facilities were extended. Also due to promotion of consolidation of land holdings, abolishing of mediators, today the country has become self sufficient in the field of food grains. The progress of food grains in India can be explained on the basis of the following table. 2. Minimum Support Price - The prices of agricultural products are very flexible, at the time of harvesting the supply increases, due to which there is enough decrease in price. As prices at this time go down below the fixed limit the producer finds it difficult to get the cost of their products. Therefore the government declares a minimum support price for agricultural products, under which when market price of food grains becomes less than its support price, the government starts purchasing food grains on self declared support price. Due to this farmers get inspired to produce more and more and the government procures food grains for "Buffer Stocks." 3. Buffer Stock - If the production of food grains is less, then to face such crisis of shortage and to distribute them through the Public Distribution System, the stock of food grains kept by the government is known as Buffer Stock. A Buffer Stock is the stock of food grains, namely wheat and rice procured by the government through Food Corporation of India (FCI). The FCI purchases wheat and rice from farmers in states where there is surplus production. The farmers are paid a pre-announced price for their crop. This price is called a "Minimum Support Price". The government declares these prices before the sowing season to provide incentives to farmers for raising production of these crops. These food grains are stored in large granaries. It helps in resolving the problem of shortage of food grains during emergencies. 4. The Public Distribution System - By Public Distribution System is meant that system in which different consumer goods are sold in sufficient quantity at fixed prices to the consumers, specially to the poor sections of society. In this system different Parts of Public Distribution System goods (wheat, rice, sugar, imported edible oil, coal and kerosene oil etc.) are sold The Public Distribution System includes fair price shops, Fair Price Shops for through ration shops or cooperative consumer selling cloth, soft coke depot, Super stores. The profit rate for these sellers are markets and Kerosene shops. fixed and they have to sell the goods to the ration card holders at a fixed price and in fixed quantities. There are three kinds of ration cards - B.P.L. Card, A.P.L. Card and Antyodya Cards. (250)

The Public Distribution System is regulated by the central and the state government together. The central government allots food grains and other commodities to states and determines prices also. The state has the right to add transportation charge etc. to the prices fixed by the Central Government. The transportation, collection, distribution and inspection Ration Cards of these goods processed under this ● BPL cards for people below poverty line. system is done by the state ● APL cards for people above poverty line. government. The state government ● Antyodaya Cards for the poorest of the poor. can include those goods also in Public Distribution System which it can purchase if required. In India the distribution of food grains is increasing continuously. It is clear from the above table that the Public Distribution System plays an important role in providing food grains to people. Revamped Public Distribution System - In January 1992, the Public Distribution System was amended and a revised Public Distribution System was introduced to supply essential goods to consumers of remote areas, schedule tribes, backward classes, drought affected and mountainous areas of the country. Its characteristics are as follows●

Preference is given to the people of drought affected areas, desert areas, mountainous area and slums in urban areas.

●

It is aimed at poviding more quantity of food at comparatively low prices. Six other chief essential commodities like tea, soap, pulse, iodised salt are also included in it.

●

"Rojgar Aswasan Plan" has been started in the development blocks included under this plan, in which 100 days employment can be provided to 18-60 year old unskilled labour, so that they are able to earn and purchase food grains through revamped public distribution system.

Targeted Public Distribution System : In 1997 the Public Distribution System was introduced to ensure the availablity of a minimum quantity of food grains to families living below the poverty line. In this system food grains are provided to the poor on special low prices by issuing them on ration cards. This is the largest food security plan of the world. In this system 35 kg. of food grains per month per family are provided from 1st April 2006. In the same way under the "Antyodya Anna Yojna" 25 kg. of wheat at Rs. 2/- per kg. & rice at Rs. 3/- per kg. is being provided to very poor families through the public distribution system.

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Under this system a differential price system was adopted including people below the poverty line (BPL) and also for people above the poverty line (APL) in which different issue prices of wheat and rice were fixed (see table)

Central Issue Price in the Public Distribution System Distribution

Issue price per kg. (Rs.)

Wheat ●

Below poverty line

4.15

Above poverty line Other than this the government is ● providing food security through mid day Rice meals for the students studying in the ● Below poverty line school 'Antyodya Aann Yogna', 'Kaam ke ● Above poverty line Badle Anaj Yogna' and 'United State Development Programme' etc. schemes.

6.10 5.65 8.30

18.5 Food Security and Co-operatives : A co-operative is a form of voluntary orgainsation of people which works for collective interest on the basis of quality, self help and domestic system. Under this system all those works which cannot be done by the financially weak people individually are easily done. The main objective of a cooperative is to work together with mutual cooperation without the feeling of exploitation of each other. In India the role of cooperatives is very important in providing food security. This work is done by the consumer cooperative societies through ration shops for the sale of food grains for the poor. In India there are different systems of consumer cooperatives at national, state, district & village levels. Out of these National Consumers' Cooperative (Federation) Ltd. is an oganisation at National level. State Cooperative Consumers' Organisation is affiliated to this forum (federation). There are 794 consumer cooperative stores at the central level (Wholesale) and 24,078 stores at the primay level. In rural areas nearly 44,418 village level primary agricultural credit societies are distributing essential goods along with their ordinary business. To fulfill the needs of consumers, consumer cooperative societies are running nearly 37,226 retail selling centres in urban & semi urban areas. The government started a scheme named 'Sarvpiya' in July 2000. Under this plan some selected distribution system at selling centres of state consumers cooperative Federation, state civil supply cooperative and consumers' cooperative societies of state government distributes the procured cereals from food corporation of India to the poor sections of society through ration shops. Sugar, cereals, kerosene etc. are distributed to the ration card holders through ration shops which are also known as 'Fair Price Shops'. Any family with a ration card can buy stipulated amounts of these items, every month (252)

from a nearby ration shop. At these shops all the items are sold at a price lower than the market price. Today there are about 4.6 lakh ration shops in the counrty.

Terms Subsidy (Grant)

: Subsidy is the payment which the Government makes to the producer to compensate for the market price.

Buffer Stock

: Reserve stock of food grains to meet emergency situations.

Green Revolution : At term that is given to the procedure of improvement of technique of agricultural production to increase agricultural production. Support Price

: Declaration of support price of agricultural crops means to give the guarantee of a minimum price to farmers for their crops.

EXERCISES Choose and write the correct alternative : 1. Kharif crop is (i) Wheat (ii) Gram (iii) Paddy (iv) Oat 2. A part of the Public Distribution System is (i) Shoe shop (ii) Gold & Silver shop (iii) Ration shop (iv) Grocery shop 3. Targeted public distribution is related to (i) Women (ii) Gents (iii) People living below the poverty line (iv) none of these 4. How much cereal is given under Antyodya Anna Yojna? (i) 5 kg. (ii) 10 kg. (iii) 15 kg. (iv) 25 kg. Very short answer type questions : 1.

Write the names of coarse cereals.

2.

In which years did India face famine?

3.

What is Rojgar Ashwasan Yojna?

4.

What is meant by minimum support price?

5.

Write the names of any two schemes launched for food security.

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Short answer type questions : 1.

What are the main factors of food security? Write about them.

2.

What is Buffer Stock? Explain.

3.

Explain Targeted public distribution system?

4.

What is revamped public distribution system? Explain.

5.

What is the role of cooperatives in food security? Explain.

6.

Differentiate between Kharif & Rabi crops.

Long answer type questions : 1.

What are the major cereals of India? Describe.

2.

What is food security and why is it necessary? Explain

3.

How does the government provide food security to the poor? Explain.

4.

What steps has the government taken to increase food grains?

5.

What is public distribution system and what are its main constituents? Describe.

6.

How is the public distribution system conducted? Describe.

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