Spanish-american War Textbook

Spanish-American War Compiled by O. Zabolotnyi, Kyiv 2008

The Spanish-American War (April-July 1898) was a brief, intense conflict that effectively ended Spain's worldwide empire and gained the United States several new possessions in the Caribbean and the Pacific. It made the United States a new global power. The blowing up of the battleship USS Maine (see the picture on the right) in Havana harbor on the evening of 15 February was a critical event on the road to that war. USS Maine Tensions between Spain and the United States rose out of the attempts by Cubans to liberate their island from the control of the Spanish. The first Cuban insurrection was unsuccessful and lasted between 1868 and 1878. American sympathies were with the revolutionaries, and war with Spain nearly erupted when the filibuster ship Virginius was captured and most of the crew (including many American citizens) were executed. The Cuban revolutionaries continued to plan and raised support in the United States. When Spanish troops in Havana suppressed riots in January 1898 by brutal force, Washington became greatly concerned for the safety of Americans in the country. The administration believed that some means of protecting U.S. citizens should be on hand. On 24 January, President McKinley sent the second class battleship USS Maine from Key West to Havana, after clearing the visit with a reluctant government in Madrid. USS Maine’s commander Captain Sigsbee and the consul at Havana, Fitzhugh Lee, reported that the Navy's presence had a calming effect on the situation. At 9:40 on the evening of 15 February, a terrible explosion on board Maine shattered the stillness in Havana Harbor. Later investigations revealed that more than five tons of powder charges for the vessel's six and ten-inch guns ignited, virtually destroying the forward third of the ship. The remaining wreckage rapidly settled to the bottom of the harbor. Most of Maine's crew were sleeping or resting in the enlisted quarters in the forward part of the ship when the explosion occurred. Two hundred and sixty-six men lost their lives as a result of the disaster: 260 died in the explosion or shortly thereafter, and six more died later from injuries. Captain Sigsbee and most of the officers survived because their quarters were in the aft portion of the ship.

The destruction of Maine did not cause the U.S. to declare war on Spain, but it served as its catalyst. In addition, the deaths of U.S. sailors rallied American opinion more strongly behind armed intervention.

The Philippines Page 2

The first battle was at Manila Bay where, on May 1, 1898, Commodore George Dewey, commanding the U.S. Navy's Asiatic Squadron aboard the USS Olympia, in a matter of hours, defeated the Spanish squadron under Admiral Patricio Montojo y Pasarón. Dewey managed this while sustaining only one fatality, that of a heart attack. Left: Commodore Dewey Right: USS Olympia at Manila Bay

With the German seizure of Tsingtao in 1897, Dewey's Squadron had become the only naval force in the Far East without a local base of its own, and was beset with coal and ammunition problems. Despite these logistical problems, the Asiatic squadron had not only destroyed the Spanish fleet but had also captured the harbor of Manila. Following Dewey's victory, Manila Bay was filled with the warships of Britain, Germany, France, and Japan; all of which outgunned Dewey's force. The German fleet of eight ships acted provocatively—cutting in front of American ships, refusing to salute the United States flag (according to customs of naval courtesy), and landing supplies for the besieged Spanish. The Germans, with interests of their own, were eager to take advantage of whatever opportunities the conflict in the islands might afford but they had to back down. Commodore Dewey had transported Emilio Aguinaldo, the Philippine freedom-fighters’ leader, to the Philippines from exile in Hong Kong in order to rally Filipinos against the Spanish colonial government. U.S. land forces and the Filipinos had taken control of most of the islands by June, except for the walled city of Intramuros and, on June 12, 1898, Aguinaldo had declared the independence of the Philippines. On August 13, with American commanders unaware that the cease fire had been signed between Spain and the United States on the previous day, American forces captured the city of Manila from the Spanish. This battle marked an end of Filipino-American collaboration, as Filipino forces were prevented from entering the captured city of Manila, an action which was

deeply resented by the Filipinos and which later led to the PhilippineAmerican War.

The Caribbean/Cuba Land campaign The Americans planned to capture the city of Santiago de Cuba in order to destroy General Linares' army and Admiral Cervera's fleet. To reach Santiago they had to pass through concentrated Spanish defenses in the San Juan Hills and a small town in El Caney. The American forces were aided in Cuba by the pro-independence rebels led by General Calixto García. Page 3

Between June 22 and June 24, the U.S. V (Volunteers’) Corps under General William R. Shafter landed to the east of Santiago, and established the American base of operations. On July 1, a combined force of about 15,000 American troops in regular infantry, cavalry and volunteer regiments, including Theodore Roosevelt and his "Rough Riders", and rebel Cuban forces attacked 1,270 entrenched Spaniards in dangerous Civil War style frontal assaults at the Battle of El Caney and Battle of San Juan Hill outside of Santiago. When the “Rough Riders” got into a dangerous situation, black soldiers of the 10th Cavalry Regiment came to their rescue. More than 200 U.S. soldiers were killed and close to 1,200 wounded in the fighting. Supporting fire by Gatling guns was critical to the success of the assault. Cervera decided to escape Santiago two days later. Right: The Charge of the “Rough Riders” at San Juan Hill

After the battles of San Juan Hill and El Caney, the American advance ground to a halt. Spanish troops successfully defended Fort Canosa, allowing them to stabilize their line and block the entry to Santiago. The Americans and Cubans forcibly began a bloody, strangling siege of the city. Naval operations The major port of Santiago de Cuba was the main target of naval operations during the war. The U.S. fleet attacking Santiago needed shelter from the summer hurricane season. Thus Guantánamo Bay with its excellent harbor was chosen for this purpose. The 1898 invasion of Guantánamo Bay happened June 6–June 10, with the first U.S. naval attack and subsequent successful landing of U.S. Marines with naval support.

The Battle of Santiago de Cuba on July 3, 1898, was the largest naval engagement of the Spanish-American War and resulted in the destruction of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron (also known as the Flota de Ultramar). In May 1898, Spanish Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete, was first spotted in Santiago Harbor where his fleet had taken shelter for protection from sea attack. For two months there was a stand-off between the Spanish naval forces and American. When the Spanish squadron attempted to leave the harbor on July 3, the American forces destroyed or grounded five of the six ships. Only one Spanish vessel, the speedy new armored cruiser Cristobal Colón, survived, but was captured later.

Peace treaty With defeats in Cuba and the Philippines, both of its fleets incapacitated, and land forces in a hopeless situation, Spain sued for peace. Hostilities were halted on August 12, 1898 with the signing in Washington of a Protocol of Peace between the United States and Spain. The formal peace treaty was signed in Paris on Page 4

December 10, 1898 and was ratified by the United States Senate on February 6, 1899. It came into force on April 11, 1899. Cubans participated only as observers. The United States gained almost all of Spain's colonies, including the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico. Cuba, having been occupied as of July 17, 1898, formed its own civil government and attained independence on May 20, 1902, with the announced end of USMG jurisdiction over the island. However, the United States imposed various restrictions on the new government, including prohibiting alliances with other countries, and reserved for itself the right of intervention. The US also established a perpetual lease of Guantanamo Bay. Aftermath

Left: After the end of the war, Colonel Theodore Roosevelt retires from the U.S. Army in 1898.

The war lasted only four months (109 days). Ambassador (later Secretary of State) John Hay, writing from London to his friend Theodore Roosevelt declared that from start to finish it had been “a splendid little war.” The press showed Northerners and Southerners, blacks and whites fighting against a common foe, helping to ease the scars left from the American Civil War.

The war marked American entry into world affairs: over the course of the next century, the United States had a large hand in various conflicts around the world. The United States entered a lengthy and prosperous period of high economic growth, population growth, and technological innovation which lasted through the 1920s. Right: A political cartoon of the period.

The war marked the effective end of the Spanish empire. Spain had been declining as a great power over most of the 19th century, especially since the Napoleonic Wars and had already lost the rest of its colonies. The defeat caused a national trauma because of the affinity of peninsular Spaniards with Cuba, which was seen as another province of Spain rather than as a colony. Only a handful of African territories remained of Spain's overseas holdings. The United States annexed the former Spanish colonies of Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam. The notion of the United States as an imperial power, with colonies, was hotly debated domestically with President McKinley and the Pro-Imperialists winning their way over vocal opposition led by Democrat William Jennings Bryan, who had supported the war. The American Page 5

public largely supported the possession of colonies, but there were many outspoken critics such as Mark Twain, who wrote The War Prayer in protest. Little by little the people of the new lands got more civil rights. Puerto Ricans became the US citizens in 1917, and in 1947 the island formed a commonwealth with the United States. The Philippines became an independent nation only after the Second World War, in 1946. Roosevelt returned to the United States a war hero, and he was soon elected governor and then vice president. Later he became one of the most famous presidents of the USA.

Above: A presidential campaign poster featuring McKinley (as the Republican candidate for the US Presidency and Roosevelt as the candidate for the vice-president’s position.

COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS

1. What was the purpose of sending the USS Maine to Cuba? 2. 3. 4. 5.

Why so many men died in the explosion? How did the explosion change the US public opinion? How many US Navy personnel were killed in the battle at Manila Bay? How important was American participation in the Fillipinos’ struggle for independence? 6. Where did Americans win their decisive victory: on land or at sea? 7. Which territories were put under the American control? 8. How did John Hay call the war? 9. What positive/negative changes happen in the American society due to the war? 10. How different the 20th century’s history could have been without the results of the Spanish-American War?