Sidney Rigdon

LINFIELD COLLEGE

SIDNEY RIGDON: A QUEST FOR RELIGIOUS POWER

SENIOR THESIS SUBMITED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF RELIGIOUS STUDIES IN CANDIDACY FOR THE BACHELOR DEGREE OF RELIGIOUS STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF RELIGIOUS STUDIES

BY MATT DAVIES

MCMINNVILLE, OREGON DECEMBER 2009

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

There are several people whom I must thank for their invaluable help and support with this project. I need to thank my family for their love and support over the years. Although we do not agree on everything, and never will, you have always encouraged me to seek truth. Throughout my maturation, in life, in faith, and in academics, you have proudly supported me, trusting that I would find my way. Thank you so much for your love and support. I would like to thank all my friends down at BYU for their friendship. You all have opened my eyes and heart and have positively changed my life, for which I will always be indebted. I always think fondly of our times in Vienna and Utah. You welcomed me into your homes, families, and community with open arms, treating me with nothing but love. Your testimonies are incredible and I thank you all from the bottom of my heart. The professors at Linfield have been extremely supportive and critical in my academic development. Without you, my research would have been stuck in a conservative rut. However, you have taught me that the academic study of religion need not contradict my personal faith. They can, in fact, compliment each other. You have developed my thoughts and writings and because of you, I am confident that I can succeed at any level. From the department of Religious Studies, I would like to explicitly thank the following professors: Dr. Bill Millar, Dr. Bill Apel, Dr. Stephen Snyder, and Dr. David Massey. I would be remiss if I didn’t thank Dr. Peter Richardson, professor of German. Through your advice and support, I have developed both personally and academically. You have been a powerful influence in my life and I am forever thankful. Lastly, but most importantly, I need to thank my roommate, Andrew Webber. Our long walks and discussions have been the most profound influences on my life. We have wrestled with the tough questions and have struggled to find ourselves. We have attempted to define our personal credos, matured through different religious traditions, and have engaged texts together. Your friendship has been invaluable and I sincerely thank you.

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SIDNEY RIGDON: A QUEST FOR RELIGIOUS POWER I.

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Thesis: Sidney Rigdon’s quest for religious power and belonging caused him to become a forgotten and misunderstood religious influence.

II.

Rigdon’s Early Life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 a. Rigdon’s upbringing on his family farm gave him a longing for learning. b. Rigdon’s apprenticeship under Adamson Bentley allowed him his first taste of religious power. c. Rigdon’s credo is not yet clearly refined.

III.

Alexander Campbell, Walter Scott, and the Disciples of Christ. . . . . . . 7 a. Rigdon’s first interaction with Campbell gave him a sense of belonging. b. As Rigdon began to develop his own credo, he began to exercise religious power, disagreeing with Campbell on several issues.

IV.

Conversion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 a. A brief survey on the founding of Mormonism and Joseph Smith. b. Rigdon’s conversion was directly caused by the Book of Mormon. c. Rigdon’s renowned rhetoric gave him early power in the LDS church.

V.

Influence on Latter-Day Saints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 a. Rigdon served as Smith’s spokesman. b. As compiler of the Doctrine and Covenants, Rigdon exercised vast power over the importance of doctrines. c. Rigdon continued to gain and exercise religious power.

VI.

Post-1844 Theology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 a. After Smith’s assassination, Rigdon attempted to lead Church, quickly being silenced by Brigham Young. b. Rigdon founded his own church, the Church of Jesus Christ of the Children of Zion, but this church quickly failed after Rigdon’s death.

3 VII. Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

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Sidney Rigdon: A Quest for Religious Power Introduction

The story of the origin of the Mormon Church is one that is vaguely familiar to many Americans, yet may be riddled with myths, inconsistencies, and misinformation. Joseph Smith, widely acknowledged by American historians as one of the most influential Americans in the nineteenth century, received revelations from God commanding him to found Jesus’ true church on earth, one that was lost during the early centuries of Christianity.1 Joseph Smith did not found the most successful American religion solely by his own doing, however. He could not have been successful without a powerful supporting cast, one of whom was Sidney Rigdon. Rigdon is unfamiliar to many both outside and inside the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (hereafter referred to as the LDS Church). Beginning his religious career with Alexander Campbell in the Restoration Movement, Rigdon converted to Mormonism in its early stages, quickly became Smith’s right-hand man, a trusted counselor, a proven preacher, and a man rich with religious experience. Church historical records from both the Campbellite movement, known today as the Disciples of Christ, and the LDS church portray Rigdon negatively, necessitating that one sift through the biases in order to determine the influence Rigdon had upon these religions. His movement through several religious traditions stemmed from a quest 1 Smith is listed in the Britannica Guide to the 100 Most Influential Americans. (Robinson Publishing, 2008.)

2 for religious power and belonging. Although he began as a Baptist preacher, Rigdon found his place in the Mormon Church, shaping doctrines and preaching the Gospel of this new religion. He positioned himself to thrive in leadership roles, aiming to be influential in religious traditions and well regarded by all, both inside and outside those traditions. Using rhetoric and charisma, he obtained unique power and privileges in the LDS Church. Rigdon shaped and created LDS doctrine until Joseph Smith’s untimely death in 1844, when he made a claim for the Church presidency. Sidney Rigdon’s quest for religious power and belonging caused him to become a forgotten and misunderstood religious influence.

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Sidney Rigdon’s Early Life

Rigdon’s Upbringing on his Family Farm

Sidney Rigdon was born in 1793 near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to Baptist parents. Rigdon’s grandparents were Quakers and suspected Tories during the American Revolution, causing his parents to convert to the Baptist church, specifically a Calvinist church, because of the church’s democratic and patriotic values.2 Rigdon grew up on his father’s farm in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, yet rejected the farming life. In fact, much strife existed between Rigdon and his father William because of Rigdon’s desire to read and become educated. He borrowed many books from neighbors, interested specifically in history and the Bible.3 Reading by a small fire at night, Rigdon educated himself; after reading the Bible and studying history, he began to interpret “the history of the world since New Testament times in terms of Biblical prophecy,” which would later prove beneficial to Joseph Smith, who believed in modern day revelation and prophecy.4 William Rigdon died in 1810, when Rigdon was only 17, leaving Sidney to care for the farm with his mother. They sold the farm 8 years later and Rigdon decided to become a Baptist preacher. Rigdon’s Apprenticeship under Adamson Bentley 2 Richard S. Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon: A Portrait of Religious Excess (Salt Lake City: Signature Books, 1994), 6. 3 F. Mark McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness: Sidney Rigdon, Religious Reformer, 1793-1876 (Lawrence, Kansas: Coronade Press, 1972), 14. 4

Ibid.

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Despite Rigdon’s upbringing in the Baptist church, he claimed after his conversion to Mormonism that he had had no religious experience there. Rigdon was officially baptized as a Baptist at the age of 24, after fulfilling the rigorous Calvinistic requirements. A Baptist conversion had to demonstrate . . . an exercise of miraculous power on the part of God, which the sinner could neither so control as to bring himself under its influence, nor resist when he was subjected to it. . . . The experience had to stand the scrutiny of a validation committee and a subsequent confirming vote by the congregation . . . for full membership in the society.5 The next year, in 1819, Rigdon received his ministerial license and began his preaching career. A ministerial license differed from an ordination. A licensed preacher acted much like an apprentice, studying under an ordained minister, yet was unable to perform the sacraments such as the Eucharist and baptism.6 Moving from Pennsylvania to Ohio in the same year, Rigdon attained his ordination, giving him the opportunity to become a pastor for his own congregation. He worked under the authority of Adamson Bentley, a founder of the Mahoning Baptist Association.7 It is interesting to notice the timing of when events took place in Ohio, because it shows Rigdon’s first experience with religious power. According to Rigdon biographer Richard Van Wagoner, Rigdon moved to Western Reserve, Ohio, in early 1819 and three months later married Phebe Brook, the daughter of a Baptist preacher. Their wedding took place on June 12, 5 Ibid., 7. 6 Ibid., 10. 7 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 18.

4 1820, leading one to believe that Rigdon arrived in late February or early March. He lived with Bentley, a brother-in-law to Phebe, since his move to Ohio and began his preaching career as a circuit rider. The Mahoning Baptist Association was officially founded and recognized on August 30, 1820, about 17 months after Rigdon’s arrival.8 In fact, Rigdon was asked to write the “Corresponding Letter” along with Bentley and Rigdon’s cousin, Baptist preacher Charles Rigdon; this letter allowed the different congregations across the states to communicate doctrine and church news.9 Because of Bentley’s influence and inclusion of Rigdon, Rigdon recognized the power that accompanies the founding of a denomination or religious association, beginning his quest for religious power and belonging.

Rigdon’s Credo is Not Yet Clearly Defined

The dogma of the Mahoning Baptist Association allowed Rigdon to begin to more clearly define his personal credo. Although he was raised in the Baptist church, Rigdon only moderately accepted the Baptist theology. Like many, he simply accepted what was preached without actively questioning or shaping his personal theology. His son later claimed that Rigdon knew the Bible as well as his spelling book, and, as a child, was always engaged in studying rather than hobbies or leisure.10 His apprenticeship not only allowed him to define his beliefs, 8 Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 18. 9 Ibid.

10 John Wickliff Rigdon, “Sidney Rigdon and the Early History of the Mormon Church,” Times: A Souvenir Newspaper Devoted to the Friendship Sesqui-Centennial (July 25-31, 1965), http://sidneyrigdon.com/RigHist/RigHist2.htm#johnwr (accessed September 28, 2009).

5 but also allowed him to develop a system through which one may find truth. He believed that one should constantly search for truth, not blindly accepting any doctrine based solely on the preacher’s personal doctrine or the church’s dogma. Searching the Scriptures and studying the doctrines of other religions and denominations was important for one’s personal edification. Rigdon adopted his credo from several sources. The Mahoning Baptists, whom he had helped found, followed five essential principles: “baptism by immersion, separation of church and state, conversion experience, individual responsibility for sins, and congregational church government.”11 Rigdon’s travels as a circuit rider also led him to visit the Shakers, an early American religion founded by Mother Ann Lee, who claimed herself to be the female incarnate of God.12 Rigdon’s constant quest for truth would eventually cause divisive rifts between him and his religious communities.

11 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 18-19. These five principles resound clearly with the modern LDS church, possibly easing Rigdon’s conversion to Mormonism doctrinally. 12 It is highly likely that he adopted some of their doctrines, namely their emphasis in the gifts of the Spirit and modern day revelations.

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Alexander Campbell, Walter Scott, and the Disciples of Christ

Rigdon’s First Interaction with Campbell

Alexander Campbell, the founder of the Disciples of Christ, gave Rigdon his second taste of religious belonging and power.13 In 1821 Rigdon and Bentley read a published debate by Campbell about infant baptism, leading them to seek out Campbell in order to better ascertain his theology and doctrines.14 Although the official LDS historian in the early twentieth century and Rigdon’s son ignore this chapter of Rigdon’s life, his time with Campbell is worth investigating. Campbell had a profound influence both on Rigdon and on the American religious frontier in the nineteenth century. Campbell met Rigdon and Bentley in July of 1821 while preaching in southern Ohio and Kentucky.15 Speaking extensively about everything from “Adam . . . to the final judgment,”16 Campbell attracted the two with his clear doctrines and extensive knowledge of the Bible. Campbell was equally impressed with Rigdon’s rhetoric and charisma, urging him 13 Campbell was also an influential voice inside the Restoration movement, a movement aimed at restoring the modern church to the original first or second century style and dogma, ridding the modern church of creeds and doctrines created through councils in the later centuries. 14 This famed 1820 debate, commonly known as the Campbell-Walker debate, thrust Campbell onto the religious scene as a prominent religious voice and theologian. 15 Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 23. 16 Ibid.

2 to accept Campbell’s former pastorship in Pittsburgh. Campbell recognized that Rigdon’s charisma would benefit the Pittsburgh church more than Rigdon’s personal credo. In Campbell’s mind, a charismatic leader could better grow a congregation than a sure theologian. John Wickliff Rigdon, Rigdon’s son, claimed that the journey to Pittsburgh was part of Rigdon’s wedding tour, taking place roughly 18 months after his wedding.17 However, the evidence implies that Rigdon accepted Campbell’s suggestion of pastoring his own congregation, taking him back to Pittsburgh, the place of Rigdon’s Baptist roots and where he first obtained his great preaching reputation. All accounts of Rigdon proclaim his charismatic and intoxicating preaching style, a style that put him in high demand among both the religious and non-religious alike. This possibly led to John Wickliff’s claim that it was solely Rigdon’s charismatic preaching during a guest visit to the Pittsburgh church that led to his pastoral position.18 However, most sources credit Campbell’s influence on Rigdon. Even Robert Richardson, a biographer of Campbell and blatantly anti-Rigdon, claimed that Rigdon “was induced [by Campbell] to accept a call from this church to become its pastor.”19 This began Rigdon’s brief, yet vital, association with the Disciples of Christ.

Rigdon Develops His Credo and Begins to Exercise Religious Authority 17 Rigdon, “Sidney Rigdon and the History of Early Mormonism”. 18 Ibid.

19

Robert Richardson, Memoirs of Alexander Campbell (Cincinnati: Standard Publishing), 2:47.

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Rigdon began his pastorship in Pittsburgh in early 1822 at the urging of Campbell. Campbell believed that Rigdon could not only grow the church and preach the Gospel, but could also advance personally, refining his orator skills and developing his credo.20 His church quickly became one of the most respectable churches in the city, gaining new members quickly and propelling Rigdon into fame.21 Rigdon’s son claimed that he became the most eloquent preacher in the city, with fame and fortune within grasp.22 During a rising reputation, Rigdon began to test his religious power and influence, causing rifts and factions inside his congregation and the Baptist church. Several sources simply claim that Rigdon began to disagree with the doctrines that the Baptist church held and, after prayer and searching the Scriptures, began to teach his own theology. The 20th century Mormon historian John Jaques claimed in his own words that “after awhile he [Rigdon] was greatly perplexed with the idea that the doctrines taught by the church he was connected with were not altogether in accordance with Scripture.”23 Rigdon biographer Mark McKiernan maintains that Rigdon was simply acting as 20 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 22. Rigdon has much to owe Campbell for the development of his theology, but the study of Alexander Campbell’s theology and doctrine does not find a place inside this study. Campbell and Walter Scott, another influential voice inside the Restoration movement, undoubtedly influenced Rigdon’s credo and religious beliefs. See Royal Humbert, A Compend of Alexander Campbell’s Theology or Hiram Van Kirk, A History of the Theology of the Disciples of Christ for an analysis of Campbell’s and Scott’s theology. 21 John Jaques, “The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I,” Improvement Era III, no. 2-9 (December 1899 – July 1900), http://sidneyrigdon.com/RigHist/RigHist1.htm#1899 (accessed September 28, 2009). 22 Rigdon, “Sidney Rigdon and the History of Early Mormonism.” 23 Jaques, “The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I.”

4 a spokesman for Campbell’s theology, and the Baptist church, out of contempt for Campbell, began to create factions in Rigdon’s church in order to discredit both Campbell and Rigdon. He cites explicitly Campbell’s and Rigdon’s rejection of the Old Testament in favor of a more literal interpretation of the New Testament.24 Another purported cause, advocated by Richard Van Wagoner, deserves a closer look. Van Wagoner quotes the Pittsburgh church’s official writings, claiming that Rigdon’s doctrine of “baptismal regeneration” led to his excommunication.25 He claims that John Winter, a member of Rigdon’s congregation, organized a small opposition group to challenge Rigdon. The following are the teachings in which Winter claimed Rigdon erred in teaching: 1) Christians are no longer under obligation to a moral law; 2) the Jewish dispensation made the Jews children of hell; 3) a change of heart merely consists of a change of views and baptism; 4) there is no such thing as religious experience; 5) faith is simply crediting the testimony of evangelists; and 6) it is wrong to pray the Lord’s prayer.26 Some of these accusations were probably created by a disillusioned and bitter Winter, angry that members of the congregation chose to follow Rigdon instead of remaining in the Baptist church. The first teaching, of which Winter was critical, was a doctrine that Campbell was accused of teaching, and because of Rigdon’s closeness with Campbell, it is a logical conclusion that Rigdon would

24 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 22. 25 Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 29. 26 Ibid., 31.

5 have been accused of the same.27 The third and fourth teachings are extremely similar, coming from the paradigm of a strict Baptist church. Their position held that a change of heart, coming in the form of conversion, should affect the entire person, including a change in lifestyle along with a change in paradigm. The fourth teaching came directly from Rigdon’s own personal experience, as Rigdon claimed that he fabricated his religious experience in the Baptist church in order to be baptized. Granted, he wrote that while he was in the Mormon Church and had already been disowned and discredited by the Baptist church. Still, if Winter’s claims can be trusted, it shows that Rigdon truly did make up that experience, choosing to join with the Baptists mainly for religious power and belonging. Nothing could be found by this author about the second or sixth claims by Winter in regard to Rigdon’s or Campbell’s theology. No matter the cause, Rigdon resigned from the Baptist church in 1824, choosing to remain aligned with Alexander Campbell. The Baptists declared that he was excommunicated. However, Rigdon did not return to preaching for Campbell’s new religious movement, known then as the Campbellites and now as the Disciples of Christ, immediately after Pittsburgh. Struggling to support his wife and three children, Rigdon began work as a tanner in Pittsburgh. Very little is known about Rigdon during this time. I presume that he continued to follow and communicate with Campbell. In 1825 Campbell published a series of lectures titled “A Restoration of the Ancient Order of Things,” toward which Rigdon immediately gravitated, believing in the ancient 27 Campbell was accused of being an Antinomianist, someone who believes that members of a certain religion are not under any legal or moral obligation.

6 creeds and orders under which the first and second century church operated. 28 Owing to the fact that Rigdon still had followers from his Baptist congregation, he probably continued to operate as a circuit rider, traveling to various members’ houses and exercising his renowned rhetorical skills. In 1826, Rigdon gave a funeral eulogy in Mentor, Ohio, for a respected Baptist preacher. He so impressed the congregation that they offered him the pastorship, allowing him to preach Campbell’s and his doctrines.29 If Rigdon was renowned before, he became even more so while in Mentor. Preaching baptism for the remission of sins, gifts of the Holy Spirit, and a restoration of the Ancient Order, he thrived, becoming famous and desired in churches. Rejecting creeds and rituals, Rigdon used the Bible alone for doctrines. His success caused some citizens to produce slanderous reports about him, yet Rigdon continued to preach, emphasizing the literal fulfillment of prophecy, the gathering of Israel in the last days, the second coming of Jesus, and the forthcoming millennial reign of Jesus on earth.30 He strengthened his association with Campbell and Walter Scott, starting revivals across the Western Reserve, a territory in northeastern Ohio. A Campbellite historian said that Rigdon’s preaching was “the great religious awakening in Mentor.”31 During his years in Mentor, Rigdon was bold enough to abandon some of the Baptist’s and Campbell’s teachings and actively pursue his 28 Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 40. 29 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 25.

30

Jaques, “The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I.” 31 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 26. Emphasis added.

7 own. Becoming confident in his theology and fame across Ohio, he first became irritated that he received little credit for the origin of the Campbellite movement. Although recognized as an important spokesman and preacher, Rigdon wrote in 1843 that he was as much the originator as Campbell.32 Despite the fact Rigdon wrote that challenging statement thirteen years after leaving the Campbellites, it accurately demonstrates his mindset. He wanted recognition not merely as an influential preacher, but also as an originator and founder. The deciding factor took place in late 1827 or early 1828, when Campbell chose Walter Scott over Rigdon as traveling evangelist for the movement.33 Forcing Rigdon to remain in his Mentor congregation instead of traveling across Ohio, Campbell made a crucial mistake. As a result, Rigdon decided to exercise his own religious power. He began to develop his own theology distinct from Campbell’s. He challenged some of Campbell’s reasonings and apologies before developing doctrines contradictory to the Campbellites’. One of the major differences manifested itself after an 1829 debate between Campbell and Robert Owen, a proponent of a commune style community for believers. Owen was a Scottish reformer who sought to end poverty through “family commonwealths.”34 Campbell opposed this belief, challenging Owen to an eight day, sixteen-session debate. Campbell was so persuasive in his debate that Owen surrendered the last three days of the debate, leaving Campbell to preach in his 32 Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 43. 33 Ibid.

34 Ibid., 50.

8 stead.35 Rigdon, however, supported the idea of a commune society, drawing from Acts 2:44-45, from which Rigdon inferred a commune within the early church. In February of 1830, he convinced two farmers to implement a common-stock community, gaining more than 100 families by October.36 Becoming bold due to the acceptance of this doctrine, Rigdon openly challenged Campbell from the pulpit, outlining differences in eschatology, church creeds, and gifts of the Spirit, including prophecy and speaking in tongues.37 This angered Campbell, openly challenging him, in turn, at meetings and becoming an “aggressive persecutor” of Rigdon’s beliefs.38 Therefore, in the fall of 1830, Rigdon decided to disassociate his congregation from Campbell. As a culmination of frustration from a lack of recognition, respect, and power, Rigdon began to search for his next religious move, a move that would further his quest for religious power.

Conversion

A Brief Survey on the Founding of Mormonism and Joseph Smith

Joseph Smith was born on December 23, 1805, in Vermont, but his family soon moved to New Hampshire. In 1816, the Smith family 35 Ibid. 36 Ibid. 37 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 27. 38 Ibid., 28.

2 moved to Palmyra, New York, where the Mormon faith began. Smith’s first religious vision occurred at the young age of fourteen, when he prayed aloud for the first time and received a vision of God and Jesus appearing to him.39 “In the minds of Mormons today, the events of that morning marked the beginning of the restoration of the Gospel and the commencement of a new dispensation. The vision is called the First Vision because it began a series of revelations.”40 Smith was praying to God concerning the truth of the various Christian denominations. Not knowing which was true, he took the advice found in James 1:5, instructing the believer to ask God for wisdom when lacking it. Three years later, in 1823, the angel Moroni visited him, giving him the location of gold plates, on which the Book of Mormon was written. On the night of September 21, Moroni visited three times, telling Smith about “gold plates, giving an account of the former inhabitants of this continent and the source from whence they sprang. . . . There were [also] two stones in silver bows . . . called the Urim and Thummim . . . and the possession and use of these stones was what constituted seers in ancient or former times and that God had prepared them for the purpose of translating that book.”41 These former inhabitants were a “lost” tribe of Israel, led to America immediately before the Babylonian exile. Jesus visited this Jewish tribe after His resurrection and subsequent 40 days on earth; Jesus preached the Gospel to them and baptized them. After being revealed the location of these tablets, Smith went to obtain them, yet was 39 Fawn Brodie, No Man Knows my History, 2nd ed. (New York: Vintage Books, 1971), 22. 40 Richard Lyman Bushman, Joseph Smith: Rough Stone Rolling (New York: Vintage Books, 2005), 39. 41 Ibid., 44.

3 turned away because of greed.42 He returned annually for four years, finally obtaining the plates on September 21, 1827.43 He tried to keep the existence of these plates a secret, presumably because of the expected negative reactions from neighbors and the intrinsic monetary value.44 However, Smith needed help with the translation. These gold plates were written in an ancient Egyptian language, only able to be translated with the seer stones. Martin Harris, a respected farmer in Palmyra, assisted Smith with the translations. With a curtain dividing Smith and Harris, Smith dictated the translated plates to Harris, who acted as scribe. Harris never saw the gold plates for himself. The translation began in April 1828, and by mid June, 116 pages had been transcribed.45 These pages were lost or stolen, however, when Harris brought them home for his wife to examine. Fawn Brodie contends that Harris’ wife stole them, in order to test the authenticity Smith’s translations. “If this be a divine communication, the same being who revealed it to you can easily replace it.”46 Smith was instructed by God not to retranslate the 116 42 It is widely speculated among many Mormon scholars that Smith engaged in treasure hunts with his father, searching for hidden gold and treasure around the region. When Smith first saw the plates, it is presumed that he thought solely about the monetary value or worth of the plates. God recognized this greed and, wanting Smith to have a pure heart, denied him access to the plates until a time when he was pure in heart. Both the secular Fawn Brodie and the LDS Richard Bushman write about Smith’s treasure hunting past. 43 Brodie, No Man Knows My History, 40. For a more detailed account of the time between the revelation and the obtainment of the plates, see Bushman, Joseph Smith: A Rough Stone Rolling, 41-52. 44 The fear was perhaps fueled by negative perceptions by Smith’s neighbors concerning their treasure hunting. Revelations and communication with the Divine were common during this time, with many people, both clergy and lay, claiming these communications. For the most extensive research, see D. Michael Quinn, Early Mormonism and the Magic World View. 45 Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling, 66. 46 Brodie, No Man Knows My History, 54.

4 pages, but instead to continue on with the rest of the plates. Oliver Cowdery, a friend of the Smith family, replaced Harris as translator. The translation process with Cowdery never mentioned a dividing curtain. Rather, Smith . . . would put the seer stone into a hat, and put his face in the hat, drawing it closely around his face to exclude the light; and in the darkness the spiritual light would shine. A piece of something resembling parchment would appear, and on that appeared the writing. One character at a time would appear, and under it was the interpretation in English. Brother Joseph would read off the English to Oliver Cowdery who was his principle scribe, and when it was written down and repeated to Brother Joseph to see if it was correct, then it would disappear, and another character with the interpretation would appear. Thus the Book of Mormon was translated by the gift and power of God, and not by any power of man.47 Richard Bushman, a former BYU professor and practicing Mormon, maintains that the plates were covered next to Smith during the process.48 Although none of the scribes was ever shown the plates during the translation process, eleven witness later claimed to view the plates.49 Their testimonies are published at the beginning of the Book of Mormon. Oliver Cowdery and Marin Harris were two of the first three to view the plates as a reward for their obedience in the translation. The translation was finished by June 11, 1829, when Smith received a copyright for the Book of Mormon.50 The entire Book of Mormon was published on March 26, 1830, and the Church of Christ, as it was formerly known, was officially organized on April 6, 1830.51 47 Ibid., 61. 48 Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling, 71-72.

49 Three of the witnesses were family members: Joseph Smith Sr. and

Smith’s brothers Hyrum and Samuel. 50 Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling, 80. 51 Brodie, No Man Knows My History, 82, 87.

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Rigdon’s Conversion

While Rigdon was contemplating his next move after his decision to formerly split from Campbell, he was visited in the fall of 1830 by Parley Pratt, a former Campbellite and recent Mormon convert. Pratt, on a mission to the Indians in Missouri, brought the Book of Mormon for Rigdon to read, urging him to read it and pray if it were a revelation from God.52 Rigdon had most likely already heard of Smith and the Book of Mormon through local newspapers.53 However, Rigdon was not familiar with the circumstances surrounding its revelation to Smith. His first reaction was skepticism. He ordered Pratt and his companions to neither argue nor debate with him concerning the book, instead agreeing to read it on his own, insisting he would come to his own conclusion. Rigdon read and studied the Book of Mormon for several days, intent on determining its accuracy and truth. He openly told Pratt, “I have one Bible which I claim to have some knowledge [of] and which I believe to be a revelation of God. As to this book I have some doubts but you can leave it with me when you go away and I will read it.”54 This skepticism about a new revelation most likely originated from Alexander Campbell, who believed that revelations ended with the apostolic age of the first apostles. He argued, “. . . [N]o new revelation, not a single idea has, in answer to prayer, been 52 Jaques, “The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I.”

53

Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 55. 54 Rigdon, “Sidney Rigdon and the Early History of the Early Mormon Church.”

2 communicated to any man since the apostolic age has passed away. The testimony is complete.”55 Rigdon also inquired intently about Joseph Smith as a prophet of God. Doubt most likely took place in his mind after hearing that Smith was hardly educated and very young. The answers must have been satisfying, for Rigdon later said about his own conversion to the Church,

55 Humbert, Alexander Campbell’s Theology, 90. This passage was written in 1833, three years after Rigdon left. Campbell most likely wrote it to combat the Mormon faith, yet believed it before Rigdon’s conversion.

3 I saw the different orders of professing Christians passing before my eyes, with their hearts, exposed to view, and they were as corrupt as corruption itself. That society to which I belonged [the Reformed Baptists] also passed before my eyes, and to my astonishment it was as corrupt as the others. Last of all . . . the Book of Mormon passed before my eyes . . . and it was as pure as an angel; and this was a testimony of God; that the Book of Mormon, was a Divine Revelation.56 This vision convinced Rigdon and he was baptized shortly thereafter. In fact, Rigdon immediately became an LDS preacher, leading his current congregation in Mentor into the Mormon faith. This naturally caused more division between Rigdon and the local Protestant denominations and churches, leading to rumors in 1834 about the plagarization of a manuscript by Solomon Spaulding.57 Rigdon persevered, however, preaching the new Gospel of Mormonism in Ohio.

Rigdon’s Early Power in the LDS Church

Sidney Rigdon traveled to Palmyra, New York, in December 1830 to visit Joseph Smith, beginning Rigdon’s career as Smith’s spokesman. While there, Smith had a revelation concerning Rigdon: “I say unto my servant Sidney, I have looked upon thee and thy works . . . and prepared thee for a greater work. Thou art blessed, for thou shalt do great things. . . . [T]hou shalt write for him [Joseph Smith] . . . and 56

Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 61. 57 Solomon Spaulding was a Presbyterian minister who purportedly wrote a manuscript concerning aboriginal America and the origins of the Native Americans. The Spaulding Theory states that Rigdon copied a manuscript from Spaulding concerning the Jewish origins of American Indians. The theory claims that Rigdon then gave the manuscript and story to Joseph Smith, who published it under his own name; thus the Book of Mormon and the LDS church were fraudulent. This theory has since been overwhelmingly debunked, used only by extreme anti-Mormons or Christian apologists ignorant of historical fact.

2 thou shalt preach my Gospel.”58 Rigdon must have been rejuvenated and motivated through these words, believing that he had finally found his religious belonging. God called him to preach this new Gospel, working directly with the Prophet. At this time, Smith was working on a new translation of the Bible, with Oliver Cowdery again assisting as scribe. Yet this new revelation passed that responsibility on to Rigdon; a few days after meeting the Prophet, Rigdon was deemed worthy enough to act as scribe in the eyes of both God and Prophet Smith. The very next month, January 1831, Rigdon began traveling with Smith, acting as preacher, spokesman, and counselor. It was around this time that Rigdon, according to LDS scholar Richard Bushman, “worked himself deep into Brother Joseph’s affections, and had more influence over him than any other man living.”59 Smith enjoyed having Rigdon as a powerful advisor. Rigdon was twelve years Smith’s senior and Smith gleaned from Rigdon’s wisdom and various religious experiences. At the urging of Rigdon, followed by a revelation from God, Smith decided to move from Palmyra to Western Reserve, Ohio, where the converts in Kirtland and Mentor could benefit from his presence.

60

This move greatly benefited Rigdon, as well. By moving the Church to Ohio, Rigdon was able to operate and preach in his homeland, the place in which he felt most comfortable. His congregation still followed and revered him, giving Rigdon confidence to display his rhetorical abilities. Smith had been lacking the crucial element of an influential 58 Doctrine and Covenants 35:3-6, 17-23. 59 Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling, 124. 60 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 45; Doctrine and Covenants 37.

3 preacher. However, Smith believed in Rigdon, realizing that he had finally found the preacher he had desperately needed. Rigdon, in return, found a new faith grateful for his rhetoric and skill. Smith relied on Rigdon, giving Rigdon the sense of belonging and power he felt he deserved. Rigdon gladly accepted the role of Smith’s counselor, a recognition that Campbell had withheld from him. He quickly became as synonymous with Mormonism as Smith. Drawing on his previous missions with Campbell, Smith sent Rigdon in March of 1831, along with two others, to the Shakers. 61 Smith received a revelation instructing Rigdon to consecrate and dedicate land for the new Zion, where the literal gathering of Israel would take place. Incorporated with this was the writing of an “epistle” describing Zion, which would go out to all the congregations of the Church.62 This served as the second time Rigdon helped draft a broadreaching religious letter, preceded by the letter he wrote with Adamson Bentley to the churches associated with the Mahoning Baptist Association. Due to Rigdon’s and Smith’s other activities, the translation of the New Testament was put on hold. There were missions to other states, the quest to find Zion, and the move to Ohio. It was also during this time that Joseph Smith had numerous revelations. In 1831, he received three times as many revelations as the previous ten years.63 Perhaps God was affirming to Smith that it was time to advance the church. Most were orders to the missionaries, with whom Rigdon worked. In January 1832, Smith received another revelation 62

61 Jaques, “The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I.” Ibid.

63 Brodie, No Man Knows My History, 117.

4 commanding them to continue the translation until it was finished.64 They finished on February 2, 1833, after preaching trips and mob attacks. In fact, both Rigdon and Smith were attacked by a mob on March 25, 1832; they were dragged out of their houses, tarred, and feathered. Mormon sources, including Jaques, the official LDS historian in the early twentieth century, and Richard Bushman, blame Campbellite preacher Symonds Ryder (or Simonds Rider) for the mob and attack.65 Fawn Brodie ignores the identity of the attacker in her biography of Joseph Smith. It is wholly likely that the Campbellites would have attacked Smith and Rigdon. Rigdon had drawn a congregation away from Alexander Campbell and had a growing reputation in the Western Reserve. Bushman also claims that Ryder was a former Mormon who became disillusioned with Smith and the Church.66 The attack never stopped, or even slowed, the work of Smith and Rigdon. Smith was in church the next day, preaching and baptizing.67 Soon after, Smith and Rigdon moved to Independence, Missouri.68 Despite Rigdon’s growing reputation, he tried to test his power inside the LDS Church too early, earning him a strong rebuttal from Smith. While Rigdon and Smith were in Independence, identified by this time as the location of Zion and the place where Jesus would 64 Doctrine and Covenants 73. 65 Jaques, “The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I;” Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling, 178. There is some speculation that Rigdon suffered serious mental trauma during this attack, causing severe depression and bipolarity. 66 Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling, 178. 67 Ibid., 179. 68 Jaques, “The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I.”

5 return, Rigdon’s family was homeless, moving from house to house to stay with friends. Part of Rigdon’s theology was the firm belief that ministers and preachers ought not be paid for their services, relying instead on God and the generosity of the congregations. When Rigdon had preached in Mentor, Ohio, he was asked how much he would charge the congregation for his preaching services. He had replied, “Nothing, the Apostles asked nothing for their preaching and I am not agoing [sic] to charge anything.”69 As a result, the congregation had decided to buy Rigdon’s family a farm and build a house on the land.70 However, before the house could be finished, Rigdon had converted to Mormonism and the house was never finished. Rigdon and his family operated several years without a home, living with friends and neighbors. When his daughter fell ill in May of 1832, Rigdon became furious that his family did not have a home where they could care for her. After several months of uncertainty, Rigdon came into a prayer meeting agitated, stating that “The keys of the kingdom are rent from the Church, and there shall not be a prayer put up in this house this day.”71 He threatened that these keys would not be returned to the Church until they built his family a house.72 Smith responded by denouncing Rigdon, accusing him of having “lied in the Lord,” assembling a council to try him.73 The dissatisfaction with Rigdon must 69 Rigdon, “Sidney Rigdon and the Early History of the Mormon Church.” 70 Ibid. 71 Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 126. 72 The “keys of the kingdom” are, according to former LDS Apostle Bruce McConkie, “the right of presidency, directing, controlling, [and] governing power. The keys of the kingdom are the power, right, and authority to preside over the kingdom of God on earth . . . and to direct all its affairs.” See his book, Mormon Doctrine. 73 Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 126.

6 not have lasted long, because the Church not only built him a house, but also ordained Rigdon as Smith’s most trusted counselor.

1

Rigdon’s Influence on the Latter-Day Saints

Rigdon Served as Joseph Smith’s Spokesman

On March 8, 1833, Sidney Rigdon was ordained as First Counselor to Joseph Smith. In the LDS hierarchy, two counselors, constituting the First Presidency, aid the president of the church, who is also the modern-day Prophet. This officially began Rigdon’s time as Smith’s “right-hand man,” serving as First Counselor until Smith’s assassination in 1844. This position gave Rigdon enormous power and authority. Letters written to the Church’s leadership were addressed to Smith and Rigdon together, often not even mentioning the Second Counselor. The First Presidency holds “the keys of the kingdom” and makes the final decision on all spiritual matters concerning the Church.74 Although Rigdon had possibly held a similar position with Alexander Campbell and Walter Scott – Rigdon most likely served as a second counselor, with Scott presiding as first counselor – his power was now official and recognized. He could finally officially exercise religious power. Along with Rigdon’s ordination as Smith’s First Counselor, a revelation on October 12, 1833, confirmed that Rigdon was Smith’s official spokesman. “And it is expedient in me that you, my servant Sidney, should be a spokesman unto this people; yea, verily, I will ordain you unto this calling, even to be a spokesman unto my servant Joseph . . . and I will give unto thee power to be mighty in expounding all scriptures, that thou mayest be a spokesman unto 74 Doctrine and Covenants 107.

2 him.”75 Rigdon could now claim explicit authority for speaking on behalf of Smith, a claim that he would try to utilize after Smith’s death. Smith decided to deploy Rigdon’s rhetoric on a mission to Canada, a journey Smith took as well, spending the month of October preaching. 76

This was the first time the LDS Church had proselytized outside

America. Something happened during this time that caused Smith to question Rigdon’s character, although it is not clear what. He wrote that Rigdon “is not capable of that pure and steadfast love . . . as should possess the breast of a president of the Church of Christ.”77 Perhaps Smith was beginning to fully realize Rigdon’s quest for power. If this were the case, however, Smith still embraced it, continuing to give Rigdon more power.

Rigdon Helped Compile the Doctrine and Covenants

On September 24, 1834, Rigdon was chosen to arrange the doctrines of the Church, which ultimately resulted in the Doctrine and Covenants of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. Appointed along with Joseph Smith, Oliver Cowdery, and F.G. Williams, who served as the Second Counselor, he was charged with arranging Smith’s revelations in a comprehensive form, which would govern the Church. The idea began in 1833 with The Book of Commandments for the Government of the Church of Christ, but the proofs were lost after the destruction of the printing press.78 Rigdon was named press 76

75 Doctrine and Covenants 100:9-11. Jaques, “The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I.”

77 Ibid.

78 Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling, 282.

3 manager in April 1834, overseeing the arrangement of the covenants and revelations into the new Doctrine and Covenants. The idea behind the Book of Commandments was the desire to publish a compilation of Smith’s revelations. Yet the Doctrine and Covenants became a “systematic presentation of Church doctrine.”79 The First Presidency and Cowdery were tasked with “correcting the revelations,” leading to controversies about the contents.80 The editing was not readily apparent to Church members, yet the First Presidency, charged by God to determine all theological matters for the Church, approved of these changes. Some of the changes were due to scribal and printing errors, but some of the changes angered the Apostles, members of the Quorum of the Twelve responsible only to the First Presidency. One of the witnesses to the Book of Mormon, David Whitmer, claimed that “Some of the revelations in the Book of Commandments had to be changed because the heads of the church had gone too far, and had done things in which they had already gone ahead of some of the former revelations.”81 Another apostle described the Doctrine and Covenants as telestial compared to the celestial Book of Commandments.82 Whitmer credits, or blames in his mind, Rigdon for most of the changes: Some of the revelations as they are now in the Book of Doctrine and Covenants have been changed and added to. Some of the changes being of the greatest importance as the meaning is entirely changed on some very important matters; as if the Lord 79 Ibid. 80 Ibid. 81 Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 162. Emphasis is original. 82 Ibid. “Telestial” was coined by Joseph Smith to describe carnality and worldliness. See McConkie, Mormon Doctrine.

4 had changed his mind a few years after he gave the revelations . . . through the influence of Sidney Rigdon, Brother Joseph was led on and on into receiving revelations every year, to establish offices and doctrines which are not even mentioned in the teachings of Christ in the written word. In a few years they had gone away ahead of the written word, so that they had to change these revelations.83 Nevertheless, the new Doctrine and Covenants was unanimously approved by the Church membership on August 17, 1835. Smith was absent from this meeting, leaving Rigdon and Cowdery to act in his place. It is interesting to note that during the compilation process, Alexander Campbell also published The Christian System, a summary of the Disciples of Christ theology and beliefs, publishing it seven months before the approval of the Doctrine and Covenants.84 It is likely that Rigdon and Smith were aware of Campbell’s publication, leading them to quickly compile and print their own doctrines. The Doctrine and Covenants, when published in 1835, appeared and was organized differently from the present edition. The first seven revelations were organized by importance and prevalence, rather than chronologically, which roughly organizes them today. After a “Lord’s Preface,” church governance was placed as the second section, a revelation given in April 1830.85 The third and fourth sections dealt with the priesthood, with the third section revealed only months before publication.86 The fifth section contained the minutes of the first high 83 Ibid., 162-163. Van Wagoner cites Whitmer’s speech in 1887 for this quote; the speech was given almost 50 years after Whitmer was excommunicated from the Church. 84 Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling, 283. 85 Doctrine and Covenants 20. This revelation moves through the doctrines of creation, fall, atonement, baptism, repentance, justification, and sanctification. It then begins to describe church structure, including the duties of elders, priests, teachers, deacons, and members. 86

5 council of the Church, taking place in Kirtland, Ohio, on February 17, 1834.87 Section six was a revelation giving Smith the meaning of the parable of the weeds, found in Matthew 13. The final section pulled out of chronological order is currently Section 88, known as the “Olive Leaf” revelation.88 Along with the creation of the School of Prophets, commanded in the “Olive Leaf” revelation, came seven theological lectures “on the doctrine of the Church of the Latter Day Saints.” They are now simply known as the Lectures on Faith and are not included in the current Doctrine and Covenants, removed in 1921 because they were not direct revelations to Smith. Rigdon gave these lectures most likely around May of 1834, when Rigdon served as a trustee and conductor of the School of Prophets, in order to explain, develop, and defend LDS doctrine.89 Doctrine and Covenants 107. It describes the Melchizedek and Aaronic priesthoods; all male members of the Church are ordained into the Aaronic priesthood, whereas the Melchizedek priesthood is reserved for the First Presidency, the Quorum of the Twelve, and the Seventy, holding the keys to the Church and able to receive revelations and mysteries from heaven. Doctrine and Covenants 84. This claims that the New Jerusalem will be built in Missouri, that men can gain eternal life through the priesthood, and that elders ought not be paid for their services. 87 Doctrine and Covenants 102. Three of the verses were added to this section when it was being readied for publishing, dealing with the role and powers of the high council. 88 It deals with many issues, including resurrection through redemption, obedience to God’s law, sanctification, signs of the end times, and the charge to create of a School of Prophets. 89 Lecture First dealt with the importance of faith. Lecture Second explained the existence of God, tracing the chronology of the world from Adam to Abraham using Genesis and revealed LDS sacred texts. This lecture even states the years in which the patriarchs from Adam to Abraham died. Lecture Third states that in order for a rational person to exercise faith in God, they must believe He exists, must have a correct idea of his character and attributes, and a knowledge that the believer is operating within God’s will. Lecture Fourth expounds on the previous lecture. Lecture Sixth explains which knowledge people must possess in order to obtain salvation. Lecture Seventh explains the effects of faith. These lectures are found in every Doctrines and Covenants published before 1921.

7 “Lecture Fifth” will be expounded upon, due to its importance and the clear evidence of Rigdon’s impact on LDS doctrine. This lecture speaks about the Godhead and the relationship between God the Father, God the Son, and the Holy Spirit. This lecture states that both the Father and the Son created and have supreme power over all things. The Son has a body like man, was begotten of God, and was ordained as Savior before the creation of the world. When He came to earth, he maintained a sinless life, following perfectly God’s law and commands. The Holy Spirit constitutes the mind of God, an entity that bears record of the Father and the Son. In that sense, they are threein-one, exhibiting together “great and matchless” power over all things.90 The Father and Son share the same mind, wisdom, glory, power, and fullness. The Holy Spirit is endowed on all believers, in order that the faithful may become joint heirs with Jesus. This would include them becoming deified, possessing the same mind as Jesus and becoming one with Him, as He is one with the Father and Spirit. Absent from this lecture is the belief that God the Father has a body of flesh and bone like Jesus, as stated in Doctrine and Covenants 130. Verse 22 states, “The Father has a body of flesh and bones as tangible as man’s; the Son also.” There are three possibilities for this absence. Since this section was revealed in 1843, it is likely that Smith simply had yet to clearly define the Church’s doctrine on the Father’s physical attributes when the lecture was presented. If he had already explained this belief, Rigdon possibly chose to ignore it while delivering these lectures, in order for the Godhead to sound more orthodox. It is also likely, however, that Rigdon did not believe in this doctrine and, 90 Found in every Doctrine and Covenants until 1921.

8 therefore, did not include it in the lectures. Nothing that Rigdon preached while with the Campbellites hinted at a belief that God the Father has a physical body. Smith gave Rigdon tremendous authority to explain and define Church doctrine without much oversight. Regardless of the fact that Smith may have expounded on this doctrine several years later, Rigdon was placed in a unique and powerful position.

Rigdon Continued to Gain and Exercise Religious Power

After exercising enormous power with the compilation and printing of the Doctrine and Covenants, Rigdon continued his duties as First Counselor to Joseph Smith. In 1836 he dedicated the first temple, located in Kirtland, Ohio. He began taking Hebrew lessons with Smith and in March was elected as chairman pro tem of the conference to sign licenses, acting as chairman whenever Smith was absent.91 The term “license” is not used in the Church today, but LDS scholar D. Michael Quinn claims that these were apostolic licenses, “signifying and proveing [sic] that he [the male recipient] is an Apostle of Jesus Christ an Elder of this Church.”92 He preached at the funeral service of Smith’s grandmother and gave a lecture about Christianity in Salem, Massachusetts. In early January 1837, Rigdon was the chairman at the Kirtland Safety Society, which dealt with establishing the Kirtland Bank in order to help the Church rid herself of debt.93 The bank failed 91 Jaques, “The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon II.” 92 D. Michael Quinn, The Mormon Hierarchy: Origins of Power (Salt

Lake City: Signature Books, 1994), 12. 93 Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling, 329-330.

2 miserably, with Smith disowning it in August of the same year. John Rigdon claimed that his father was opposed to the bank since its creation, but that Smith convinced him to sign the bills as president of the bank.94 As a result of the bank’s failure, several prominent members of the Church apostatized, including Parley Pratt, who converted Rigdon, and F.G. William, Smith’s Second Counselor.95 On September 3, 1837, Rigdon was reconfirmed as First Counselor to Smith, ensuring that he would continue to work closely with Smith.96 He preached extensively throughout the year, accompanying Smith to Indiana, Missouri, Illinois, and Ohio. Smith and Rigdon began to write a Church history to combat what they believed to be misperceptions and lies that were circulating in the Midwest. Part of this was an attempt to maintain their power from disgruntled members inside the Church. Owing to distrust by some of the leaders in the Missouri branch of the Church, Smith was forced to excommunicate Oliver Cowdery, David Whitmer, and half of the Quorum of the Twelve.97 They were charged with “accusing the Prophet of dishonesty and immorality; not attending Church meetings; using tea, coffee, and tobacco; failing to account for $2,000 in Church funds; and selling their personal property in Jackson [County, Missouri] against Smith’s orders.”98 By 1838, “Of the eleven witnesses to the Book of Mormon only Joseph’s father and brothers were left in the 94 Rigdon, “Sidney Rigdon and the Early History of the Mormon Church.” 95 Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling, 332. Pratt returned to the Church months later, however, and died in full membership. 96 Jaques, “The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon II.” 97 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 84. 98 Ibid.

3 church.”99 This was the only serious schism against Smith’s power and Rigdon stood by Smith’s side, vigorously defending him against all accusations through speeches and sermons, including a fiery July 4th speech against the Missourian citizens, which began a quasi-war between the Church and the state of Missouri. Rigdon remained in good grace with Smith, being appointed as delegate to Washington D.C., in order to present crimes and constitutional violations that occurred against the Mormons while in Missouri.100 Rigdon, Smith, and two others traveled to Washington D.C., but Rigdon was not able to accompany them into the meeting with President Martin Van Buren because of health reasons.101 In 1841, the Church began to develop and inhabit Nauvoo, Illinois. Rigdon was elected to the city council and named trustee of the University of the City of Nauvoo.102 On January 19, 1841, Rigdon was confirmed as First Counselor for the third time, reaffirming Smith’s confidence in Rigdon. More notably, however, is the title given to Rigdon on June 1 by Smith. He ordained Rigdon “prophet, seer, and revelator,” a title very similar to Smith’s. This monumental title was overshadowed by a conflict between Smith and Rigdon one year later. In 1842, Rigdon accused Smith of seducing his daughter, with the goal of making her one of his plural wives. During a period of two and a half years, starting in April of 1841, Smith had married thirty women, ten of whom were already 99 Brodie, No Man Knows My History, 217. 100 Jaques, “The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon III.” 101 Ibid. 102 Ibid.

4 married.103 Smith desired to make Nancy Rigdon one of his several wives. He dictated a letter to her, which later came into Rigdon’s possession. Rigdon, understandably furious with Smith, immediately confronted Smith. Rigdon was uninformed about the doctrine of plural marriage and, once informed, was immediately appalled by it. His brother-in-law reported, “Smith attempted to deny it at first, and face her [Nancy] down with the lie; but she told the facts with so much earnestness, and the fact of a letter being present . . . on the same subject, the day after the attempt made on her virtue. . . . [H]e then and there acknowledged that every word of Miss Rigdon’s testimony was true.”104 Smith attempted to explain it away, claiming that he had simply been testing her virtue. This began a split between Rigdon and Smith. A newspaper article came out defending the moral character of Smith, signed by every leader of the Mormon Church besides Rigdon, George Robinson, who was Rigdon’s brother-in-law, and Orson Pratt, brother of the formerly excommunicated Parley Pratt.105 Rigdon and Smith maintained distant from each other and hardly trusted one other after this confrontation. Rigdon no longer believed that “all the words of Joseph Smith were the exact duplicates of the Almighty,” but he kept his faith in the Church.106 Smith became paranoid about a kidnapping attempt and accused Rigdon of supporting John C. Bennett, an apostate and anti-Mormon activist.107 103 Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling, 437. 104 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 118-119. 105 Ibid., 119. Orson Pratt’s wife was also propositioned by Smith to become a plural wife. 106 Ibid., 121. 107

5 Bennett had sent a letter addressed to Rigdon and Orson Pratt, explaining that he wanted to have Smith arrested for alleged crimes committed in Missouri. Pratt, but not Rigdon, immediately gave the letter to Smith; consequently, Smith accused Rigdon of trying to hide the letter from him.108 On March 27, 1843, Smith sent a scathing letter to Rigdon:

Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling, 510. 108 Jaques, “The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon IV.”

6 It is with sensations of deep regret and poignant grief that I dictate a few lines to you this morning. . . . I have tried to smother my feelings and not let you know that I thought you were secretly and underhandedly doing all you could to take advantage of and injure me…I am, sir, honest, when I say that I believe and am laboring under the fullest convictions that you are actually practicing deception and wickedness against me and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints . . . seeking to destroy me and this people. . . . I do not write this with the intention of insulting you, or of bearing down upon you or with a desire to take advantage of you, or with the intention of laying one straw in your way detrimental to your character or influence. . . . I now notify you that unless something should take place to restore my mind to its former confidence in you . . . must, as a conscientious man, publish my withdrawal of my fellowship from you to the Church…”109 Rigdon immediately responded with a letter expressing shock at the accusations placed against him. Smith did not believe his denials, however, and aimed to have him excommunicated from the Church. On April 6, Rigdon was nevertheless confirmed for a fourth time as First Counselor to Smith by unanimous vote,110 but Smith was never happy with this outcome. He promised peace within the First Presidency, but peace did not last long. On August 13, Smith publicly accused Rigdon of attempting to “betray and give [him] up to the Missourians.”111 Smith attempted to remove Rigdon as First Counselor and brought the case before the Church membership during the October conference. Rigdon defended himself, using his powerful rhetoric and a letter from the Governor of Illinois claiming that Rigdon was innocent from all conspiracy charges.112 Several members also spoke on behalf of Rigdon, who was acquitted of all charges and 109 Dean C. Jessee, ed., The Personal Writings of Joseph Smith (Salt Lake City: Deseret Books, 1984), 555-556. 110 Jaques, “The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon IV.” 111 Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 320. 112 Ibid., 321.

7 reinstated as First Counselor.113 Hyrum Smith, Joseph’s brother, preached for mercy on Rigdon’s behalf, as well. Joseph Smith rose, however, and said, “I have thrown him off my shoulders, and you have again put him on me; you may carry him, but I will not.”114 After Rigdon had accused Smith of seducing his daughter, Smith never fully trusted Rigdon again with religious matters. Rigdon was not going to let his quest for power overtake the protection of his family. Rigdon had already garnered enough approval and satisfaction among the leadership, however, that his reputation and religious power were protected. Rigdon was still sustained as First Counselor against Smith’s wishes. Despite the distrust, Smith chose Rigdon as his Vice-President when Smith ran for President of the United States in 1844, perhaps in an attempt to appease Rigdon. Rigdon had been elected city attorney of Nauvoo the year before, served on Nauvoo city council, and was well respected among non-Mormons. Establishing the Mormon Reform Party, the leadership of the Church embarked on the campaign trail and Rigdon traveled to Pittsburgh to establish residency, in order to be eligible as vice-president.115 Despite being a candidate for President, Smith was arrested on June 25 on a treason charge against the state of Illinois. There also were indictments out for his arrest on the charges of false swearing and polygamy.116 Van Wagoner claims that Smith was arrested for destroying a printing press that printed inflammatory material against him regarding plural 114

113 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying In the Wilderness, 124.

Jaques, “The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon IV.” 115 Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 336. A misconception existed during this time that the President and Vice-President could not hail from the same state, but the Constitution never mentions this. 116 Jaques, “The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon V.”

8 marriage.117 Another source says Smith gave himself up voluntarily on June 24 and Rigdon fled for his life to Pittsburgh.118 Yet another states that Smith was arrested on a riot charge.119 A final source combines two of the stories, stating that Smith was arrested on a riot charge, but once he made bail, was arrested on a treason charge.120 All the accounts agree that Smith’s brother Hyrum was incarcerated with him in Carthage, Illinois. At dusk on June 27, 1844, a mob rushed the jail and assassinated Joseph and Hyrum Smith.

117 Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 335. 118 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 125. 119 Brodie, No Man Knows My History, 388. 120 Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling, 547.

1

Post-1844 Theology

Rigdon Attempted to Lead the Church

Rigdon was in Pittsburgh for the presidential campaign when Joseph Smith was murdered, arriving the same day as Smith’s death. The Quorum of the Twelve was spread across Boston, Philadelphia, New York state, Michigan, and Cincinnati, campaigning for Smith and Rigdon and preaching the Gospel.121 Rigdon arrived back in Nauvoo on August 3, more than a month after Smith died.122 He tried to call together a meeting to determine the guardian of the church on August 8, before all the members of the Quorum could be present. The Quorum had a majority, however, with nine of the twelve members were present in Nauvoo by evening of the August 5.123 The battle for succession was between four people: William Marks, the Nauvoo stake president, Sidney Rigdon, Brigham Young, the president of the Quorum of the Twelve, and Joseph Smith III, eleven years old and Smith’s eldest son. Marks was opposed to the doctrine of plural marriage, claiming that Smith told him just weeks before his death that unless plural marriage was abandoned, it would “prove our destruction and overthrow.”124 Smith’s wife, Emma, also believed that Smith was beginning to abandon his doctrine on plural marriage, stating that Smith commanded her to destroy the revelation in 1843, a 122

121 Jaques, “The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon V.” Ibid.

123 Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 338. 124 Quinn, The Mormon Hierarchy, 148.

2 year before Smith died.125 Even Brigham Young in 1866 declared that Smith had been “worn out” with the doctrine.126 Marks was supported by Smith’s wife, who was also vehemently opposed to plural marriage.127 Marks, however, decided to throw his support behind Rigdon for two reasons. Marks did not want the power for himself, and, more importantly, Rigdon was also opposed to plural marriage. On August 7, Young and Rigdon presented their cases in front of a general council, consisting of all the present church leadership. Rigdon claimed that while in Pittsburgh he had received a vision. This vision, taking place the day Smith died, instructed Rigdon to return to Nauvoo to ensure the Church was properly run.128 Smith had already endowed Rigdon with the title “prophet, seer and revelator.” Rigdon declared, “I have been consecrated a spokesman to Joseph, and I was commanded to speak for him. . . . I propose to be a guardian to the people; in this I have discharged my duty and done what God has commanded me, and the people can please themselves whether they accept me or not.”129 Rigdon realized that Smith was dead, but wanted to continue to speak on Smith’s behalf from the grave. He believed that, despite the recent controversies and disagreements between him and the Prophet, he was in line for the Presidency of the Church, having served as Smith’s First Counselor for the vast majority of the Church’s existence. 125 Ibid., 147 126 Ibid. 127 Ibid., 233. 128 Jaques, “The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon VI.” 129 Ibid.

3 Brigham Young then stood and argued on behalf of leadership by the Quorum of the Twelve. He directly attacked Rigdon, stating, “Here is President Rigdon, who was counselor to Joseph. I ask, where are Joseph and Hyrum? They are gone behind the vail [sic]; and if Elder Rigdon wants to act as his counselor; he must go beyond the vail [sic] where he is. . . . [I]f the people want President Rigdon to lead them they may have him; but I say unto you that the Quorum of the Twelve have the keys of the kingdom of God in all the world.”130 Rigdon relied on rhetoric and Young used politics to further his cause. According to Rigdon biographer F. Mark McKiernan, Young made every effort to remind the Saints that Smith had rejected Rigdon in 1843 and had no intention that Rigdon should succeed him as leader of the Church. Young also took great pains to create the image among the masses of the Church that he was the Prophet’s chosen successor. He borrowed Smith’s favorite hours Joe Duncan and rose through the streets of Nauvoo on the Prophet’s well known mount to show the entire population that he had replaced the martyr.131 Young’s political ploys worked, winning over the general assembly and making the Quorum of the Twelve the governing body of the Church. Young also alienated Emma Smith, Joseph’s wife, and five children, fearful that Joseph III would take over the church. Despite the fact Joseph III was only eleven at the time, several members of the Church believed that he was chosen for succession. Emma was alienated from the Church almost immediately after Smith’s death.132 Joseph III eventually founded the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, consisting mostly of members who did not immigrate to

130 Ibid.

131 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 128. 132 Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling, 554.

4 Utah with Young in 1846-47. The RLDS Church was officially organized in 1860. Young, in a genius political move, announced to the assembly, after defeating Rigdon’s quest for leadership, “Rigdon is . . . one with us – we want such men as Brother Rigdon. He has been sent away to build a Kingdom; let him keep the instruction and calling, let him raise up a kingdom in Pittsburgh and we will lift up his hand.”133 This was patronizing to Rigdon, demoting him to a preacher in Pittsburgh and stripping him of his leadership position, almost giving Young complete victory in the quest to succeed Joseph Smith. The Quorum of the Twelve assumed leadership, with Young as the President of the Quorum. Rigdon could not accept his demoted role or the abomination of plural marriage.134 He had been the First Counselor to the Prophet, a seer and revelator, preacher, missionary, presided over meetings and councils in Smith’s absence, Vice-Presidential candidate, and a key architect in the quest to build Zion and the New Jerusalem in America. Rigdon felt like Smith had finally recognized his religious power, his role as both originator and preacher. Yet Young forced Rigdon out of the Church because of their disagreement over plural marriage. On September 8, 1844, Rigdon was officially excommunicated from the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. In Young’s final move to solidify victory, the High Council, immediately after Rigdon’s excommunication, voted to excommunicate all of his followers inside the Church.135 133 Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 341. 134 Ibid., 352.

135 Jaques, “The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon VII.”

5 If Smith had been contemplating the revocation of plural marriage, it is plausible that he would have supported William Marks or Rigdon as his replacement, two trusted members who were opposed to the doctrine. Rigdon would have been the logical choice, serving beside Smith for fourteen years and often standing in his stead during Smith’s absences. This, however, would have most likely been as a placeholder for Joseph Smith III, as Smith spoke often about patriarchal blessings and ordinations. Smith gave his son a secret blessing, endowed on January 17, 1844. He blessed Smith III, declaring, “he shall be my successor to the Presidency of the High Priesthood: a Seer, and a Revelator, and a Prophet, unto the Church; which appointment belongeth to him by blessing, and also by right.”136 Nevertheless, Smith never publically named a clear successor. D. Michael Quinn, an LDS scholar and BYU professor before his 1993 excommunication, claims that Smith blessed, ordained, or designated six individuals as successors and “laid a foundation for the succession claims” of seven others, including the entire Quorum of Twelve Apostles.137 Of all these possible successors, only Brigham Young succeeded in his succession claim, retaining all but four members of the entire Mormon hierarchy at Smith’s death.138

136 Jessee, The Personal Writings of Joseph Smith, 566. 137 Quinn, The Mormon Hierarchy, 241. 138 Ibid., 243. The hierarchy numbered slightly fewer than 100, including the Twelve Apostles, the First Council of the Seventy, the First Presidency (consisting of two counselors alongside the President and Prophet of the Church), the Presiding Patriarch (Smith’s brother, Hyrum, at the time their death), and the Presiding Bishopric. Doctrine and Covenants 124:123-143 lists several members, many of whom possibly served in a hierarchical capacity. See also Quinn, 40-77.

7 Rigdon Founded the Church of Jesus Christ of the Children of Zion

Rigdon was effectively silenced from the LDS Church through the political maneuverings of Brigham Young. He left Nauvoo for Pittsburgh, the origins of his religious power. Rigdon’s son stated, “. . . [T]he Quorum of the 12 placed the leadership of the church on Brigham Young. This hurt Father’s feelings. He claimed he was the man for the leadership. He said he had done more to establish the church than any man in it, outside the prophet.”139 Interestingly, he added that the Church did not make a mistake by giving the leadership to Young because “Rigdon had no executive experience, was broken down with sickness and could not have taken charge of the church at that time.”140 Rigdon’s own son, baptized into the Church in 1898, did not believe that Rigdon should have led the Church. Rigdon began his own new church, assembling his own Quorum of the Twelve and establishing a Pittsburgh newspaper entitled The Latter Day Saints’ Messenger and Advocate, aiming to attack the LDS leadership and expose the doctrine of plural marriage.141 He would reestablish the pure Mormon Church, with an emphasis in revelation and the Ancient Order and with a firm rejection of plural marriage. He even went as far as calling Joseph Smith a fallen prophet during Smith’s later years. This allowed Rigdon to reject some of Smith’s doctrines but maintain the validity and sacrality of The Book of 139 Rigdon, “Sidney Rigdon and the Early History of the Mormon Church.” 140 Ibid. 141 Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 367, 369.

8 Mormon and the Doctrine and Covenants.142 On the fifteenth anniversary of the Mormon Church, Rigdon re-established the Church of Christ, the original name of the LDS Church, being ordained as “first president of this kingdom and church, and . . . as prophet, seer, revelator and translator, to this church and kingdom of Christ of the last days.”143 This allowed Rigdon to further his claim that God called him to lead the Church on earth. Rigdon only had about 150 followers, however, and his sect never grew.144 Not much has been written about Rigdon after 1846. His church never expanded, leaving Rigdon ultimately without power and belonging. He moved to Friendship, New York, where he spent the remainder of his days. In 1863, Brigham Young asked Rigdon to come to Utah in order for Young to take care of him, but Rigdon refused.145 Throughout his days Rigdon maintained that the Book of Mormon was true, that the end of time was near, and that Joseph Smith was truly a prophet of God. Sidney Rigdon died on July 14, 1876, a man without religious power, belonging, or respect. Without his leadership, the Church of Christ completely disbanded by 1884.

143

142 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 135. Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 377.

144 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 142. 145 Ibid., 143.

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Conclusion

Rigdon’s quest for religious power took him from the Mahoning Baptist Association, under the tutelage of Adamson Bentley, to the Campbellite movement, becoming an unrecognized founder under Alexander Campbell and Walter Scott, and finally to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, where he served for almost fourteen years as Joseph Smith’s First Counselor and trusted confidant. He was excommunicated from the Baptist association for preaching liberal, i.e. non-official, doctrines not befitting the Baptist creeds. He officially joined Alexander Campbell and Walter Scott, but left because of the lack of recognition and power they gave him. He felt particularly scorned when Scott was chosen as the official traveling preacher instead of himself. When one of his former disciples and recent Mormon convert came to visit, Rigdon recognized another opportunity for belonging and power. The LDS doctrines found in the Book of Mormon were similar enough to what he was preaching and Joseph Smith needed a powerful and influential preacher. He immediately found belonging and power with Smith, prophet, seer, and revelator of God. Rigdon was able to quickly exercise the religious power he so desperately craved; he was immediately sent as a missionary and was officially named in a revelation from God as spokesman for Joseph Smith. Smith trusted Rigdon, listening to his council and advice. Rigdon stood by Smith’s side as he rid the Church of dissenters and apostates. Non-Mormons recognized him as almost equal to Smith and

2 the LDS leadership expressed trust in him. Rigdon was content with being Smith’s right-hand man, speaking for the Prophet and standing in his place during any absence. However, Smith quickly distrusted him when Rigdon expressed disbelief and shock over the doctrine of plural marriage and after the failed attempt of Smith to receive Rigdon’s daughter as a plural wife. He still firmly believed in Mormon doctrine and the divine origins of the Book of Mormon but, in an attempt to protect his daughter, began losing his leadership. When Joseph Smith was assassinated, Rigdon viewed it as an opportunity to assume leadership and return the Church to its original roots, ridding the Church of plural marriage and retaining the Ancient Order. He made an impassioned speech claiming leadership for the Church, but Brigham Young discredited him, using his controversies and disputes with Smith against him. This led to Rigdon being excommunicated yet again from his religious community. The excommunication from the Mormon Church devastated Rigdon and he was never able to fully recuperate. He spent the next several years attacking the LDS Church, trying futilely to reestablish himself inside the Church. He lost his fame, reputation, and success. He diminished into obscurity, refusing to speak about Mormonism or Joseph Smith. Rigdon’s obituary in the Friendship Register read, Since his excision from the ruling body of the church, at Nauvoo, he has been living in our village, in the main very quiet, repelling rather than courting the curiosity which his prominence in one of the most extraordinary social phenomena of times, drew upon him. He has often been interviewed by those intent upon clearing up some of the mysteries and delusions that attended the origin of Mormonism, but invariably without success. On these occasions he would defend the Mormon account of the origin [of] the Book of Mormon, and also the chief doctrines of the early Mormon church. . . . [I]n his prime he took an active part in the theological controversies that raged so fiercely in this

3 and western states and was then and always familiar with the Bible . . . and his whole conduct held naturally to the inference that his religious ambitions were buried at the time he was superseded by Young, or perhaps at the time when the polygamous doctrines of Joseph Smith were promulgated.146 His last vain attempt to establish religious power failed miserably, never garnering more than a decent size congregation. Despite the many contributions to both the Disciples of Christ and the Latter Day Saints, Rigdon has been condemned by both faiths, painting him as a religious apostate and fanatic. Their histories are riddled with negative biases, diminishing his accomplishments or crediting them to others. In his quest for religious power, Sidney Rigdon became a misunderstood and forgotten man.

146 Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon, 449-450.

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