Saraswati Civilization

SARASVATI Civilization Volume 1

Dr. S. Kalyanaraman Babasaheb (Umakanta Keshav) Apte Smarak Samiti Bangalore 2003

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SARASVATI: Civilization by S. Kalyanaraman Copyright Dr. S. Kalyanaraman Publisher: Baba Saheb (Umakanta Keshav) Apte Smarak Samiti, Bangalore

Price: (India) Rs. 500 ; (Other countries) US $50 . Copies can be obtained from: S. Kalyanaraman, 3 Temple Avenue, Srinagar Colony, Chennai, Tamilnadu 600015, India email: [email protected] Tel. + 91 44 22350557; Fax 4996380 Baba Saheb (Umakanta Keshav) Apte Smarak Samiti, Yadava Smriti, 55 First Main Road, Seshadripuram, Bangalore 560020, India Tel. + 91 80 6655238 Bharatiya Itihasa Sankalana Samiti, Annapurna, 528 C Saniwar Peth, Pune 411030 Tel. +91 020 4490939

Library of Congress cataloguing in publication data

Kalyanaraman, Srinivasan. Sarasvati/ S. Kalyanaraman Includes bibliographical references and index 1.River Sarasvati. 2. Indian Civilization. 3. R.gveda Printed in India at K. Joshi and Co., 1745/2 Sadashivpeth, Near Bikardas Maruti Temple, Pune 411030, Bharat ISBN 81-901126-1-0 FIRST PUBLISHED: 2003

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Burial ornaments made of shell and stone disc beads, and turbinella pyrum (sacred conch, s’an:kha) bangle, Tomb MR3T.21, Mehrgarh, Period 1A, ca. 6500 BCE. The nearest source for this shell is Makran coast near Karachi, 500 km. South. [After Fig. 2.10 in Kenoyer, 1998].

Step well, Abaneri

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About the Author Dr. S. Kalyanaraman has a Ph.D. in Public Administration from the University of the Philippines; his graduate degree from Annamalai University was in Statistics and Economics. His PhD dissertation was on development administration, a comparative study of 6 Asian countries, published as Public Administration in Asia in 2 volumes. He was a Senior Executive in the Asian Development Bank, Manila, Philippines for 18 years from 1978 to 1995 responsible for the world-wide IT network of the Bank and disbursements on a portfolio of US$60 million for over 600 projects in 29 developing countries of Asia-Pacific region. Prior to joining the Bank, he was Financial Advisor on the Indian Railways (responsible, as part of a professional team, for introducing computers on the Railways) and Chief Controller of Accounts, Karnataka Electricity Board. He took voluntary retirement from the Bank five years' ahead of schedule and returned to Bharat to devote himself to Sarasvati River researches and development projects. He is well-versed in many languages of Bharat: Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Hindi, Sanskrit. He has compiled a comparative dictionary for 25 ancient Indian languages, titled Indian Lexicon. He has set up a website on Sarasvati River and Civilization with over 30,000 files (http://www.hindunet.org/saraswati ); he is the founder of the yahoogroup, IndianCivilization, which has over 800 members (April 2003). His work, Sarasvati, was published in 2001 a compendium on the discovery of Vedic River Sarasvati. The present 7-volume enyclopaedic work on Sarasvati Civilization is a result of over 20 years of study and research. He is Director, Sarasvati Nadi Shodh Prakalp, Akhil Bharatiya Itihaasa Sankalana Yojana, Chennai 600015. The Prakalp is engaged in researches related to Sarasvati Civilization and interlinking of national rivers of Bharat. He has contributed to many scholarly journals and participated in and made presentations in a number of national and international conferences including the World Sanskrit Conference held in Bangalore in 1995. He delivered the Keynote address in the International Conference of World Association of Vedic Studies, 3rd Conference held in University of Massachusetts, Dartmouth, in July 2002. [email protected]

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Diacritical marks used The Kyoto-Harvard convention is NOT used since the intermingling of English words with Indian language words wll distort the representation of capital letters and is not easy to read.

The standard diacritical marks are deployed but, instead of ligaturing them on top and bottom of the alphabet, the diacritical marks FOLLOW immediately after the vowel or consonant which is modified. For e.g., a_ connotes ‘long a’, n. connotes retroflex N. After the UNICODE is standardized, the next edition will display the modified codes for ease of representation on web pages on the internet.

a rut,at a_/ law a~_ long /a~ uni it i_ bee i~_ been /i~ in u you u_/ ooze u~_ boon /u~ june

e bet e_ ate e~_ bane /e~ when,whey o obese o_ note o~_ bone,one m. mum n: king n~ nyet h-/k- what c change c. so

d then d. dot l. rivalry n. and n- new r- curl r. rug r.. (zsh) s fuse s. shut s' sugar t both t. too

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List of languages and abbreviations The languages of the linguistic area and the abbreviations used are as follows: L. Lahnda_ M. Mara_t.hi_ Ma.Malayalam Mai.Maiya~_ (Dardic) Malt.Malto Ma_lw.Ma_lwa_i_ Mand.. Mand.a Marw.Ma_rwa_r.i_ Md.Maldivian dialect of Sinhalese MIA Middle Indo-Aryan Mj. Munji_ (Iranian) Mth. Maithili_ Mu. Mun.d.a_ri (Munda) N. Nepa_li Nahali Nin:g. Nin:gala_mi (Dardic) Nk. Naikr.i (dialect of Kolami = LSI, Bhili of Basim; Naiki of Chanda) OIA Old Indo-Aryan Or. Or.iya_ P. Punja_bi_ (Paja_bi_) Pa. Parji Pali Pah. Paha_r.i_ Pa_Ku. Pa_lu Kur-umba Pas'. Pas'ai (Dardic) Pe. Pengo Phal. Phalu_r.a (Dardic) Pkt. Prakrit S. Sindhi_ Sant. Santa_li_ (Mun.d.a_) Sh. Shina (S.in.a_.Dardic) Si. Sinhalese Sik. Sikalga_ri_ (Mixed Gypsy Language: LSI xi 167) Skt. Sanskrit Sv. Savi (Dardic) Ta.Tamil Te.Telugu Tir.Tira_hi_ (Dardic) To. Toda Tor.To_rwa_li_ (Dardic) Tu. Tulu U. Urdu Werch.Werchikwa_r or Wershikwa_r (Yasin dialect of Burushaski) Wg. Waigali_ or Wai-ala_ (Kafiri) Wkh. Wakhi (Iranian) Wot..Wot.apu_ri_ (language of Wot.apu_r and Kat.a_rqala_. Dardic) WPah. West Paha_r.i

A.Assamese Ap.Apabhram.s'a Ash. Ashkun (As.ku~_--Kafiri) Aw. Awadhi_ B. Bengali (Ban:gla_) Bal. Balu_ci_ (Iranian) Bashg. Bashgali_ (Kafiri) BCE Before Common Era (BC) Bel. Belari Bhoj. Bhojpuri_ Bi. Biha_ri_ Br. Bra_hui_ Brj. Brajbha_s.a_ Bshk. Bashkari_k (Dardic) Bur.Burushaski CE Common Era (AD) Chil. Chili_s (Dardic) D.. D.uma_ki Dm. Dame~d.i_ (Kafiri-Dardic) G. Gujara_ti_ Ga. Gadba Garh.Gar.hwa_li_ Gau. Gauro (Dardic) Gaw.Gawar-Bati (Dardic) Gmb. Gambi_ri_ (Kafiri) Go. Gondi Gy. Gypsy or Romani H. Hindi_ Ir. Irul.a K. Ka_s'mi_ri_ Ka. Kannad.a Kaf. Kafiri Kal. Kalasha (Dardic) Kand. Kandia (Dardic) Kat.. Kat.a_rqala_ (Dardic) Kho. Khowa_r (Dardic) Khot. Khotanese (Iranian) Kmd. Ka_mdeshi (Kafiri) Ko. Kota Kod.. Kod.agu (Coorg) Koh. Kohista_ni_ (Dardic) Kol. Kolami Kon. Kon:kan.i_ Kond.a Kor. Koraga Kt. Kati or Katei (Kafiri) Ku. Kumauni_ Kui Kurub.Bet.t.a Kuruba Kur.Kur.ux (Oraon, Kurukh) Kuwi

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Abbreviations used for linguistic categories and other languages etym. etymology Languages, Epigraphs expr.expression As'. As'okan inscriptions f./fem. feminine Austro-as. Austro-asiatic (cf. Munda) fig. figuratively BHSkt. Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit (Franklin fr. from Edgerton, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar fut. future and Dictionary, Newhaven, 1953) gen. genitive Dard. Dardic hon. honorific Dhp. Ga_ndha_ri or Northwest Prakrit (as id. idem (having the same meaning) recorded in the Dharmapada ed. J. Brough, imper.imperative Oxford 1962) incl. including Drav. Dravidian inf.infinitive IA. Indo-aryan inj.injunctive IE. Indo-european inscr.inscription Ind. Indo-aryan of India proper excluding Kafiri lex. lexicographical works or Kos'as and Dardic (as classified by R.L. Turner) lit. literature KharI. Kharos.t.hi_ inscriptions; Middle Indo- loc. locative aryan forms occurring in Corpus Inscriptionum m. masculine Indicarum Vol. II Pt.I, Calcutta, 1929 MIA M Middle Middle Indo-aryan metath. metathesis (of) NiDoc. Language of 'Kharos.t.hi_ Inscriptions N North discovered by Sir Aurel Stein in Chinese Na_ Na_ci Na_t.u usage Turkestan' edited by A.M. Boyer, E.J. Rapson, Naut. Nautical and E. Senart nom.nominative Ar.Arabic nom.prop. nomen proprium (proper name) Aram.Aramaic num.numeral(s) Arm.Armenian NWNorth-west Av. Avestan (Iranian) O Old E. English obl. oblique case Gk. Greek onom.onomatopoeic Goth. Gothic p. page Ishk. Ishka_shmi_ (Iranian) part. participle Kurd. Kurdish (Iranian) pass. passive Lat. Latin perf. perfect Lith.Lithuanian perh. perhaps OHG. Old High German phonet.phonetically Orm. O_rmur.i_ (Iranian) pl. plural OSlav. Old Slavonic pp. past participle (passive) Par. Para_ci_ (Iranian) pres. present Pahl. Pahlavi (Iranian) pron. pronoun Pers. Persian (Iranian) Pudu. Pudukkottai usage Port. Portuguese redup. reduplicated Pr. Prasun (Kafiri) ref. reference(s) Psht. Pashto (Iranian) S South Tib. Tibetan sb./subst.substantive Toch. Tocharian semant. semantically Turk. Turkish st. stem 8

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Yid. Yidgha (Iranian)

subj. subjunctive syn. synonym Tinn. Tinnevelly usage Tj. Tanjore usage usu. usual(ly) vais.n..vais.n.ava usage vb. verb viz. videlicet (namely) W West

Abbreviations : Grammatical * hypothetical < (is) derived from > (has) become ? doubtful Xinfluenced by + extended by ~ parallel with acc.accusative adj. adjective adv. adverb aor. aorist caus. causative cent. century cf. confer (compare) cmpd.compound(ed) com. commentary, t.i_ka_ conj.conjunction dat. dative dist.fr.distinct from du. dual E East e.g. example

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Foreword I had written a foreword for Dr. Kalyanaraman’s work titled Sarasvati in 2000. As promised, he has now followed up this work with an additional seven volumes to complete the encyclopaedia on Sarasvati – the river, godess and civilization of Bha_rata. It is a privilege indeed to receive the seven volumes titled: Sarasvati: Civilization Sarasvati: R.gveda Sarasvati: River Sarasvati: Bharati Sarasvati: Technology Sarasvati: Language Sarasvati: Epigraphs This septet constitutes a fitting homage to Babasaheb (Uma_ka_nt kes’av) Apte, particularly in the wake of the centenary celebrations planned for 2003 in memory of this patriot who wanted a presentation of the history of Bha_rata from a Bha_rati_ya socio-cultural perspective. The dream of the late Padmashri Vakankar, archaeologist is also partly fulfilled with the delineation of the peoples’ lives over 5,000 years on the banks of the Rivers Sarasvati and Sindhu. The Sarasvati Nadi Shodh Prakalp which is headed by Dr. Kalyanaraman under the guidance of Shri Haribhau Vaze, All-India Organizing Secretary, Akhila Bharateeya Itihaasa Sankalana Yojana should be complimented for bringing to successful completion this important phase of writing of the history of ancient Bha_rata. The River Sarasvati has not only been established as ground-truth (bhu_mi satyam), but the vibrant civilization which was nurtured on the banks of this river has been exquisitely unraveled in the five volumes, covering virtually all aspects of the lives of the pitr.-s, many of whose a_s’rama-s are venerated even today in many parts of Bha_rata. The seven volumes provide a framework for understanding the writing system evolved ca. 5,300 years ago to record the possessions and items traded by metal- and fire-workers, the bharata-s. The language spoken by the people is also becoming clearer, with the existence of a linguistic area on the banks of the two rivers – the substrata and ad-strata lexemes which seem to match the glyphs of inscribed objects are a testimony to this discovery. This calls for a paradigm shift in the study of languages of Bha_rata with particular reference to the essential semantic unity of all the language families, thanks to intense socio-economic and cultural interactions across the length and breadth of Bha_rata. Hopefully, this work should generate many more research studies of this kind to further study the impact of the civilization on the cultural unity of the nation. It is also heartening to note that work has started to revive the Rivr Sarasvati and to interlink the rivers of the country. This will be a garland presented by the children of the country to Bha_rata Ma_ta_ setting up a network of about 40,000 kms. Of National Waterways which will complement 10

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the Railways system to further strengthen the infrastructure facilities and to provide a fillip to development projects in all sectors of the economy. I understand that Kalyanaraman is now embarking on a project to write the history of Dharma. I wish him all success in his endeavours.

M.N. Pingley Kaliyugabda 5105. a_s.a_d.ha, Gurupurnima. July 13, 2003 CE.

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Publisher’s Note On behalf of Baba Saheb (Umakanta Keshav) Apte Smarak Samiti, it gives me great pleasure to publish the set of seven volumes of the encyclopaedic work of Dr. S. Kalyanaraman with over 4,000 illustrations and impressive documentation. Sarasvati: Civilization Sarasvati: R.gveda Sarasvati: River Sarasvati: Bharati Sarasvati: Technology Sarasvati: Language Sarasvati: Epigraphs This is a follow-up of the first work titled Sarasvati published in 2000 which focused on the River Sarasvati. These seven additional volumes focus on the language, writing system, technology – archaeometallurgy, in particular, the lives of the people who lived between 3500 to 5300 years ago and the importance of this legacy and heritage on the history of Bha_rata. This compendium has been made possible by the contributions made by scientists and scholars of the country from a variety of disciplines, ranging from geology and glaciology to atomic research and language studies. This comprehensive work on Sarasvati thus constitutes a golden chapter in the work of the Akhila Bharateeya Itihaasa Sankalana Yojana, providing the foundation for future works on subsequent periods of the history of the nation. A principal objective of the Baba Saheb (Umakanta Keshav) Apte Smarak Samiti is the authenticated study of the history of our nation. For this purpose the Akhila Bharatiya Itihaasa Sankalana Yojana affiliated with the Samiti, has been working with a number of scholars and institutions organizing seminars and conferences and bringing out publications. The Samiti is a non-profit, voluntary organization and is entirely supported by volunteers and philanthropists. I wish to thank all the wellwishers and contributors to the Samiti’s work. In particular, I would like to acknowledge with gratitude the contribution made by Shri G. Pulla Reddy, Shri Ramadas Kamath, and Basudeo Ramsisaria Charitable Trust, ICICI, Government of Goa, in enabling this publication. Sincere thanks are due to K. Joshi and Co., and Dr. C.N. Parchure who have undertaken the supervision of the publication. Plans have been initiated to start a national center to study the history of vanava_si people, to produce an encyclopaedia on the Hindu World and to organize research centers in all states of the country, to publish a series of research volumes on various aspects of the Bharatiya itiha_sa in all languages of Bharat, using multimedia presentations.

Haribhau Vaze National Organizing Secretary, Akhil Bharatiya Itihaasa Sankalana Yojana and Trustee, Baba Saheb (Umakanta Keshav) Apte Smarak Samiti, Bangalore. Kaliyugabda 5105. a_s.a_d.ha, Gurupurnima. July 13, 2003 CE

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Author’s Preface At the outset, I offer my sincere thanks to Moropant Pingley and Haribhau Vaze for their encouragement and support in pursuing this endeavour. What can I say which has not already been said by eminent scientists, scholars and thinkers of this great nation? All that I can do is to compile their thoughts and present them as I see fit and as a tribute to the memories of our pitr.-s and ma_tr.-s, our ancestors who have made us what we are and who have given us the vira_sat (heritage). The septet contains the following volumes: Sarasvati: Civilization Sarasvati: R.gveda Sarasvati: River Sarasvati: Bharati Sarasvati: Technology Sarasvati: Language Sarasvati: Epigraphs The enduring nature of the culture of the nation has been a source of awe and inspiration for many generations of scholars. The lives of the r.s.i-s and muni-s who contributed to the solidity of the Bha_rata Ra_s.t.ra is a source of inspiration for generations of students of philosophy, politics, sociology, spiritual studies, economics and culture. The earlier work, Sarasvati, published in 2000 focused on the life-history of River Sarasvati. This set of seven volumes follow-up on this work to present a comprehensive survey of the lives of the people who nurtured a vibrant civilization on the banks of River Sarasvati. They were enterprising people who ventured to the banks of River Sindhu and beyond and had established a network of interactions which extended as far as Mesopotamia in the west and Caspian Sea in the north-west. The River Sarasvati, flowing over 1,600 kms. from Mt. Kailas (Ma_nasarovar glacier) and tributaries emanating from Har-ki-dun (Svarga_rohin.i or Bandarpunch massifs, Western Garhwal, Uttaranchal), through Kashmir, Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat made the region lush with vegetation and provided a highway for interactions extending through the Gulf of Kutch, Gulf of Khambat, the Persian and Arabian Gulfs. The story of this riverine, maritime civilization is the story of an enterprising group of people who were wonderstruck by the bounties of nature and had organized themselves into a cooperating society to harness the bounties of nature. The Samudra manthanam imagery wherein the asura-s and deva-s cooperate in churning the ocean for its riches is an allegory of this quest for material well-being while strengthening societal bonds.

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This march of history is a saga of adventure, a passion for discovery of new materials and new methods of communication using a writing system and communicating orally profound thoughts on the cosmic order in relation to humanity. The next stop is Dharma: a history of Bharatiya Ethos and Thought.

Dr. S. Kalyanaraman Former Sr. Executive, Asian Development Bank, Sarasvati Nadi Shodh Prakalp, 3 Temple Avenue, Chennai 600015, India [email protected] Kaliyugabda 5105. a_s.a_d.ha, Gurupurnima. July 13, 2003 CE

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Table of Contents

New light on Sarasvati civilization Sarasvati: Discovery and Rebirth River Sarasvati: Archaeology, Culture and Heritage Tourism Ecology, River Sarasvati and roots of Civilization of Bharat Revival of River Sarasvati Begins River Sarasvati: Archaeology, Tradition and Water Resources Bharati, Sarasvati Vidya_devi Sarasvati Dilmun, Magan, and Sea-faring merchants of Meluhha From Sarasvati to Haraquaiti Mleccha, Mlecchita vikalpa: Language and writing system Hieroglyphs of Sarasvati Civilization S’ankha, Bhairava, Man.d.ala Sculptural tradition Bead-making tradition Archery tradition Mahabharata as the sheet-anchor of Bharatiya Itihasa Sarasvati Civilization Index

15 20 50 59 64 75 87 127 131 138 154 164 198 210 237 252 257 276 280

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New Light on Sarasvati Civilization River Sarasvati is ground-truth: Story of the discovery of River Sarasvati Vedic Sarasvati is not myth; but bhu_mi satyam, ground-truth, 1600 km. long river, 6 to 8 kms. wide channels, from Manasarovar to Prabhas Patan (Somnath).

The search for River Sarasvati started over 150 years ago and thanks to a series of scientific investigations, the entire course of this gigantic river system which drained north-west Bharat over a distance of 1600 kms. from Manasarovar to Gujarat, has been traced. Together with the cumulative discoveries of over 2,000 archaeological sites on the banks of this river, the key to an understanding of the maturing of the riverine and maritime nature of the civilization unravel. The search intensified during the last 25 years. In 1985,Vedic Sarasvati Nadi Shodh Pratishthan was established in Jodhpur, Rajasthan. A team of over 35 scholars led by the late Padmashri senior archaeologist, Shri Vakankar and Moropant Pingle started on a journey of discovery from Adi Badri to Somnath. They traversed over 3,500 kms. along palaeo-channels (ancient courses) of River Sarasvati. The journey which followed the path of Balarama inspired a number of scientists and scholars to further explore scientifically the old courses of Vedic River Sarasvati. Three more organizations are involved in the researches: Sarasvati Nadi Shodh Prakalp, located in Chennai; Sarasvati Nadi Shodh Sansthan, Haryana located in Jagadhri; and Sarasvati Nadi Shodh Sansthan, Gujarat located in Ahmedabad.These combined efforts of multidisciplinary teams of experts have borne fruit and the course of the river has been fully and conclusively defined. It has now become possible to state that River Sarasvati is groundtruth. With over 2,000 archaeological sites discovered on the banks of River Sarasvati, the civilization should be called Sarasvati Civilization, the foundation of Bharatiya Culture. It has also been established that the River will flow again to green the Marusthali and many regions of north-west Bharat. The river was mightier than Brahmaputra, mightier than Ganga. Its average width of palaeo-channels (ancient courses) was 6 kms.; at Shatrana, 60 km. south of Patiala in Punjab, the width of the channel was 20 kms. since two trunk river streams – S’utudri and Yamuna – joined the River Sarasvati at this place. Plate tectonics – the ongoing clash of Indian and Eurasian plates – resulted in topological changes in the flood plains and resultant river migrations. S’utudri migrated westwards to join the River Sindhu; Yamuna migrated eastwards carrying the Sarasvati river waters drawn from Paonta Doon valley (Himachal Pradesh) to join the River Ganga to constitute the Triven.i San:gamma. This evolutionary history of the river system an emphatic validation, by the earth sciences, of the cultural tradition of San:gamma of Ganga-Yamuna -Sarasvati. So it is that on a solar eclipse day, a million pilgrims throng to Kuruks.etra to take a holy dip in the Brahmasarovar in the Sarasvati River waters in a demonstration of spiritual adoration of a_pah, the sacred waters. So it is that the River Sarasvati is adored in over 70 r.ca-s in the R.gveda and as Divinity of arts, crafts and learning, prayers are offered to her twice every year – once on Ma_gha S’ukla Pan~cami and another on the eighth day as a_yudha pu_ja during the Navara_tri celebrations. It is a celebration of the collective memory of Bharatiya passed on from generation to generation, over a long span of time, of over 5 millennia; it is a memory of adoration for a mother, a river, a divinity who nurtured a civilization on her banks.

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Vedic Sarasvati. Tamasa (with Yamuna) and Sutlej rivers, and Dr.s.advati (now represented by Chautang) were tributaries of River Sarasvati. [KS Valdiya, 1996].

Sarasvati is Naditame who assumes the ru_pa of Ambitame, Devitame Sarasvati assumes and is celebrated all over Bharat, in many ru_pa, many forms. Sarasvati is a river, the best of rivers, naditame. During the Vedic times, she was mightier than River Brahmaputra, River Sindhu. She was a powerful torrential, glacial river, a_suri_ sarasvati as R.gveda notes. Like any other glacial, Himalayan river, she had drained over 1600 kms. over virtually the region of North-west Bharat from Uttaranchal to Gujarat. She is called saptathi_, seven-streamed. Many large river systems were tributaries of Vedic River Sarasvati, including River S'utudri and River Yamuna. She is a mother who nurtured a civilization. She nurtured the people living on the banks of the river. She is a divinity. She had attained the status of a divinity even in the days of R.gveda as R.s.i Gr.tsamada extols: ambitame, naditame, devitame Sarasvati (best of mothers, best of rivers and best of divinities). She is a divinity celebrated in Bharat as vidya_devi (divinity of learning), kala_devi (divinity of arts, crafts and technology), jna~a_nadevi (divinity of wisdom). She is the very embodiment of Brahma, the prayer; she is Brahmi which is the name of an ancient writing system of Bharat. She is mother beyond compare. Together with Mother Earth (Bhu_devi), she is Bharati, the very embodiment of everything that every Bharatiya stands for. She is Mahasarasvati. She is an 17

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affectionate mother, she is a nourishing river, she is a divinity who bestows not merely the ability to work with material phenomena, she is the spiritual Mother Divine who carries the Veda and Veena in her arms. She is s'rutidevi. She is also smr.ti devi. She is accompanied by the peacock, ma_raka, which signifies the after-life and hence, people pay homage to her by offering ma_tr. tarpan.am in Brahmasarovar and in Pr.thudaka (Pehoa), taking a dip in the sacred a_pah, the sacred waters. She is richly endowed with many tirthastha_na-s and many r.s.i a_s'rama-s, a constant reminder of the heritage our ancestors, our pitr.s and ma_tr.s who have bequeathed for the present and future generations of all humankind. As she comes alive again to drain most of Northwest Bharat, the Dharma of R.gveda will prevail again all over the world, governed by a spirit of rational enquiry and by lending a spiritual meaning to cosmic phenomena to recreate the One World where noble, free thoughts flow from all directions: a_no bhadra_h kratavo yantu vis'vatah. Yes, indeed, kurvanto vis'vama_ryam, let us make the entire universe noble. Let us pray to Mahasarasvati to lead us unto this nobility in a rhythmic r.tam. We owe this r.n.am, this debt, in memory of our ancestors who lived on the banks of River Sarasvati and who have made us what we are. Celebration of a heritage through Rebirth of Sarasvati The partial drying up of River Sarasvati demise indicates how dramatic tectonic movements can change the face of a society. Betrayed by its two snow-fed sources, the Sarasvati was left with the waters of petty streams rising in the puny Shivaliks. Its twin sources survive to this day. The Sarasvati was born in the Banderpunch (monkey's tail) massif in the Garhwal Himalayas. This is today the source of the independent Tons, one of the Sarasvati's source streams. Beyond the Indian Himalayas in Tibet near the holy lake Mansarovar is Kapalshikhar, the other source of the Sarasvati. The river is still there, known locally as the Mang Nang Tsangpo; further downstream a Survey of India map actually calls it the Sarasvati. Without its snow-bound origins, the Sarasvati became a shadow of its former self. Its people migrated upstream and settled in today's Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh. There seems to be archaeological evidence to this movement: The total absence of late Harappan settlements in the area of the Sarasvati is in sharp contrast to the dramatic increase in habitations in the plains of Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh. There is also a remarkable scarcity of Harappan sites around what are today's Yamuna and Sutlej. This is again in sharp contrast to the archaeological gold mines turning up in the dry channels of Punjab, Rajasthan and Sindh in Pakistan. Finally, only flood waters flowed down the Sarasvati's once vast channel. It remained dry for several centuries, though some water again found its way in during the early centuries of the Christian era. The Sarasvati's decline and the loss of its civilisation are an indication of how tectonic shifts can combine with localised climate change to dramatically transform human settlement. As the shifting Aravallis chopped off the Sarasvati's waters, the climate too was changing. Over the years western Rajasthan, once a green, rich expanse with extensive rainfall, gradually turned into a parched, desert land. Where there was once a torrent of water, there remained nothing but tonnes of drying sand, a few lakes that survive to this day, and of course the veins of groundwater under the earth. 18

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River Sarasvati's desiccation also demonstrates how central rivers have been to civilisation and culture. With the Sarasvati gone, its place in mythology was taken over by the Ganga. To this day, it is the Ganga that is predominant to India's Hindu consciousness. But the Sarasvati, as the drilling rigs at Ghantiyal Ji should reveal, has not disappeared altogether. The great Sarasvati River will flow again, its spiritual form will regain its Vedic glory, as the legacies of the river are flooding back all over again. Glaciological and geological source of River Sarasvati in the Himalayas Tamasa, the anchorage stream of today’s Yamuna, emerges from Har-ki-dun glacier in Bandarpunch massif in northwestern Garhwal (After KS Valdiya, 2002, Pl. 3)

Against this backdrop of glacial age, the geological source of River Sarasvati is traced to the Himalayan glaciers by Dr. Puri who is a glaciologist with Geological Survey of India, who has, over 30 years, inventoried 1500 glaciers in the Himalayas as part of the World Glacier Inventory, Geneva. Tamasa, a tributary of Sarasvati The collision of the Deccan plate with the Tibetan plate accounts for the landmass of Bha_rat joining with the rest of Asia along the Burmese border, across the Ganga valley and the front of the Himalayas and south along the mountains of NW Frontier and Baluchistan. The flow of the Ganga is along the deep syncline which is filled with alluvium. The resultant effects have been the pushing back and thrusting up of the Himalayan ranges. Sindhu flows along another syncfline, a down warp and a tear as the Deccan plate pushes northward. This plate tectonic activity has contributed to the occurrence of earthquake with the Himachal Pradesh on a 0.85 isoline prone to recurrent earthquakes. For millennia, people from all parts of Bharat have performed tirthayatras to these sacred waters. The Manasarovar glacier the source of 5 mighty rivers: Sindhu, Sutlej, Sarasvati, MahakaliKarnali-Sharada and Tsangpo-Lohitya-Brahmaputra. Fiver other rivers emanate from the eastern Himalayas: Irawaddy, Salween, Mekong, Yangtse and Huanghe. These glacial rivers nourish 250 crores of people in Bharat, China, Burma, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam.

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Reminiscing Balarama’s pilgrimage along River Sarasvati A mighty river called Sarasvati drained in North-west Bharat and led to the dawn and evolution of a civilization with an unparalleled expansive area and which spanned over a period of two millennia between 3300 BCE and 1500 BCE. River Sarasvati is adored in the R.gveda in 72 r.ca-s. Rishi Gr.tsamada uses the metaphors: ambitame, devitame (best of mothers, best of divinities) to describe the reality of the best of rivers (naditame). Vedic Sarasvati River is not myth; but bhu_mi satyam, ground-truth, she was a 1600 km. long river, with 6 to 8 kms. wide channels, she flowed from Manasarovar glacier in the Himalayas to Prabhas Patan (Somnath) to join the sindhusa_gara (Arabian Sea). One reference in the R.gveda describes thus: giribhya a_ samudra_t, ‘from the mountains to the ocean’. A war was fought on the banks of River Sarasvati. This is described in the Mahabharata. The text of this epic includes over 150 astronomical references; it has been demonstrated as explained in the appended note that one date is consistent with all these observed celestial events verily inscriptions on the sky observed by Veda Vya_sa; that date is about 3000 BCE, from the banks of River Sarasvati. Balarama, elder brother of Kris.n.a goes on a pilgrimage along the Sarasvati River from Dwaraka to Mathura, after visiting Plaks.apras’ravan.a and Yamunotri (Ka_ra_pacava). During the pilgrimage, he visits many a_s’rama-s of Vedic rishis and offers homage to his ancestors. Balarama also offers ma_tr. tarpan.am at Pr.thu_daka (called Pehoa today) at the confluence of Rivers Sarasvati and Markanda. This pilgrimage center is celebrated even today as Ma_tr. Gaya together with Siddhapura on the banks of Little River Sarasvati which joins the Little Rann of Kutch in Gujarat.(Even at the time of the Mahabharata, the river was navigable for a distance of 1600 km. from Paonta Saheb thru Lothal/Dwaraka to Somnath (Prabhas Patan). The pilgrimage along the Sarasvati River is described in great detail in the s’alya parva of the Maha_bharata. So, our epics do contain valuable historical, geographical information of ancient Bharat. The story of the discovery of the Vedic River Sarasvati is matched in grandeur by the ongoing project to make the River flow again upto Gujarat. The work has already progressed upto Mohangar.h in Jaisalmer District in Rajasthan with a 40 feet wide and 12 feet deep channel which has helped stem the march of the Marusthali desert and has resulted in afforestation of the desert. The afforestation of Marusthali desert has started in 2002, thanks to the rebirth of Sarasvati. Sarasvati river will flow again, within the next five years, from Manasarovar to Sabarmati River in Gujarat when the interlinking of rivers projects gets completed soon.

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Sarasvati: discovery and rebirth Discovery of the most extensive civilization of 4th millennium, discovery of a mighty river of earlier millennia A discovery of a civilization reported in 1924 resulted in rewriting the story of civilization, a paradigm shift in the understanding of evolution and chronology of Bharatiya civilization. A discovery and rebirth of a great river which nurtured this civilization will result in a paradigm shift in the understanding of the indigenous origins and autochthonous evolution of Bharatiya civilization. Equally stunning is the fact that this river which was desiccated in the waning phases of the civilization is now being revived thanks to the brilliant work done by scientists and engineers of Bharat. Indeed, the civilization did not die; it is within Bharat even today. The cultural markers of the civilization continue within Bharat. As the river flows again from Manasarovar glacier in the Himalayas to Sabarmati River in Gujarat, the historical fact dawns that the civilization did not fall after all. It continues to the present day in many facets of what may be called Bharatiya culture. A historical investigation has thus resulted in a developmental opportunity of unprecedented magnitude. Together with the rebirth of Sarasvati to drain northwest Bharat again, plans have been launched to create a National Water Grid which will result in bringing Brahmaputra waters to the central, eastern and southern regions of Bharat, upto Kanyakumari. Rebirth of Sarasvati and impetus for a National Water Grid The Sarada-Yamuna link (E) and Yamuna-Sirsa Branch of Western Yamuna Canal (Rajasthan) constitute the trunk streams of reborn Sarasvati. Projects are ongoing for watershed management, rain-water harvesting and harnessing of ground water resources to augment the water resource availability in the cultural sites in upstream Sarasvati in sites such as Adi Badri, Kapala Mochan, Bilaspur, Pehoa and Sirsa. These steps provide an impetus to constitute a National Water Grid to ensure equitable distribution of water resources in all parts of Bharat through interlinking of Himalayan and Peninsular rivers.

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The birthplace of Sarasvati was the glacier close to Harki-dun valley in the Svargarohini mountain ranges of the Himalayas. Mahabharata describes the origin as Plaks.a Pras’ravan.a. The course of the river traversed through Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, Rann of Kutch and Gujara to join the Sindhu sa_gara at Prabhas Patan (Somnath). R.gveda refers to this flow as “giribhya a_ samudra_t” (from the mountain to the sea). Pr.thudaks (Pehoa) is the place where River Markanda joins River Sarasvati and is celebrated by millions of pilgrims, as a site for the performance of s’ra_ddham in veneration of their ancestors In her journey, River Sarasvati received the tributaries of River Tamasa (referred to by Va_lmi_ki in the Ramayana), River Giri, River Yamuna, River Bata, River Markanda, River Somb, River Ghaggar, River Dr.s.advati, River Sutlej, River Aruna, River Chautang, and other streams flowing from the foothills of the Siwalik ranges.

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Siwalik hills were left-laterally displaced. NNWSSE-trending tear fault is still active. The earlier westflowing rivers were swung southwards, following the path of the fault. The Bata stream which joins Yamuna from the west has a very wide valley. [NRSA, ISRO, Hyderabad]

The course of the river has been fully traced over a distance of 1,600 kms. From Manasarovar glacier in W. Tibet (with an average width of over 6-8 kms. and at one point at Shatrana, 60 kms. south of Patiala,, a width of 20 kms. of palaeo-channels) to Somnath. This has been established thanks to the availability early on of Landsat images and later IRS 1-c and 1-d satellite images provided by Indian Space Research Organization, ground morphological studies done by the Central Ground Water Authority of India, the

tritium analysis work of atomic scientiss in the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, and glaciological/seismological studies by many scientists. The scientific investigations have proved the historicity of the geographical information provided in the Mahabharata about the course of River Sarasvati described in S’alya Parva during the course of the pilgrimage undertaken by Balarama, Kr.s.n.a’s elder brother, from Dwaraka through Somnath to Plaks.a Pras’ravan.a traversing pilgrimage 23

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sites and a_s’ramas of R.s.is such as Udapa_na, Camasobheda, S’ivodbheda, Na_godbheda, Pr.thudaka (modern Pehoa), Ka_ra_pacava (Yamunotri). the Triveni Sangamam and of Sutlej river towards Sindhu. Sarasvati River was thus deprived of glacial, Himalayan waters. It flows even today as a small stream, dependent on monsoon waters of the Siwalik ranges near Adi Badri (near Yamunanagar, Kurukshetra). People called Parvatis in Har-ki-dun valley (the origin point of River Sarasvati near Yamunotri) even today celebrate an annual festival honouring Duryodhana – an emphatic affirmation of the historicity of Mahabharata. TheMahabharata war was fought on the banks of River Sarasvati. Veda Vyasa was observing the celestial events from the banks of River Sarasvati and he has recorded 150 astronomical events in the Great Epic. These events have been proved Archaeological settlements in Sarasvati using modern Planetarium Computer River Basin: Kalibangan, Bana_wali, Ra_khigarhi. [After Joshi and Bisht, 1994]. Software to have occurred in 3000 BCE. Out of 2,600 archaeological sites in NorthMahabharata and Sarasvati thus become the west Bharat, 2,000 sites have been discovered sheet anchors of modern and ancient history on the banks of River Sarasvati making it the Sarasvati Civilization of circa 3300 to 1500 BCE (Before Common Era). Major sites are: Rupanagar, Rakhigarhi, Banawali, Lakhmirwala (Bhatinda, Punjab), Kalibangan, Dholavira, Dwaraka, Lothal, Somnath. Satellite images and geomorphological studies have established the entire course of Vedic Sarasvati River over a distance of 1,600 kms. from Manasarovar glacier (Himalayas) to Somnath (Prabhas Patan, Gujarat). BARC scientists have proved through tritium analysis the channels) carrying glacial waters dated to over 8,400 years Before Present. Plate tectonics caused by the clash of Indian Plate and Eurasian plate resulted in the tilting of the terrain of north-west Bharat This led to migration of Yamuna river towards Ganga to constitute of Bharat. 24

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Early and mature Harappan settlements in Cholistan Ganweriwala. [After Mughal, 1974].

–

Hakra sector of Sarasvati River:

Density of settlements in Siwalik foothills, upper reaches of River Sarasvati. This denotes upstream migration. Note: absence of settlements west of Ropar on Sutlej. [After Joshi and Bisht, 1994].

The trunk stream which joined River Sarasvati was River Sutlej which emanated from Mt. Kailas, Manasarovar glacier. At one of the sites of the civilization, on the left bank of River Ravi, the site of Harappa, S'iva lingam-s were found in situ, attesting to the antiquity of a_gama and Eka-rudravra_tya tradition in Bharat. R.gveda notes that both vra_tya-s and yajn~ika-s were children of Praja_pati.

Kamalagad.ha, Markanda River course (Shri Govinda Kheka_d.e) (After Bapat, V.D., and Umapathy, K.R. (tr.), 1994, Lost’ River Sarasvati, Mysore, Bharatiya Itihasa Sankalana Samithi (tr. from Vakankar, L.S. and Parcure, C.N., 1992, Lupta Sarasvati_ Nadi_ s’odh (Marathi). A secondary cause for the desiccation of the river system was climate change. Climatic changes may perhaps constitute only one of the reasons for the loss of vegetation and consequent migrations of people. “The weight of modern opinion appears to be against desiccation in the true sense of an actual climatic change; but prolonged human interference with natural drainage, deforestation of the Siwaliks, and so on have undoubtedly led to marked deterioration in ground-water conditions and so in vegetation. The accounts of Alexander’s campaigns and Mogul hunts bear witness to considerable forest growth; and today on the more arid margins strong winds and frequent but torrential rains have led to a serious spread of shifting sands and more serious if less spectacular deterioration of good cultivated land.” (Spate, O.H.K and Learmonth, A.T.A., 1967, India and Pakistan: A general and regional geography. 3rd edn. London: Methuen & Co.: 519).

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Sarasvati River is seen to be lost in the desert near Beriwala wheren an inland delta is formed (After Possehl, G.L., 1999, Fig. 3.139). “(a palaeochannel) ends as a shallow depression near Beriwala. On the LANDSAT imagery the lower course looks as if it debouched into the sea, but obviously it was unlikely that the sea was so far inland in Mid-Holocene. It is possible, however, that the chain of tectonic events which diverted the Sutlej and the easterly rivers away from the Ghaggar, caused a depression into which the Ghaggar, deprived of its major source of water, died into a lake-like depression.” (Agrawal and Sood, 1982: 236). No settlements have been found around Beriwala; however, dense Harappan settlements have been found in hundreds around Fort Marot and Fort Derawar. (Mughal, 1997: 9). “Prehistoric settlement in Sind...The temporal priority of Amrian and Kot Dijian occupations to Harappan levels has been well established by excavations at the respective type-sites (Amri and Kot Diji), and qualifies them as pre-Harappan, or in Mughal’s terminology, Early Harappan (Mughal 1970). Although few in number, available radiocarbon dates (MASCA corrected) for this phase indicate a time span from about 3600 to 2500 BC (see Dales, George F., 1973, Archaeological and Radiocarbon Chronologies for Protohistoric South Asia, in: South Asian Archaeology, Norman Hammond, ed., pp. 157-169, London. Duckworth)...Indeed, the settlement pattern maps show a clear ‘movement’ of population through time from the Sind Kohistan and Kirtihar regions to the Lower Indus Basin from the end of the fourth millennium to the middle of the third millennium... “Mughal’s (1980) recent explorations in Cholistan (along the now dry bed of the Hakra River), Bahawalpur District, Pakistan, have revealed a long history of occupation in the region beginning approximately with the fourth millennium. In this region, Mughal discovered 41 Kot Dijian-related sites...Semi-precious stones—agate, carnelian, chalcedony—occur in small

quantities in Sind Kohistan. Eastern Kutch is another source area for agates. Copper sources are known in Rajasthan, Kutch, Las Bela, Jalawan, and Sarawan in Baluchistan, and in eastern Iran. Steatite can be found in eastern Kutch and in south-eastern Iran... 26

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“The Harappan settlement pattern indicates a shift away from the western sources for the most widely and frequently used minerals, e.g., copper and stones, such as agate, carnelian, chalcedony, and steatite...The settlement pattern thus shifts to the northeast (Cholistan), the east (Lower Indus Basin), and the southeast (Kutch) to control more closely the exploitation of resources from their sources. The major exchange routes shift away from the hills in the west and onto the rivers and their plains to the east.” .” (Louis, 1986, Recent explorations in Sind: paleogeography, regional ecology, and prehistoric settlement patterns (ca 4000 – 2000 BC), in: Jacobson, Jerome, ed., Studies in the Archaeology of India and Pakistan, New Delhi, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., p. 82).

Palaeochannels in Sindh (After Possehl, G.L., 1999, Fig. 3.121). Using aerial photographs (Holmes, D.A., 1968; The recent history of the Indus. The Geographical Journal, 134(3): 367-82; Lower Indus Project, 1965, Lower Indus Report: Physical Resources. Vol. 2, Geomorphology, Soils and Watertable. Karachi: Ferozsons), Louis Flam has delineated Holocene course remnants of the Indus rivers and also courses ancestral to the present course but not as old as the Holocene course remnants (ca. 8000-4000 BC). On the western side of the present-day Sindhu river are the oldest Holocene course remnants: Jacobabad, Shahdadkot, Warah; and in the southern Sindhu delta are the oldest Holocene course remnants: Sanghar, Samaro-Dhoro Badahri courses. The palaeochannels ancestral to the present-day course but not as old as the Holocene remnants are: Kandhkot on the west and Khairpur and Shahdadpur on the east. This delineation seems to confirm the statement made in Marshall’s Mohenjodaro report that Mohenjodaro ca. 2500 BC was an island caught between the Sindhu River and the Eastern Nara (what we now to be the Sarasvati River) course. The delineation of the ancient courses of the Sindhu follow the arguments provided by Butler, B.E., 1950, A theory of prior streams as a causal factor of soil occurrence in the riverine plain of southeastern Australia. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, 1: 231-52; Pels, Simon, 1964, The present and ancestral Murray River System. Australian Geographical Studies, 2: 111-19; and Schumm, S.A., 1968, River adjustments to altered hydrologic regimen—Murrumbidgee River and palaeochannels, Australia. United States Geological Survey Professional Paper. Washingtron D.C.: U.S. Geological Survey. The Kandhkot Course which is “…for most of its length a single channel, narrow, deep, and winding, running parallel to the modern Indus river from Kashmore, through Kandhkot which is located on its bank, to the south of Shikarpur, where it is cut by the modern Indus.” (Holmes, 1968: 371). The Khairpur Course begins below Sukkur. The Shahdadpur Course “…emerges from the modern river about eight kilometers below Sarkand and can be traced just west of Shahdadpur, east of Tando Adam and south to Tgando Allahyer. It has the same features of the deep, winding channels and high bar deposits as Khairpur Course and is probably a continuation of it” (Holmes, 1968: 373). Speculations about River Sarasvati History of ancient Bharat is being written by scientists whose investigations have yielded spectacular perspectives on the drainage system in north-west Bharat. Doubts are cast on the dates when the migration of Yamuna occurred and also on the links with Sarasvati through the Chautang river course. One view is that the migration could be dated to the Pleistocene or the Early Holocene, based on the evidence of well developed terraces in the upper Yamuna. “Yamuna-like rivers, rising from the Himalaya, stopped flowing in the study area well before the Protohistoric period. This assessment is based on the lack of Yamuna type alluvium at a depth less than 8 m below the present day floodplain and especially by its absence below the Protohistoric sites. Alluvium deposited during the early Holocene, just below the Protohistoric 27

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period, was similar to the Ghaggar one.” (Courty, M.A., 1989, Integration of sediment and soil information in the reconstruction of protohistoric and historic landscapes of the Ghaggar Plain, north-west India. In, Karen Frifelt and Per Sorensen, eds., South Asian Archaeology 1985. Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies, Occasional papers No. 4: 255-59). Doubts are also expressed about the Sutlej having joined the Sarasvati by comparing the soil types of the Sotar (Hakra) which are fine, fertile alluvium and hence, different from the sandy silt of Sutlej: “The soil (of Sotar) is all rich alluvial clay, such as is now being annually deposited in the depressions which are specimens of these numerous pools which have given the Sarasvati its name, ‘the river of Pools’; and there seems little doubt that the same action as now goes on, has been going on for centuries, and the numerous mountain torrents of the Indo-Ganges watershed, fed, not by the snows but by the rainfall of the Sub-Himalayan ranges, wandering over the prairie in many shallow channels, joined in the Sotra or Hakra valley and formed a considerable stream, at first perhaps perennial but afterwards becoming absorbed after a gradually shorterning course, as the rainfall decreased over the lower Himalayan slopes, and as the spread of irrigation in the submountain tract intercepted more and more of the annual floods…” (Wilson 1884, quoted in Oldham, R.D., 1887: 334). Oldham argues that alluvial processes change over time and notes the presence of Naiwal branches of Sutlej in Bhatinda and neighbouring districts linking with Sarasvati. This observation is substantiated by the finds of three large Harappan sites: Lakhmirwala, Hasanpur Two and Curnikalan One. (Joshi, J.P., 1986, Settlement patterns in the third, second and first millennia in India—with special reference to recent discoveries in Punjab. In, K.C. Varma et al eds., Rtambhara: Studies in Indology. Ghaziabad: Society for Indic Studies: 134-39).

Present day and ancient courses of Shatadru (Sutlej), Vipas (Beas), Parasuni (Ravi) (Sridhar et al. 1999). A good example of historians’ speculations about River Sarasvati (without referring to the welldocumented and well-authenticated results of recent scientific investigations of geological and environmental sciences) is the surmise made by Irfan Habib that Sirsa river might have been the River Sarasvati mentioned in the Rigveda: “This river rises near Kalka, the railway station for Shimla, and runs northwestwards in a long valley with the Himalayan ranges on one side and the Siwaliks on the other. It finally joins the Sutlej, the great Himalayan river coming from the north. After the junction the 28

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latter pierces the Siwaliks above Rupar where it makes a great change of direction to flow almost due west. The tributary we are speaking of is a perennial river with a respectably long catchment area and, in its lower course, forms a broad channel, which still bears the name Sirsa. [See Survey of India, QuarterInch Sheets 53A (6th ed., 1952) and 53B (4th ed., 1946)]…Compare ‘Sirsa’ in Hisar district of Haryana, known until the fourteenth century as Sarsati.[Ibn Battuta travelled to Delhi from Ajodhan (mod. Pakpattan) on the Sutlej via Sarsati, 4 days’ march from Ajodhan and producing excelent rice (H.A.R. Gibb, transl., The Travels of Ibn Battuta, AD 1325-1354, Indian ed., Delhi, 1993, III, p.617). The place is also mentioned as being near Hansi with the same spelling in Ziya Barani, Tarikh-i-Firozshahi, ed. Saiyid Ahmad Khan, W. Nassau Lees and Kabir al-Din, Bib.Ind., Calcutta, 1862, p.556.] The Sirsa river too similarly enters 14th-century historical record as Sarsati. This occurs in the accounts of an attempt of Sultan Firoz Tughluq (1351-88) to cut through a hill in order to find a point of release for the river southwards. The contemporary work Sirat-i Firozshahi has a description of the Sultan’s massive enterprise to capture the river (‘Sarsati’) for the plains; [Anonymous, Sirat-i Firozshahi, Bankipur Lib. MS, ff.38b-39a.] but the Tarikh-i Mubarakshahi (early 15th century) has a geographically more interesting account of what the project was about: “After some time he [Sultan Firoz] heard that near Barvar [?] there is a mound of earth. A river flows by [lit. through] that big mountain and runs into the Satuldar [Sutlej]. It is called Sarsati. This side of the hill is a stream called the Salima stream. [The Sultan] thought that if that earthen mountain is dug through, the river Sarsati would move into this stream and running to Sirhind, Mansurpur, and then to Sunam, would flow perennially.”[Yahya Sirhindi, Tarikh-i Mubarakshahi, ed. M. Hidayat Husain, Bib. Ind., Calcutta, 1931, p.130.]… "Tughluq (he) cut another canal (jui, stream) from the Ghaghar and brought it to the fort of Sarsati [Sirsa] and from there he carried it to Harni Khera."[Yahya Sirhindi, Tarikh-i Mubarakshahi, p.129.] If the fort of Sarsati (modern Sirsa), to judge by its name, was on one of the old beds of the Sarasvati, Firoz must have run a channel from the Ghaghar into that bed and so joined the two streams.” (Irfan Habib, 2001, Imagining River Sarasvati: A Defence of Commonsense)

Historian Irfan Habib errs in trying to extapolate the records of the historical periods into the 5th and 4th millennia BCE ignoring the presence of major archaeological sites on the Sarasvati River Basin: sites such as Rakhigarhi, Kalibangan, Ropar, Banawali, Kalibangan, Gurnikalan and Hasni (the last two sites in Bhatinda District which are twice as large as either Mohenjodaro or Harappa). His views also run counter to the evidence presented by KS Valdiya in his Sarasvati: The River that disappeared (2002). Of particular reference are the reference to Shatrana (60 kms. south of Patiala) where the width of the palaeo-channels of two streams joining there (palaeo-courses of River Sutlej and River Yamuna) is as wide as 20 kms.! The average width of the dry-bed of Drishadvati beyond Sirsa through Ghaggar-Hakra-Nara is 6 kms., an evidence of a substantial flow of glacier waters from the Himalayas to the Rann of Kutch. Habib also ignores the evidence presented by Sridhar, Merh et al on the three delta areas of the mouth of River Sarasvati east of Dholavira in the Rann of Kutch. The explanation offered by KS Valdiya that the course of Tamasa (Tons)-Giri-Yamuna could have been through the Bata River in the divide between Himalayas and Siwalik range before joining with the River Sarasvati is consistent with the evidence presented by plate tectonics of a lateral shift in segments of the Siwalik range. Yamuna tear near Paonta Doon valley explains the eastward migration of Yamuna River which was earlier a tributary of River Sarasvati through the Drishadvati stream. Considering that the civilization was essentially dependent upon the use of the water-ways to conduct exchange of resources and produced artifacts, the presence of sites on Kalibangan and Rakhigarhi on Drishadvati River can be explained as part of a river system which facilitated contacts between these sites and other sites of the civilization on the Sarasvati River basin. Another significant evidence ignored by Habib is that there are no archaeological sites on River Sutlej west of Ropar. This lends enormous weight to the arguments of Yashpal et al that the ancient courses of River Sutlej were indeed joining River Sarasvati at Shatrana through a southward course and that this course was deflected by 90 degree-diversion of the River Sutlej at Ropar, 29

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explained again as caused by plate tectonics. That there is no mention at all about the migration of river courses caused by plate tectonics is a major omission in analyzing the overwhelming scientific evidence for a river which had flowed from Himalayas to Rann of Kutch (and beyond through Nal Sarovar) into Saurashtra, Gulf of Khambat and the Arabian Ocean, perhaps joining the ocean at Prabhas Patan. This latter surmise gains increasing validity – the Saurashtra coastline between Lothal-Rojdi-Prabhas Patan might have been at a lower elevation after circa 10,000 years ago -based on the finds of submergence of palaeo-channels of Rivers Narmada and Tapati by the incursion of the sea and the formation of the Gulf of Khambat. "...the Indian paleontologist M.R. Shani noticed silt deposits perched many feet above the level of the Indus plain near the city of Hyderabad in what is now West Pakistan. This and other evidence suggested to him that the area's ancient floods had not been mere river overflows but events on a far larger scale. Major tectonic upheavals, Sahni proposed, might have blocked the Indus River from time to time; each such stoppage would have caused the gradual formation of a huge upstream lake that might then have persisted for decades... Raikes's preliminary research not only suggests that the dam-and-lake hypothesis proposed 25 years ago by Sahni is tenable but also singles out an area near Sehwan, some 90 miles downstream from Mohenjo-daro, as the most probable area of tectonic disturbance affecting the city... Both the multiple layers of silt at Mohenjo-daro and the evidence of multilevel reconstruction suggest that the city was flooded in this prolonged and damaging fashion no less than five times and perhaps more... Could such a series of natural catastrophes, rathern than the Aryan invasion, have brought about the collapse of the Harappan civilization?" ((From: George F. Dales, 1972, The decline of Harappans, in: Scientific American readings: Old world archaeology: foundations of civilization, San Francisco, WH Freeman and Company, p. 160). Dholavira (Kotda), Rann of Kutch in relation to the ancient Sarasvati Delta (After Sridhar et al., Late Quaternary Drainage Disruption in Northwestern India, in: Vedic Sarasvati, 1999, Fig. 4, p. 196). The Rann of Kutch and the Little Rann of Kutch are not deserts. They are stretches of sand leveled to an asphalt-like consistency by salty efflorescence and brine. The area remains waterlogged during monsoons and until the onset of winter. The area is dotted with low hills. The sandstones of the area constitute the veritable storehouses of underground water.

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"A review of the regional archaeological assemblages indicates a cultural continuity, without

stratigraphic break, demonstrating that the Harappan culture did not end abruptly, as was thought earlier (Possehl, Gregory L., Indus Valley Civilization in Saurashtra, New Delhi). Nevertheless, there was a change during the second millennium BC that led to the abandonment of cities like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Lothal and many other Harappan sites. In Gujarat, the settlements of the Mature Harappan phase are few and far between compared to the large number of settlements of later phases... the settlements at Nageswar, Lothal and the sites in Kutch amply demonstrate that the settlements were developed mainly for trade and access to raw materials or to facilitate administration rathern than simply subsistence activities. The expansionist tendency on the part of Harappans towards resource areas is further substantiated by the discovery of Shortugai in the lapis lazuli producing region of northern Afghanistan (Frankfort, H.P. and M.H. Pottier, 1978, Sondage preliminaire sur l'establishment protohistorique Harappeen et Post-Harappeen de Shortagai, Arts Asiatique, 34: pp. 28-85)." (Kuldeep K. Bhan, Late Harappan Settlements of Western India, with specific reference to Gujarat, pp. 219-234 in: Wisconsin Archaeological Reports 2, 1989). Sindhu River at Sukkur and old channels (After Lambrick, 1964: Fig. 9; Possehl, G.L., 1999, Fig. 3.120). 31

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Some indologists have wrongly assumed that the reference of Sarayu in the following r.ca is to Hari Rud in Afghanistan; the argument is that: Sindhu (Avestan, Hindu) is Indus, Sarasvati (Avestan, Harakhvaiti) is Arghandab-Helmand, and Sarayu (Avestan, Haroiva), is Hari Rud.[The Avestan names are in the Vendidad, 1. Cf. Gherardo Gnoli, The Idea of Iran, Rome, 1989, p.55. Gnoli emphasizes the eastern-Iranian context of Avestan geography. Cf. Aurel Stein, ‘Afghanistan in Avestan Geography’, Indian Antiquary, XV (1886), pp.21-23; see p.22 for ‘Haraeva’ and ‘Harahvaiti’.] RV9.64-9: Let the great streams come with their mighty help, Sindhu, Sarasvati and Sarayu with waves. You Flood Divinities, you mothers, animating all, promise us water rich in fatness and in balm. The use of the word ‘sindhu’ in this r.ca can as well be interpreted as a general appellation of a mighty river and hence an attribute of River Sarasvati. The r.ca can thus be reinterpreted as: “Let the great streams come with their mighty help of River Sarasvati and Sarayu with waves… You Flood Divinities, you mothers…” ‘Harakhvaiti’ is equated with Arghandab, a tributary of the Helmand (Avestan, Haetmant). Both streams are separately named in the Vendidad. It should also be noted that Helmand is a minor stream in a basin with little rain in the cathment area, does not flow into the sea, but ends an inland in a region of marshes and lakes (Hamun-i Helmand). Even assuming for the sake of argument that this interpretation is valid, it points to an Out of Bharat movement, moving northeastwards, away from the Sindhu! Before understanding the flow of River Sarasvati independent of the present-day course of River Sutlej (S’utudri_ as mentioned in the R.gveda), and independent of River Sindhu, it is apposite to review the recorded events in the recent evolutionary history of the River Sindhu (Indus). ``Evidence from many sources, including that of archaeological remains associated with old river courses, indicates that a major river, stemming mainly from the same sources as the present Sutlej, flowed through Northern Rajasthan, Bahawalpur and Sind-- to the southeast of the present course of the Sutlej and the Indus -- in the third to second millennium BC. This river, known as the Sarasvati in its upper course, at different times either joined the lower course of the Indus in Sind, or found its way independently into the Arabian Sea via Rann of Kutch.'' (Allchin, B., Goudie, A., and Hegde, K., 1978).

"...To C.F. Oldham (1874 and 1893) and R.D. Oldham (1886), two officers of the Geological Survey of India goes the credit of focussing attention on palaeo-drainage of northwestern India. C.F. Oldham as early as 1874 had given a preliminary account of the traces of a lost river in the Thar deser (Great Indian Desert). Subsequently, in 1893, he came out with a detailed paper, wherein he described the Rigvedic Sarasvati and speculated on the circumstances leading to its subsequent disappearance... C.F. Oldham (1893) reported the existence of a dry bed course of a great river within the sands, which once flowed across the desert to the sea. He has referred to this channel as Hakra which flowed through Bikaner and Bahawalpur into the Rann of Kach. This rive according to him represented the former course of Shatadu (Sulej) and the Sarasvati was a major tributary joining it. At some point of time when he Sutlej changed its course westwards to meet Beas and finally the Indus, its abandoned eastern arm viz., Hakra was left as a deserted channel... R.D. Oldham, 1886, On probable changes in the geography of the Punjab and its rivers - a historicogeographical study, J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 55: 322-343: “... we have now seen that a dry river bed 32

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can be traced, practically continuously, from Tohana in Hissar district to the Eastern Narra in Sind ...” R.D. Oldham (Deputy Superintendent, Geological Survey of India) provides a geologist’s account in the earliest attempt to unravel the courses of the ancient Sarasvati River: “Of all the problems with which we are brought in contact when we try to unravel the ancient geography of India, none surpass in terest or difficulty thaose connected with the rivers of the Punjab and Sind. Both interest and difficulty result from the fact that, previous to the advent of English, all civilization and every invader have entered India from the Northwest, and tgheir difficulty from the changes that appear to have taken place in the courses of these rivers during the last three thousand years… “The Lost River of the Indian Desert. We have lost sight of the dry bed of the old river Wandan in Lat. 280 16’, Long. 700 33’. Above this comes a stretch of sixty miles in which the river bed has either been completely obliterated by the drifting sand or at any rate is not marked on the Revenue Survey maps of Bahawalpur, but in Lat. 280 46’, Long. 710 25’ we again find a dry river bed which, under the varying names of Hakra, Sotra, Choya, etc. can be traced through Bahawalpur, Bikanir, and the Sirsa districts till it is lost near Tohana in the Hissar district. Although the connection of these two dry river beds has not yhet been traced (unless we may take a passage— Notes on the Lost River of the Indian Desert, Calcutta Review, LIX, 17, (1874)—in the essay which has more than once been alluded to mean that the writer had personally traced the connection), there can be but little doubt that the two were originally continuous and are the sole remaining traces of that great river which, according to the traditions prevalent throughout the desert, once flowed through this now barren tract to the sea, or, according to other accounts, to the Indus at Sukkur… “Another theory, propounded by an anonymous writer in the Calcutta Review (LX, 351, 1875) is that the Hakra was originally occupied by the Jamuna or a branch of it…but it is certain that it could not have done so since the time of Manu, who mentions Jamuna as joining the Ganges at the modern city of Allahabad; and I have shown that the Hakra was probably a flowing river at a later period than that…the most probable theory is that the anonymous essayist (C.F. Oldham, 1874, Calcutta Review, LIX, pp. 127)…who supposes the Hakra to be the old bed of the Sutlej, which previous to the thirteenth century, did not join the Beas, as it now does, but pursued an independent course to the sea…Mr. Wilson in his final report on the settlement of the Sirsa district…’From the appearance of the Sotar valley and the numerous remains of towns and villages which stud its banks all the way to Bahawalpur, it is evident that at one time it conveyed a much larger volume of water than at present, and probably was the channel of a perennial stream. But though it must have been, as it now, the largest and most important of all the drainage channels between the Sutlej and the Jamuna, it can never have carried a river at all approaching the size to either of these two. The valley is too shallow and shows too few marks of violent flood action for this to have been the case… “The soil is all rich alluvial clay, such as is now being annually deposited in the depressions which are specimens of those numerous pools which have given the Sarasvati its name, ‘The river of Pools’…and the bed of the stream is gradually attaining one uniform slope throughout’…I have quoted this passage as giving a clear statement of the nature of the objections raised, viz., the shallowness of the channel and the difference of its soil from the sandy silt found in the present bed of the Sutlej, and at the same time describing the manner in which it is even now being filled up with the alluvium precisely similar to the existing soil, and different from the sandy silt of the present bed of the Sutlej… “Another objection which has been raised is, that the Sutlej flows in a depression below the level of the plain over which the Sotar pursues its course, and that neither it nor any of the dry river channels, to be mentioned further on, which communicate with it have been traced into connexion with the Sutlej…With regard to the second objection…rivers flow in places in a single well-defined deep channel, but in the 33

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other they spread out over a shallow ill-defined bed or even split up into several distinct channels…but lower down, where the river flowed in a deeper and better defined channel, the dry bed remains distinguishable and marks the former presence of the river… “In the Vedas, the Sutlej is several times mentioned under the name of Satadru, but only in one case is it mentioned or supposed to be mentioned in connection with the Beas, and that is the 33rd hymn of the 3rd Mandala, where the confluence of the S’utudri and the Vipas is referred to…it would not prove that the Sutlej did njot pursue an independent course at a subsequent period, unless we could also prove that the present configuration of the ground, the distinction of Khadir and Bhangar, of strath and upland, existed in Vedic times… “We have now seen that a dry river bed can be traced, practically continuously from Tohana in the Hissar district to the Eastern Narra in Sind…We have seen that the supposed mention of the confluence of the Sutlej and Beas in the Vedas is not conclusive; that, though Ptolemy seems to take the former river into the latter much as is now the case, yet, when we come to the time of the Arab invaders of India, we find a pecular nomenclature of the river, which points to the conclusion that the Sutlej can then only recently have become a tributary of the Beas and so of the Indus; and, moreover, we find a number of dry river channels, all of which lead from within a few miles of the present channel of the Sutlej, and ultimately join the dry bed of the lost river. Taking all these points into consideration, we may well conclude that this Lost River of the Indian Desert was none other than the Sutlej, and that it was lost when the river turned westwards to join the Beas… “The Sarasvati of the Vedas. Probably the most difficult of all these problems relating to the rivers of Northern India is the persistent reference, in the Vedas, to the Sarasvati as a large and important river. It is impossible to suppose that rational beings would have selected the insignificant streamlet, now known by that name, whose bed contains no water for a large portion of the year, to associate it on equal terms with the rivers of the Punjab and the Indus, still less to exalt it above them all, to describe it as “chief and purest of rivers flowing from the mountains to the sea”, or as “undermining its banks with mighty and impetuous waves.” The only conclusion open to us is, then, either that there has been some great change in the rivers of this region, or that the Sarasvati of the Vedas has no connection with the insignificant streamlet which we now cal by that name. “The latter of these two is the opinion adopted by Mr. E. Thomas (JRAAS, XV (new ser.), 1883, pp. 357386) in an essay on the rivers of the Vedas. According to him, a part of the ancient Aryans, after leaving their native country at the headwaters of the Oxus, remained for some time in the valley of the Helmund, references to which were incorporated in their sacred hymns. After a while they were again compelled to migrate, and, on reaching the Punjab, tried to revive the seven rivers of their original home; unfortunately, however, there were only six large rivers, but the Sarasvati being a stram that lost itself in the lake or tank of Kurukshetra reminded them in a manner of the Sarasvati they had left behind them, the name was transferred to it, and the seventh river was found. In favour of this hypothesis may be mentioned the fact that, in the Zend, the Helmund is called the Harakhaiti, a word identified with the Sanskrit Sarasvati, according to the recognized rules of transliteration, but there is little else that can be produced in favour of this highly ingenious but far-fetched hypothesis. It implies an almost incredible degree of childishness in the ancient Aryans to suppose that they would confuse together a petty streamlet and a large, navigable river simply for the reason that the one ended in a large lake, while the other flowed into a tank of jhil. “Rejecting the ingenious explanation of Mr. Thomas, there is no alternative but a considerable change in the hydrography of the region… The configuration of the ground west of the high bank of the Jamuna is that of a very broad and gently sloping cone; this is clearly shown by the general directions of the minor water courses west of the Jamuna, which, as a glance at a sufficiently large-scale male will show, radiate 34

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from the point where the Jamuna leaves the hills…The Jamuna must, consequently, during the period which geologists call Recent, have flowed sometimes into the Ganges and sometimes through the Punjab; but it is not possible for geology pure and simple to give the exact date at which the Jamuna last changed its course. “Two of these now minor drainage channels, the present Sarsuti and the Chitang, are continuous with the Sotar, and die out after approaching within a fes miles of the old high bank of the Jamuna; and it is not impossible that one or the other may mark approximately the course of the Jamuna, or Sarasvati of the Vedic period. “In this connection, a coincidence may be mentioned which is perhaps germane; when about the commencement of the century, the Brahmaputra, a sacred river like the Sarasvati, broke away from its old course and flowed west of the Madhopur jungle to join the Ganges, the new channel thus formed was immediately christened the Jamuna, a name it retains to this day, while the old channel now deserted by the main stream is still known as the Brahmaputra. Possibly, a similar explanation may be assigned to the name of the Jamuna, which, originally known as the Sarasvati, struck out a new course for itself during the Vedic period and doing so, acquired a new name. If this be so, the native tradition that the old Sarasvati joins the Ganges at Allahabad is, unwittingly, a true statement of fact. [This observation of Oldham gains credence by reviewing some semantics related to the word: there is a possible that the word, ‘Yamuna’, is derived from the root, ‘yam’ meaning ‘ to restrain, to guide towards (RV 1.84.6; 5.73.3; 9.44.5) with derivations such as yami_ = twin (RV 5.47.5); yamya = twins (RV 3.55.1); yamuna = restraining, governing (Vedic.lex.) “The most weighty and indeed almost the only, argument that can be uirged against this hypothesis must be derived from the mention of both the Sarasvati and the Jamuna in the Vedas, and even in the same verse of the same hymn. It may have been, however, that the Jamuna, after leaving the hills, divided its waters…and that the portion which flowed to the Punjab was known as the Sarasvati whiel that which joined the Ganges was called the Yamuna… “It may perhaps be thought that there is some inconsistency in thus claiming the Sotar first as an old course of the Sutlej and then of the Jamuna, but this is apparent, not real, for, as I have pointed out, the Sotar takes its rise where the fans of these two rivers meet, and must as soon as they were building up the deposits they are now excavating, have constantly been receiving a supply of water from one or other of the two. It so happens that the last change of course of both rivers, previous to that change of condition which led to their excavating the exting depressed channels, took the one into the Beas, the other into the Ganges, and a dry bed is all that remains of what was once a large river flowing through the fertile land. “Conclusion. I have now shown that we may take it as proved that there have been great changes in the hydrography of the Punjab and Sind within the Recent period of geology, that there are abundant indications, not amounting to proof, that these changes have taken place within the historic period, and that the most important of them, by which a large tract of once fertile country has been converted into a desert, appears to have taken place after several centuries of the Christian era had sped. It is hopeless to expect an authoritative settlement of the question; the physical conditions cannot be said to favour the idea, but they are far from being inconsistent with so recent a drying up of the “Lost River of the Indian Desert”.(R.D. Oldham, 1886, On probable changes in the geography of the Punjab and its rivers an historico-geographical study, Journal of Asiatic Society Bengal, v. 55, pp. 322-343). Following R.D. Oldham’s geological account of the hydrological changes in Northwest India which could explain the ancient courses of the Sarasvati River, C.F. Oldham provides a review of the earth science perspective from the evidence provided by the ancient texts. ‘Sarasvati in the R.gveda. In the R.gveda we are told of a large and rapid river flowing from the mountains to the sea. The Maha_bha_rata 35

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described the same stream as losing itself in the sands. At the present day we find a river, wide and rapid during floods, but containing little water at other times, joining another stream of similar character, and thereupon losing its name, the river below the confluence being now called Ghaggar… We find (RV 7.95.1.2: “…Alone among all rivers Sarasvati listened, she who goes pure from the mountains as far as the sea. She who knows of the manifold wealth of the world has poured out to man her fat milk” With reference to this passage, Prof. Max Muller remarks: “Here we see Samudra used clearly in the sense of sea, the Indian Sea, and we have at the same time a new indication of the distance which separates the Vedic age from the later Sanskrit literature. Though it may not be possible to determine by geological evidence, the time of the changed course which modified the southern area of Punjab and caused the Sarasvati to disappear in the desert, still the fact remains that the loss of the Sarasvati is later than the Vedic age, and that, at that time, the waters of Sarasvati reached the sea.”…Disappearance of Sarasvati at Vina_s’ana. In the R.gveda nothing is said of the disappearance of the Sarasvati in the sands. At the time of Manu, however, the waters of the sacred river no longer flowed to the sea. From the Maha_bha_rata we learn that “Baladeva proceeded to Vina_s’ana, wehre the Sarasvati has become invisible in consequence of her contempt for S’u_dras and Abhi_ras.”…And in another place we find: “Here is the beautiful and sacred river Sarasvati, full of waters; and here is the spot known as Vina_s’ana, or the spot where the Sarasvati disappears. Here is the gate of the country of the Nisha_das, and it was from hatred of them that the Sarasvati sank into the earth, that the Nisha_das might not see her.” From a reason being thus assigned for the disappearance it would seem to have been then recognized that there had been a time when the sacred stream did not lose itself in the sands. Although the Vedic accounts of the Sarasvati differ so much from those of less ancient authorities, and from the actual condition of the stream now known by that name, it is very unlikely that the river to which so important a position is assigned in the Brahmanical writings could ever have lost its identity, or that its name and sacred character could have been transferred to another and less considerable stream. Indeed it is tolerably certain that the Sarasvati of the present day is the river mentioned in the Veda and the Maha_bha_rata. ‘Gap in the hills and the course of Sarasvati. The Sarasvati rises in the outer Himalayan range, usually called Siwalik, close to the watershed of Upper India, and not far from the gtap in the hills by which the Jamuna enters the plains…After a south-westerly course of nearly 100 miles, and after receiving its tributaries the Ma_rkanda and other streams, the Sarasvati now joins the Ghaggar near the village of Rasula. Although the river below the confluence is makre in our maps as Ghaggar, it was formerly the Sarasvati; that name is still known among the people, and the famous fortress of Sarsuti or Sarasvati was built upon its banks nearly 100 miles below the present junction with Ghaggar. How the sacred river came to lose its own name and acquire that of its former tributary is not known. It may have been owing to some change in its course in comparatively modern times. There is no mention in the Veda or Maha_bha_rata of any such river as the Ghaggar, or of any important stream between the Sutadru and the Sarasvati. The ancient fortress off Sarsuti or Sarasvati (now Sirsa) was a place of importance upto the time of the early Mahommedan invasions. Its site is marked by immense mounds rising some sixty feet above the plain. Some seven or eight miles to the eastward of Sirsa is another old bed of Sarasvati. This is partially obliterated, but it apparently joined the channel just referred to, not far from Sirsa. It may, however, have once been continuous with the old river bed, called in our maps as Chitrang… ‘Why was Sarasvati lost?…The view held by several writers on the subject appear to be that it was owing to a shrinking of the stream caused by diminished rainfall. This, however, could not possibly have been the cause. It would have involved the existence, previously, of such meteorological conditions as must have rendered the holy land of the Brahmans an uninhabitable swamp…The neighbouring large rivers…some of them, in fact, which are mentioned in the Vedas as being fordable, are so with difficulty at the present day…Sarasvati, Ghaggar, and their tributaries…are fed by rain only; and not by the melting snows…

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“It was not, then, owing to the shrinking of its stream that the waters of the Sarasvati lost themselves in the sands instead of flowing onwards to the ocean. Its ancient course, however, is continuous with the dry bed of a great river which, as local legends assert, once flowed through the desert to the ssea. In confirmation of these traditions, the channel referred to, which is called Hakra or Sotra (perhaps a corruption of Satroda or Satruda, the old name of the Sutlej; just as Hakra is a modified form of Sagara, Sankra, ‘ocean’) , can be traced through the Bikanir and Bahawalpur States into Sind, and thence onwards to the Rann of Kutch. The existence of this river at no very remote period and the truth of the legends which assert the ancient fertility of the lands though which it flowed, are attested by the ruins which everywhere overspread what is now an arid sandy waste. Throughout this tract are scattered mounds, marking the sites of cities and towns. And there are strongholds still remaining, in a very decayed state, which were places of importance at the time of the early Mahommedan invasion. Amongst these ruins are found, not only the huge bricks used by the Hindus of the remove past, but others of a much later make. All this seems to show that the country must have been fertile for a long period, and that ie became desert in comparatively recent times. Freshwater shells, exactly similar to those now seen in the Punjab rivers are to be found in this old river-bed and upon its banks… “It is not beyond the bounds of possibility that the Jamuna may at some very remote period have taken a westerly instead of an easterly course and joined the Hakra; for, as observed by R.D. Oldham, of the Indian Geological Survey, this old river-bed lies between the fan or talus of the Jamuna, and that of the Sutlej…It would seem that the Sutlej has changed its course from time to time, until at last it joined the Beas, and the two streams flowed in the same channel. It is most likely that the legend related to the Maha_bha_rata, of the Satadru having separated into a hundred channels was founded upon some great changes in its course. The tradition current throughout the tract between the Sutlej and Sarasvati all agree that the Sutlej flowed in the Hakra channel, and that, till then, the country upon its banks was fertile and populosu… “The Hakra is formed by the union, near Wallur, on the borders of Bikanirr and Bahawalpur, of two large branches. Each of these arises from the junction of several channels, most of them dry, or only containing a little water in the rainy season. In some of them, however, streams still flow for some distance. When the Sutlej changed its course to the westward, and abandoned the eastern arm of the Hakra, the Sarasvati, which had been a tributary, was left in possession of the deserted channel, in the sands of which its waters were swallowed up. It is of course impossible to fix any period for this change, but it may be presumed that it took place between the Vedic period and that of Manu, when we first hear of the disappearance of the Sarasvati in the sands… ‘Rann of Kutch an estuary. It is not difficult to understand the formation of the Rann, if it be considered as the former embouchure of three important rivers (the Indus, Sutlej, and Luni) of which the first and the greatest has long abandoned it. The traditions of all the tribes bordering upon it agree that this expanse of salt and sand was once an estuary. And, as noticed by Burnes and others, places still exist up[on its shores which once were ports… Sufficient evidence has, I think, been brought forward to show that the Hakra did not dry up from diminished rainfall, or from any failure of its source, but that its waters, having ceased to flow in its ancient bed, still find its way by another channel to the sea. We have also seen that the Vedic description of the waters of the Sarasvati flowing onward to the ocean and that given in the Maha_bha_rata, of the sacred river losing itself in the sands, were probably both of them correct at the periods to which they referred.’(C.F. Oldham, 1893, The Sarasvati and the Lost River of the Indian Desert, JRAS, v. 34, pp. 49-76). `` C.F. Oldham, 1893, The Sarasvati and the lost river of the Indian Desert, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, pp. 48-76: `` ... local legends assert (that Sarasvati) once flowed through the desert to the sea. In confirmation of these traditions, the channel referred to, which is called Hakra or Sotra, can be traced through the Bikanir and Bhawulpur states into Sind, and thence onwards to the Rann of Kutch... attested 37

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by the ruins everywhere overspread what is now an arid sandy waste. Throughout this tract are scattered mounds, marking the sites of cities and towns. And there are strongholds still remaining ... “Amongst these ruins are found, not only the huge bricks used by the Hindus in the remote past, but others of a much later make ... Freshwater shells, exactly similar to those now seen in the PanjAb rivers, are to be found in this old river-bed and upon its banks ... After entering Sind the Hakra turns southward, and becomes continuous with the old river-bed generally known as Narra. This channel, which bears also the names of Hakra or Sagara, Wahind and Dahan, is to be traced onward to the Rann of Kutch... Tha Hakra varies in different parts of its course from about two to six miles in width, which is sufficient for a very large river ... The only river near Marot was the Hakra ... The dried-up bed -- wadi -- of sarasvati might have constituted the great road between Hastina_pur and Dva_ra_vati_ (Dva_raka). Part of this road would have constituted the road from Sind to Delhi via Bahawalpur, Marot, Anupgarh, Suratgarh, Dabli, Kalibangan., Bhat.ner (Hanumgarh), Tibi and Sirsa suggested by Major F. Mackeson in 1844 to the British government (Report on the Route from Seersa to Bahawulpore, JAS, Beng., XLII, Pt.I, 1844, No. 145 to 153)]. A synonym of sirsa is sarsuti < sarasvati; at this place, about 100 miles below Rassauli, a fortress was built. Stein observes that Anupgarh had alternative names (Mathula Their and Mallavali Their) which indicate that a river was flowing plying boats: “The designation of Mallavali (the ‘mound of the boatman’), suggests connection with the story about the ferry boats for which the Mathula ridge is supposed to have once served as a landing place…(another mound in the vicinity is called Jandewala and)…is supposed to have been named after the boatman whom local belief assumes to have taken his boat across the Ghaggar river from Juhanzwala to Mathula.” (Stein, A., 1943, An archaeological tour along the Ghaggar-Hakra River, 1940-42. American Documentation Institute Microfilm No. ADI-4861: 71-2,76).

Synoptic Overview of Quaternary Tectonism, Climatic variations and Effects on drainage changes in NW India Tectonic changes: 1st major tectonic activity around 10,000 BP Nawabandar-Babarkot southern coast of Saurashtra (Holocene, Before 4500 BP) (cf. Pant and Juyal, 1993) 38

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Kalibangan 3700 BP (cf. B.B. Lal, 1984) Dwaraka Submergence 3600 BP (cf. S.R. Rao, 1995) 3000-5000 BP Rise of Delhi-Haridwar Ridge. Reactivation of older lineaments and vertical movements along E-W and N-S fractures. Uplift of the Aravallis. Tectonic activity around 11th/13th Century reactivation of E-W and N-S fractures over the northwestern plains. 56 B.C. Ujjain and 60 towns (cf. Baird-Smith, 1843). 1705 A.D. Bhavnagar (cf. Manuk, 1908). 1819 A.D. Allah-Band (cf. T. Oldham, 1883) "...intermittent reactivation of the Kutchfault and the Luni-Sukri lineament (extending from the Great Rann of Kutchto Dehradun) causing severe earthquakes such as those of 1819 and 1937 AD of Kutchwhich raised land by 5-7m at several places forming e.g. the Allah Band dam... Shift in river courses must have been aided by differenial rise of land by reactivation of Cambay graben, Jaisalmer-Barwani lineament and Khatu lineaments which trend NW-SE... The Indus has migrated towards he northwest in the northern part and towards the wes in central and southern parts. Snelgrove (1979) shows this shift in lower reaches to be as much as 160 km westward in Sind. The eastern boundary of the Indus flood plains in SInd is along the Hakra-Eas Nara. If the Sarasvati was flowing into the Hakra-Nara bed the westward shift to the Indus might have also led to the disorganisation of the Sarasvati system and its final burial in Anupgarh plains. The Indus has migrated west by 100-120 km in Anupgarh sector. " (Ramasamy et al., 1991; B.Sahai, 1999). Effects on Drainage: Disruption of the early drainage by choking of their valleys and formation of inland lakes like Sambhar At 3700 BP, fluvial activity dwindles, Sarasvati course is disrupted as is that of Drishadvati. Shatadru continues to flow after its capture of Vipas; abandoning the old Beas channel. Yamuna swings away to the east beheading any connction with its west flowing course. Luni originates from its present source. The vertical movements along N-S and E-W fractures result in the formation of the new channel of Luni; following and E-W fracture till Balotra and then flowing along a N-S fracture forming its present lower course till it meets the Great Rann. 5000-7000 BP Sarasvati, Drishadvati, Shatadru and Sindhu flowed with full vigour, carried much water and formed an extensive drainage network. Sutlej leaves its old course and joins the Indus. Ravi is captured by Chenab. Evidence from R.gveda Nadisu_kta of the Rigveda: "Favour ye this my laud, O Ganga, Yamuna, Sarasvati, O Sutudri, Parushni With Asikni, O Marudvridha, Vitasta, O Arjikiya with Sushma, hear my call." [Translation by Ralph T.H. Griffith, The Hymns of the Rigveda, 2nd ed., Benares, 1926, II, p.490.] The su_kta omits the mention of Vipasa (Beas) cited in RV 3.31.1-3 and 4.30.11. The su_kta emphatically locates Sarasvati as a river within the Sindhu-Yamuna river basins. 39

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The rivers are in an east to west sequence: Sutudri is Sutlej (Ptolemy calls it ‘Zaradros’); Parushni is Ravi; and Asikni is Chenab (called Askesines by Greek historians and by Megasthenes); Marudvridha is Maruwardwan, an affluent of the Chenab (Aurel Stein); Vitasta is Behat or Jhelum; Sushoma is Soan or Sohan, an eastern tributary of the Sindhu (called ‘Soanos’ by Megasthenes). Sarasvati is described as follows in R.gveda hymns: eka_cetat sarasvati_ nadi_na_m s'uciryati_ giribhya a_ samudra_t ra_yas'etanti bhuvanasyabhu_re ghritampayo duduhe nahus.a_ya (RV. 7.95.2) Pure in her course from mountains to the ocean Sarasvati river bestows for Nahusha nutritious milk and butter. a_ yatsa_kam yas'aso va_vas'a_nah sarasvati_ saptathi_ sindhuma_ta_ ya_h sus.vayanta sudugha_h sudha_ra_ abhisvena payasa_ pipya_na_h (RV. 7.36.6) May the glorious seventh (stream) Sarasvati, the mother of the Sindh and other (rivers) charged with copious volume of water, flow vigorously; come together, gifting abundant food and milk. [There is a possible interpretation that Sarasvati had seven tributaries and that the Indus and her 5 tributaries: Sindhu (Indus), Sutudri (Sutlej), Parushni (Ravi), Asikni (Chenab), Vitasta (Jhelum), Vitasa (Beas) were also the tributaries of Sarasvati. RV. 3.24.4 indicates the possibility that Drishadvati and Apaya were also tributaries of Sarasvati]. Viewed as an allegory, RV 1.32.10-13; 1.54.10; 2.30.3 hymns are explained as follows: "It looks as though the Vedic sages experienced the life and death of the river system which, they loved most, due to long spell of glaciation (ice age) and warming. They expressed it in terms of periodic war between Indra and Vritra. The frozen rivers (Glaciers) occupying zig-zag passages were visualised as the great serpent 'Vritra' who withheld water and the Sun god 'Indra' who released the water. The tussle between this natural phenomen of freezing and thawing of water was described as a war between the two...Two important tributaries, the Sutlej and the Yamuna; Sutlej (Sutudri) rises near Manasarovar whereas Yamuna from the western slope of Bandarpunch in the Jamnotri glacier; both being snow-fed perennial rivers had enough water to contribute...". (D.S. Chauhan, 1999; loc. cit. Murthy, 1985; Wakankar, 1985; Hillebrandt, 1990). da_spatni_rahigopa_ atis.tannirudha_ a_pah pan.ineva ga_vah apa_m bilamapihitam yadasi_d vritram jaghanva_m apatadvava_r (RV. 1.32.11) Mastered by the enemy, the waters held back like cattle restrained by a trader (Pan.i). Indra crushed the Vritra and broke open the withholding outlet of the river. Grassman (GW), Ludwig and Zimmer (AIL.10) are of the opinion, that in the R.gveda, Sarasvati_ is usually and originally meant a mighty stream, probably the Indus (Sarasvati_ being the sacred and Sindhu the secular name), but it occasionally designates the small stream in Madhyades'a, to which both its name and its sacred character were in later times transferred. Max Muller believes it to be identical with this small river Sarasvati_, which with the Dr.s.advati_ formed the boundaries of the sacred region Brahma_varta and which loses itself in the sands of the desert, but in Vedic times reached the sea. According to Oldham, a survey of ancient river beds affords evidence, that the 40

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Sarasvati_ was originally a tributary of the Sutudri_ (the modern Sutlej), and that when the latter left its old bed and joined the Vipa_s', the Sarasvati_ continued to flow in the old bed of Sutudri_." (A.A.Macdonell, The Vedic Mythology, Varanasi, Indological Book House, 1963, p. 87). Stein identified Gan:gobheda with the shrine of Bheda_ devi at the village Hal-Mogulpur in Shrikru close to the “Kooshopoora”. The village shrine is in a small enclosure round a magnificent old Chinar tree. There is a lake on the summit of the Bheda_ hill and a place named Buda_bra_r in Kashmiri and Bijabra_ri in Pahari. “The Gan:gobheda Ma_ha_tmya relates how the sage Pulastya performed long penances in the Satides’a and made the Gan:ga_ gush forth near him from Himavat mountain for the purpose of his sacrifice. When Pulastya decided to discharge the river after finishing his worship, Sarasvati_ stopped him from doing so and announced that a ti_rtha names Gan:gobheda would arise at the place from where the river issued. On the top of a hill where the level ground extends for ten Dhanus, a great pond would be formed and its eastern foot a stream called Abhaya_ would issue. A boon to the sage was granted for which he asked that the river may rest for ever by his side. The boon was granted and the Gan:gobhedati_rtha was created. With a desire to see the goddess Sarasvati_ the sage performed severe penances. Having been worshipped by him, Sarasvati_ explains her sixfold nature to him. With reference to this, the sage gave her the name of Bheda_ and worshipped her as Ham.sava_gi_s’vari_ Bheda_. Since then the goddess received worship at Gan:gobheda ti_rtha.” . (Savitri Saxena, 1995, Geographical Survey of the Pura_n.as, Delhi, Nag Publishers, pp.732-733). The Ni_lamata gives a brief reference to the goddess Bheda_ at Gan:gobheda (Ni_la. V. 1312; 1039)…it notes that the shrine of Bheda_ was made by Pulastya. The reference to Pra_ci_ Sarasvati_ in many ancient texts assume that there was a western Sarasvati_ in relation to the Sarasvati_ river courses and tributaries identified in the Kuruks.etra, Kuruja_n:gala regions. This western Sarasvati_ is simply the mighty river which flows after confluence with Ghaggar beyond Kalibangan, Suratgarh and Anupgarh towards the Bahawalpur province and beyond through Sind into the Rann of Kutch and throught the Nal sarovar towards Prabha_sa flowing beyond Lothal and Rojdi, to join the ocean. The western Sarasvati_ is the saptathi_ sindhuma_ta_ or seven-sistered river referred to in the R.gveda (RV. 7.36.6). This is an indication that the mighty Sarasvati_ river had seven tributary rivers. In another reference, Sarasvati_ is called the seventh (RV. 7.36.6); the other six are the five Punjab rivers which are the tributaries of Sarasvati_ river (VS 34.11) and Sindhu. The description of Sarasvati_ in these terms is clearly a reference to the Ghaggar-Hakra-Nara river course which ahd been noted even at the time of the advent of the Arabs in Sind. (cf. Raverty, Mihran of Sind and its Tributaries, JASOB, Vol. LXI, Pt. I, Extra No. 1892, pp. 471-3 and 475 f.; JASOB, Vol. LXI, Pt. I, No. III-1892, pp. 155297). Evidence from Mahabharata sarasvati_ pun.ya vaha_... samudraga_ maha_ vega_ (MBh. 3.88.2) Holy flow of the Sarasvati joins the sea impetuously. The Great Epic has a treasure of geographical information about the courses of the River Sarasvati and also the pun.ya ti_rthas and a_shramas of r.s.is located on the banks of the river. This 41

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comprehensive evidence authenticates the Maha_bha_rata as the sheet anchor of the textual evidence for the ancient history of Bharat. The Great Epic enumerates the janapadas around the land of the Kurus: Pa_n~ca_la, Cedi, Matsya, S’u_rasena, Pat.accara, Das’a_rn.a, Navara_s.t.ra, Malla, S’a_lva and Yugandhara: santi ramya_ janapada_h bahvanna_h paritah kuru_n pan~ca_la_’cedimatsya_s’ca s’u_rasena_h pat.accara_h dars’a_rn.a_ navara_s.t.ram ca malla_h s’a_lva_h yugandhara_h

(MBh. Vira_t.a 1.9) Ka_lida_sa in Meghadu_ta describes the Sarasvati_ river as flowing in the Brahma_vartta janapada, near Kanakhala. (MD 1.52-54). The poet exhorts the cloud to drink the waters and sanctify itself: sa_rasvati_na_m antah s’uddhas tvam api bhavita_ varn.ama_tren.a kr.s.n.ah (MD 8.53). Ka_lida_sa notes that the course of the river is manifest on the surface. In an apparent reference to the two-fold division of Sanskrit and Pra_kr.ta, Sarasvati_ is seen to represent both as she praises S’iva and Pa_rvati_ through Sanskrit and Pra_kr.ta: dvidha_ prayuktena ca van:mayena sarasvati_ tan mithunam nuna_va sam.ska_rapu_tena varam varen.yam vadhu_m sukhagra_hyanibandhanena (Kuma_ra Sambhavam 7.90). In the course of the River Sarasvati_ near Aravalli ranges, north of Gujarat on the Arasur hills is a temple of Kotes’vara Maha_deva. Flowing past Siddhapura, the river disappears in the deserts of Kachha. (For the presence of Sarasvati_ river in and near Mount Abu: Brahma_n.d.a P. Madhya. Upo. 13.69; MBh. Vana 192.20-21; A_di 16.19-21; Padma P. Uttara 135.2-3,7). 42

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Drainage system in Gujarat

Ancient extent of Marubhu_mi (Thar desert) in comparison with the present 250 mm isohyet. Line AA is the present 250 mm isohyet and may represent the current eastern margin of major active natural dunes. Line BB is the approximate limit of Aeolian depositional features. “A tentative chronology of major climate phases in the Late Quaternary: Harappan wet phase (3000-1800 BC; evidence: pollen analysis from Rajasthan salt lakes, together with archaeological evidence of thriving sites in currently dry area (Singh 1971); Pre-Harappan drier phase (7500-3000BC) evidence: pollen analysis (Singh 1971). Moist phase (8000-7500 BC)(evidence: freshwater lake sediments; start to dune weathering; extensive microlithic settlements); major dry phase (Pre-8000 BC, Upper Paleolithic)(Evidence: dunes cover lake basins, absence of human activity except at margins.”(After Goudie, A.S., Allchin, B., and Hegde, K.T.M., 1973, The former extensions of the Great Indian Sand Desert, in: Geographical Journal, Vol. 139, Part 2, June 1973; p. 254; Fig. 3). All along the Sarasvati Basin which is like a sponge between two perennial rivers, the Ganga and the Sindhu, the settlement sites are only a few hundred feet above the mean sea level in contrast with the Himalayan peaks approaching 9000 metres above sea level: Bhiwani (720 ft.), Hissar (700 ft.), Sirsa (650 ft.), Suratgarh (700 ft.); Fort Abbas (537 ft.). Tectonics were the principal determinants of the quantity of water which flowed through this Basin with is a doab between the Ganga and the Sindhu. Given the small nature of the relief, even minor shifts in surface contours resulted in significant changes in the surface and subsurface drainage systems. Sarasvati R. at Pushkar (After Allchin, B. and Goudie, 1972, Andrew, Pushkar: prehistory and climatic change in western India, in: Man, December 1972, Vol. 7, No.4). Skanda Pura_n.a (Prabha_sa 270/30) calls the Sarasvati_ Pratiloma_ Sarasvati_ and Pra_ci_ Sarasvati_ at Prabha_sa (cf. Indian Antiquary, VI, p. 192) and Pus.kara respectively. Va_mana Pura_n.a (50/4) and Padma Pura_n.a (Sr.s.t.i 15/148, 18/127, 148, 203, 218) note that the Sarasvati_ river is easily accessible at all places excepting at Kuruks.etra, Prabha_sa and Pus.kara. Sarasvati_ river is said to re-start in a westerly course from the Pus.kara lake after the disappearance of the river at Vinas’ana in Kuruks.etra. The five streams including Pra_ci_ Sarasvati_ are collectively referred to as Pan~ca-srota_ Sarasvati_. (Padma P. Sr.s.t.i 18.118, 127; 33.119-120). It is notable 43

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that the Skanda Pura_n.a also describes Sarasvati_ in Prabha_sa, near Camasobheda where the river reappears, as Pan~casrota_. (Sk. Prabha_sa 202.7). Pus.kar is located close to a river named Sarasvati which joins the Luni river. This site has provided evidence of a sequence of settlements from the mid-palaeolithic to upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods. A site in Bhilwara district, Bagor, has yielded tools and bones of wild and domesticated animals dated to Mesolithic period. The earliest phase is carbon-14 dated to between 5000 BCE and 2800 BCE. The microliths continue at Ganes’war (close to the Khetri copper mines) which emerges (ca. 2800 to 2200 BCE) as a Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) site with copper artefacts. Ganes’war is located on the banks of River Kantli which had joined River Dr.s.advati which was a tributary of River Sarasvati. Thapar conjectures that Ganes’war manufactured and supplied copper artefacts to the Harappans. These findings attest to a continuous habitation in the mid-Sarasvati basin in Rajasthan. (B.K. Thapar, Recent archaeological discoveries in India, Tokyo, 1985, p. 14, p. 17, p. 76, p. 102). Palaeontological investigations have indicated that the climate in Rajasthan was moist, wet and cool upto 8000 BCE and organized farming began around 3000 BCE. The period between 3000 to 17000 BCE was found to be a period of higher rainfall than at present. (P.K. Das, The Monsoons, New Delhi, 1998, pp. 123 and 129). Lopa_mudra_ met and married Agastya on the sea-shore near Prabha_sa. At the same place, the Ya_davas got drunk, fought among themselves and got annihilated. The place where Kr.s.n.a gave up his mortal body is known as Dehotsarga and is located near Prabha_sa which is also known as Soma-ti_rtha on the southern coast of Kathiawad or A_narta country. Kr.tsama_raprabha_sa is said to be situated on the bank of Sarasvati_. (Sk. P. Prabha_sa 199.1). To the north is river Bhadra_. (Sk. P. Prabha_sa 4.12-21; Na_rada P. II. 70.4-5). The forests on the banks of the river are called Ambika_vana (Va_mana Pura_n.a: 57/33) and Ka_mkyakavana (MBh. Vana 36/41). The river’s confluences with three rivers are mentioned: with Gan:ga_ (gan:gobheda)(Padma Pura_n.a Svarga 32/3), Arun.a_ (Va_mana Pura_n.a 40/43-44), Manda_kini_ and Yamuna_. (Padma Pura_n.a Sr.s.t.i 11/15-16, 28/148). The Sarasvati_ course meeting the ocean at Prabha_sa is stated to have its source in the jungles of Gir in Saura_s.t.ra. (Savitri Saxena, 1995, Geographical Survey of the Pura_n.as, Delhi, Nag Publishers). The Sarasvati_ river is stated to reappear at three places: camasobheda, s’irobheda and na_gobhyeda. (Padma Pura_n.a 25/17-18; MBh. vana 130/3-5).

Ta_n.d.ya Bra_hman.a explains the association of Sarasvati_ with the great river through a legend: Praja_pati emitted the Word. The Word pervaded the whole (universe). It rose upwards as a continuous stream of water. (an apparent reference to the perennial nature of the river)[Ta_n.d.ya Br. 20.14.2; Caland (English tr.) Pan~cavim.s’a Bra_hman.a, Calcutta, 1931, p. 538]. The banks of the Sarasvati_ river in North-west India nurtured the development of the Vedic lore and learning. The river had flowed from the mountains to the sea (giribhya a_ samudra_t) and disappeared in the desert sands, as if heralding the end of the Vedic age. All groups of peoples had lived and were nourished on the banks of the Sarasvati_ river and all took the waters of the river without any distinction. (Matsya Pura_n.a CXIV.20). Together with Devika_ and Sarayu_, Sarasvati_ is described as saridvara_h. (MP CXXXIIII.24). According to the Milindapan~ho (p. 114). Sarassati_ (Sarasvati_) issued forth from the Himavanta. (loc.cit. B.C. Law, Geography of Early Buddhism, 1932, Kegan Paul, Trench, Truber and Co., p. 39).

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Vinas’ana as the place where Sarasvati_ river disappears is mentioned in Ta_n.d.ya Bra_hman.a (25.10.16: catus’ catva_rim.s’ada_ s’vi_na_ni sarasvatya_ vinas’ana_t plaks.ah pra_sravan.as ta_vad itah svargo lokah sarasvati_sammitena_ dhvana_ svargam lokam yanti). As’vi_na is explained as ekos’va ekena_hora_tren.a ya_vantam adhva_nam gacchati ta_va_n eka_s’vi_nah (Sa_yan.a). Atharvaveda explains that A_s’vina may exceed 5 yojanas: yad dha_vasi triyojanam pan~cayojanam a_s’vinam, tatastvam punara_yasi putra_n.a_m no asah pita_ (AV. 6.131.3): If (yat) you run three leagues, five leagues, a horseman’s day a journey, then shall you come back; you shall be father of our sons. A yojana may be 8 kros’a (1 kros’a = 2 miles). Thus, the distance between Vinas’ana and Plaks.a Prasravan.a may be estimated to be 44X16 = 704 miles. Plaks.a Prasravan.a is at a distance of 44 a_s’vina from Vinas’ana, an as’vina being the distance traveled by a consistently moving horse in one complete day and night. Plaks.a Prasravan.a is the source of the Sarasvati_ and Vinas’ana is the place of her disappearance. Maha_bha_rata places Vinas’ana at the meeting point of the regions lived in by S’u_dras and A_bhiras. Vinas’ana is mentioned as a region in the Baudha_yana S’rauta Su_tra (1.2.9): A_ryavarta lies to the east of the region where (the Sarasvati--assumed) disappears, to the west of the Black-forest, to the north of the Pa_ripa_tra (mountains), to the south of the Himalayas. (Max Mueller, Sacred Books of the East, Delhi, 1964, Vol. XXXII, p. 59). Vinas’ana is also mentioned in the Pan~cavim.s’a Bra_hman.a and the Jaimini_ya Upanis.ad Bra_hman.a. Bharadwaj identifies Plaks.a Pras’ravan.a as Lavasa reserved forest (300 42’N; 770 9’E) in lowers mountains in Pacchad sub-division of district Nahan in Himachal Pradesh. (Bharadwaj, O.P., 1986, Studies in Historical Geography of Ancient India, Delhi, pp. 8-19). S’ri_ Hars.a in Nais.adhi_yacarita (Nais.adhi_ya maha_ka_vya kavipras’asti XXII.2) refers to Sarasvati_ as a river in general: dis’i dis’i girigra_va_nah sva_m vamantu sarasvati_m, let the mountain-stones flow their river (sarasvati_m) in all directions. In Nais.adhi_ya maha_ka_vya (IX.51), he elaborates on Sarasvati_ both as a river and as Va_k, using the phrase, sarasvati_rasaprava_hacakres.u bhrama_mi te bhaumi. With the blessings of S’a_rada_, another form of Sarasvati_ adored as the guardian deity in Kashmir region, the Nais.adhacarita gained literary merit. “The image created in the R.gveda for the Sarasvati River is one of a powerful, full flowing river, not easily reconciled with the literal meaning of the name “Chain of pools”…It could be that when the composers of the Vedas first came to the Sarasvati it was a river of great magnitude…This carries with it an interesting chronological implication: the composers of the R.gveda were in the Sarasvati region prior to the drying up of the river and this could be closer to 2000 BC than it is to 1000 BC, somewhat earlier than most of the conventional chronologies for the presence of Vedic Aryans in the Punjab. The geography of the R.gveda is centered on the Punjab, and the reference, ‘seven sisters’, is to the ‘saptasindhava’ the ‘seven rivers’ of the region…There are a number of points that suggest that the modern dry river bed with the name Sarasvqati was also the ancient river, not the least of which is the historical continuity presumed in the nomenclature itself. In a key passage of the R.gveda, the so-called ‘River Hymn’ in Book X, Hymn 75, the author enumerates a series of rivers, evidently in order, beginning from the east; Ganga, Yamuna, Sarasvati, Sutlej and Ravi…the hymn alludes to the Paravatas, a people shown by later evidence of the Pancavim.s’a Bra_hman.a to have been in the east, a very long way from their original home, if Sarasvati means Indus. Again, the Purus, who were settled on the Sarasvati, could with great difficulty be located in the far west. Moreover, the five tribes might easily be held to be on the Sarasvati, when they were, as they seem to have been, the western neighbours of the Bharatas in Kurukshetra, and the Sarasvati 45

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could easily be regarded as the boundary of the Punjab in that sense. ” (Possehl, G.L., 1999, p. 363; Macdonell, A.A., and Keith, A.B., 1912, Vedic Index of Names and Subjects. 2 vols. London.: Vol. II, 436). Today, Sindhu flows through the Sukkur Gap, a break in the Rohri Hills. The river flows through a gorge at the mouth of which is the Bukkur island. The stream becomes only 550 metres wide but over 20 metres deep. There are some suggestions that the Sindhu River did not flow through this Gap during the Indus Age but had flowed to the north around Sukkur. According to Pithawala (1959: p. 284), ca. 3000 BC the river took a southerly course to the east of the modern course, swung east joining the present Eastern Nara just below Umarkot and ending up in the Rann of Kutch. “…the main stream of the Indus flowed…somewhere in its present valley, that is, between the Rohri Hills and the Kirthar range. To enter this section of its course the river need not have run, as now, through the Bukkur gap, but may have passed northward of the Sukkur hills. But if the Indus slipped off its axial ‘ridge’ above this point to the left hand, what would be the inevitable consequence? The river would get on the eastern side of the Rohri hills and would not be able to regain the main valley till a point lower down it than the latitude of Chanhudaro. Thus about one hundred and fifty miles, reckoning axially, of the Indus valley that we know would be deprived of its river…We believe that the Indus was flowing not much if at all further from Mohenjodaro in its great days than it is now, and the long duration of the city’s life implies a similar tenure of its general course by the river.” (Lambrick, 1964: 80-1). The implication is that a possible shift of the river to the east led to the abandonment by the river of Mohenjodaro and consequent desiccation of the city. Ancient Drainage Network in Rann of Kutch Chitalwala notes an interesting site of Hajnali located near the junction of the Little Rann, Gulf of Kutch and Saurashtra. “At present the site is three kms. inland from the Gulf. It measures only 60 X 60 m. but has three metres of occupational debris...From its shape and size it seems to have been made up of a group of large structures; in the manner of a trading post...During high tide the waters of the Gulf come close to the site and it seems that in the past it was actually on the Gulf. With the recession of sea level it now stands inland. The name Hajnali is also suggestive in the context. It means ‘the place of embarkation for pilgrims bound for Haj’. Likewise Lothal, with its dockyard an dindustrial township, is located much inland today, on the southern shore of Saurashtra… Settlements like Dholavira and Pabumath, which stood on the seashores during the Harappan times, are now on the margins of the Ranns. Sites like Hajnali and Lothal, also once located on the seacost, now stand further inland. A study of eustasy suggests there might have been a phase of regression in the level of the sea between 5000 and 3000 BP which corresponds with the eclipse of the Mature Phase of the Harappan Civilization.” (Chitalwala, Y.M., opcit., 1984, p. 200; Agrawal, D.P. and S. Guzder, 1972, Quaternary Studies on the western Coast of India: preliminary observation, The Palaeobotanist, 21 (2): 216-22). “...was the Rann during Harappan times geomorphologically what it is today? The tradition of the Ranns being an arm of the sea is both persistent and persuasive. Those who live in small villages on the margin fo the Rann speak of ships sailing across their waters bringing goods from distant lands. They nostalgically speak of a rich and benevolent merchant named Jagdusha and his ships with full consignment of gold in their holds, anchoring at many points along the shores of the Ranns. However, no one knows exactlyh when the Rann was actually a part of the Arabian Sea. Writing in 1907, Robert Siverights refers to Alexander Burnes who learned ‘that vessels had been known to be wrecked on Pacham and that they came for shelter in heavy weather to the island of Khadir’ (Siverights,R., 1907, Kutch and the Rann, Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 29 : 531). Siverights further says that the Rann was navigable for many hundred years after the Arab invasion. But, by 1361 it is learnt from 46

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the historian who accompanied the Sultann Firuz Shah in the year that he led the expedition to Gujarat ‘the intervening area that was once a marsh was now “a howling desert”’ (Siverights, 1907: 531)...Mallinath, the great literary critic of the 14th-15th centuries, also mentions Kutch as a marchy region (Gazetteer of India, 1971: 1). It is, therefore, clear that in the 14th century the Ranns were what they are at present…” (Chitalwala, Y.M., 1984, Harappan settlements in the Kutch-Saurashtgra Region: patterns of distribution and routes of communication, in: Lal and Gupta, opcit., pp. 197-201). S.K. Gupta notes, that based on hydrological studies, ‘even as late as 2000 years ago, Little Rann was about 4 m deep’ and indicates that the Ranns were indeed under a permanent sheet of water at the time the Harappan culture flourished in Kutch. (Gupta, S.K., 1977, The Indus valley culture as seen in the context of post-glacial climate and ecological studies in northwest India, Archaeology and Physical Anthropology in Oceania, 6). "All these rivers, originated in the Himalayan foothills and after draining large tracts of Panjab and Rajasthan fell into the then existing arm of the ancient Arabian Sea, now marked by the Great Rann of Kach. What is striking about these rivers is that after traversing the wide expanses of the region, their mouths came quite close to one another as mentioned in the R.gveda (Bhargava, 1964). Malik et al (199) have suggested that the present day northern part of the Great Rann represent the palaeo-delta complex comprising the mouth of the Shatadru, Sarasvati and Drishadvati. Tectonic changes in the Kutchregion appear to have caused he Shatadru to swing westward and flow through the Kori Creek into the Sea. The Sarasvati, on the other hand, swung eastward and extended its course through the Great Rann, Little Rann and Nal depression before finally debouching into the Gulf of Cambay near Prabhasa (Bhargava, 1964). Perhaps Drishadvati met this extended channel of Sarasvati in the Great Rann. Dholavira and Lothal, two famous Harappan cities were located along this extended course of Sarasvati.

The channel of an effluent of the Indus is seen in the Kori Creek in the northwest of Rann of Kutch. The channel course can be traced from the Creek upto Allaha Bund which was created by an earthquake in the region in the nineteenth century A.D. The largest ancient settlement in the Rann of Kutch are: Kotada (Dholavira) in the Khadir island and Surkotada, which is a relatively smaller site but functioned as a military outpost. About 20 kms. from Dholavira is a small settlement of Pabumath, where a seal with ‘unicorn’ motif and inscription was found and also numerous shell objects. The other sites are: Desalpur, Khirasara (Nakhatrana Taluka) which has yielded seals and a fortified settlement; Bhedi (near the village of Kothara in Central Kutch); a coastal village site of Navinal near Mundra on the Gulf of Kutch. Of these sites, Desalpur and Khirasara have shown evidence for occupation in both Mature and Late phases. “At Surkotada, throughout a compact citadel and residential annexe, complex has been found but no separate city complex as such has been available...Was Surkotada a defensive complex through the centuries to provide protection to the eastern movement of Harappans or a well protected trading center? Well fortified areea, guard rooms in the citadel and residential annexe, engraved figure of a soldier from Period 1C, a large number of sling balls and bone arrow heads from all periods are very interesting evidence in this direction.” (Joshi, J.P., 1979, The nature of settlement of Surkotada, in: Essays of Indian Protohistory, D.P. Agrawal and D.K. Chakrabarti, eds., Delhi, BR Publishing Corp.: 64).

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Palaeochannels of Sindh ca. 4000-2000 BC (After Possehl, G.L., 1999, Fig. 3.123). Combining the Warah Course in the northwest and the Samaro-Dharo Badahri Courses in the south, Flam notes that the combined course may represent the prehistoric course of the Sindhu. A conjecture is that the Western Nara was part of this course. Possehl, however, notes that this reconstruction may be erroneous since there is no evidence that the river flowed on the high ground between Lakhi Hills and the Bado Range if ever the river flowed into the Lake Manchar hollow.

Two significant locii emerge from this picture of settlements in Sind. What Louis Flam calls the Nara Nadi was indeed, the independent, perennial Sarasvati River System, combined with the waters of the Sindhu (below Naukot), had extended beyond the Little Rann of Kutch to link up with the Gulf of Khambat through the Nal depression. The settlements were close the raw material resources of the Bronze-age civilization, in particular the copper resources of Khetri mines in Rajasthan.. “To the east, the alluvium of the Indus seems very old and is interdigitated with silts from the Eastern Nara…The land surface is old and is now largely covered by shifting sand dunes so large that they can chose rivers. The sands hold seasonal lakes or dhands that are now used by pastoral nomads for agriculture and domestic water. The presence of a scatter of small prehistoric archaeological sites in this desert fringe is evidence that the same was probably true during the Indus Age.” (Possehl, G.L., 1999, p. 284; loc. cit. Lambrick, 1964: 88-9). Eastern Nara may be viewed as the extention of the Sarasvati River System beyond Bahawalpur Province towards the Rann of Kutch. Civilization was at the mercy of shifting water run-offs At many sites, the civilization was at the mercy of shifting patterns of run-offs and water resources. Raikes found the soil in Kalibangan, a "coarse greyish sand very similar in mineral content to that found in the bed of the present day Yamuna.” (Raikes 1968: 286). Hydrological and archaeological investigations indicate an "alternating capture of the Yamuna by the Indus and Ganges systems respectively" (Raikes 1968: 48

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286) Yamuna (or Drishadvati-Ghaggar) river tributaries of the River Sarasvati, switched back and forth between two primary river channels. Kalibangan was abandoned circa 18th century BCE perhaps due to the following changes in river channels: Westward diversion to Sindhu 2500-1750 BCE=750 years (coinciding with the Harappan period occupation). Eastward diversion to Ganga 1750-1100 BCE=650 years (coinciding with the abandonment of Harappan sites). Westward diversion to Sindhu 1100-500 BCE=600 years (coinciding with Painted Grey Ware sites). Eastward diversion to Ganga 500-100 BCE=400 years (coinciding with a period of abandonment). Westward diversion to Sindhu 100 BCE-500 CE=600 years (coinciding with the Early Historic period). Eastward diversion to Ganga in about 500 CE (coinciding with a period of abandonment). "Archaeological evidence...overwhelmingly affirms that the Hakra was a perennial river through all its course in Bahawalpur during the fourth millennium B.C. (Hakra Period) and the early third millennium B.C. (Early Harappan Period). About the end of the second, or not later than the beginning of the first millennium BC, the entire course of the Hakra seems to have dried up and a physical environment similar to the present day in Cholistan set in. This forced the people to abandon most of the Hakra flood plain.” (Mughal, M. Rafique. "Recent Archaeological Research in the Cholistan Desert," Harappan Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective, Gergory L. Possehl, (ed.), Pp. 85-95, New Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing Company, 1982, p. 94)." Fifty kilometers north of Lhasa (the capital of Tibet), scientists found layers of pink sandstone containing grains of magnetic minerals (magnetite) that have recorded the pattern of the Earth's flipflopping magnetic field. These sandstones also contain plant and animal fossils that were deposited when the Tethys Sea periodically flooded the region. The study of these fossils has revealed not only their geologic age but also the type of environment and climate in which they formed. For example, such studies indicate that the fossils lived under a relatively mild, wet environment about 105 million years ago, when Tibet was closer to the equator. Today, Tibet's climate is much more arid, reflecting the region's uplift and northward shift of nearly 2,000 km. Fossils found in the sandstone layers offer dramatic evidence of the climate change in the Tibetan region due to plate movement over the past 100 million years.

At present, the movement of India continues to put enormous pressure on the Asian continent, and Tibet in turn presses on the landmass to the north that is hemming it in. The net effect of platetectonics forces acting on this geologically complicated region is to squeeze parts of Asia eastward toward the Pacific Ocean. One serious consequence of these processes is a deadly "domino" effect: tremendous stresses build up within the Earth's crust, which are relieved periodically by earthquakes along the numerous faults that scar the landscape. Some of the world's most destructive earthquakes in history are related to continuing tectonic processes that began some 50 million years ago when the Indian and Eurasian continents first met. http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications/text/himalaya.html

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Dry channels of Sarsuti, its tributary Ma_rkanda, meet at Pehoa, downstream, the river is called Ghaggar. [KS Valdiya, 2002, Fig. 3.1]

Maps show ‘Dry Bed of Hakra or Ghaggar’ run past Dilawar or Derawar in Bahawalpur State and down to Sind linking up with ‘Raini N’, which ran to a point close to E. Nara R. Nara River reached the Great Rann of Cutch at Ali Bandar.[See, e.g., The Imperial Gazetteer of India, XXVI, Atlas, new (revised) ed., Oxford, 1931, Plates 34 and 38.] There are indications that even as late as 16th century CE, Sutlej was flowing through the course of Ghaggar and had earlier charted an independent course into the Rann of Kutch. The satellite images do show the signature tunes of hundreds of ancient courses of river Sutlej (called Naiwals), as the river moved westwards away from Shatrana. “After it leaves the hills the river is never called Sutlej by the people and it has changed its course more than once in historical times. The history of those changes can be traced with considerable probability and detail. In the time of Arrian, the Sutlej found an independent outlet into the Rann of Kutch. In the year AD 1000 it was a tributary of the Hakra, and flowed in the Eastern Nara. Thence the former bed can be traced back through Bahawalpur and Bikaner into the Sirsa tahsil of Hissar, until it is lost near Tohana. From Tohana to Rupar, this old bed cannot be traced; but it is known that the Sutlej took a southerly course at Rupar, instead of turning west, as now, to join the Beas. Thus the Sutlej or the Hakra – for both streams flowed in the same bed – is probably the lost river of the Indian desert, whose waters made the sands of Bikaner and Sind a smiling garden. By 1245 the Sutlej had taken a more northerly course, the Hakra had dried up and a great migration too place of

the people of the desert – as it thus became – to the Indus valley. The course then taken by the Sutlej was apparently a continuation of the present course of the Ghaggar. About 1593 the Sutlej left the Ghaggar and went north once more. The Beas came south to meet it, and the two flowed in the same channel under various names – Macchuwah, Hariani, Dand, Numi, Nili and Gharah. Then the Sutlej once more returned to its old course and rejoined Ghaggar. It was only in 1796 that the Sutlej again left the Ghaggar and finally joined the Beas.” (The Imperial Gazetteer of India (New Edition), 1908, Volume XXIII, Clarendon Press, Oxford, p.179.) “Classical writers mention as a great stream. (McCrindle, Ancient India, as described by Ptolemy, p. 88) But they do not mention it as a tributary of the Indus, though they mention the other four rivers – Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi and Beas – by the names as branches of the Indus. Their failure to mention a river of its dimensions then, could not be by oversight. It is argued in this connection that the Beas was the terminus of Alexander’s expedition and hence his chroniclers have nothing to say of the country beyond it. But, be as it is, it is unthinkable that if the Sutlej, at all, joined the 50

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Indus, even its junction would have passed unnoticed by Alexander’s men while sailing down the Jhelum…This fact inevitably shows that during the classical period it pursued an independent course…

(Shamsul Islam Siddiqi, River Changes in the Ghaggar Plain, Madras, Indian Geographical Journal, Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 139-146)

“It is, therefore, inferred that: (i) In early historic times, an important river system, the Ghaggar, watered the Ghaggar plain. (2) The Sutlej was the most westerly and the Jumna the most easterly tributary of the Ghaggar and their present courses are of comparatively late acquisition. There are both physical and historical grounds for the belief that during early historic times the Juna discharged into the Sutlej. (Lyde, LW, The Continent of Asia, p. 393) (3) The affluents of the Ghaggar shifted east and west and were one after another beheaded and captured by the Indus and Ganges systems. This hypothesis is corroborated by the recent investigations which have established beyond doubt a marked westing tendency in the Sutlej and an easting tendency in the Jumna. The Hindu tradition which believes a mighty river, Sarsuti, to have once flowed across the Ghaggar Plain and later joined the Ganges at Allahabad has mistaken the shifting of the Jumna and its junction with the Ganges at Allahad for Sarsuti’s. As such this tradition also supports this conclusion. (4) When the two important tributaries of the Ghaggar, the Sutlej and the Jumna, were respectively captured by the Indus and the Ganges and converted into their chief affluents the Ghaggar was reduced to the insignificant stream, it now is.”

This observation is elaborated further by Lambrick: “On the opposite side, that is the right bank, there are traces of flood channels from old beds of the Sutlej, or it may sometimes have been the entire Sutlej River, joining the Hakra in three widely separated places. The furthest upstream and least distinct of these seems to have come in at Bhatnir, some twenty-five miles above the junction of the Chitang. Next in order, an ancient winding bed of the Sutlej, unites with the Hakra at Walhar (Fort Abbas), just within the border of Bahawalpur. This appears to derive from an old course of the Sutlej which flowed past Bhatinda and Malot, and its general alignment has been followed by the Hakra Branch Canal. The third of these connecting channels runs down from about 20 miles ENE of Bahawalpur City, and meets the Hakra near Kudwala. Its general direction has been followed by another irrigation canal, The Desert Branch; but we have been told that it was previously ‘a large dry channel called Vahind, a feeder of the Sankara’ (Buckley, R.B., 1893, Irrigation Works in India and Egypt. London: E. & S.N. Spoon.: 156). Thirty miles or so below this junction, in the neighbourhood of Derawal, the single wide bed of the Hakra seems to develop into a sort of delta of smaller channels.” (Lambrick, 1964: 30-1).

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River Sarasvati: Archaeology, Culture and Heritage Tourism The course of the River Sarasvati extends from the Himalayan glaciers through Rajasthan to Gujarat through a variety of ecological zones—Himalayan snows, mountainous terrain (challenging the mountaineers and trekkers), mighty rivers (some stretches navigable), vast lakes with boating facilities, fertile alluvial plains, semi arid lands, salty marshes. Eco-tourism can be promoted in the glacial sources and along the variety of watershed management projects ongoing and proposed to ensure the equitable distribution of water from the glacier sources and integrated development of surface, sub-surface and groundwater resources and water harvesting projects. The river basin is thus a rich source for developmental tourism for scientists, development professionals and students while we celebrate a_pah as the sacred waters in the time honoured traditions of the country. The tasks of relating archaeology to culture historical sites of River Sarasvati are an interand promotion of heritage tourism on the disciplinary ende avour involving arcaeology, water resources management, development of cultural projects investigations from a variety of disciplines and tourism. attesting to the fact that River Sarasvati is not a myth but is ground truth. The historicity of the Mahabharata and Vedic texts is getting Saravati Civilization: Locus and Survey of reinforced through the investigations of research work done so far scientists and technologists. The following lists have been compiled: Analysis of Settlement patterns in relation to A comprehensive list of archaeological sites, palaeo-channels mostly on the banks of Vedic River Sarasvati with details of bibliographical references, site The list of archaeological sites of Sarasvati sizes in hectare, site location coordinates and Civilization has been prepared based on the typological classification of the artifacts published reports and after the framework surveyed/excavated at the sites; and provided by Gregory Possehl in the Gazetteer of Sites in his magnum opus: Indus Age – the A comprehensive archaeological and geological Beginnigns. This is a preliminary list which bibliography with particular reference to issues requires further updates. In a few instances, related to archaeology, culture, tourism and information needs to be updated with water resources management for the locations coordinates and the sizes of the identified sites. mostly along the river banks, and close to the In particular, the status of excavations, if any, coastline in Gujarat. A detailed study of the undertaken needs to be highlighted for each literature related to specific sites listed in the site. The updates should provide details of bibliography will help evaluate the selection excavation reports, if any, related to the criteria for detailed exploration and to prioritise excavations carried out since 1947 at any of the future archaeological survey/excavation these sites. In cases where excavations are work. A remarkable pattern seen from the completed and/or ongoing, the expeditious bibliography is that during the last 15 years publication of excavation reports (if possible, there have been a number of scientific on the internet as has been done by Prof. 52

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Meadow and Kenoyer for the recent excavations at Harappa) will be essential, to avoid duplication of effort. The attached bibliography, which has been sought to be made as comprehensive as possible, on archaeology and environmental/ geological/ hydrological aspects, detailing the researches, excavations/surveys carried out so far.

of Bha_rati_ya civilization over the last 5 millennia, governed by two cultural streams of Vedic yajn~a and Vedic vrata which virtually define the entire gamut of regional variations exemplified by the emergence of temples and a_gama in almost all regions of the country. While there are five very large sites on the Sarasvati River Basin, three larger than either Harappa or Mohenjodaro, it is notable that there are hundreds of very small settlements of less than one ha. in size. The sizes and close clustering of the settlements matches the description of ‘gra_ma’ in the Vedic texts. Though boats were the major media of transport on the waterways of rivers and the long coastline of the civilization area, wagons were also used as evidenced by terracotta models of carts found at many sites.

Two remarkable features noticed from the names of sites are: (1) that there are a number of plae names which are repeated in more than one district; and (2) there are only a few place names ending with a –sar suffix. The –sar suffix is common in many place names recorded on Survey of India topo-sheets and many village names in Census records; this is perhaps due to the fact that the archaeological sites were not close to lakes but were located on the banks of a river system with tributaries and distributaries. The formation of lakes was likely a later geological event as the river Sarasvati started desiccating deprived of the glacier waters fed through tributaries: Sutlej and Yamuna.

Further projects

researches

and

development

The riverine nature of the civilization is apparent from the long-distance trade established with Mesopotamia traversing the Persian Gulf. The type of boats in use even today on River Sindhu were used to traverse the Rivers Sindhu and Sarasvati and the Gulf, hugging the coastline.

The staggering number of sites and site typologies such as Pre-Harappan, Transitional, Soth-Siswal and Post-urban Harappan, located on the banks of River Sarasvati point to the continuous and indigenous evolution of culture in the River Basin. This is further augmented by the surprising finds of Copper Hoard sites overlapping with the Mature Sarasvati Civilization periods. This points to the possibility of the migrations of people away Mohenjodaro.Sindhu River near Mohenjodaro. Boat and Basin cart still plying here.Moulded steatite tablet from the Gujarat and Rajasthan Sarasvati Modern-day boat on showing boat, Mohenjo-daro. towards the upper reaches of the River basin in River Sindhu Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh and towards the Ganga-Yamuna doab. This dramtic Persian Gulf states had used a system of feature of internal migrations exhibited by the weights similar to the one in use in Sarasvati site locations have to be elaborated further by Civilization attesting to the presence of systematic excavation of the many sites located seafaring merchants from Meluhha. on the banks of Palaeo-channels. Cubical weights in graduated sizes. These weights conform to the standard Harappan binary weight system that was used in all of the settlements. The smallest weight in this series is

This pattern of internal migrations is of great cultural and historical significance in determining scientically the roots and evolution 53

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0.856 grams and the most common weight is

There are indications that Meluhha of Mesotamian and Akkadian cuneiform texts was coterminus with the Sarasvati Sindhu Civilization. The cultural indicator is the use of turbinella pyrum (s’ankha) which is also recorded in the R.gveda, Atharva Veda and develops into a major industry in Bha_rata extending upto the Gulf of Mannar and the coastal ports of the East Coast. It should be noted that the habitat of turbinella pyrum is only in the coastline of Bha_rata and does not occur in any other part of the world. S’ankha (conch shell) is used as a conch trumpet, is used for making bangles, necklaces and other ornaments, it is deemed sacred as part of as.t.aman:gal.a (eight auspicious symbols), used by mothers to feed medicines to children and is used as ladles on auspicious occasions and for performing yajn~as. S’ankha adorns the mu_rtis of Vis.n.u and S’iva in a_gama. Kr.s.n.a is adorned with Pa_n~cajanya used to call the troops to battle and many heroes of the Mahabharata have specifically-named conch trumpets made of s’an:kha.

approximately 13.7 grams, which is in the 16th ratio. In the large weights the system become a decimal increase where the largest weight is 100 times the weight of the 16th ratio in the binary system. These weights were found in recent excavations at Harappa and may have been used for controlling trade. The key is to unravel the riverine and maritime nature of the origins of the Sarasvati Civilization. One example is provided by the Amri-Nal typologies in many sites in Gujarat and in Makran regions hugging the shallow coast-lines of the Gulf of Khambat, Gulf of Khambat, Makran coastline and moving towards the Persian Gulf As exemplified by the early contacts with the Mesopitamian civilization and contacts recorded among Mesopotamia, Dilmun, Magan and Meluhha. Giant reservoirs at Dholavira (the largest measuring 263 feet by 39 feet and 24 feet in depth) that together held more than 325,000 cubic yards of water. http://www.archaeology.org/0011/newsbriefs/aqua.html Dholavira, Stage IV. North Gate. An

Dholavira. Polished 54

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stone pillars and ring-stones found in situ as structural supports for posts to hold multi-storeyed structures are evidences of advances in stone masonry in the Civilization. Similar ringstones were found in Mohenjodaro. Limestone ringstones: discarded along a street in HR area, Mohenjodaro (ASI)

inscription of ten characters was found in North Gate chamber, letters measure 33 X 27 cm. Approx.

The impressive rock-cut reservoir, polished stone pillars and ring-stone bases, apart from stone fortifications and gateways found in Dholavira are an indication of the competence of well-diggers, stone-cutters, builders and masons of the Civilization. This ability to scoop into rock is evidenced in man-made caves of the historical periods, in many parts of Western, Central and Northern Bharat. The word d.han:gar means both a metalsmith and a well-digger. A stone-cutter using the chisel and hammer could create such a magnificent structure as the reservoir dug in stone in Dholavira. The recent discovery of two sunken rivers and some artifacts from the Gulf of Khamat (which was formed about 10,000 years ago by the incursion of the sea) by the National Institute of Ocean Technology suggests a revision of the chronology for Afghanistan< Baluchistan and Sarasvati Civilization, in the context of Amri-Nal culture occurring in many sites in Gujarat (close to the Gulf of Khambat and Gulf of Kutch) and in the Makran coast. This may hold the key to the extensive trade contacts with Mesopotamia established early in the 3rd millennium BCE. It is also necessary to have the excavation reports (interim or preliminary) published for the sites already excavated. To evolve a strategy for further excavation work, the following frequency distribution of sites, particulary in relation to the ancient river courses, may be taken into consideration. Sites in Bharat: [District: No. of sites] Jind 162 Kurukshetra 78 Karnal 72 Bhavnagar 64 Hissar 56 Banaskantha 53 Ganganagar 53 Amreli 33 Ahmedabad 27

Bhatinda 26 Jaipur 24 Kheda 23 Jamnagar 15 Gurgaon 17 Ambala 14 Jullunder 14 Gurdaspur 9 Broach 7

Sites in Pakistan: [District; No. of sites] Bahawalpur 344 Jhalawan 82 Dadu 41 Karachi 19 Dera Ismail Khan 14 Bannu 14 Kachi 13 Bulandshahr 11 Hardoi 7 Kalat 7 Kharan 7

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Ganganagar-Bahawalpur province connection (Sarasvati River) Ganganagar District (53 sites) in Bharat borders the Bahawalpur province in Pakistan (344 sites). The clustering of almost 400 settlements in just two districts, one in Bharat (Ganganagar) and one in Pakistan (Bahawalpur) may be seen from the sites listed with the coordinates as follows. The sites are close to the banks of River Sarasvati-Ghaggar (Hakra); and indicate the migration of Sutlej river away from the River Sarasvati to join the River Sindhu and further flow southwards along the sites in Bahawalpur province: 29 14 00 N73 36 00 E

Ganganagar

Mature Harappan Sothi-Siswal Mature Harappan

Chak 021

Ganganagar

Mature Harappan

29 14 00 N73 36 00 E

Chak 040

Ganganagar

Chak 043

Ganganagar

PGW Sothi-Siswal Mature Harappan

29 10 00 N73 29 00 E

Chak 011

Ganganagar

Chak 015/3

29 14 00 N73 36 00 E

Chak 044 Bahawalpur Chak 045 Bahawalpur Chak 045 'A' South Bahawalpur Chak 045 'B' North Bahawalpur Chak 050 Ganganagar

0.8 0.7 1.5

Mature Harappan Kot Diji Mature Harappan Mature Harappan Mature Harappan

29 13 55 N71 46 15 E 29 13 55 N71 48 48 E 29 11 50 N71 47 27 E 29 13 25 N71 48 00 E 29 10 00 N73 29 00 E

Chak 051 Chak 058/1

Bahawalpur Ganganagar

0.5

29 11 05 N71 43 50 E

Chak 058/2 Chak 059

Ganganagar Ganganagar

Chak 061 East Chak 061 West Chak 069 Chak 071/1

Bahawalpur Bahawalpur Bahawalpur Ganganagar

Cemetery H PGW Sothi-Siswal Mature Harappan PGW Sothi-Siswal Cemetery H Mature Harappan Cemetery H Mature Harappan

Chak 072/3

Ganganagar

Mature Harappan Sothi-Siswal Mature Harappan Sothi-Siswal Mature Harappan Mature Harappan Kot Diji Mature Harappan Mature Harappan

29 10 00 N73 19 00 E

0.7 5

Chak 075, Bharat Ganganagar Chak 075, Pakistan Bahawalpur Chak 076 Bahawalpur Chak 077 Chak 080

Ganganagar Ganganagar

0.4 2.5

29 06 30 N71 37 38 E 29 06 27 N71 37 30 E 29 09 32 N71 51 13 E 29 14 00 N73 17 00 E

29 10 00 N73 18 00 E 29 01 33 N71 14 58 E 29 01 25 N71 14 38 E

29 12 00 N73 15 00 E

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Chak 087

Ganganagar

Chak 088 'A' West Bahawalpur 8.1 Chak 088, Bharat Ganganagar Chak 088, Pakistan Bahawalpur 4.2 Chak 097 Bahawalpur 3.8 Chak 107 Bahawalpur 0.05 Chak 112 'P' Rahimyar Khan0.8 Chak 113/10R Khanewal 0.6 Chak 121 'A' Rahimyar Khan19.3 Chak 124 Rahimyar Khan4.9 Chak 133/10R Chak 271 HR Chak 280 HR Chak 315 HR Chak 337 HR Chak 341 Chak 353 West

Khanewal Bahawalpur Bahawalpur Bahawalpur Bahawalpur Bahawalpur Bahawalpur

1.1 0.3 5.1 4.6 19.9 1.6

Rang Mahal Mature Harappan Cemetery H Mature Harappan Cemetery H Mature Harappan Cemetery H Mature Harappan Mature Harappan Mature Harappan Mature Harappan Kot Diji Mature Harappan Kot Diji Kot Diji Kot Diji Kot Diji Kot Diji Hakra Wares

29 13 15 N73 15 00 E 29 06 51 N71 47 30 E 29 06 53 N71 47 50 E 29 06 24 N71 14 34 E 29 06 24 N71 40 20 E 28 22 08 N70 29 01 E 30 03 00 N71 48 00 E 28 24 40 N70 36 10 E 28 25 40 N70 37 45 E 30 20 00 N71 55 00 E 29 13 10 N72 53 34 E 29 14 19 N72 47 37 E 29 12 07 N72 24 42 E 29 07 40 N72 20 10 E 29 10 27 N72 17 53 E 29 11 06 N72 16 19 E

Nature of technical collaboration/cultural co-operation between Bharat and Pakistan in carrying forward further archaeological explorations of this cluster of sites has to discussed further. near Kurrulwala (290 33’N, 730 52E), south of the Abohar town. These Naiwals might have Importance of Bhatinda District (River constituted the palaeo-channels through which Sutlej as tributary of River Sarasvati) Sutlej joined Hakra. The number of sites in the district of Punjab is indicative of the migration of River Sutlej away These naiwals may constitute the remnants of a from River Sarasvati evidenced by the hundreds migratory path of the Sutlej river westward of palaeo-channels of what are called, away from the Sarasvati River Basin, and ‘Naiwals’. toward the Sindhu River system. In the 13th century A.D., Sutlej had flowed into the Beas valley through two dry beds (one of which was The western Hakra had three tributaries all of called Dhunda), between the western Naiwal which were called Naiwal (eastern, middle and and the present Sutlej. western Naiwal). These three Naiwals joined

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The work done by Central Groundwater Board through a Sarasvati Project in 1999 established the existence of aquifers about 30 to 60 m. below the ground; 23 of the 24 test tube-well drillings were successful in yielding potable waters at the spots indicated by satellite images of palaeo-channels and fault-lines. The Regional Remote Sensing Services Centre, Jodhpur has come out with a comprehensive mapping of the palaeo-channels over the entire stretch from Siwalik ranges to Rann of Kutch correlated with the archaeological sites.

Braided palae-channels of the Sutlej lying between the present Sutlej and the old Sarasvati bed. The present Ghaggar can also ben seen in

As observed by Prof. Yashpal in 1982 using LANDSAT images, River Sutlej took a 90-degree turn at Ropar and deflected in a north-westerly direction, leaving behind signature tunes of naiwals (river channels) moving away north-westwards from Shatrana. Geologists surmise that such deflections of rivers or migrations are generally attributed to tectonic events. The earthquake which shook Bhuj is seen to be a recurring event (as noted by Prof. Valdiya and Dr. JG Negi, in a 250-year recurrence, evidence Allah Bund); such plate tectonics (Indian-Eurasian plate clash which is dynamic even today since the Indian plate is moving northwards, at the rate of 7 cm. per year) which have a wave-form result in land uplifts and land submergences, not excluding sea incursions (witness submergence of Dwaraka). The Aravalli ranges parallel the fault line which has structural control over the entire North-west Bharat terrain; rivers east of the ranges tend to migrate eastwards, rivers west of the ranges tend to migrate westwards, thus resulting in a north-westerly tilt of the entire north-west Bharat terrain.

the map (After Yashpal et al, 1980). The braided palaeo-channels constitute the signatures of the Sutlej river as it migrated westward to join the Sindhu, abandoning the Sarasvati River. The ancient bed of the Ghaggar has an average width of about 6 to 8 kms. from Shatrana to Marot . The palaeo-channels (ancient courses) of the river system range upto 6 kms. wide and at a place called Shatrana (60 kms. south of Patiala), the width of the channel as seen from IRS 1-C satellite images is 20 kms. Geomorphological tests report that the Ghaggar river bed at a depth of 30 to 60 m. does contain Himalayan river sediments dated to circa 10,500 - 12,500 Before Present (cf. Singhvi et al). The work of Bhabha Atomic Research Centre scientists corroborates this evidence by tritium (an isotope of Hydrogen) tests of water samples from 800 deep wells around Pokharan.

Northwestern India with its present day river system and the major palaeo-channels as deciphered from the Landsat imagery (After Yashpal, et al 1980, Fig. 49.1 in Lal and Gupta, 1984). 58

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discoveries by NIOT that the Saurashtra uplift might have occurred when the Gulf itself was formed about 10,000 years ago submerging the ancient channels of Rivers Narmada and Tapati. If so, River Sarasvati could as well have flowed through the Nal Sarovar, through Lothal, Padri, Rangapura up to Somnath (Prabhas Patan). All ancient texts are consistent that the sangamam of River Sarasvati with the saagara was at Prabhas Patan. The Great Epic also refers to the submergence of Dwaraka by the onrushing waves from the ocean in Mausala Parva with an exhortation from Sri Krishna to the residents of the city to move south of Prabhas Patan (Somnath). This may indeed correlate with a reference in Sangam literature text (Patirruppattu) that the Chera kings trace their lineage of 42 generations from Dwaraka (i.e. from circa 1500 BCE, assuming an average period of 25 years per generation). In the context of dating the river courses, in the context of settlements of people on river-banks, the most accurate dates are obtained from the over 2000 archaeological sites ranging between 3500 BCE (Dholavira, Kalibangan) to 1500 BCE (Dwaraka, Kunal). The largest sites of the civilization which have not been excavated are in Bhatinda district (Gurnikalan and Hasni). Rakhigarhi excavations are ongoing. Ganweriwala has not been excavated. Gurnikalan, Hasni, Rakhigarhi and Ganweriwala are larger than either Harappa or Mohenjodaro in extent.

Yash Pal, Baldev Sahai, R.K.Sood and D.P. Agrawal, Space Applications Centre, and PRL, Ahmedabad, 1980, Remote sensing of the `lost' Sarasvati river: Proc. Indan Acad. Sci. (Earth and Planetary Sci.), Vol. 89, No. 3, Nov. 1980, pp. 317-331: `` ... For miles and miles around Marot one finds numerous place names with a suffix toba, which in the local language means a playa (or rann) ... It is obviously improbable for such a mighty river to vanish into a shallow depression (or khadins in the local languages) in its heyday. There is, therefore, a good possibility that the Ghaggar flowed into the Nara and further into the Rann of Kutch without joining the Indus ... `` ... If the borehole samples from these areas are analysed, one is sure to come across mineralogical compositions reflecting the signatures of the ancient Sutlej and the Palaeo-Yamuna when they flowed through the Sarasvati bed ... A multidisciplinary approach employing archaeological, mineralogical, chemical and thermoluminescence, combined with remote sensing techniques can provide a clear and consistent history of these changes in the palaeochannels of northwestern sub-continent in an absolute time-frame.'' These findings establish the ground-truth of River Sarasvati, with a course independent of the Sindhu River system, running about 300 kms. east of the Sindhu course. The flow of R. Sarasvati in Gujarat beyond Rann of Kutch into Saurashtra is still an open question for further investigation by ecologists and historians alike. There are indications from the Gulf of Khambat

Ecology, River Sarasvati and roots of Civilization of Bharat 59

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Gemorphology, Late Quaternary Stratigraphy and Palaeoclimatology of the Thar Dune Field Wasson, R.J., Rajaguru, S.N., Misra, V.N., Agrawal, D.P., Dhir, R.P., Singhvi, A.K., Kameswara Rao, K. "Lacustrine history in the Thar "Singh et al. (1974) carried out a pollen analytical study of Lakes Lunkaransar, Sambhar and Didwana, providing a Holocene reord of vegetation changes in the northern Thar. The record at each lake was very similar, indicating that regional climate change was responsible for the vegetation changes recorded. Singh et al. were able to propose a series of climatic changes: phase 1, active dune development evidenced by dune sand below the Holocene lacustrine sediments; phases 2 and 3 10,000-6000 B.P. lacustrine conditions prevailed with rainfall greater than that at present; phase 4, the wettest period 50003000 B.P. with lacustrine conditions and swamp vegetation indicating increased rainfall; phase 5, drying of the lakes and a lackof pollen, 3000-1100 B.P. and phase 6, 1100-0 B.P., pollen only preserved at Lunkaransar indicating conditions essentially the same as today, that is, ephemeral playas with very thin halite crusts. "Further work has now carried out at Didwana by us, in conjunction with G.Singh, and a longer record has been obtained from the deepest part of that lake... "It is noteworthy that groundwater at Palana, 23 km south of Bikaner has been dated at c.5000 B.P. by the radiocarbon method (Ramaswamy, 1968). This corresponds to part of the high-water stage at Didwana, at a time when Singh et *al. (1974) postulated greater rainfall. Sonntag et al. (1980) have demonstrated that groundwater ages closely correlate with those palaeoclimatic periods when groundwater recharge was most likely in the Sahara. This lends support to the view that groundwater in the Thar may have been recharged at ca. 5000 B.P... "The history of lacustrine seeimentation in the Thar shows that hyper-saline conditions prevailed at about the Last Glacial Maximum, and violent fluctuations of water-level occurred between this maximum or aridity and the onset of freshwater conditions ca. 6000 B.P. Freshwater, high lake level conditions prevailed until ca. 4000 B.P. when sediments rather like those of today began to be deposited..." Ramaswamy, C. (1968). Monsoon over the Indus valley during the Harappan period. Nature. v. 217 (5129), pp. 628-629.Singh G., Joshi, R.D., Chpra, S.K., and Singh, A.B. (1974) Late Quaternary history of vegetation and climate of the Rajasthan Desert, India. Phil. Trans. Soc. London. B.Biol.Sci. V. 267 (889), p. 467-501. High-Resolution Holocene Environmental Changes in the Thar Desert, Northwestern India Y. Enzel, 1L. L. Ely, 2S. Mishra, 3R. Ramesh, 4R. Amit, 5B. Lazar, 1S. N. Rajaguru, 3V. R. Baker, 6A. Sandler 5 Abstract: Sediments from Lunkaransar dry lake in northwestern India reveal regional water table and lake level fluctuations over decades to centuries during the Holocene that are attributed to changes in the southwestern Indian monsoon rains. The lake levels were very shallow and fluctuated often in the early Holocene and then rose abruptly around 6300 carbon-14 years before the present (14C yr B.P.). The lake completely desiccated around 4800 14C yr B.P. The end of this 1500-year wet period coincided with a period of intense dune destabilization. The major Harrapan-Indus civilization began and flourished in this region 1000 years after desiccation of the lake during arid climate and was not synchronous with the lacustral phase. 1

Institute of Earth Sciences and Department of Geography, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 60

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Jerusalem 91904, Israel. 2 Department of Geology, Central Washington University, Ellensburg, WA 98926, USA. 3 Deccan College, Deccan College Road, Pune 411006, India. 4 Earth Science Division, Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad 380009, India. 5 Geological Survey of Israel, 30 Malkhei Israel Street, Jerusalem, Israel. 6 Department of Hydrology and Water Resources, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA.

Science, Volume 284, Number 5411 Issue of 2 Apr 1999, pp. 125 - 128 http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/284/5411/125

The two scientific articles (Text boxes) demonstrate the conditions for water-supply in the lakes of the Thar desert: Didwana, Sambhar and Lunkaransar, in particular. The freshwater in the lakes were at high levels ca. 10,000 to 6,000 B.P. The desiccation of the lakes occurred ca. 4,800 to 4,000 B.P. It is hypothesised that these water-level changes are attributable to the changes in the southwestern Indian monsoon rains.

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Synoptic view provided by the LANDSAT of northwestern India and palaeochannels of Sarasvati River in relation the present rivers. The present Sutlej is shown taking a sharp westward turn near Rupar. Shows 6-8 km. wide palaeo-channel of Sarasvati River (from Siwalik thru Kalibangan and Anupgarh to Marot); present Shatadru (Sutlej) takes a sharp turn at Rupar. (Yashpal et al., 1984, Fig. 215).

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Present

and ancient courses of the Punjab rivers (After R.D. Oldham, 1887, On probable changes in the geography of the Punjab and its rivers. An historicogeographical study. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 55: 322-343).

Why does Hakra river bed widen below Walar: Oldham's map of Sarasvati River? "The variation in the number and location of sites of different protohistoric cultures suggests that different segments of the river were receiving different volumes of water during different periods. For example, during the Hakra Ware and Mature Harappan times, the middle reaches of the river, between longitudes 71 deg. and 72 deg. east were receiving more water, whereas during Early Harappan times the upper reaches, comprising the area on either side of the Indo-Pakistani border and the northern part of Haryana, were receiving a higher water supply. Again, during Late Harappan times there was a decrease or cessation in the supply in western Haryana and Punjab, Ganganagar and the contiguous Bahawalpur sector though some water was available further down in western Bahawalpur. Again, the river seems to have remained completely dry for several centuries after the disintegration and disappearance of the Harappan Civilization sometime in the second millennium BC. However, it received a limited supply of water again in the first millennium 63

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BC as indicated by the presence of a few Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites in the Ganganagar District and the contiguous Bahwalpur area (Pande 1977; Mughal 1981)... the shifting of the Sutlej and Yamuna_ courses into and away from the Ghaggar-Hakra (Sarasvati_) was neither a unique nor a simultaneous event... the Maha_bha_rata period (Sorensen, S., 1904, An Index to the names in the Mahabharata, London: 622), however, the Sarasvati_ had dried up by getting lost in the sands at Vinas'ana... However, its reappearance at several places (Sorensen 1904: 622) suggest that it was still carrying some water intermittently...Sir Aurel Stein (1942: 180) wrote that a careful study of the large-scale levelling charts prepared by the Survey of India for the Sutlej Project, when this important canal scheme was being planned by the Punjab Irrigation Department, has shown that the Hakra Branch canal passes for some 104 miles across levels between the sand ridges of the Cholistan which unmistakably represent an ancient winding bed of the Sutlej, that once joined the Hakra between Walar and Binjor. The junction of the Hakra with a branch of the Sutlej must have meant a great increase in the volume of water, and accounts for the Hakra bed widening below the junction about Walar. This fact alone can explain the large concentration of protohistoric sites on the Hakra in the Cholistan Desert." (V.N.Misra, opcit.) Harappa excavations of five seasons, between 1986 and 1990, have reinforced the basic, distinctive riverine facet of the civilization in the Sindhu-Sarasvati River Valleys. The reports cover a variety of topics: fish and fauna resources, organization of ceramic manufacture, and history of research at Harappa. Ronald Amundson and Elise Pendall discuss in "Pedology and Late Quarternary Environments Surrounding Harappa: A Review and Synthesis," "pertinent pedalogical, geological, and paleoenvironmental studies in the vicinity of Harappa". This comprises a study of meandering of the river Ravi, soils and geomorphology of Harappa site, and stable isotope studies. Jonathan Mark Kenoyer in "Urban Process in the Indus Tradition: A Preliminary Model from Harappa," constructs a chronological framework for the civilization into five time periods, using relative chronology and 33 radiocarbon samples which provide absolute dating. "Biological Adaptations and Affinities of Bronze Age Harappans," by Brian E. Hemphill, John R. Lukacs, and K.A.R. Kennedy elaborate on the decline of dental health, increased reliance on agriculture. With 137 illustrations and 37 tables useful reference materials are presented. (Richard H. Meadow, ed., Harappa Excavations 1986-1990:A Multidisciplinary Approach to Third Millennium Urbanism,Prehistory Press, Madison, Wisconsin, 1991.) After the Aryan Invasion myth has been substantially rejected, the refrain of some indologists has been: “No Harappan horse, no Vedic pony, no Vedic ocean and now, no Sarasvati.” These questionable premises fly in the face of new perspectives in history emerging from findings of scientists from a variety of ecological disciplines ranging from oceanography, seismology, glaciology and hydrology to archaeo-astronomy, genetics, archaeobotany and anthropology.

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Revival of Legendary Sarasvati Begins Projects are ongoing which will have a long-term beneficial impact on major parts of North West India and revive memories of over 5,000 years ago, by reviving the mighty Sarasvati River. A mighty perennial river which had nurtured an ancient civilization which has given us the Vedas, had been desiccated due to tectonic causes, river migrations and aeolean activity (aandhi phenomenon). This is an unparalled event in the history of human civilization. Today technological means are available to revive this sacred river and to make the legacy of Sarasvati meaningful not only to entire Bharat but to the whole world. The project to revive Sarasvati River will be a superb project, of international significance. Three projects to revive the legendary Sarasvati on the Survey of India topo-sheets. This project River were inaugurated during the last few is financed by the World Bank as part of the months. package of $139 million US Dollars for rejuvenation of the water systems of North One project is to link re-activate the ancient West India. The re-activation of this section will keep the river flowing all 365 days of the channels of the river from Adh Badri year upto Pehoa and beyond. Pehoa has the (Yamunanagar Dist.) to Pehoa (referred to as ancient Vasishtha ashram where the Sarasvati Pruthudaka in the Great Indian Epic, River becomes east-flowing and Sarasvati Mahaabhaarata) Ghats where homage to ancestors (pitru The second project to provide a piped feeder tarpan.a) is offered by pilgrims. The ghats are from the Bhakra Main canal to Pehoa, using the more ancient than the pilgrimage ghats in perennial waters of the Sutlej emanating from Varanasi on the Ganga River. This pilgrimage the Mansarovar glacier in Mt. Kailash. 50% of site was also visited by Balarama during his the cost is financed by a private pilgrimage from Dwaraka to Mathura along the philanthropist.The river channel from Adh course of the Sarasvati River which is described Badri to Pehoa is mentioned as Sarasvati Nadi in the shalya parvam of the Great Indian Epic

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The third project is to map the ancient drainage system of the Sarasvati River and identify groundwater aquifers and sanctuaries, over a stretch of 1600 kms. from Bandarpunch massif in Western Garhwal (Har-ki-dun glacier) to the Arabian Sea near Somnath (Prabhas Patan, Gujarat) using the remote sensing application centre in Jodhpur, Rajasthan and tritium analysis by atomic scients in Bhabha Atomic Research Centre This is a pre-requisite for redesigning the drainage system of NW India to benefit over 200 million people of the River Basin.

Himalayan glaciers: source of Sarasvati [After VMK Puri, 1998]

Many challenges lie ahead in completing the rejuvenation of the Sarasvati River Basin from Har-ki-dun glacier in W. Garhwal upto Somnath, Gujarat stretched over four ecological zones: receding Himalayan glaciers, Siwalik foothills, semi-arid Marusthali and marshy Rann of Kutch and Saurashtra. The ambitious project profile includes: a comprehensive design of the NW India Drainage System and review of land-use patterns and afforestation programmes (including growing of halophytes—salt-resistant cash crops such as Salicornia brachiata), action to stop the

receding glaciers in Uttar Pradesh (W. Garhwal) and Himachal Pradesh, resolving water-logging problems in Haryana and Punjab, recharging of the groundwater resources in Rajasthan and Kutch by extending the

River

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Rajasthan Canal beyond Jodhpur, using the waters of the Rajasthan Canal (which draws the waters from the perennial source of Sutlej – Manasarovar)—to recharge the groundwater resources, provision of additional wells in the entire Basin, use of solar and wind-power to power the pumpsets for tubewells, and, improvement of subsurface drainage system in the entire Sarasvati River Basin. Conjunctive development of watershed projects in Rajasthan and Gujarat using the groundwater resources and recharge facilities using perennial surface

waters will be essential to evolve changes in the land-use patterns in the region and to provide the basic need of drinking water facilities in the semi-arid and marshy ecological zones of Bharat.. To effectively regulate the implementation, in an integrated manner, of the range of projects in complex ecological zones and some zones subject to tectonic disturbances, it is essential to constitute a Sarasvati River Basin Authority.

A number of organizations are involved in the research and project work:National Remote Sensing Agency, Geological Society of India, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Central Water Commission, State Water Resources Agencies, Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Central Arid Zone Forest Research Institute, Indian Space Research Organization. Satellite images from LANDSAT, EOSAT, IRS 1-A to 1D have been put to extensive use in the research studies.

The participation of the scientific community in the studies is highlighted by the recent publication (Feb. 1999) by Geological Society of a book titled Vedic Sarasvati, describing the palaeodrainage system of North West India and the Sarasvati Project initiated by the Govt. of India, Central Ground Water Authority. •

The following maps are appended to provide a framework to define the locus of the Sarasvati River Basin in NW India, stretching from the Ma_nasarovar lake (Mt. Kailas) to Somnath (Prabhas Patan) in the Arabian Sea—a very vast basin today inhabited by over 200 million people of Bharat and with the potential to add at least 10% to the granary of Bharat and provide new livelihood opportunities as the projects progress :

Maps Hydrogeological framework: the Rann, Nal Sarovar and Streams in Gujarat Outfall areas of the Sarasvati River in the Rann of Kutch, ca. 1500 BC (After Merh et al., 1999) Rajasthan Canal and the Sarasvati River Basin in NW India Extending the Rajasthan Canal (which has already been constructed over a distance of 650 kms.) by another 350 kms. to reach the outfall palaeo-deltas of the River Sarasvati in the Rann of Kutch, will bring the perennial waters from the Himalayas to Gujarat. This grand project of revived Sarasvati will revolutionize the landscape of Bharat. Aurel Stein’s Tour of Sarasvati

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Aurel Stein’s tour of Sarasvati (After Possehl, G.L., 1999, Indus Age, The Beginnings, Fig. 2.47).

Aurel Stein, 1942, A survey of ancient sites along the `lost' Sarasvati River, Geographical Journal, 99: 173-182: `` ... the sketch-map based on the latest survey shows how great is the contrast between the very scanty volume of water brought down by the Ghaggar and the width of its dry bed within Bikaner territory; over more than 100 miles it is nowhere less than 2 miles and in places 4 miles or more. This bed is lined on both sides by dunes varying in height ... the Ghaggar bed above Hanumagarh, one notes that the number of mounds marking ancient sites long abandoned is here distinctly smaller than farther down the old river bed ... (mounds) known as ther or theri ... Archaeological facts prove cultivation, and with it settled occupation, to have been abandoned much earlier on the Hakra than on the Ghaggar ... trial excavation at Sandhanawala Ther, 3 miles to the northwest of Fort Abbas ... some sherds with incised characters which appear on many inscribed seals from Mohenjodaro and Harappa, chief sites of the Indus Valley cultre ... The great height and size of several others indicate prolonged settlement ... the evidence shows that down to historical times the Ghaggar carried water for irrigation under existing climatic conditions much farther than it does now. This makes it intelligible how the Sarasvati has come in hymns of the R.gveda to be praised as a great river ... upper portion of the ancient bed ... drying up during historical times ... hastened by diversion of flood water for irrigation brought about by more settled conditions and the resulting pressure of population. Lower down on the Hakra the main change was due to the Sutlej having in late prehistoric times abandoned the bed which before had joined the Ghaggar: the result of a law affecting all rivers whose course lies over alluvial plains ... The dry bed of the Sarasvati River in Rajasthan is lined with sand dunes. “..that water once flowed well down to Bahawalpur is attested beyond doubt by numerous settlement-mounds, and it is often held that the East Nara in Sind is the continuation of the Hakra, beheaded by the Sutlej”. (Spate and Learmonth, 1967: 536). The sand-dunes on the edges of the dry river bed do reprsent river-banks: “That they 70

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represent river-banks is proved by the existence on them of a large number of shells, kindly identified for me by the Zoological Survey of India as Zootecus insularis (Ehr.), Indonaia caerula (lea) and Parreysia sp. Some of these, being fresh-water shells, must have got deposited on the banks of the river when it was alive. Small dunes, accumulating at the tops of the sand-banks, and consisting of finer sand drifted from the banks themselves and outside, are of secondary formation.” (Ghosh, A., 1952, The Rajputana desert: its archaeological aspect. Bulletin of the National Institute of Sciences in India, 1:37-42).

Two rivers met near Wallur or west of Anupgarh; the rivers were called eastern and western Hakra by C.F. Oldham. Most of the archaeological settlements on the upper reaches of Sutlej are found along the courses of these eastern and western Hakra river channels.

In middle reaches, Sarasvati (now represented by Ghaggar) was 6 to 8 kms. wide. The present-day course is also shown, close to Bana_wali, an archaeological site of Harappan period. [Sood and Sahai, 1983].

Stein (1942), linked all the Harappan sites discovered along the old palaeochannel of Ghaggar to the ancient Sarasvati; by implication the palaeochannels of Ghaggar and Hakra, according to him, represented the ancient Sarasvati. (cf. Aloys Arthur Michel, The Indus Rivers: A study of the effects of partition, 1967, Yale University Press, New Haven.)

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The ancient beds of the Ghaggar has a constant width of about 6 to 8 km. from Shatrana in Punjab to Marot in Pakistan. The bed stands out having a dark tone (in Landsat images) and in a reddish colour in false colour composite satellite images. There is a palaeo-channel seen southeast of the river Markanda which joins the ancient bed of the Ghaggar near Shatrana Channel Y1, through which the presend-day Sarasvati channel flows. Another channel, Y2, which corresponds to the presend-day Chautang seems to join the Ghaggar near Suratgarh. Near Anupgarh, the ancient Ghaggar bed bifurcates and both the palaeo-channels come to an abrupt end; the upper one terminates near Marot and the lower one near Beriwala.”It would, therefore, mean that the Palaeo-Yamuna

changed its course three times before assuming the present one. In the first instance it flowed through Channel Y1 into the ancient Ghaggar. Later on,l it flowed through Channel Y2, which includes the present Chautang, and met the Ghaggar near Suratgarh. The third time it went southward and passed through the Channel Y3, joining the Ganga through the Chambal.” (Yashpal et al., 1980). “The ‘Jumna of Delhi’, that is, the present day Jumna, has taken over the upper course of the old Jumna (or Proto-Jumna)…The Sanskrit word ‘Jumna’ means ‘one of the twins’. This probably indicates that the proto-Jumna-Hakra course did not dry up immediately when the Delhi Jumna took over the upper course, there 72

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Manasarovar Glacier lake which is the cultural capital of Bharat.

was probably a bifurcation/forking in the river and one part probably flowed for some time into the Arabian sea while the other part joined the Ganges and flowed into the Bay of Bengal. The new Jumna is 10 m deeper/lower than the old Jumna. (Ferguson, 1863, On recent changes in the delta of the Ganges, Quarterly Journal of Geological Society, v. XIX, London, p. 348). It is, therefore understandable that finally all the water of the Jumna flowed into the new bed and that the old Hakra course dried up.” (Wilhelmy, 1969, opcit., p. 108).

Plate X [c] Lingam in situ in Trench Ai (MS Vats, 1940, Excavations at Harappa, Vol. II, Calcutta): ‘In the adjoining Trench Ai, 5 ft. 6 in. below the surface, was found a stone lingam [Since then I have found two stone lingams of a larger size from Trenches III and IV in this mound. Both of them are smoothed all over]. It measures 11 in. high and 7 3/8 in. diameter at the base and is rough all over.’ (Vol. I, pp. 5152)

S'iva linga is shaped after the summit of Mt. Kailas on the foothills of which is the

Himalaya are found in two old terraces. [KS Valdiya, 2002, Fig. 3.3]

Plate tectonics resulted in the desiccation of the Sarasvati River between 2500 BCE and 1500 BCE. The clash of Indian and Eurasian plates resulted in the creation of a Yamuna-tear at Paonta Doon (Himachal Pradesh) and resulted in the diversion of River Yamuna away from the Bata River valley eastwards to join the River Ganga. Thus, Yamuna carried the waters of River Sarasvati to join Ganga at Prayag to constitute the Triveni San:gamam. Geological findings have thus validated the tradition of Bharat celebrating

Mahakumbhmela at Prayag every 12 years, celebrating the Ganga-Yamuna-Sarasvati san:gamam. A second tectonic event resulted int he diversion of Sutlej River westwards at Ropar (90 degree turn) to join the River Sindhu.

Tamasa (with its Yamuna branch) flowed west, in Pa_onta Sa_hab Dun; the westflowing channels, now called Ba_ta and Ma_rkanda join Sarsuti (with wide channels). Metamorphic rocks from inner 73

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Thus Sarasvati was abandoned by two glacial tributary rivers. The River became a monsoon-

based river flowing from Adi Badri (north of Bilaspur) at the foothills of the Siwalik ranges.

Satellite image analyses have shown the occurrence of Yamuna tear (due to tectonic causes resulting in the lateral shift of the Siwalik ranges) in Paonta Doon valley which resulted in the piracy of Sarasvati River waters by Yamuna river consequent upon the migration of the Yamuna river channel to join with Ganga river at Prayag. About 4500 years Before Present, Yamuna river was tributary of River Sarasvati flowing northwestwards along the BataMarkanda divide between the Himalayan and Siwalik ranges and joining with Markanda and Sarasvati Rivers not far from Adi Badri (30-27N; 77-27E), 40 kms. north of Yamunanagar (Jagadhri) in Haryana. This river migration of Yamuna river was followed (circa 3500 years Before Present) by the migration of Sutlej river which took a 90-degree turn at Ropar due to tectonic causes. These two events of migrations of tributaries of River Sarasvati, the river was deprived of glacial waters and became a seasonal, rain-fed stream. Adi Badri is the place where the stream surfaces on the foothills of the Siwalik ranges. Cunningham also was of the view that Adi Badri was the place where the River Sarasvati surfaced on the plains. "Plans have been drawn to build checkdams for collecting monsoon water in Haryana, drilling of the dry beds of the Sarasvati and linking of the Sarasvati associated holy sites such as Thanesar, Vasishta Ashram, Pehowa, Kapala-Mochan and Brahmasarovar near Kurukshetra" (cf. Sarasvati Darshan brochure of Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), Shimla). Triveni San:gamam The Yamuna tear establishes the authenticity of Bharatiya tradition of the confluence of GangaYamuna and Sarasvati at Prayag. Geologically, this tradition is explained as the capture of the waters of River Sarasvati by River Yamuna which carried these waters to join the River Ganga. The tradition is celebrated every 12 years as Mahakumbhamela which attracts over 50 million pilgrims to take a dip in the sacred san:gamma at Prayag. The plate tecotonics which explain the Yamuna tear also explain the migration of the major tributaries of River Sarasvati: River Sutlej migrated westwards at Ropar and River Yamuna migrated eastwards at Paontasaheb. These geological findings have been extensively studied and discussed in the Geological Survey of Memoir No. 42 titled Vedic River Sarasvati published in the year 2000.

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IRS P3 Indian Remote Sensing Satellite Mosaic: Sarasvati/Markanda/Ghaggar rivers; Indus River System: Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas; Source: WiFS (Wide Field Sensor)data by exposing red (0.620.69 um) through green and near infra red (0.77-0.86 um) through red guns covering the Indus river system from the Himalayas to the Arabian Sea; in: D.P.Rao, Role of Remote Sensing in Understanding of Palaeodrainage Evolution, Memoir Geol. Soc. of India. No. 42, 199: 237-244.

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The rebirth of River Sarasvati has begun with a series of hydrological projects, which include water harvesting, integrated development of ground and surface water resources, and interlinking of rivers. The greening of the Rajasthan desert (Marusthali) has already begun.

Sarasvati Maha_nadi rupa nahar, Mohangarh, 55 km. West of Jaisalmer, 40 Ft. wide, 12 Ft. deep (Feb. 2002) This is what the dhvaja stambha at the project site says.

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River Sarasvati: Archaeology, Tradition and Water Resources Sarasvati Dars’an

Dr. S. Kalyanaraman, Director, Sarasvati Nadi Shodh Prakalp (Akhil Bharatiya Itihasa Sankalana Yojana) in conversation with H.E. the President of Bharat, Bharat Ratna, Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam during the President's visit to Sarasvati Darshan Exhibition organized at Yamunanagar on 20 April 2003. Seen in the photograph are (from left to right) are: Shri Lakshya, Jagadhri; Shri Darshan Lal Jain (President, Sarasvati Nadi Shodh Sansthan, Haryana, Jagadhri); Shri I.D. Dwivedi (Dy. Supt. Archaeologist, the discoverer of an ancient settlement on banks of River Sarasvati at Adi Badri - partly seen); Dr. Baldev Sahai (ex-Chief, Space Applications Division, ISRO, Ahmedabad and President, Sarasvati Nadi Shodh Sansthan, Gujarat, Ahmedabad); Dr. Vijay Mohan Kumar Puri (ex-Director, Geological Survey of India, Dharmashala, discoverer of glacial sources of Vedic River Sarasvati); Shri Sanjay K. Manjul, Archaeologist; President of Bharat; Shri Deepak Lal Jain, Industrialists, Jagadhri; Dr. S. Kalyanaraman; Shri Haribhau Vaze (National Organizing Secy., Akhil Bharateeya Itihasa Sankalana Yojana, Mumbai, partly seen). In the background may be seen the Sarasvati Darshan Exhibition displays including satellite images and artefacts discovered at Adi Badri archaeological site.

The delegation briefed the President on the investigations and scientific findings which have established that River Sarasvati is not a myth but ground-truth. Adi Badri is a sacred place about 30 77

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kms. north of Jagadhri and is the place where the Sarasvati River emerges out of the Himalayan glaciers through the foothills of Siwalik ranges. The River originates from the Himalayan glaciers in Har ki dun in Uttaranchal. Over 5000 years ago, the river flowed over a distance of over 1600 kms. draining the North west Bharat, through the states of Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat, to reach the Sindhu Sagara at Prabhas Patan (Somnath) as described in the Mahabharata and other ancient texts. Tectonic and river migration causes for the desiccation of the river about 3500 years ago have been established using satellite image analyses, geomorphological studies, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre findings based on tritium analysis of abundant ground water resources discovered in the Sarasvati River Basin in the middle of the Rajasthan Marusthali desert, which will enable the construction of over 1 million tube wells for potable water, after recharging the groundwater aquifers using surface channels of the reborn Sarasvati river which is an integral part of the project to interlink national rivers of Bharat. This project costing about $120 billion will change the face of Bharat and take the nation to a developed status in 7 years' time. The feasible project can be expedited using 3 D Radar Topography; the satellite technology will also help monitor hydrological flows by establishing a National Water Grid comparable to the National Power Grid for ensuring equitable distribution of water resources of the Himalayas throughout the country using mostly gravity flows. The project will help control floods and also recurrent water shortage or drought situations in some parts of the nation. In this context, the President expressed his desire to visit Adi Badri to see the work in progress to ensure the flow of River Sarasvati all 365 days of the year for the benefit of pilgrims visiting tirthasthanas and to promote command area of irrigation in the region for the benefit of millions of farmers. Oriental Studies, 239-260). There is no genetic trait flow from Bactria into Bharat circa 1800 BCE: “Parpola’s suggestion of movement of Proto-Rigvedic Aryan speakers into the Indus Valley by 1800 is not supported by our data. Gene flow from Bactria occurs much later and does not impact Indus Valley gene pools until the dawn of the Christian Era.” (Hemphill and Christensen, “The Oxus Civilization as a Link between East and West: A Non-Metric Analysis of Bronze Age Bactrain Biological Affinities”, paper read at the South Asia Conference, 3-5 November 1994, Madison, Wisconsin; p. 13). Kenneth A.R. Kennedy reaches similar conclusions from his physical-anthropological data. (K..A.R. Kennedy, “Have Aryans been identified in the prehistoric skeletal record from South Asia?” in George Erdosy, ed.: The IndoAryans of Ancient South Asia, p.49). the Ganga Valley, 1980, Allahabad Univ.). This is confirmed by R.S. Sharma who finds evidence for domesticated horse at 5000 BCE and some circa 1000 BCE (Looking for the Aryans, 1996, Hyderabad, Orient Longmans, p. 17). The Rigveda (RV 1,62,18) refers to a horse

Autochthonous evolution and continuity of culture “There is no archaeological or biological evidence for invasions or mass migrations into the Indus Valley between the end of the Harappan phase, about 1900 BC and the beginning of the Early Historic Period around 600 BC.” (J.M. Kenoyer, 1998, Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, Karachi, OUP, p. 174). Shaffer and Lichtenstein confirm the continuity of indigenously evolved civilization. (1999, ‘Migration, philology & South Asian archaeology,’ in J. Bronkhorst and M. Deshpande, eds., Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard Bolan and Son Valleys in the Ganga basin have provided evidence of wild horse circa 18000 and of domesticated horse between 6570 to 5430 BCE. (G.R. Sharma, History to Prehistory: Archaeology of the Vindhyas and 78

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with 34 ribs. There is no evidence whatsoever to assume that the word as’va in the Rigveda connotes only an equus caballus (Arabian horse) and not a pony native to Siwalik ranges. Sarasvati is compared to a ratha: ratha iva br.hati_, ‘like a chariot big’ (RV 6,61,13). The Rigvedic ratha is made of s’almali (RV 10,85,20), of khadira and sims’apa (RV 3,53,19) and the axle is made of aratu (RV 8,46,27). All these are heavy woods native to Bharat.

East to West movements RV mandala 10, sukta 75 provides a list of river names, starting from east to west. “It is certain…that the Rigveda offers no assistance in determining the mode in which the Vedic Aryans entered India… the bulk at least [of the RV] seems to have been compiled rather in the country round the Sarasvati river” (Keith, A.B., 1922, ‘The age of the Rigveda’, The Cambridge History of India, Vol. 1, 79). Kazanas notes: “Several scholars indulge in semantic conjurings saying that various names in the RV refer to places and rivers in Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Iran etc., but this is is not a very honest practice since by such interpreting (turning facts into metaphors and symbols, and vice versa) one can prove anything.” (‘Indigenous Indo-Aryans and the Rigveda’ in: The Journal of Indo-European Studies, Vol. 30, Number 3 and 4, Fall/Winter 2002, p. 8). Dtailed comments, establishing an east to west movement of peoples, are at http://hindunet.org/saraswati/dasyu.htm titled, ‘Dasyu were left behind on the left (i.e. south).’

There is no reference to any shrinking of the river in any of the Rigvedic texts and certainly no textual basis to etymologize samudra of Rigvedic times, as a reference to lake(s). There could be other valid interpretations: ‘The word saras came to mean ‘pool’ and this may refer to the sources of the river being lakes which formed as the ice was melting: considering the name was given when the river was at its grandest (from the mountains to the ocean), it would refer to lakes at the origin and not the terminal point…The root sr. and all its derivatives imply ‘motion, extension, runningon’; saras too originally meant most probably (not ‘pool’ but) ‘whirlpool’ or ‘eddy’ in a river’s current. Sarasvati was the river with the mighty current and strong swirls…Hymn 10,75…is a list of the rivers from east to west and Sarasvati is in the correct place, after Ganges and Yamuna. More important, hymn 3,33 speaks of the two rivers Vipas’ and S’utudri as rising from the mountains (parvata) and flowing down to the ocean, samudra. Or should we here also take samudra to be a ‘terminal lake’, as Witzel would have it for Sarasvati in RV 7,95,2? In both we have the rise of the rivers from mountains and their flow to samudra. But RV 1,71,7 also says samudram na sravatah sapta yahvi_h ‘(sacrificial offersings turn to Agni) like the 7 mighty rivers flowing to the samudra’: is this samudra too Sarasvati’s ‘terminal lake’ into which turn/flow all seven rivers?…I find it more reasonable to take samudra as the ‘ocean’ and that Sarasvati also flows there.’ (Kazanas, Journal of IndoEuropean Studies, 2002, p. 40).

S’ankha (turbinella pyrum) was an industry which started earlier than 6500 BCE as attested by the find of a wide s’ankha bangle in the grave of a woman at Mehergarh. This industry continues even today in Gulf of Khambat and Gulf of Mannar. Similarly, the ability to work with stones (large stones such as polished pillars and ring-stones for large buildings and small stones for ornaments) is also a skill which was evident at Dholavira (rock-cut reservoir, stone monitor lizard) and which continued in the historical periods in man-made caves. Stone-work required one tool: t.a_n:gi, chisel. S’ivalinga has been found at Harappa, dated to ca. 3300 BCE. S’ivalinga terracotta images have also been found at Kalibangan. The worship of S’iva is a cultural identity of Bharat. S’iva shaped like the summit of Mt. Kailas 79

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River Markanda), are: Adi Badri, Bilaspur, Sadhaoura, Mustafabad, Bhagawanpura, Thanesar, Raja-karn-ka Qila, Mirzapur,

exemplifies the water-giving resource of the Himalayan glaciers. Hence, S’iva is associated in the tradition with the daughter of the mountains, Parvati and the river Ganga is pictured, metaphorically, as emanating from the locks of S’iva in penance on Mt. Kailas. In the context of this cultural continuity into the historical periods, the epigraphs of the Civilization will be unraveled using the protoIndo-Aryan Subtrate languages; these are the languages which have resulted in the formation of the languages of Bharat.

Pehowa, Kalayat, Kaithal, in addition to sites

The civilization is noted for copper metallurgy, stone-bead making, and seal carving; some are also decorated with an early form of writing. By the middle of the third millennium B.C., a settled urban culture is evident and extensive trading contacts with cultures to the west and north-west. The decline of the Indus Valley civilization is attributed to the desiccation of River Sarasvati, which nurtured over 80% of the settlement sites, and loss of trade contacts. Notes on Archaeological discoveries on Sarasvati River basin and contiguous areas (April 2003)

such as Banawali, Rakhigarhi and Dholavira where excavation work is ongoing. Exploration and excavation work on hundreds of sites (out of a total of over 2000 archaeological sites on the river basin) will establish the cultural chronology of the Bharatiya civilization.

Archaeological Survey of India should be complimented for the initiative taken, during 2002-2003, to explore and excavate major sites out of over 2,000 archaeological sites located on the Sarasvati River basin, following the scientific investigations which have established the entire 1600 km. course of the river from Himalayas to Gujarat. Some of these sites, in the districts of Yamunanagar, and Kurukshetra on the banks fo River Sarasvati from Adi Badri to Pehowa (at the confluence of the river with

Intensive exploration work has started in about 40 ancient sites in the Sarasvati River basin in and around District Yamunanagar (Jagadhri), Haryana. The recent exploratory work (April 2003) has to be viewed in the perspective of other cultural sites on the Sarasvati River Basin, since the Sarasvati River constituted the water80

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way which united these cultural settlements into an indigenous evolution and continuity of Bharatiya civilization from over 5000 years Before Present to the historical periods. The heritage of Sarasvati Civilization and prehistory of Bharat is all around us.

Importance of Adi Badri Adi Badri: Narayan temple on the left and Kedarnath temple on the right, on the foothills of Siwalik ranges Adi Badri: A panaromic view of SombSarasvati confluence on the foothills of the Siwalik ranges with a number of cultural mounds which are being explored and excavated

An impressive find at Adi Badri SombSarasvati left bank site is a copper/bronze coin inscribed on both sides. On one side, what appears to be a tiger or jackal is visible with a triangle depicted on the top register. This tiger image is reminiscent of the glyphs on Sarasvati Civilization seals and tablets. The image and epigraphs on the obverse are not clearly legible on the tablet or coin. Rebus interpretation: kol 'tiger'; kol 'metal''; kol 'smithy.

How to reach Adi Badri

The find of a coin or copper tablet at Adi Badri is comparable to the Kuninda coin kept in the Himachal State Museum, Shimla, establishing the characteristic continuity of the Sarasvati Civilization (of Mature Harappan period) with the use of glyphs such as: a bull standing in front of a person with an upraised hand, Svastika, tree on hill range, tree on railing. This coin has an epigraph in Brahmi script.

Adi Badri is located on the foothills of the Siwalik ranges and is a pilgrimage site renowned for the temples of Adi-Badri Narayana, Adi-Badri Kedarnath and Mantra Devi. Adi Badri can be reached by road via Bilaspur and Kapala-Mochan. The closest village is Kathgarh where a Sarasvati Cultural Information Centre has been established by ASI in the precincts of the Gram Panchayat Bhavan. A Sarasvati Darshan exhibition was held on the eve of Sarasvati Jayanti Ma_gha S'ukla Pancami

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Adi Badri has three mounds which are being excavated. Two mounds (called ABR-I and ABR-II) are on the right bank of River Somb (a tributary of River Sarasvati), north of the Ubend and one mound (called ABR-III) is on the

ABR-I mound is locally called Simhabara. Excavation has revealed two cultural phases of bricks and stone respectively. "The exact nature and extension of these structures are in the process of being ascertained.The succeeding phasse of a single course stone wall was found in a very disturbed condition. The pottery recovered from the site includes red ware of medum to coarse fabric, and few sherds of buffware. The main shapes are bowls, basins, jars, cooking vessels, pitchers, handles, lids, knobbed lids, hukkas..."

ABR-II mound, Adi Badri

ABR-II. "It commands a panaromic view of the surrounding area and is locally known as Intonwali. The height of the mound is approximately 200 ft. and is situated on the right bank of the Sarasvati-Somb confluence. It was covered by thorny thickets and bushes. Excavation released a single cultural phase on this mound. A huge brick structure was exposed, which can be dated to about AD 1st c. to AD 300. Considerable amount of pottery was found from the area and is confined to red ware to medium to coarse fabric. The shapes include bowls, lids, miniature pots, jars,storage jars, globular pots, spouted and stamped wares etc." Plan drawing of the excavated structure ABR-III

left bank.

"ABR-III is located on the left bank of the Sarasvati-Somb confluence. Excavations revealed 2 successive cultural phases. "Phase-I (AD 1st c. - AD 300). Remains of a spoked stupa was revealed. It is executed in 82

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burnt bricks and brickbats have been used as packing/filling material. The centre portion of the stupa has a rectangular chamber packed with earth and pebbles. The associated findings, antiquities and pottery all belong to the Kushana period."

"Phase-IIA. Structures made of undressed stone and rubble masonry, with thick clay mortar. Sometimes bricks have also been used. "Phase-IIB comprises of structures made of dressed stones. Though mostly clay mortar has been used, the use of lime mortar has occasionally been noticed. A huge complex was exposed with an enclosure stone wall (approx 48m X 26 m). Within this enclosure are a number of cells on two sides, at right angles. In the centre is a courtyard, paved with stones.

The stupa with 24 spokes discovered at Adi Badri is comparabe to the cylindrical stupa of

"In the eastern wall are carved niches, at regular intervals. In one of the niches was found in situ, the sculpture of a seated Buddha in the Dharmachakrapravartana mudra. Along one of the adjoining walls of the courtyard remains of an anvil and what appears to be a round fire-altar with full of charcoal were found. The remains all point to some sort of ritualistic association. Antiquities include a terracotta Bull figurine (Nandi), remnants of a plaque, iron

the Kushana period found at Sanghol (Dist. Fatehgarhsahib, Punjab), with three concentric rings of rick masonry with intervening space divided by radiating spokes of similar brick masonry at

regular nervals. At Sanghol site, the core is made of a thick circular wall of brick masonry filled with earth. At Sanghol was discovered a carved lid of the relic casket with an inscription in Kharoshti script dated to circa 1st century BCE; the epigraph reads: Upasakasa Ayabhadrasa.

nails, spearheads, copper rings and fish-hooks, stone chaklas, beads etc. and carved architectural members in stone." Comment: It is unclear if the seated image is that of the Buddha. The bottom register of the sculpted panel contains a lion clearly visible. It is in front of the vedi (fire-altar) with stupa. The image may as well represent Bhairava. This is subject to further intense study by experts in iconography.

The discovery of the stupa in Adi Badri clearly demonstrates the overlap of Buddha and Bhairava traditions of Bharata of the early centuries of the historical periods. 83

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Sadhaura (33-23N, 77-13E). "It is about 40 km. north-west of

found two fragments of Gupta inscriptions along with some Indo-Sassanian coins and coins of Menander; a murti of Uma-Mahes'vara now preserved in the Radha-Krishna temple. A Vis.n.u head in relief and a Vaikun.t.ha image on a slab were also found (both of the late Gupta period), and are kept in the Department of Archaeology and Museums, Chandigarh, Haryana. The pottery reported from the site are Red Ware and Grey Ware.

Yamunanagar and 15 kms. from Bilaspur on the Bilaspur-Narayangarh road. The mound is spread over an area of about 4 acres. Sadhaura is situated on the bank of river Nakati or Saudhorawali. The antiquity of the site goes back to about 3000 years. The pottery by which the cultural chronology of the site has been ascertained are Painted Grey Ware, Black Slipped Ware, Northern Black Polished Ware, Kushana Stamped Pottery, Red Polished Ware of the Gupta period, Red Ware of the Rajpur period and glazed Ware of the Sultanat and Mughal periods respectively. The structural finds from the site include two bastions made of lakhauri bricks.

Kapala-Mochan Gurudwara and R.n.aMochan Kund; Kapala-Mochan Suraj Kund

Sandhaya, Tehsil Bilaspur (30-20.5N, 7720E) Sandhaya is located about 6 kms. north of

"During the course of the excavation, a circular structure made of wedge-shaped bricks of about 35 courses was seen which is still being exposed. The findings from the site includes beads of shell, terracotta, turqoise and fragments of glass bangles." Kapala-Mochan (Gopal-Mchan), Bilaspur (30-1.5N, 77-13E)

tehsil Bilaspur on Bilaspur-Nahan highway. Two sites have been located: Jarasandh-ka- tila and Gyarsyan Sati Mata As'ram. Jarasandh-ka-tila is situated 2 kms. west of the village and a large cultural mound of 70X70m. oriented northsouth. The northern portion of the mound has a large gateway facing north; the walls of the gate rise above 8 m high and made of lakhauri bricks. Many edges of walls are visible on the surface. Potsherds belong to Kushana and Gupta periods and shapes include: bowls and vases in Red Ware and Red Slipped Ware. A number of coins, sculptures, beads, terracotta figurines have been reported by villagers and treasure-hunters. Gyarsiyan Sati Mata Ashram is about 1.5 kms. from the village. The site has

Kapala Mochan is located on the eastern bank of River Sarasvati, about 2.5 km. north of Bilaspur, on BilaspurNahan road. It is a pilgrimage tirthasthana with R.n.a-Mochan kund, Suraj Kund, Vyas Kund and Siddhes'vara temple. Archaeological excavations are in progress on a widely-spread mound. Cunningham had earlier 84

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Talakaur (Late Medieval); Kulawar (Rajput and Medieval); Hartan (Gupta and Rajput); Ramgarh (PGW, Kushana and Late Medieval); Chopri (Kushana and Rajput); Bandhev (Kushana and Rajput); Chorghat (Kushana); Bagaru (Kushana to Medieval); Hudia (PGW and historical); Pkoksa (Rajput and Late Medieval); Dhoa (Medieval); Mangalu Rangharan (Late Harappan); Kalwa (Late Harappan, Gupta and Rajput); Babain (Late Medieval); Bhagawanpura (Late Harappan and PGW); Kasithal (PGW, Historical and Medieval); Bir-Dhantori (Late Harappan to Historical); Tatki (Kushana); Khairi (Late Harappan to early historical); Kulapur (Historical); Daulatpur (Late Harappan to Historical); Kanepla (Early Historical); Khanpur Majra (Historical); Bahadurpur (Medieval); Bichganwan (Rajpur); Jogna Khera (Early historical to Medieval); Bibipur Kalan (Late Harappan to historical); and Umalcha (Harappan to historical periods).

stone sculptures and architectural members of a temple, dated to 16th-17th century. Integrated Development Programme "A multi-point programme for the integrated development of the site of Adi Badri has been proposed. These include plans to construct a 'Sarasvati-Sapta-Sarita-Abhisheka Kund' at the Sarasvati Prakatita Sthal, just ahead of the confluence of the Sarasvati and the Somb rivers, and a Sarasvati Sarovar which is to be constructed with bricks and RCC in an area covering 150 acres, east of the Sthal. The natural gradient and low-lying area is to be used for the purpose. A 10m. high bund is to be constructed and the water source for this sarovar will be first, the natural stream flowing down the Sthal and second, a point in the bed of Sarasvati river which will be drilled to bring to the surface the underground streams. To organize an annual festival 'Sarasvati-Mahotsav' on the ocasion of Vasant Pancami, on the lines of Kuruks.etra-Mahotsav.

[The quotes are from a brochure of ASI, Shimla released in April 2003. The excavation team is led by ID Dwivedi, Dy. Supdt. Archaeologist and includes: Jasmer Singh, SK Manjul, Smt. Arvin Manjul, Ashok Kumar, RK Dalal, R Bakshi, RK Sapru, Birender Kuar, Shankar Sharma, Sunil Jha, Mahender Pal, Akshat Kaushik, Smt. Garima Kaushik, Dr. Gautam, Chander B Kumar, RN Pandey, Dinesh Chander and Anil Kumar.]

Temples of Adi Badri Narayana and Kedarnath are to be connected by a hanging bridge Provision for ropeway connecting Sarasvati Prakatita Sthal to Mantra Devi temple Development of a Sarasvati Cultural Information Centre and Museum at Kathgarh Establishment of a Vedanga Research Institute for classical ancient disciplines like Jyotis.a, Ayurveda, Chandas and Nirukta Development of basic facilities in the area including uninterrupted electric supply, hospitals, potable water, educational institutions, drainage and sewage disposal system Development of amusement places, parks, car parking, coffee shops, restaurants, handicrafts centres and other tourism based infrastructure for tourist attraction Provision for security of tourists and cultural property Land use plan of the area in and outside the site Development of approach facilities to the site."

Rakhigarhi Rakhigarhi is the second largest Harappan site in Dist. Hissar, Haryana, Bharat and is located on the banks of River Dr.s.advati

Ongoing exploration work in 40 sites in Haryana

, a tributary of River Sarasvati (150 kms. northwest of Delhi). The early Harappan habitation had circular and rectangular structures of mud-bricks, while making of fired-bricks was also known.Coppersmithy, lapidary work, improved ceramics, art forms and uninscribed seal are typical artefacts of the site. A citadel with raised brick platforms was located close to the habitation area.

About 40 sites in Haryana, listed for further exploration are: Baniyon ki Haveli and Mai Lachhaka-kila at village Machharauli (Late medieval period); Jamalgarh (OCP); Butgarh (Post-Gupta and Rajput period); Ramgarh fort (Medieval period); Pansal (Post-Gupta period); Chholi (Kushana);

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Kurukshetra via Kolhapur and Marcheri or via Ladwat and Babain. The site was first excavated by Jagat Pati Joshi in 1975-76 when two cultural settlement sequences were revealed within a deposit of 3.2 m and showed Late Harappa interlocking with Painted Grey Ware during the late phases of occupation. Sub-period IA (1700 to 1300 BCE) had a late Harappan settlement on a mud platform (4.25 X 10 m) with a landing step. "It appears that late Harappans first established teselves in the alluvial deposits and then raised solid mud-platforms in two successive phases as a flood prevention measure. The site was twice damaged by floods, the second one when the Painted Grey Ware people were living here with the late Harappans in Sub-period IB. The pottery of this Subperiod generally falls in six broad groups...The technique in incised red ware is reminiscent of fabric 'D' of Pre-Harappan Kalibangan, Bara and late Harappan ceramic industries. From levels of Sub-period IA, a red terracotta figurie of a bull with long horns and pinched up hump and grey to black terracotta fragment showing leg portion of a human figure and three terracotta anthropomorphic figures are remarkable. Terracotta wheels with hubs, copper rods and pins, beads of faience, semiprecious stones and terracotta, bangles of faience and terracotta, pins of bone are other interesting finds. A humped bull shaped pendant of carnelian, although found from surface is one of the finest specimens and is reminiscent of the Harappan tradition.

The jewellery found at Rakhigarhi is typical Harappah style. On top of the brick platform on the citadel were fire-altars. PIt-chambers were found containing bones, and charcoal. A well was located adjacent to the platforms. A copper vessel was discovered with silver bangles and a gold head-band. A cemetery lying to the north of the citadel had graves with inhumation and accompanying goods. The early periods of the site are dated to circa 3200 to 2600 BCE and Mature horizon t 2600-1800 BCE. (After data contained in ASI brochure, 2002, Recent Archaeological Discoveries). Mandi: Harappan gold bracelet (Kad.a)

Bhagawanpura (30-4N 76-57E; ASI brochure

Chandigarh 2002) An artist's imaginary reconstruction of the village of Bhagawanpura, located on the right bank of River Sarasvati 24 km. northeast of Kurukshetra. Presently, River Sarasvati is about half-a-kilometre away from the mound. The village is reached from

Bhagawanpura. Terracotta toys.

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Bhagawanpura: bangles and beads.

rams, birds, dogs, cart wheel with or without hubs, hopscotches, decorated dishes, ghata-shaped beads, ear-ornaments, violin-shaped mother Divinity used as pendants of grey ware pieces, bone needles, pins and stylii. The most remarkable finds are the glass bangles in sea-blue, white and black colours and datable to circa 1400 BCE. Also remarkable are the bones of equus caballus Linn., cattle, sheep, goat, ram, pig and dog."

Bhagawanpura: coloured beads and bullfigurine pendants. "Sub-period IB (1400 to 1000 BCE) is marked by the coming together of late Harappan and the PGW peoples. The site was once damaged by flood but it was reoccupied by both th people. Three phases of structural activity have been noticed. First the people were living in round and semi-circular huts of wattle and daub. In an area of 4.25 X 6.85 m, twenty three post-holes in a trench have been found conforming a round or semi-circular hut. Inside the hut on the floor, the find of four saddle querns and different types of pestles, perhaps indicating that the house belonged to a corn grinder (?). In the second phase, a 13-roomed mud-walled house with a corridor in between having two sets of rooms 1.6 X 1.6 m to 3.35 X 4.2 m in size and a courtyard in the eastern side was in existence. One oval shaped structure is associated with this phase. The structure has burnt earth and a few pieces of red ware including a dishon-stand, uncharred bones besides terracotta fragments of its domical roof. The finds from these houses include animal bones, dishes and bowls of the PGW, terracotta beads, bone stylii and copper objects, besides a small quantity of late Harappan pottery. In the final phase, houses are built of burnt bricks s indicated by scattered bricks, which surfaced due to ploughing activity...The other finds of this sub-period include terracotta anthropomorphic figure, wheeled terracotta incised

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Bharati, Sarasvati sr?SvtIm! m/étae? A/iñna/pae yi]? de/van! r?Æ/xeya?y/

The story of desiccation of the great river Sarasvati is preceded by the story of unparalleled glory and travails in the making of a civilization which is the heritage of a billion people living today in Bharat. The so-called ‘disappearance’ of a mighty river is perhaps unique in the entire history of human civilization itself. That such a river existed and nurtured the culture of Bharat is authenticated in the Vedas, and the ancient historical accounts of Bharat called the Pura_n.as and the great epics, the Ra_ma_yan.a and the Maha_bha_rata. The Sarasvati Civilization was the substratum which sustained a riverine and maritime trade over an extensive region with the neighbours of Bharat, from Mesopotamia to Central Asia, and all over Bharat, from Kashmir to Kanyakumari. All along the pilgrimage route described in the Maha_bha_rata, Balarama offers homage to the ancestors and great r.s.is who are the builders of Bharat. Sarasvati is also called Bharati. The following quotes are from the Rigveda:

ivña?n! . 7.009.05 Repair, Agni, to the presence of the gods in your office of messenger, (sent) by the assembly engaged in prayer; neglect us not; offer worship to Sarasvati, the Maruts, the As'vins, the waters, the universal gods, that they may bestow treasures (upon us). z< nae? de/va iv/ñdev ? a -vNtu/ z< sr?SvtI s/h xI/i-rœ A?Stu , zm! A?i-/;ac>/ zm! %? rait/;ac>/ z< nae? id/Vya> paiwRv ? a>/ z< nae/ APya>? .

7.035.11 May the divine universal gods be (favourable) to our felicity; may Sarasvati_, with holy rites, be happiness; may those who assist at sacrifices, those who are liberal of gifts. Be (conducive to) our happiness; may celestial, terrestrial and aquatic things be (subservient to) our happiness. Aa yt! sa/k< y/zsae? vavza/na> sr?SvtI s/ÝwI/ isNxum ? ata ,

Aa -ar?tI/ -ar?tIi-> s/jae;a/ #¦a? de/vErœ m?nu/:yei-rœ

ya> su/:vy?Nt su/Ê"a>? suxa/ra A/i- Sven/ py?sa/

A/i¶> ,

pIPya?na> .

sr?SvtI sarSv/tei-?rœ A/vaRkœ it/öae de/vIrœ b/ihRrœ @d<

%/t Tye nae? m/étae? mNdsa/na ixy
s?dNtu . 7.002.08 May Bharati, associated with the Bharatis; Il.a_ with gods and men; and Agni and Sarasvati_ with the Sa_rasvatas; may the three goddesses sit down before us upon this sacred grass. [Il.a_ with gods and man: il.a_ devabhir manus.yebhir agnih; Il.a_ is associated with men; Agni is associated with the goddesses. This and the three following verses are repeated from the second as.t.aka].

ma n>/ pir? Oy/dœ A]?ra/ cr/NTy! AvI?v&x/n! yuJy? . 7.036.06 May the seventh (stream), Sarasvati_, the mother of the Sindhu and those rivers that flow copious and fertilizing, bestowing abundance of food, and nourishing (the people) by their waters come at once together. [The mother of the Sindhu: sindhu ma_ta_ = apam ma_tr.bhu_ta_, being the mother of the waters]. 7.036.07 May these joyous and swift-going Maruts protect our sacrifice and our offspring; let not the imperishable goddess of speech,

A¶e? ya/ih Ë/Tym! ma ir?;{yae de/vaACDa? äü/k«ta? g/[en? , 88

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deserting us, speak (kindly) to our (adversaries); and may both (she and the Marut) associated augment our riches. [Let not the imperishable goddess of speech: ma_ nah parikhyad aks.ara_ caranti = aks.ara_ vya_pta_ caranti va_gdevata_ asma_n parityaktva_ asma_d vyatirikta_ ma_ dra_ks.i_t, let not the diffusive deity of speech, having abandoned us, look upon our opponents].

After the rise of the Himalayas, S’atadru became the anchorage river of Sarasvati; what is now called Yamuna joined the Sarasvati river at PaontaSaheb. Ganga which had emerged from Gangotri received Chambal (now Yamuna) as its tributary at Prayag, Allahabad. An important glaciological dating tool is the fact that each glacier can supply waters into a major stream like the Ganga for a period of 10,000 years. The conclusions from these earth science perspectives are that when the Sarasvati river was in its mighy flow, it had carried the glacier waters which are now carried by S’atadru and Yamuna.

Two events have no parallel in the entire history of civilization (1) that a river of the magnitude of Sarasvati River had been desiccated c. 1900-1500 B.C. and (2) that like the Bhagiratha story of the emergence of the Ganga, the perennial Sarasvati River will come alive soon to benefit the present and future generations. Both the discovery and the ongoing project should make every Indian feel proud of his and her heritage and the technological competence we have acquired with hard work and diligence.

The desiccation of the river over an extended period of about 400 years (ca. between 1900 to 1500 B.C.), is the central cause for the migration of the peoples eastward, northward and southward from the settlements on the banks of the Sarasvati river which had nourished the civilization ca. 3000 to 1700 B.C. (See website URL: http://www.probys.com/sarasvati)

Natural History of Sarasvati River

Archaeology has provided C-14 dates for the settlements on the banks of the Sarasvati river and work in historical metallurgy has established the antiquity of the Ganeshwar mines in Rajasthan which provided the mineral sources to sustain the bronze age civilization.

The ground-truth of Sarasvati river as a perennial Himalayan river, has been found using scientific techniques: satellite images, carbon-14 dating, tritium analysis of water samples from deep-wells all along the paleochannels shown on the satellite images. These have helped in establishing that the river was a mighty one prior to 3000 BC and was desiccated around 1500 BC.

Tritium (hydrogen isotope) analysis of deep water samples taken by BARC (Bhabha Atomic Research Centre) has provided a broad spectrum dating for the waters of the Sarasvati river now revealead as groundwater sanctuaries and aquifers. The waters range from 2400 to 7400 years Before Present (B.P.).

The Sarasvati river binds the Rigvedic culture and the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization since the Sarasvati river is the locus of over 1200 ancient archaeological settlements and sapta-sindhu is the Rigvedic domain. (Rigveda refers to Sarasvati_ as sindhu ma_ta_: the mother of lifesustaining waters). The movements of the people after the desiccation of the river in the second millennium, also evidence the continuity of the civilization weaving seamlessly into the historical periods of Indian cultural development.

Sarasvati_ is the first creation among rivers and joins the ocean, according to the Great Epic: es.a_ sarasvati_ pun.ya_ nadi_na_muttama_ nadi_ prathama_ sarvasarita_m nadi_ sa_garaga_mini_ (MBh. Anus’a_sana 134.15) 89

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Skanda Pura_n.a emphatically adds that the Sarasvati_ river carries the Vad.ava_nala fire to the ocean:

But when the Lesser Himalayas (the Mahabharat Range in Nepal) were elevated, less than 200,000 years ago, some of these rivers were ponded back behind them, forming huge lakes (Note by Kalyan: Hence,the name Sarasvati!!) Eventually, the water rose high enough to find outlets to the south (added, of course, by the work of the truncated rivers cutting back through the Lesser Himalayas), and the lakes were drained, leaving the level basins found today around Kathmandu and Pokhara in Nepal (Note by Kalyan: note, the placid lake in PaontaSaheb where Yamuna pirated Sarasvati) South-flowing streams cutting through the Siwaliks had no difficulty in maintaining their courses because that frontal range was never high enough to shut off precipitation in their source areas. Yet the uplift of the Himalayas, including the Siwaliks, is apparently still continuing, offset by rapid erosion of course, and earthquakes are by no means uncommon as a result... (p.25)... there would seem to be little doubt that the present, almost imperceptible watershed between the Ganges and Indus drainage is very recent in origin. Here the key seems to lie in the shifting or migration of stream beds across the alluvium of the plains, and key role to have been played by the Jumna and a former stream (possibly the legendary Sarasvati) the course of which is now marked by the bed known as the Ghaggar in the Indian Punjab and Rajasthan, and as the Hakra in Pakistan Bahawalpur, that parallels the Sutlej towards the Indus. The enormous amounts of detritus brought down by the Punjab rivers and the present affluents of the Ganges are more than sufficient to explain stream blockage and shifting without invoking tectonic forces, and capture of one stream by another is wellattested. The Beas, for example, was captured by Sutlej at the end of the eighteenth century. Its old course near Harike to the Chenab above Panjnad is well marked in the landscape of the southern Pakistan Punjab, with the town of Kasur and a series of villages still lining its 'banks'. The Ghaggar, which is used in part by modern canals and which has begun to flow again as water tables have risen, may very well

sama_hu_ya tato devi_m sva_m suta_m padmasambhavah uva_ca putri gaccha tvam gr.hi_tva_gnim mahodadhim (Skanda Pura_n.a, Prabha_sa Ka_n.d.a 17.53, Venkateshwar Press edn.) Padma Pura_n.a (S’r.s.t.i kha_n.d.a 18.198) states that the Sarasvati_ river vanished underground because she was made to carry the Vad.ava_nala fire. The reference is apparently to some large-scale tectonic disturbance which resulted in river piracy and river migrations involving the tributaries of the Sarasvati_ river. An intimation of this possible tectonic event is related in a legend in the Great Epic. Devas led by Brahma brought Ka_rttikeya to the Sarasvati_ river and made him the Commander of their army. With the s’akti given him by Agni, Ka_rttikeya broke asunder the kraun~ca mountain which sheltered the daitya Ba_n.a, son of Bali, who tormented the devas. That the kraun~ca mountain near Sarasvati_was rent asunder by fire is a significant reference to the tectonics of the Himalayan ranges and the foothills of the Siwalik mountain ranges. A south-flowing branch of the Chambal, (the southwestern tributary of Ganga) cut its channel headwards and captured the water of the then south-west flowing Sarasvati. The new channel, through which the diverted watger flowed, was later named Yamuna. Map shows the drainage pattern after this river piracy—after the Sarasvati was robbed of its watger by the Ganga through the agency of its tributary. (After Valdiya, K.S., 1996, River Piracy: Sarasvati that Disappeared, in: Resonance, Vol. 1, No. 5, May, Bangalore, Indian Academy of Sciences, Fig. 8).

"(About 600,000 years ago) the Main Himalayas at first replaced the Tibetan Marginal Mountains as the recipients of the full force of the monsoon, and the south-flowing streams were able to maintain their courses by down-cutting as the Siwaliks began to arise. 90

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represent the former course of such a truncated river. Spate suggests that it could have been fed either by the Sutlej, itself occupying a different channel, or by the Jumna. If it was the Jumna, then the Jumna clearly has been captured by the Ganges... in the broadest sense the Indus Plains may be regarded as one vast and fairly homogeneous aquifer, a sort of vast sponge, capable of absorbing runoff from the foothills as well as rainfall and seepage from the rivers and canals that cross them, and of transmitting this subterranean flow downslope to the Arabian Sea. (Notes: Note the legends regarding the disappearance of Sarasvati underground-antah salila_ sarasvati_!) The water table or top level of this vast reservoir varies with distance from the foothills and from the rivers and canal, as well as with local alterations in the nature of the matrix, and it varies from season to season and year to year. Recent investigations in the Pakistan Punjab have been sufficiently detailed to allow preparation of contour maps showing depth to water table, and comparisons with older data from wells indicate its general rise since irrigation was introduced (cf. Greenman et al, Maps 11, 12, 16-20). Variations in the salt content of the groundwater have also been charter over much of Punjab... The groundwater reservoir apparently represents at least ten times the annual runoff of the Indus Rivers, and in many areas offers an additional source of irrigation water when tapped by tubewells. The control of the water-table level by means of pumping from wells or by drains is also essential to the success of the surface-water irrigation, for in many areas the salt-carrying groundwater has risen perilously close to the surface (Aloys Arthur Michel, 1967, The Indus Rivers: A study of the effects of partition, Yale University Press, New Haven, pp. 27-28) (Note: see the situation in Pehoa-Prthu_daka-in Sarasvati Ghat and Brahma yoni near Vasis.t.a_s'ramam where the river becomes pra_ci_va_hini_; sarasvati is so named in the revenue maps of Haryana and also in Bha_rat Bhu_racana_, Survey of India maps.) [cf. Prasher, R.N., The subterranean Sarasvati_,

Haryana Sahitya Akademi, Journal of Indological Studies, Vol. III, Nos. 1-2, Spring 1988, pp. 301-305). Historic legacy of Sarasvati civilization Sarasvati River is adored in the Rigveda as: ambitame, nadi_tame, devitame (best of all mothers, best of all rivers,best of all godesses). She is a mother because she nourished a civilization on her banks. She is a river which had flowed from the Himalayas to the Arabian Sea carrying the glacier waters which are today carried by the Sutlej and Yamuna rivers. Over 2000 of the 2600 archaeological sites of the civilization unearthed during the last 70 years have been found on the Sarasvati River Basin. For e.g. sites of Ropar, Rakhigarhi, Kunal, Banawali, Kalibangan, Ganweriwala, Kotdiji, Chanhudaro, Dholavira (Kotda), Rojdi, Lothal, Bet Dwaraka where the typical civilization artefacts such as seals with inscriptions, bronzeage metal weapons and tools, beads, jewellery, weights and measures, water-management systems have been found. Sarasvati is a goddess adored ever since the Vedic Age, all over India as the goddess of arts and crafts, as the goddess of learning. The civilization nourished by the Sarasvati had transformed the chalcolithic (copper and stone) age into the bronze (copper-tin, copper-arsenic alloys or bronze and brass) age resulting in a revolutionary way to relate to the material phenomena of the world, using hardened metal tools and weapons. She is a goddess of the Saptasindhu region; her va_hana is a peacock or a ham.sa. She carries a veena (lute, stringinstrument) on her hands. As Mother Goddess, she is also depicted as Durga who is adored with weapons in her multiple hands, as Mahis.a_suramardini (the killer of the demon, Mahis.a, of the bull form). The river was desiccated due to a number of geological reasons: Yamuna (called Chambal earlier) cut a deeper channel and captured the tributary of Sarasvati (Tons River) at Paonta 91

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Sahib (Himachal Pradesh, a famous Sikh pilgrimage centre). Hence, the cherished memories of the people of Triven.i San:gamam at Prayag (Allahabad) where Yamuna brought in the waters of the Sarasvati to join the Ganga river. Sutlej (which originated from Mansarovar lake in Mt. Kailas, Tibet) which was a tributary of Sarasvati river, joining the latter at Shatrana (Punjab), took a 90-degree turn at Ropar (due to tectonic disturbances) and migrated away from the Sarasvati and joined the Sindhu (Indus) river. The phenomenon called a_ndhi (sandstorms) which is common even today, resulted in the build-up of sand-dunes on the bed of the Sarasvati River in the areas close to Jaisalmer (Thar or Marusthali_ desert, also called Cholistan in Pakistan area). Thus Sarasvati River got choked up and lost the perennial waters coming from the Har-ki-dun glacier (Bandarpunch massif, W. Garhwal, Himalayas). When the river got desiccated, many people moved towards the Ganga-Yamuna doab and moved south towards the Godavari River (there is an archaeological site called Daimabad, on Pravara river, a tributary of Godavari, near Nasik). In the Har-ki-dun valley below the Bandarpunch massif live a group of people called Parvatis; they celebrate Duryodhana as their god and hold an annual festival in his honour. This is a remarkable anthropological legacy affirming the historicity of the Great Epic, the Maha_bha_rata.

unearthed, it is likely that we will have to revise our understanding of the so-called Harappan civilization which is slowly but surely unraveling as the Sarasvati or Ancient Indian or Vedic Civilization, with the Sarasvati River being the principal sustaining base (hence, adored as ambi tame: best of mothers, R.gveda) for the most extensive civilization ca. 5000 years ago. Glaciological and palaeo-vegetation studies have established the fact that about 18,000 and 8,000 years ago, Northwest India was a moist region; the region could have supported a developing, maritime, riverine civilization. The pattern of diffusion of black and red-ware of chalcolithic culture and of diffusion of rice cultivation indicates a movement of rice culture from Lothal (2200 BC) to Atranjikera (in the Ganga-Yamuna doab 1200 BC) and Rajadhipi (Bengal 1000 BC). Glaciological studies have shown the secular sequence of desiccation of the Sarasvati river: (1) the streams were flowing through Markanda river; (2) the streams migrated towards the Drishadvati river; (3) Drishadvati river migrated eastwards, linked up with Chambal which captured the Tons river stream flowing into Sarasvati river at PaontaSaheb (H.P.); (4) S’atadru river stream which had joined Sarasvati river at Shatrana migrated westwards with a 90-degree turn at Rupar and ultimately became a tributary of the Sindhu river. Glaciological studies have also showed the existence of quartzite and metamorphic rocks in Paonta Doon valley and near Ad Badri in Siwalik ranges attesting to the existence of the mighty Vedic Sarasvati river which had brought in these signature rocks.

The evidence from archaeology has firmly established the continuity and substantially indigenous evolution of the civilization right from ca. 3300 BC to TODAY. A recent finding of Prof. Meadow (Feb. 1999, Harappa) indicates the possibility that the script of the civilization was perhaps the earliest writing system of the world.

Dr. Puri is a glaciologist with Geological Survey of India, who has, over 30 years, inventoried 1500 glaciers in the Himalayas as part of the World Glacier Inventory, Geneva. His scientific findings confirm the source of the Sarasvati River from the Himalayan glaciers.

Recently (October 1999) excavations have started in Rakhigarhi on the banks of Sarasvati River. Rakhigarhi is 150 kms. north of Delhi and the site measures 220 ha. in extent which is almost three times the size of Mohenjodaro! As the excavation unravels and artifacts are 92

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precipitation for its survival. With advent of drought conditions caused by either the emergence of a dry phase in climate or failure of monsoons for a number of years rather decades, Vedic Sarasvati got completely disoriented and acquired the status of present day oblivion.' (Puri, VKM, and BC Verma, Glaciological and Geological Source of Vedic Sarasvati in the Himalayas, New Delhi, Itihaas Darpan, Vol. IV, No.2, 1998, pp. 19-20).

'Drainage analysis, basin identification, glaciological and terrace studies suggest that Vedic Sarasvati originated form a group of glaciers in Tons fifth order basin at Naitwar (Netwar) in Garhwal Himalaya. In early stages, it occupied the present day drainage of Tons river upto Paonta Doon and took a westerly swing after receiving nourishment from Aglar, Yamuna and Giri. West of Paonta, it followed a westerly and southwesterly course along Bata valley and entered plains at Adh Badri. It continued to follow almost southwesterly course and traversed through Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat for nearly 1000 km and joined the Arabian Sea. Mighty Sutlej of today was then a tributary of Vedic Sarasvati. It is quite likely that Vedic Sarasvati might have come into existence during Upper Pleistocene period. The most important event that contributed to the desiccation of Vedic Sarasvati was reactivation of Yamuna tear fault across Siwalik belt between Kalesar and Paonta sometimes around 2450 BC (related to the earthquake evidenced in an archaeological site on the banks of the Sarasvati River: Kalibangan). As a result of this phenomenon, river Dris.advati_ came into existence which joined Vedic Sarasvati near Suratgarh in Rajasthan. With emergence of Bata-Markanda divide, complete reversal in the flowof Vedic Sarasvati occurred in Bata valley whereby it abandoned its previous course through Adh Badri-Markanda and occupied the conduit followed by river Dris.advati_. Meanwhile the Vedic Sarasvati catchment was reduced by 94.5% and got restricted to that of present day Markand. Subsequent to river Dris.advati_ migration from southwest to southeast, Palaeoyamuna emerged that joined the Chambal river. Later, the Shatudri (Sutlej) also started shifting its course westerwards and consequently got completely detached from Vedic Sarasvati.

“In northwestern part of Jaisalmer district, inspite of very low rainfall (less than 150 mm) and extreme conditions of the desert, groundwater is available at depth of about 5060m along the course of the defunct (Sarasvati) river and a few dug wells do not dry up throughout the year. It is found that the area through which the river bed is traced supports vegetation even during summer. It is thought that these courses of river in the area still maintain their headwater connection and could form potential groundwater sanctuaries for exploitation. To confirm the scenario, an environmental isotope study was undertaken in collaboration with the Groundwater Department, Rajasthan in Jaisalmer district...The groundwater samples exhibit negligible tritium content indicating absence of modern recharge. Radiocarbon data suggest the groundwater is a few thousand years old. (uncorrected ages: 4950 to 4400 BP) with a velocity of about 20 m/a.” (Rao, S.M. and Kulkarni, K.M., Isotope hydrology studies on water resources in western Rajasthan, Current Science, vol. 72, no. 1, 10 January 1997, pp. 5561). A detailed account of former streams in the region is provided by Kar (Kar, A., 1992). Some of the buried stream segments are potential ground water aquifers.. The course of the Sarasvati to the west of Jaisalmer has an estimated reserve of about 3000 mcm water awaiting a judicious exploitation ...

'As a result of the above-mentioned events, Vedic Sarasvti got completely deprived of its perennial source of nourishment from Himalaya. It now depends upon monsoon

Ghantiyal Ji is one of the five locations (around Jaisalmer) marked along a 60-km strip of land that is located above an ancient water channel, believed to be an isolated section of the 93

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silts. In the upper part of the deposit, a carbonized wooden log was found and dated to around 9500 years BP by 14-c method. Marine magnetic survey carried out does not indicate the presence of any major metallic debris/objects. This appears to be one of the early records of prehistoric human activity of early Holocene age in the marine environment of India.

Sarasvati around the area where it petered out into the desert in the time of its geological death throes. Experimental drillings have yielded sweet water just 30 m below the surface. Tectonic activity in Kutch has led to the conjecture that the Ranns were perhaps lower and linked to the Arabian sea in prehistoric times. (Billimoria, N.M., 1947, The Great Indian Desert with special reference to the former existence of the sea in the Indus Valley (with two maps). Journal of the Sind Historical Society, 8(2): 85-127). Riverine, maritime culture The river and the coast-line along the Gulf of Khambat, Gulf of Kutch, Makran Coast (Karachi), Persian Gulf constituted a veritable water-way for long-distance trade transactions and cultural exchanges starting from at least the seventh millennium BCE. The autochthonous evolution of a riverine, maritime culture is exemplified by s’ankha (turbinella pyrum, attested as an industry for making conch bangles, circa 6500 BCE north of Makran coast) with a habitat only in these locations, apart from Gulf of Mannar. (See S. Kalyanaraman, 2002, Sarasvati, Bangalore, Babasaheb Apte Smarak Samiti; Book review by Prof. KV Raman, in THE HINDU of May 1, 2001 http://www.thehindu.com/2001/05/01/stories/13010179.htm ). Gulf of Khambat Cultural Complex Detailed underwater surveys carried out in the Gulf of Cambay, about 20 km west of Hazira, deploying side scan sonar and sub bottom profiler brought to light, the presence of a submerged palaeochannel traceable to a length of 9 km. Associated with this on either side are basement like features found in a grid pattern at water depths of 20-40 m. Sub-surface sampling carried out with dredge and grab sampler revealed stone artifacts, potsherds, hearth pieces, animal bones and human teeth embedded in fluvial sands and 94

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Location map of archaeological findings at Gulf of Cambay Sonogram of palaeochannel

Sonogram of a major structure, 200 m x 45 m with rectangular platform like features Sonogram of 40m x 24 m tank like depression with steps leading into a deeper portion

Sonogram of a structure with wall like features, 41 m x 20 m with a relief of about 3 m above the seabed

Sonogram of a buried structure 79 m x 50 m

One find is a triangular sandstone tablet, shaped like an equilateral triangle about 6" at the base. At the apex, the head-dress of a seated person is faintly visible, since the slab is weathered by the sea waters; the entire composition is in carved in bas-relief. The orthography of the weathered slab is comparable to similar seated persons depicted on some inscribed objects discovered at Harappa

A human jaw-bone

Chert blade

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and Mohenjodaro (m453B).

Gem stones Area surrounding the Gulf of Cambay had been occupied by man since last 200,000 years. This is indicated by the occurrence of late Acheulian stone artifacts wihin the milliolite formation exposed at the site Madhubensite near Gopnath in the Bhavnagar district of Saurashtra (Deodhar et al. 1998). There are a good number of middle and upper Palaeolithic sites in the upper reaches of Satranji river in Bhavnagar district (Marathe, 1997). Mesolithic sites are commonly found on stable surfaces of sand dunes in the northern part of main land of Gujarat and on younger dunes capping the milliolite formations in southern coastal parts of Saurashtra (Allchin et al. 1988)…A good number of Harappan sites like Lothal, Padri, Malvan etc. are found around Gulf of Cambay in association with coast-fringing alluvial and tidal flat deposits (Rao and Varaprasad, 1988). The occurrence of such sites indicates both rise and fall of sea level between 600 and 4500 BP. All these archaeological evidence indicate continuation of human activity in the surrounding area of Gulf of Cambay over a long period of time. The present findings thus fill the gap and provide a link between the main land Gujarat and Saurashtra coast, of human activity, particularly during the early Holocene period (c. 8000 BP).

Finds: Chert blade scraper (76 mm long), broken barrel shaped bead of chert (13 mm long, dia. of hole is 4 mm), broken hearth material (refractory; low fired and embedded grass and pottery), rim portion of pottery piece (made of well levigated clay measuring 3 mm thick), line drawings of chert blade scraper and an artefact with rectangular hole, line drawings of pottery, artifacts with holes and broken chert barrel head, conchoidal shaped irregular depression found on the inner surface of the hole, 100X optical microscope image, conchoidal shaped irregular depression found on the outer surface of the hole, 100x optical microscope image (these tests confirm deliberate boring activity by stone tools like point or borer which were common during pre-historic period; these perforations appear to be anthropogenic). In addition to wood samples, there are samples of coral, pot-sherds, hearth material and shells (marine and fresh water) which are being subjected to different dating techniques like Thermo-luminiscence, AMS c-14 dating. The area is subjected to frequent earthquakes and tremors and falls in zone IV of the earthquake zonation map of India (Gupta et al. 2001). An examination of the various seismic events reveals that many of the epicenters are located right in Surat, Bhavnagar, Bharuch and nearby areas. Cambay region is a well-known macro tidal regime with a maximum tidal range of 12.5 m. in the Bhavnagar area. It also has strong tidal currents which change direction approximately every six hours. Maximum current often exceeds six knts. This type of turbulent condition churns the seabed and produces enormous silt, making the seawater turbid and impervious to light. This renders marine archaeological explorations extremely difficult and challenging…

This is the first record of possible prehistoric human discovered on the seabed at a depth of 2040 m. below the present sea level, 20 km. Offshore of Hazira occurring south of Tapi mouth in the Gulf of Cambay…This prehistoric human activity of early Holocene age (Approx. 9500 years BP) on the bank of a sandy channel, probably represents a westward extension of the Tapi during the low sea level phase…The archaeological site was buried under fluviomarine deposits around 8000 BP when the sea level started rising in the area, as a result of global glacio-eustatic changes. 96

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Indus-Sarasvati civilization, as also the Vedas seem to recede further and further into the past with each new turn of the archaeologists spade at sites such as Mehrgarh (G.Hancock, 2002, Underworld, Penguin Books, p. 161). A hypothesis is projected ‘that the Indus-Sarasvati civilization goes back to 9000 years and that it had an earlier episode of hidden pre-history. It was founded by the survivors of a lost Indian coastal civilization destroyed by the great global floods at the end of the Ice Age.’ (ibid., p. 205). One way to prove the hypothesis was to find ruins more than 9000 years old underwater on India’s continental shelf…Evidence on the antiquity of Indian civilization is considerable and can no longer be ignored. Archaeologists have no right to claim any monopoly of interpretation. Findings of other disciplines must also be taken into account…Geoarchaeology – an emerging field in earth science has a very important role to play in unraveling the pre-historical evolution of man and civilization in South Asia. We should build up a strong indigenous school of research in this vital area, with modern tools of underwater sampling, videography and mapping. Only then, can we come out with bold hypothesis to alter the entrenched ‘semi-colonial’ perspectives of history and pre-history that will stand the test of time.”

(S. Kathiroli, S. Badrinarayanan, D. Venkata Rao, S.N. Rajaguru, K.M. Sivakholundu and B. Sasisekaran, 2002, “A new archaeological find in the Gulf of Cambay, Gujarat” in: Journal Geological Society of India, Vol. 60, October 2002, pp. 419-428). The editorial by Dr. BP Radhakrishna, President, Geological Society of India (pp. 367 to 369) notes: “21,300 years ago (around the time of the Last Glacial Maximum when the world oceans had sunk to their lowest level), a strip of country at least 100 km wide was exposed all along the whole of the west coast of India – a linear distance of 2000 km. The Kathiawar peninsula today surrounded on all sides by sea was completely land locked at that time. Western India had lost to the sea a vast coastal domain nearly the same size and roughly the same shape as modern California and Baja California put together with an area close to half million square kilometers. If this is true, there is every probability that this region had supported an ancient civilization on land which got submerged 11,000 to 8000 years ago at the end of the Ice Age. Excavation at Mehrgarh in Pakistan have revealed the existence of a civilization as far back as 8500 years before present. The origin of the

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Map of Gujarat with the river systems and Nal lakes linking the Little Rann of Kutch with Lothal, which was linked with Prabhas Patan (Somnath) through Rojdi and Rangapura; there should have been a course of the Sarasvati River crossing Vallabhipur and Amreli; and Rangpur and Rojdi. (Map is drawn after R.N. Mehta, 1984, Fig. 26.1).. Nesadi, near Valabhi was excavated (Bhavnagar district, Gujarat); Valabhi was a capital city of Maitrakas from ca. 5th to 8th cent. A.D.

Prabhas Patan (Somnath); discovered near a warehouse is a stone steal with two stags engraved deeply (After M.K. Dhavalikar, 1984, Pl. 101). Early Prabhas culture was dated to ca. 1990 BC.

Gujarat; Late Harappan settlements, mainly short-term camps, in the black-cotton soil of Saurashtra (152 sites as compared with 20 in the Mature Harappan period). Gujarat;

distribution of Mature Harappansettlements; Bhagatrav; 2. Desalpur; 3. Jhangar; 4. Kesari; 5. Khari ka Khanda; . Kotada Bhadli-II; 7. Kotada Bhadli-III; 8. Kotada; 9. Kotadi 98

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(Dholavira); 10. Kotara (Juni-Kuvan); 11. Koth; 12. Lakhapur; 13. Lothal (3740 BP); 14. Nagwada-I (370 BP); 15. Nageswar; 16. Pabumath; 17. Pirwada (Khetar); 18. Rangpur; 19. Samagogha; 20. Surkotada (3645 BP). (After G.L. Possehl, 2000, Fig. 3.133, p. 327). Eastern Nara, Great Rann, Banni, Little Rann, Sarashtra around the Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Khambat (Cambay). The area encompassed is ca. 150,000 sq.km. including the salty marsh of Kutch, sandy alluvium of north Gujarat, forests of western ghats, bounded on the south and west by the sea, onj the north by Sindh qand m ountains and on the east by mountains. The entire north Gujarat plain, coastal mainland and the fringes of Saurashtra along the Arabian sea, is covered with alluvium, mostly brought in by the Sarasvati River. The region has reserves of agates (translucent stones with a very high silica content), chalcedony which turns red when heated (called carnelian) serving the lapidaries at Khambat (Cambay). Panch Mahals in the western ghats have placer tin.

delta areound Fort Derawar.]" (Gregory L. Possehl, April 1999, personal communication). Raini and Wahinda provide contrasting features: Raini is a deep water course while Wahinda is wide and flat. Since both Raini and Wahinda flow in a hollow between the Sindhu and the Thar Deseart, there is reason to surmise that these courses of Raini and Wahinda could be seen to be extensions of the Sarasvati River in Sindh. “The Raini on the whole deserves its title ‘Nullah’, for it is a deep water course, not more than forty yards wide in places, with steep banks some fifteen or twenty feet high. The country on either side—hard alluvium with sand hills—slopes down to it perceptibly from either side. The bed of the Wahinda on the other hand is wide and flat, and in many places difficult to recognize among the drift sand. One has the impression that great floods occasionally rolled down the Wahinda, filling up all the open places between the sand hills for miles, and not perhaps progressing to a very great distance southward; but that more often the spill water kept to the Raini—far exceeding its capacity for a while, but flowing down the steeper declivity, and scouring out the central nullah.” (Lambrick, 1964: 31-2).

The mighty River Sarasvati joined the sea Gregory Possehl (1998) raises a question: Did Sarasvati ever flow to the sea? "There is no river bed connection between the termination of the Sarasvati in an inland delta near Fort Derawar, and the Eastern Nara. This delta documents the petering out of the river. It also explains the large number of sites, which came to the fertile delta to use it as farm land and pasture. There are two palaeochannels to the north of the Rohri hills (Raini and Wahinda) but both are far too small to be the remains of a Sarasvati channel... See also Lambrick, H. T. 1964 Sind: A general introduction. History of Sind Series, Vol.1.Hyderabad (Pakistan):Sindhi Adabi Board: 274 pp. [Lambrick was an irrigation officer and an archaeologist. He ha ssearched on the ground for the connection between Fort Derawar and the Eastern Nara and never fhoud it. He also identified the inland

Recent studies in quaternary tectonism and geomorphology (1999) have addressed this question posed by Possehl. These are presented in the following sections, in the context of many studies reported and hypotheses built over the last 140 years. Lambrick's (1964) observations have been fully dealt with by Wilhelmy (1969). Some additional answers are provided by other workers, including the findings reported in 1999 of the Earth Scientists' group discussions held in University of Baroda (Vedic Sarasvati, published as a Geological Society of India Monograph No. 42).

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Apart from the hundreds of sites found in Bahawalpur province (Cholistan), the sites of Naru-waro-Daro, Kotdiji, Nandowari,

Drainage in NW India, circa 5500 years Before Present; After Wilhelmy, 1969. "Wilhelmy (1969) who studied the palaeodrainage of Indian subcontinent mainly concentrated on the upper reaches of the various rivers giving a chronological sequence of their shifts and captures. He has stated that, prior to Alexander's invasion (in 325 B.C.), there prevailed in this part two independent river systems; one comprised the frequently changing Hakra-Nara courses and the other, Indus progressively shifting to the west. "To avoid all confusion, and following a suggestion by Lambrick (1964, p. 229), in the following discussion, we shall refer to the upper part of the dry bed up to Derawar as Hakra and the lower course from the Ghauspur depression southeast of Mithankot up to the Rann of Kutch as Nara-- although this convention does not quite correspond to the local usages. For example, in the local usage, the lower course is also given the name Hakra. The local people were probably aware of the continuity of the entire line of valley and that a single river flowed here once upon a time...

Chanhudaro, Gharo Bhiro (Nuhata), Pabumath were on the banks of the Sarasvati (HakraNara-Mihran palaeo-channels), i.e. left bank of Sindhu river. Towards the Little Rann of Kutch, the sites on islands in the Greater Rann were: Kotada (Dholavira), Surkotada, Desalpur, Khirsara (Netra). Down at the Gulf of Khambat (beyond the Nal sarovar) were the sites of Lothal and Rangpur en route (westwards) to Rojdi, Machiala, Prabhas Patan. More issues are also raised including those which require further research and field work. Several grey areas and gaps in knowledge still exist and need to be unraveled further.

"Stein (1942, p. 181) drew attention to the region around Derawar where the broad Hakra bed breaks up into an inland delta marked by a number of dry channels spread out like a fan. Near Vinjrot (Wanjh-rut), at about 28 deg. N (latitude), the river bed again assumes a well defined form (Fig.4) but again near Madagarh, the

River Sarasvati emerges into land from Siwalik ranges 100

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of the perennial flow through the "lost river", filled up all the basins between the dunes and seeped down and got lost in sand fields. On the other hand, the Raini forms a deep channel, only 40 m broad in some places, with steep banks 4-6 m high. This well marked bed lost its original function as part of the Hakra-Nara system, but a part of the Indus flood water flowed down this bed now and then and made it deeper (Lambrick, 1964, p. 31). The Raini is therefore rightly called "Nullah" (= water course). Of course, the flood waters would have often exceeded the holding capacity of the "Nullah".

Nara breaks up once again and loses its name at the same tim. The river Wahinda forms the eastern arm and the river Raini Nullah forms the western arm. The two arms join with each other 25 km to the north of Mithran, a village on the old caravan route from Rhori-Alor to Jaisalmer. "The Wahinda river bed is broad, flat at many places, where it is covered up by sand, and it is difficult to notice the bed. One gets the impression that the huge flood tides of the Indus, which swept occasionally down the river Wahinda after the end

"Some 55 km southeast of Sukkur, the combined bd of Raini and Wahinda meets the part of the "Eastern Nara" that flows exactly north-south, at an acute angle. Over the last 100 years, a stretch of over 300 km of this dry bed is being used by a large irrigation canal that branches off from the Indus near Rohri opposite Sukkur. This irrigation has been extended by the constrution of the Lloyd Barrage (1932). This artificial water course still has all the characteristis of the erstwhile river that it has replaced, its meandering course follows a shallow valley which is occasionally 3-5 km broad and gets narrowd now and then due to dunes. At times of extraordinary floods, the river bed gets filled up from bank to bank, but the high tides usually flow off very quickly again (Raverty, 1892). In 1859, when the eastern Nara Canal was commissioned, the engineers made an interesting observation: some of the depressions that run parallel to each other to the East of 101

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archaeological findings thus corresponds to the traditional beliefs. Stein (1942, p.182) is certain that even as late as in the Vedic period (around 1500 BC) a big river flowed through the HakraNara depression...

the irrigation canal between the sand dunes of Thar got filled with water. Presumably the erstwhile Nara would also have flowed further to the East, if sand dune ranges had not blocked this lower valley line (Lambrick, 1964, p. 32)... The Kori Creek was once the outlet for the water masses flowing down the Hakra-Nara depression with a total length of 1300 km. (Fig. 4)...

"When the upper Jumna adopted its present course and finally ceased to supply water to the Hakra (Fig. 2B), in the Vedic period (around 1500 BC), the Sarasvati flowed through the Hakra-Nara depression into a shallow Bay of the Arabian Sea; from the 11th century, the salty swamp of the Rann of Kutch took the place of the shallow bay (Wilhelmy, 1968a, p. 183)...

"Five different hypotheses emerge from the discussion on the "Lost River of Sind" that has been going on over the last 140 years: 1. Hakra and Nara were once upon a time the course of an ancient Jumna (or Proto-Jumna) flowing independently (without tributaries) into the Arabian Sea. 2. Hakra and Nara were the bed of the mythical Sarasvati which was fed by the Ghaggar and by the source river of the present Sutlej before the old Sutlej lost its hydrographic independence and became a tributary of the Indus. 3. Hakra and Nara are an earlier course of the Indus, the Indus has migrated to the west and left this course. 4. In a very distant past, the Hakra and Nara courses or different sections of these courses were used at different times by the Jumna, Sutlej and Indus. 5. Hakra and Nara never carried water independently; they always served as additional discharge paths of Jumna, Sutlej or Indus during floods.

"Sarasvati...this river must have had, besides its small Siwalik source river, a major source river in the Himalaya and it must have received glacial water. The small Siwalik rivers would not have been enough to supply all the water in the Sarasvati. In other words, the Sarasvai must have had a source river in the Himalaya; the Sarasvati must have lost this source river either due to a diversion or tapping, as indicated by the sharp bend near Rupar (Fig. 3D). This would justify a Himalayan source for the river Sarasvati... "Summing up, we may say: right up to the preAlexandrian period, there were two independent river systems in the Indus plain: the Hakra-Nara courses subject to several changes over a long period and the Indus marked by its continuous westward migration. Jumna and Sutlej determined the hydrographic evolution in the watershed region between Indus and Ganges. After the proto-Jumna (up to about 2000 BC), the mythical Sarasvati flowed around 1500 BC through the Hakra-Nara depression towards the Arabian Sea, the Sarasvati being fed with water mainly by the proto-Sutlej (Sarasvati-Sutlej). Also a later Sutlej course (Hakra-Sutlej) ensured water flow thorughout the year right up to 600 BC through the "ancient river valley on the Eastern border of the Indus plain". The proto-Jumna and the protoSutlej used the same Hakra bed one after the other, although they had different upper ocurses. There are no morphological or historical evidences for the thesis that besides the Indus, once upon a time, Sutlej, Jumna and Ganga flowed independently into the Arabian Sea, that is simultaneously four parallel rivers flowed into the

"As mentioned earlier, the number and size of the ancient setlements are in striking contast with the sparse population in this region now. Dozens of large deserted residential hillocks form a border along the dry bed of Hakra; Stein studied these chains of former villages over a distace of more than 300 km downstream of Bhatnir, Suratgarh, Wallhar, Phulra, Mirgarh, Marot, Maugarh, Dingarh and Derawar. Only Derawar has been preserved because of its significance as a fixed place at the beginning of the caravan route along the Hakra course (Stein, 1942, p. 181). Excavations in the settlement hillocks show evidence of a continuous settlement from the Harappan period (2500-1500 BC) right up to the Kushan period (50 BC-229 AD) and in some places right up to the 16th century. The age of the 102

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evidence of the degeneratin of the old cultural landscape (Ahmad and Abassi, 1960, p. 45). Also Alor, once an important town south of Sukkr, not far from eastern Nara, had to be deserted by all its residents (Cousens, 1929, p.5).

Arabian Sea (see map of Ahmad and Abbasi, 1960, p. 45). "The Hakra-Nara system began to degenerate in the pre-Alexandrian period itself. Due to canals or diversion of the upper courses of the Juma and Sutlej, fed with glacial waters from the Himalayas, the Hakra-Nara system gradually lost its autonomy. Ganges and Indus widened their catchment areas, and he old river channel at the edge of the Thar began to receive only the excess flood water from the Sutlej from the 6th century BC, the flood water discharge (probably) happened regularly every year.

"The original hydrographic situation in the HakraNara depression has been re-established to a certain extent by modern engineering. In 1859, the Nara was converted once again into a perennial "river" by means of a transverse canal which branches off from the Indus near Rohri above the break-through point at Sukkur (Eastern Nara Canal). Around the same period, the old river courses of the Punjab became well-known through surveys extending over the entire region. Canals were built at two points on the Sutlej, namely, the Hakra channel near Wallhar and Kudwala. The dry beds in the watershed region between Jumna and Sutlej, which owe their evolution to either of these rivers, have likewise become guiding lines for modern irrigation channels. It has thus been possible to make the old river courses, which remained dry for centuries, once again useful for the people" (After Wilhelmy, H., 1969, Das Urstramtal am Ostrand der Indus ebene und das Sarasvati Problem, Zeischrit fur Geomorphologie, Supplementary Band 8, pp. 76-95; English tr. extracts in: B.P. Radhakrishna and S.S. Merh, eds., Vedic Sarasvati, 1999, pp. 95-111; Fig. 1).

"Canals and diversion of the Himalayan source river made the Sutlej into a tributary of the Indus, the Hakra thus ceased to be a perennial river. The erstwhile Sarasvati valley (= Hakra) merely served as a temporary flood water channel and by mid 13th century even this water flow from the Sutlej became scantier and scantier (C.F. Oldham, 1893, p. 66), and from the beginning of the 16th century, the flow stopped almost completely (Lambrick, 1964, p. 189). From this time onward, any water flow through the Hakra became an extraordinary event... "Sutlej water flowed into the Hakra through the dry valleys running from the northeast near Bhatnir, Wallhar and Kudwala. The Hariari ("fruit bringer") which runs parallel to Panjnad below the confluence of the Sutlej and Chenab served as a smaller flood water outlet (Buckley, 1893, p. 157). Finally, the depression of Ghauspur to the south of the junction of the Punjab rivers was the gate through which a part of the Indus flood waters occasionally found its way to the Rann of Kutch right up to recent times. As a result of this, the Nara channel could even turn temporarily into a navigable river. It is thus reported that in the year 1742, it was possible to transport building stones by river route from the Rhori hills between Sukkur and Alor upto Umarkot (Fife, 1857, p.40). But after such isolated years with plenty of water, there folowed longer and longer periods with no flood water at all. As a consequence, the people living in the area of eastern Sind, which was once well irrigated and thickly populated, lost their basis of life and had to migrate westward. Many ruins in the Thar "desert" and its border are

Present day and ancient courses of River Sarasvati in northwestern Bharat [After Sridhar et al., 1999 (Fig. 4)] The shifting courses of the River Sarasvati have been established by remote sensing analyses based on satellite images and by geomorphological studies of the Sarasvati Project (1998) undertaken by the Central Ground Water Authority of the Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India. The entire stretch of the river system including many tributary streams has been mapped over a distance of 1,600 kms. From Manasarovar glacier in Himalayas to Somnath (Prabhas Patan) in Gujarat along the coast of Sindhu sa_gara (Arabian Sea). The ground water aquifers of the river in Marustali (Thar desert, Rajasthan) hold adequate potable resources to 103

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construct one million tube wells in the central river basin alone. By utilising the surface waters of the reborn Sarasvati (Rajasthan Canal extension drawing the waters of Sutlej, Beas and S’arada rivers), it would become possible to recharge these ground water resources to establish a sustainable water management system for the states of Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat, as an integral part of the National Water Grid (National River Network). Since the Marusthali is filled with alluvial soil, the availability of water is already resulting in stemming the march of the desert and in greening the desert.

south. A major Himalayan river system drained northwest Bharat, over a distance of 1600 kms., from Manasarovar glacier (Mt. Kailas) to Somnath (Gujarat), spanning diverse ecological zones – and climatic features -- such as glaciers, riverfed lakes (sarovars), deserts and coastal saltymarshes (rann) not excluding the formation of monsoons after the creation of the Gulf of Khambat about 10,000 years ago as a result of incursion of sea into the land submerging ancient courses of Rivers Narmada and Tapati. This was River Sarasvati, mightier than River Sindhu or River Ganga since the river was joined by the tributaries such as Sutlej, Yamuna, Markanda, Sarsuti, Drishadvati, Tamasa-Giri-Bata rivers (in Uttaranchal, Western Garhwal Himalayas, north of Paontadoon valley in Himachal Pradesh). Ecological studies have shown that because of river migrations caused by plate tectonics (of the kind which struck Bhuj on 26 January 2001 with the intensity of 8.2 on the Richter scale, which is said to be equivalent to energy released by the explosion of 220 hydrogen bombs), River Sarasvati lost the anchorage river tributary River Sutlej and River Yamuna before 1900 BCE and before 2500 BCE respectively. The evolutionary history of River Sarasvati has been explained in succinct scientific detail by Prof. KS Valdiya in his book: Sarasvati: The River that Disappeared (2002, Hyderabad, Universities Press). This is a follow-up on the scientific symposium held in Baroda earlier. (See BP Radhakrishna and SS Merh, eds., Vedic Sarasvati, Memoirs of Geological Society of India, 2000, Bangalore).

The area to the west of the Aravalli ranges is covered with deep alluvium, barring a few outcrops of rocks which date from Precambrian to Eocene times.(Roy, B.C., 1959, Geological Map of Rajasthan. Economic Geology and Mineral Resources of Rajastghan. Memoirs of the Geologifcal Survey of India, 86). So much alluvium should have been brought in by the Sarasvati River system. The Luni River system is not large enough to explain the extent of alluvium. On reconstruction of the prehistoric river systems west of the Aravalli ranges is that the combined headwaters of the Ghaggar, Sarasvati and Chautang originally flowed past Nohar and joined the Luni river 450 km to the

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Sarasvati River: ancient courses joining with the Luni river (After Ghose, B., Kar, A., and Husain, Z., 1980, Comparative role of the

”Archaeological evidences and remote sensing records indicate that the courses of many of the rivers of the plains have undergone the periodic

Aravalli and the Himalayan river systems in the fluvial sedimentation of the Rajasthan desert. Man and Environment, 4: 8-12; Possehl, G.L., 1999, Fig. 3.138). Two courses are seen to be older than the Mature Harapan. One course was thru Churu and another was through Suratgarh and Bikaner; the shift in the second course might have been caused by encroachment of sand.

alterations in and around the area of Saurashtraand Kutch peninsula. Various evidences and explanations are advanced about the migration and extinction of the once mighty river Sarasvati. Similarly the reports are there to suggest that river Indus once upon a time flowed to the sea through Gulf of Khambat prior to now occupied position via Great Rann of Kutch. The fluctuations in the course of these rivers must have left their imprints 105

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preserved in the oceanic and marine environment in the form of paleochannels. The evidences of such remnants have been encountered in the recently conducted shallow seismic surveys at the confluence of Kori Creek area of Kutch district of Gujarat State in the form of two ancient channels. These paleochannels of 4 to 5m topographic depression which extend about 200m in width are located at 6m water depth and buried l0m below the present plain of seafloor. We see that the present or in the recent past, drainage system of the area is not capable of forming the paleochannel of such magnitude. These paleochannels are suggestive of some ancient major river or its branches of drainage system flowed to the sea through the present creek system. In the absence of the precise dating and detailed survey, we are not concluding the source river created these paleochannels but postulate in the background of the archaeological, historical and paleoclimatic information that these channels were part of drainage system of Indus/Saraswati.’ (Nigam, R., Pathak, M.C., Hashimi, N.H., Kotnala, K.L., and Chaturvedi, S.K. Search for Evidences of Ancient River Channels of Indus/Sarasvati in Shallow Sea, Kutch (Gujarat), Abstract of paper presented in Second International Conference on Marine Archaeology, 8 to 10 January 1999, Institute of Oriental Studies, Thane; http://www.orientalthane.com/seminars/marine/ 5.htm )

paleochannels observed in the Anupgarh plains are the last arm of the Sarasvati river, which has been displaced by the present day Ghaggar river. The studies of the above workers and the present detailed study show clearly that the Sarasvati river once flowed close to the Aravalli hill ranges and met the Arabian Sea in the Rann of Kutch, that it has migrated towards the west, the north-west and the north and has ultimately got lost in the Anupgarh plains...When the Sarasvati flowed in a southwesterly direction it was flowing against the northeasterly moving sand advance in the Thar desert. It can be concluded, therefore, that the Sarasvati river could not overcome such a sand advance and hence that it started drifting towards the north with a rotational migration in a clockwise direction until ultimately it was buried in the Anupgarh plains.”(After Ramaswamy, S.M., Balkiwal, P.C. and Verma, R.P., 1991, Remote Sensing and river migration in Western India, in: International Journal of Remote Sensing, Vol. 12, No. 12, 2597-2609; Fig. 3; pp. 2600, 2608). Forced eastwards, the Sarasvati was progressively robbed of its waters: first by the Yamuna, then by the Sutlej -- both rivers, along with the Tons, were once a part of its massive expanse. A branch of the Chambal cut northwards in a channel deeper than the Sarasvati, finally beheading the great river. This new channel became the Yamuna, which migrated eastwards. Similarly, the Sutlej migrated westward. A geological paroxysm in the Aravallis pushed it into a U-turn at Rupar, Punjab, forcing a complete abandonment of the Sarasvati, sending the Sutlej into the arms of the Indus.

Palaeochannels of the Thar Desert (Marubhu_mi) . “The study of remotely sensed data in the desert tract of Rajasthan shows that there are plenty of paleochannels with well sprung-up tentacles throughout the desert. On the northern edge of the Thar-Great Indian desert at the Ganganagar-Anupgarh plains a well-developed set of paleochannels are clearly discernible in satellite photographs. Bakliwal et al (1983) have explained that these well sprungup palaeochannels are traces of the mighty Sarasvati river which once ruled the desert. Yashpal et al (1980) have argued that the

The Sarasvati's demise indicates how dramatic tectonic movements can change the face of a society. Betrayed by its two snow-fed sources, the Sarasvati was left with the waters of petty streams rising in the puny Shivaliks. Its twin sources survive to this day. The Sarasvati was born in the Banderpunch (monkey's tail) massif in the Garhwal Himalayas. This is today the 106

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source of the independent Tons, one of the Sarasvati's source streams. Beyond the Indian Himalayas in Tibet near the holy lake Mansarovar is Kapalshikhar, the other source of the Sarasvati. The river is still there, known locally as the Mang Nang Tsangpo; further downstream a Survey of India map actually calls it the Sarasvati.

this day, it is the Ganga that is predominant to India's Hindu consciousness. But the Sarasvati, as the drilling rigs at Ghantiyal Ji should reveal, has not disappeared altogether.

Without its snow-bound origins, the Sarasvati became a shadow of its former self. Its people migrated upstream and settled in today's Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh. There seems to be archaeological evidence to this movement: The total absence of late Harappan settlements in the area of the Sarasvati is in sharp contrast to the dramatic increase in habitations in the plains of Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh. There is also a remarkable scarcity of Harappan sites around what are today's Yamuna and Sutlej. This is again in sharp contrast to the archaeological gold mines turning up in the dry channels of Punjab, Rajasthan and Sindh in Pakistan.

The collision of the Deccan plate with the Tibetan plate accounts for the landmass of Bharat joining with the rest of Asia along the Burmese border, across the Ganga valley and the front of the Himalayas and south along the mountains of NW Frontier and Baluchistan. The flow of the Ganga is along the deep syncline which is filled with alluvium. The resultant effects have been the pushing back and thrusting up of the Himalayan ranges. Sindhu flows along another syncfline, a down warp and a tear as the Deccan plate pushes northward. This plate tectonic activity has contributed to the occurrence of earthquake with the Himachal Pradesh on a 0.85 isoline prone to recurrent earthquakes.

The great river will flow again, its spiritual form will regain its Vedic glory, as the legacies of the river are flooding back all over again.

Finally, only flood waters flowed down the Sarasvati's once vast channel. It remained dry for several centuries, though some water again found its way in during the early centuries of the Christian era. The Sarasvati's decline and the loss of its civilisation are an indication of how tectonic shifts can combine with localised climate change to dramatically transform human settlement. As the shifting Aravallis chopped off the Sarasvati's waters, the climate too was changing. Over the years western Rajasthan, once a green, rich expanse with extensive rainfall, gradually turned into a parched, desert land. Where there was once a torrent of water, there remained nothing but tonnes of drying sand, a few lakes that survive to this day, and of course the veins of groundwater under the earth.

”The Luni-Sukri lineament is one of the few major lineaments extending from the Great Rann of Kutch in the south-west to Dehradun in the north-east, with a general NE-SW trend and it shows characteristic signatures of Pleistocene reactivation, namely: (a) it manifests itself as a linear contact between the dunes and the Rann in the Rann of Kutch region with frequent seismicities along it; (b) it occurs as two subparallel lineaments in the Ajmer sectgor along the intersection of which the Aravalli mountains are dissected, dismembered and subdued; and, it finds expression as a tear fault in the Siwaliks of the Dehra Dun region thus displaying significant evidence of Pleistocene reactivation.”(After Ramaswamy, S.M., Balkiwal, P.C. and Verma, R.P., 1991, Remote Sensing and river migration in Western India, in: International Journal of Remote Sensing, Vol. 12, No. 12, 2597-2609; Fig. 8; pp. 26032605).

The Sarasvati's desiccation also demonstrates how central rivers have been to civilisation and culture. With the Sarasvati gone, its place in mythology was taken over by the Ganga. To 107

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River migrations in Western India . Present day channels, paleocourse and lineaments which were interpreted in different parts of satellite and aerial photographs were mosaiced, and planimetrically controlled maps were generated. (After Ramaswamy, S.M., Balkiwal, P.C. and Verma, R.P., 1991, Remote Sensing and river migration in Western India, in: International Journal of Remote Sensing, Vol. 12, No. 12, 2597-2609; Fig. 2). a. Sulaiman hills; b. Aravalli hills; c. Khetri hills; d. Siwaliks; 1. Sindhu R.r; 2. Luni-Sukri R.; 3. West Banas R.; 4. Sabarmati R. 5. Mahi R.; 6. Narmada R.; 7. Chambal R.; 8. Banas R.; 9. Banganga R.; 10. Yamuna R.; 11. Ganga R.; A. Broach; B. Radhanpur; C. Virangam; D. Ambaji; E. Siwana; F. Agra; G. Sawaimadhopur; H. Dholpur; I. Sambhar lake; J. Tosham; K. Anupgarh; L. Dehradun; --Lineaments.

rivers as Sarasvati in the Little Rann of Kutch and in the Pus.kar are consistent with the naming of a tributary of Helmand as Haraquaiti. Thus the name of Haraqauti is simply explained as a memory carried by the people as they migrated out of the Sarasvati River Basin from Northwestern India as the river started to desiccate for the geomorphological and tectonic reasons explained elsewhere.

The latest satellite colour images clearly show the marks of a palaeochannel, as wide as 12 km in places, from the Shivaliks to Bhinmal in south Rajasthan. From there it breaks into five parts, heads towards Somnath and finally disappears near the coast of Saurashtra. The Croats (of erstwhile Yugoslavia) claim that they are Sarasvats! The Behistun (Iran) inscription of Darius does refer to the region called Hravat (Haraquaiti) which is a phonetic transform from Sarasvati. Sarasvati— Haraquaiti—Hravat-Kravat-Croat! They have a website cross-linked with the sarasvati URL (http://sarasvati.simplenet.com). The naming of

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Pattan Minara, Hindu Temple on the banks of Sarasvati River (c. 5th cent. CE?). (Brick decorated). (After Mughal, 1997, Pl. 22)

The Maha_bha_rata endorses that ti_rthaya_tra (going on pilgrimages) is superior to yajn~as: “O thou best of Bharata race, sojourns in ti_rthas which are meritorious and which constitute one of the high mysteries of the Rishis, are even superior to sacrifices.” The map is based on the Critical Edition of the Maha_bha_rata (Vishnu S. Sukthankar, 1941, Maha_bha_rata, vol. 3, secs. 80-88, Poona; cf. S.M. Bhardwaj, 1983, Hindu Places of Pilgrimage in India, Berkeley, University of California Press, p. 30) and based on the dialogues of sages Pulastya (who mentions about 270 places and sacred rivers) and Dhaumya (who mentions about 60 ti_rthas or sacred places) described in the A_ran.yakaparvan. The ti_rthas (passage or ford: RV 10.40.13; 10.114.7) are principally associated with water and are close to riverbanks, confluences and seacoast testifying to the importance of purification in water by bathing or immersion. The association of sanctity with water is also apparent in the remarkable bathing places and drainage systems evolved in the Sarasvati-Sindhu River Basins. (cf. the Great Bath in Mohenjodaro and the drainage systems in Dholavira, apart from the location of water tanks close to the so-called ‘fire-altars’ in Kalibangan and Banawali). The clusters of the sites are in the Gan:ga_-Yamuna doa_b and the Sarasvati_ River, a locus of

Binjadasar. A temple in ruins. On the banks of the Sarasvati River. (After Bapat, V.D., and Umapathy, K.R. (tr.), 1994, Lost’ River Sarasvati, Mysore, Bharatiya Itihasa Sankalana Samithi (tr. from Vakankar, L.S. and Paracure, C.N., 1992, Lupta Sarasvati_ Nadi_ s’odh (Marathi). extraordinary sanctity venerating the pitr.s and rishis of ancient times. It is notable that the first ti_rtha is Pus.kara (in Rajasthan), a ti_rtha of Brahma_ according to the Maha_bha_rata; pilgrimage to Pus.kara is considered equal in merit to the performance of ten as’vamedha yajn~as. The epic enumerates other ti_rthas related to Brahma: Brahmaks.etra, Brahmastha_na, Brahmayoni, Brahmodumvara, Brahma_varta. The pilgrimage ends with Praya_ga (modern Allahabad) after circumambulating the entire Bharat. The Epic also refers to Rudra, the husband of Uma. The sacred ecumene of the Sarasvati River Basin get extended to the Gangetic Basin right into the headwater regions in the Himalayas. Rigveda refers to the burning of sacrificial fires (yajn~as) on the banks of Sarasvati_ and Dr.s.advati_ Rivers (RV. 3.23.4). The satras conduced by r.s.is on the banks of the Sarasvati_ river are mentioned in the Aitareya Bra_hman.a (2.18). A Sa_rasvata yajn~a was organized in Yamuna_ti_rtha of Sarasvati_ (MBh. Vana. 128.14); Bakada_lbhya performed an abhica_ra yajn~a in a jala-kun~ja of Sarasvati_ (MBh. S’alya 40.18); Ekata, Dvita and Trita came to Sarasvati_ to observe a yajn~a (MBh. S’alya 35.24); the holy places on the banks of Sarasvati_ referred to are: San:khati_rtha (MBh. S’alya 36.20), 109

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A_dityati_rtha (MBh. S’alya 49.23), Sarasvatati_rtha (MBh. S’alya 50.2) and Saptasa_rasvatati_rtha (MBh. S’alya 39.6).

others because of their sparkling waters, and others because of the association or habitation of saintly people.” (Anus’a_sana Parvan, chapter 108, verses 16-18; cf. J.H. Dave, 195961, Immortal India, Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 4 vols., I, xiv). Every river can be a local Gan:ga_; the transference of sanctity is a remarkable phenomenon in Bharat. (Aghenananda Bharati, 1963, Pilgrimage in Indian Tradition, History of Religions, Vol. 3, no. 1, p. 165).

The Agni Pura_n.a in Chapter 109, ‘Tirtha Ma_ha_tmyam’ lists 62 ti_rthas. There are also separate chapters devoted to Gan:ga_, Praya_ga, Va_ran.a_si, Narmada_ and Gaya_ (Chapters 110 to 114). Maha_bha_rata explains the reasons why a place becomes sacred: “Just as certain limbs of the body are purer than others, so are certain places on earth more sacred—some on account of their situation, Ancient History of Sarasvats and Dravidian culture

groups were: the Sarasvats (from the banks of the Sarasvathi river), Kaanyakubjas (from Kanauj), Gaudas (from the banks of the South Ganga or Bengal), Utkals (from Orissa) and the Maithilas (from Mithila in Bihar). The five (pancha) Dravida groups were: the Maharashtras, Andhras, Dravidas (from Tamilnadu), Karnata (from Karnataka) and the Gurjaras (from Gujarat). As the southern brahmins had domiciled in the South for long the Sarasvats, who came to the South newly were described by the local brahmins as Gauda Brahmins and thus the prefix Gauda was added to the Sarasvats. They were from the Sarasvat region. from the banks of the Sarasvathi river…Sarasvats are from the banks of the Sarasvati… This river is found to be more important in vedic period than other *rivers including the Ganga. The vedas were composed mostly on her banks, and it is described as the most mighty river, and the veda describes her as "limitless, undeviating, shining and swiftmoving"… The rivers dried, drought followed. The Vedic brahmins were forced to emigrate to the West (Sind), North (Kashmir), East (U. P.) and to the South towards Gujarat and Konkan. In our own times, Brahmins like Kripalani from Sind, Dr. Raghunatha Airi from Haryana and the Kashmir Pandits are identified as belonging to the group of Sarasvat brahmins. Somaya from Cutch and Rawal from Rajasthan are all Sarasvat surnames… Later they were invited to settle down in the agraharas in Konkan and Goa during the subsequent centuries, from the days of the Shatavahanas (2000 years ago) and

I will cite from the work by Dr. Suryanath Kamath which is available on the internet and which I have cross-linked on the Sarasvati Website to trace the course of events subsequent to the desiccation of the Sarasvati River and the migration of Sarasvats. The discovery of the Sarasvati River and the Sarasvati Civilization exemplified by over 1200 ancient archaeological sites on the banks of the river and in the Sarasvati River Basin reaffirms the social beliefs of the origin of Sarasvats from the banks of the river Sarasvati. Recent archaeological findings establish a pattern of movement away from the river following the desiccation of the mighty river. Indeed, this vinas’ana (referred to in the Great Epic, the Maha_bha_rata) confirms the importance of the Epic as the sheet-anchor to recreate the ancient history of Bharat. The following excerpts from History Of the Dakshinatya Sarasvats Sarasvat Vol. 1 No. 1 The Origin and Spread of Gauda Sarasvats are a logical followup of the discoveries which date back our bronze age civilization to c. 3500 B.C.: ”According to Skandapura_n.a (Sahyadri Khan.d.a, Uttara_rdha 1-3), the brahmins that lived in the North of the Vindhyas were called Gauda brahmins and those from the South the Dravidas. Each group was divided into five sections according to the regions of their settlement. The five (Pancha) Gauda brahmin 110

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subsequent rulers like the Mauryas of Konkan, Kalachuris of Konkan, the Bhojas, Kadambas of Banavasi, Chalukyas of Badami,

Rashtrakutas, the Yadavas of Devagiri, Shilaharas of Konkan and Kadambas of Goa… a temple for Devi Sarasvati in a place called Basara (Vya_sapura) in Adilabad District of Andhra Pradesh, located on the banks of the Godavari River. The sthala pura_n.a states that the Devi was installed by Vya_sa by taking three mus.t.is (handfuls) of sand from the river bed—an extraordinary affirmation indeed of the integrat link of Sarasvati as devi and Sarasvati as river. The appended maps indicate the patterns of ancient settlements right from the foothills of the Himalayas (Ropar) to the Gulf of Khambat (Lothal) and on the Arabian Sea Coast (Prabhas Patan or Somnath and Dwa_raka). It is also significant that Sangam literature of the Tamils notes the claim of the ancient Chera kings that they were the 42nd generation descendants from the rulers of Dwaraka (Tuvarai) and the sage Agastya is revered as the ancient Tamil Muni and the author of the earliest grammatical work in Tamil. Sangam literature is replete with references to the support provided to the growth of Vedic Culture in the Tamil-speaking areas. An important article on the antiquity of relation between Tamil and Sanskrit is: Sharma, K.V. 1983.

According to Skandapurana (Sahyadri Khanda, Uttarardha 1-3), the brahmins that lived in the North of the Vindhyas were called Gauda brahmins and those from the South the Dravidas. Each group was divided into five sections according to the regions of their settlement. The five (Pancha) Gauda brahmin groups were: the Sarasvats (from the banks of the Sarasvathi river), Kaanyakubjas (from Kanauj), Gaudas (from the banks of the South Ganga or Bengal), Utkals (from Orissa) and the Maithilas (from Mithila in Bihar). The five (pancha) Dravida groups were: the Maharashtras, Andhras, Dravidas (from Tamilnadu), Karnata (from Karnataka) and the Gurjaras (from Gujarat). As the southern brahmins had domiciled in the South for long the Sarasvats, who came to the South newly were described by the local brahmins as Gauda Brahmins and thus the prefix Gauda was added to the Sarasvats. They were from the Sarasvat region. from the banks of the Sarasvathi river… The tradition preserved by Sarasvat brahmins from Gujarat, recorded in the Baroda State Gazetteer (1923) can be quoted here: "The Sarasvat is a very ancient Brahman tribe which still inhabits a tract in the north-west of India beyond Delhi, once watered by the famous Sarswati river. It is said that they are descendants of Sarasvati Muni. They came from Punjab to Gujarat by way of Sindh and Cutch with their yajamans, patrons, the, Luhanas, Bhansalis and Bhatias. In religion they are Shaiva and also worship the Goddess Sarasvati".

"Spread of Vedic culture in ancient south India" Adyar Library Bulletin 47:1-1. “Among the interesting facts that emerge from a study of the progressive spread of vedic culture from the North-West to the other parts of India, is its infusion, with noticeable intensity, in the extreme south of India where, unlike in other parts, a well-developed Dravidian culture was already in vogue… Tolka_ppiyam which is the earliest available work of the sangam classics, is a technical text in 1610 aphorisms, divided into three sections, dealing respectively, with phonetics, grammar and poetics… The other available sangam works are three sets of collected poems, being, pattu-ppa_t.t.u (Ten idylls), et.t.u-ttokai (Eight collections) and patineki_r..kan.akku (eighteen secondary texts), which last appears to pertain to the late period

It would appear that the migration of the Sarasvats, c. in the second half of the second millennium, was along the Arabian Sea Coast towards Goa, just as some outposts of the Sarasvati Civilization are located on the banks of Pravara (Daimabad archaeological site) which is a tributary of Godavari River. There is 111

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of the saµgam age. The ten poems are: tirumuruka_r.r.uppat.ai, porun.ara_r.r.uppat.ai, cir.upa_n.a_r.r.uppat.ai, perumpa_n.a_r.r.uppat.ai, mullaippa_t.t.u, maturaikka_n~ci, net.unelva_t.ai, kuriñcippa_t.t.u, pat.t.inappa_lai and malaipat.ukat.a_m. All the above idylls are compositions of individual poets, and, except for the first, which is devotional and possibly, pertains to late sangam age, are centred round the royal courts of the Cera, Cola and Pa_n.d.ya kings, depicting the contemporary elite scholarly society and youthful life. The second category consists of Eight collections: nar.r.in.ai, kur.untokai, ainkur.unu_r.u, patir.r.ujppattu, paripa_t.al, kali-ttokai, akana_n-u_r.u and pur.ana_n-u_r.u. All these collections are highly poetic and self-contained stray verses of different poets put together in consideration of their contents. The third category consists of eighteen miscellaneous texts, some of them being collections of stray verses of different poets and some composed by individual authors. They are: tirukkur.al., na_lat.iya_r, par..amor..i, tirikat.ukam, na_nman.ikkat.ikai, cir.upañcamu_lam, ela_ti, a_ca_rako_vai, mutumor..i-kka_ñci, kalavar..ina_r.patu, initu-na_r.patu, tin.aima_lainu_r.r.aimpatu, aintin.ai-yer..upatu, kainnilai, aintin.ai-yanpatu, tin.aimor..i-y-aimpatu and ka_r.-na_r.patu. The verses in these works also refer to social customs and local sovereigns. The above works picture a well-knit and well-developed society having a distinct identity of its own. The frequent mention, in sangam poems, of the Cera, Cola and Pa_n.d.ya kings as the munificent patrons of the poets… and the archaeological evidence provided by 76 rock inscriptions in Tamil-Bra_hmi script which corrobate the contents of the sangam works, in 26 sites in Tamilnadu (Mahadevan, I., Tamil Bra_hmi inscriptions of the Sangam age, Proc. Second International Conference Seminar of Tamil Studies, I, Madras, 1971, pp. 73-106) help to fix the date of the classical sangam classics in their present form to between 100 B.C. and 250 A.D… reference to the

Pa_n.d.yan kingdom by Megasthenes, Greek ambassador to the court of Candragupta Maurya (c. 324-300 B.C.?) are also in point. On these and allied grounds, the sangam period of Tamil literature might be taken to have extended from about the 5th century B.C. to the 3rd century A.D… It is highly interesting that sangam literature is replete with references to the vedas and different facets of vedic literature and culture, pointing to considerable appreciation, and literary, linguistic and cultural fusion of vedic-sanskrit culture of the north with the social and religious pattern of life in south India when the sangam classics were in the making… The vedas and their preservers, the bra_hmans, are frequently referred to with reverence (Pur.ana_n u_r.u 6, 15 and 166; Maturaikka_ñci 468; tirukat.ukam 70, na_nman.ikkat.ikai 89, initu-na_r.patu 8). The vedic mantra is stated as the exalted expressions of great sages (Tolka_ppiyam, Porul. 166, 176). While the great God S’iva is referred as the source of the four vedas (Pur.a. 166), it is added that the twice-born (bra_hman) learnt the four vedas and the six veda_ngas in the course of 48 years (Tiru-muruka_r.r.uppat.ai, 179-82). The vedas were not written down but were handed down by word of mouth from teacher to pupil (Kur-untokai 156), and so was called kel.vi (lit. what is heard, šruti)(Patir.r.ippattu 64.4-5; 70.18-19; 74, 1-2; Pur.a. 361. 3-4). The bra_hmans realized God through the vedas (Paripa_t.al 9. 12-13) and recited loftily in vedic schools (Maturaikka_ñci 468-76; 656)… the danger to the world if the bra_hman discontinued the study of the veda is stressed in tirukkur.al. 560. If the sangam classics are any criteria, the knowledge and practice of vedic sacrifices were very much in vogue in early south India. The sacrifices were performed by bra_hmans strictly according to the injunctions of the vedic mantras (tirumuruka_r.r.uppat.ai 94-96; kalittokai 36). The three sacred fires (ga_rhapatya, a_havani_ya and daks.ina_gni) were fed at dawn and dusk by bràhmans in order to propitiate the gods (Kalittokai 119l Pur.a. 2; 99; 122; Kur.iñcippa_t.t.u 225). Paripa_t.al 2. 60-70 stipulates, in line with 112

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vedic sacrificial texts, that each sacrifice had a specific presiding deity, that pas’us (sacrificial animals) were required for the sacrifice and that the sacrificial fire rose to a great height. The vedic practice of placing a tortoise at the bottom of the sacrificial pit is referred to in Akana_n-u_r.u 361… Patir.r.uppattu 64 and 70 glorify the Cera king Celvakkat.unkovar..i ya_tan- who propitiated the gods through a sacrifice performed by learned vedic scholars and distributed profuse wealth amongst them. Another Cera king, Perum-ceral Irumpor.ai is indicated in Patir.r.uppattu 74 to have performed the Putraka_mes.t.hi_ sacrifice for the birth of his son il.amceral irumpor.ai. The Cola ruler Peru-nar.kil.l.i was renowned as Ra_jasu_yam ve_t.t.a co_r..an- for his having performed the ra_jasa_ya sacrifice; another Cola ruler Nar.kil.l.i, too, was celebrated as a sacrificer (Pur.a. 363; 400). The Cola kings were also considered to have descended from the north Indian king S’ibi the munificent of Maha_bha_rata fame (Pur.a. 39; 43). The patronage accorded to vedic studies and sacrifices is illustrated also by the descriptive mention, in Pur.a. 166, of a great vedic scholar Vin.n.anta_yan- of the Kaun.d.inya-gotra who lived at Pu_ñja_r.r.u_r in the Co_r..a realm under royal patronage. It is stated that Vin.n.anta_yan- had mastered the four vedas and six veda_ngas, denounced non-vedic schools, and performed the seven pa_kayajñas, seven Soma-yajñas and seven havir-yajñas as prescribed in vedic texts. The Pa_n.d.yan kings equalled the Colas in the promotion of Vedic studies and rituals. One of the greatest of Pa_n.d.ya rulers, Mudukut.umi Peruvar..uti is described to have carefully collected the sacrificial materials prescribed in vedic and dharmašàstra texts and performed several sacrifices and also set up sacrificial posts where the sacrifices were performed (Pur.a. 2; 15). Maturaikka_ñci (759-63) mentions him with the appellation pal-s’a_lai (pal-ya_ga-s’a_lai of later Ve_l.vikkud.i and other inscriptions), ‘one who set up several sacrificial halls’. The Pa_n.d.ya rulers prided themselves as to have descended from the Pa_n.d.avas, the heroes of

Maha_bha_rata (Pur.a. 3; 58; Akana_n-u_r.u 70; 342)… God Brahmà is mentioned to have arisen, in the beginning of creation, with four faces, from the lotus navel of God Vis.n.u (Paripa_t.al 8.3; Kalittokai 2; Perumpa_n.a_r.r.uppat.ai 402-04; Tiru muruk a_r.r.up pat.ai 164-65; Iniyavai-na_rpatu 1). It is also stated that Brahma_ had the swan as vehicle (Innà-nàrpatu 1). Vis.n.u is profusely referred to. He is the lord of the Mullai region (Tol. Akattin.ai 5) and encompasses all the Trinity (Paripa_t.al 13.37). He is blue-eyed (Pur.a. 174), lotus-eyed (Paripa_t.al 15.49), yellow-clothed (Paripa_t.al 13.1-2), holds the conch and the discus in his two hands and bears goddess Laks.mì on his breast (Mullaippa_t.t.u 1-3; Perumpa_n. 29-30; Kali. 104; 105; 145), was born under the asterism Tiru-o_n.am (Maturai. 591), and Garud.a-bannered (Pur.a. 56.6; Paripa_t.al 13.4). Of Vis.n.uite episodes are mentioned his measuring the earth in three steps (Kali. 124.1), protecting his devotee Prahla_da by killing his father (Pari. 4. 12-21) and destroying the demon Kes’in (Kali. 103.5355). S’iva has been one of the most popular vedic-pura_n.ic gods of the South. According to Akana_n-u_r.u 360.6, S’iva and Vis.n.u are the greatest gods. He is three-eyed (Pur.a. 6.18; Kali. 2.4), wears a crescent moon on his forehead (Pur.a. 91.5; Kali. 103.15), and holds the axe as weapon (Aka. 220.5; Pur.a. 56.2). He bears river Ganga_ in his locks (Kali. 38.1; 150.9) and is blue-necked (Pur.a. 91.6; Kali. 142). He is born under the asterism a_tirai (Skt. àrdra) (Kali. 150.20), has the bull for his vehicle (Paripa_t.al 8.2) and is seated under the banyan tree (Aka. 181). Once, while sitting in Kaila_sa with Uma_ (Pa_rvati), his consort (Pari. 5.27-28; Par..amor..i 124), Ra_van.a, the ra_ks.asa king shook the Kaila_sa and S’iva pressed the mountain down with his toe, crushing Ra_van.a and making him cry for mercy (Kali. 38). When the demon Tripura infested the gods, S’iva shot through the enemy cities with a single arrow and saved the gods (Kali. 2; Pur.a. 55; Paripa_t.al 5. 22-28). Pur.ana_n –u_r.u (6. 16-17) refers also to S’iva temples in the land and devotees walking round 113

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the temple in worship. God Skanda finds very prominent mention in saµgam classics, but as coalesced with the local deity Murukan-, with most of the pura_n.ic details of his birth and exploits against demons incorporated into the local tradition (Paripa_t.al 5. 26-70; Tirumuruka_r.r.uppat.ai, the whole work). Mention is also made of Indra. (Balara_ma) is mentioned as the elder brother of Lord Kr.s.n.a, as fair in colour, wearing blue clothes, having the palmyra tree as his emblem and holding the ;lough as his weapon, all in line with the pura_n.as (Paripa_t.al 2. 20-23; Pur.a. 56. 3-4; 58.14; Kali. 104, 7-8). Tolka_ppiyam (Akattin.ai iyal 5) divides the entire Tamil country into five, namely, Mullai (jungle) with Vis.n.u as its presiding deity, Kur.iñji (hilly) with Murukan- as deity, Marutam (plains: cf. marusthali_ Skt.) with Indra as deity, Neytal (seashore) with Varun.a as deity and Pa_lai (wasteland) with Kor.r.avai (Durga_) as deity… The sangam works are replete with references to the four castes into which the society was divided, namely, bra_hman.a, ks.atriya, vais’ya, and su_dra… bra_hman antan.a primarily concerned with books (Tol. Mara. 71), the ks.atriya (a-ras’a, ra_ja) with the administration (Tol. Mara. 78) and s’u_dra with cultivation (Tol. Mara. 81)… It is also stated that marriage before the sacred fire was prescribed only for the first three castes; but the author adds that the custom was adopted by the fourth caste also in due course (Tol. Kar.piyal 3)… one cannot fail to identify in sangam poetry the solid substratum of the distinct style, vocabulary and versification, on the one hand, and the equally distinct subject-matter, social setting and cultural traits, on the other, both of the Tamil genius and of vedic poetry. As far as the grammar of Dravidian is concerned, a detailed analytical study of Old Tamil as represented in Tolka_ppiyam, with the vedic s’iks.a_s and pra_tis’a_khyas, has shown that, ‘Tolka_ppiyan-a_r clearly realized that Tamil was not related to Sanskrit either morphologically or genealogically… that he deftly exploited the ideas contained in the earlier grammatical literature, particularly in

those works which dealt with vedic etymology, without doing the least violence to the genius of the Tamil language’. (Sastri, P.S.S., History of Grammatical Theories in Tamil and their relation to the Grammatical literature in Sanskrit, Madras, 1934, p. 231)… It would be clear from the foregoing that during the sangam age there had already been intensive infusion of vedic culture in south India… Both the cultures coexisted, the additions often affecting only the upper layers of society… For novel names, concepts and ideas, the Sanskrit names were used as such, with minor changes to suit the Tamil alphabet (e.g. akin-i for agni, vaicikanfor vais’ya, veta for veda, or translated (e.g. pa_pa_n- for dars’aka, ke_l.vi for s’ruti). When, however, the concept already existted, in some form or other, the same word was used with extended sense (e.g. ve_l.vi for ya_ga; ma_l or ma_yan- for Vis.n.u). Sometimes both the new vedic and extant Tamil words were used (e.g. ti_ for agni)… It is, however, important to note that the coming together of the two cultures, vedic and dravidian, was smooth, non-agressive and appreciative, as vouched for by the unobtrusive but pervasive presence of vedicism in the sangam works. The advent of vedic culture into South India was, thus, a case of supplementation and not supplantation… it is a moot question as to when vedic culture first began to have its impact on dravidian culture which already existed in south India… the age of this spread (of vedic culture) has to be much earlier than the times of the Ra_ma_yan.a and Maha_bha_rata, both of which speak of vedic sages and vedic practices prevailing in the subcontinent. Literary and other traditions preserved both in north and south India attest to the part played by sage Agastya and Paras’ura_ma in carrying vedic culture to the south. On the basis of analytical studies of these traditions the identification of geographical situations and a survey of the large number of Agastya temples in the Tamil country, G.S. Ghurye points to the firm establishment of the Agastya cult in South India by the early centuries before the Christian era (Ghurye, G.S., Indian acculturation: Agastya and 114

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Skanda, Bombay, Popular Prakashan, 1977)… the considerable linguistic assimilation, in dravidian, of material of a pre-classical Sanskrit nature, it would be necessary to date the northsouth acculturation in India to much earlier times.”

caran.a or bheda) in consonance with the development of the Vedic tradition. Eko vedas’catus.pa_dah sam.hr.tya tu punah punah (Matsya 143.10). There are also anus’a_khas or upas’a_khas which indicate the further development of the s’a_khas. (ityeta_h pratis’a_kha_bhyo hyanus’a_kha_ dvijottama: Vis.n.u P. III,4.25). The s’a_khas are books enshrining particular traditions (the Sam.hita_, Bra_hman.a and Su_tra traditions) which have been nurtured as sva_dhya_ya (consisting of mantra and bra_hman.a) and transmitted orally from generation to generation to regulate the performance of yajn~a. Many s’a_khas were locality specific. “That the Ka_n.va Sam.hita_ was prevalent in Kurucountry, is known from the line – es.a vah kuravo ra_ja_. Its equivalent in the Taittiri_ya S’a_kha_ is es.a vo bharato ra_ja_.” (Ganga Sagar Rai, 1990, Vedic S’a_khas, Varanasi, Ratna Publications).

The migrations away from the desiccated Sarasvati River, alluded to earlier explain the distribution of smaller size settlements, for example, in the Ganga-Yamuna doab (OCP, Black and Red ware and PGW ware) and in the regions on the right bank of Sindhu in Baluchistan and Afghanistan. The memory of the Sarasvati River was carried by these migrants; for example, there is a river called Haraquaiti in Afghanistan, and there are the rivers called Sarasvati in Pushkar, Rajasthan and Sarasvati which joins the Little Rann of Kutch in Gujarat. The local traditions in almost all parts of Bharat is that when two rivers join, the san:gamma is called triven.i san:gamam; how can this be? Where is the third river? The answer is simple; the third river is the Sarasvati river which flows underground! That Sarasvati River did flow underground is now established as a groundtruth by earth scientists. In Jaisalmer, the scientists of Bhabha Atomic Research Centre found that the deep water wells (30 m. deep) in Jaisalmer area contained water from the Himalayas flowing through underground channels, called aquifers, and dated to over 8000 years Before Present. Astonishingly, the water table remains the same in deep wells in the Jaisalmer area, even after drawing down the water through the tubewells and even during summer.

It will be apposite to recall the balanced views expressed by Maurice Winternitz in the context of Indian literary tradition in his work, A History of Indian Literature. “…The historical facts and hypotheses, such as mention of Vedic gods in the cuneiform inscriptions, and the relationship of Vedic antiquity to the A_ryan (Indo-Iranian) and Indo-European period, are so uncertain in themselves that the most divergent and contradictory conclusions have been drawn from them. Nevertheless, we have now such likely evidence of relations between ancient India and western Asia penetrating as far west as Asia Minor in the second millennium B.C., that Vedic-culture can be traced back at least to the second millennium B.C…The linguistic facts, the near relationship between the language of the Veda and that of the Avesta on the one hand, and between the Vedic language and classical Sanskrit on the other, do not yield any positive results…As all the external evidence fails, we are compelled to rely on the evidence arising out of the history of Indian literature itself, for the age of the Veda. The

Chronology of Vedic Age and Sarasvati Sindhu Civilization Vedic Age relates to the period when the r.cas of the R.gveda were composed (as distinct from the time when the r.cas were compiled into Sam.hitas). According to Matsya Pura_n.a, there was only one Veda and later occurred the arrangement into four Vedas and the evolution of s’a_khas (which are also referred to as 115

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surest evidence in this respect is still the fact that Pa_rs’va, Maha_vi_ra and Buddha presuppose the entire Veda as a literature to all intents and purposes completed, and this is a limit which we must not exceed. We cannot, however, explain the development of the whole of this great literature, if we assume as late a date as round about 1200 BC or 1500 BC as its starting-point. We shall probably have to date the beginning of this development about 2000 or 2500 BC, and the end of it between 750 and 500 BC. The more prudent course, however, is to steer clear of any fixed dates, and to guard against the extremes of a stupendously ancient period or a ludicrously modern epoch.” (Maurice Winternitz, 1907, Geschichte der Indischen Literatur, tr. A History of Indian Literature, 1981, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 287-288).

probably the wild region of the Kuru realm that stretched from the Ka_myaka forest on the banks of the Sarasvati_ to Kha_n.d.ava near (sami_patah) the Jamuna. (MBh. III.5.3)…The Kurus proper were probably located in the district around Hastina_pura (on the Ganges), identified with a place near Meerut. The boundaries of Kurukshetra are given in a passage of the Taittiri_ya Aran.yaka (Vedic Index I. Pp. 169-70) as being Kha_n.d.ava on the south, the Tu_rghna on the north, and the Pari_n.ah on the west (lit. hinder section, jaghana_rdha). The Maha_bha_rata (MBh. III.83.4) gives the following description of Kurukshetra: ‘South of the Sarasvati_, and north of the Drishadvati_, he who lives in Kurukshetra really dwells in heaven. The region that lies between Taruntuka and Marantuka or Arantuka, the lakes of Ra_ma and Machakruka (Machakruka, Taruntuka and Marantuka are Yaksha dva_rapa_las guarding the boundaries of Kurukshetra)—this Kurukshetra which is also called Sa_manta pan~caka and the northern sacrificial altar (uttara vedi) of the grandsire (i.e. Brahma_).’ Roughly speaking, the Kuru kingdom corresponded to modern Thanesar, Delhi and the greater part of the Upper Gangetic Doa_b. Within the kingdom flowed the rivers Arun.a_ (which joins the Sarasvati_ near Pehoa), Am.s’umati_, Hiran.vati_, A_paya_ (A_paga_ or Oghavati_, a branch of the Chitang), Kaus’iki_ (a branch of the Rakshi_), as well as the Sarasvati_ and the Drishadvati_ or the Rakshi_. (MBh. III.83.95.151; V.151.78). Here, too, was situated Saryan.a_vat, which the authors of the Vedic Index consider to have been a lake, like that known to the S’atapatha Bra_hman.a by the name of Anyatahplaksha_…According to the epic tradition the kings of Kurukshetra belonged to the Puru-Bharata family. The Paurava connection of the Kurus is suggested by the Rigvedic hymn (10.33.4) which refers to ‘kurus’ravan.a’ (lit. glory of the Kurus) as a descendant of Trasadasyu, a famous king of the Pu_rus. (RV. 4.38.1; 7.19.3).

“Parikshit appears in a famous laud of the Twentieth Book of the Atharva Veda Sam.hita_ (AV 20.127.7.10) as a king of the Kurus (kauravya) whose kingdom (ra_s.t.ra) flowed with milk and honey…in the Aitareya and S’atapatha Bra_hman.as the famous king Janamejaya bears the patronymic Pa_rikshita (son of Parikshit). The Aitareya Bra_hman.a (VIII.21), for example, informs us that the priest Tura Ka_vasheya ‘annointed Janameja Pa_rikshita with the great anointing of Indra.” (etena ha va_ aindren.a maha_bhisheken.a turah ka_vasheyo janamejayam pa_rikshitam abhishishecha )…the realm of the Kurus over which Parikshit ruled. The kingdom, according to epic tradition, stretched from the Sarasvati_ to the Ganges. In the Digvijaya-parva it is taken to extend from the border of the land of the Kulindas (near the sources of Sutlej, the Jamuna and the Ganges) to that of the Su_rasenas and the Matsyas (in the Mathura_ and Baira_t. regions respectively), and from the frontier of Rohi_taka (Rohtak in the Eastern Punjab) to that of the Pan~cha_las (of Rohilkhand). It was divided into three parts, Kuruja_n:gala, the Kurus proper and Kurukshetra (MBh. I. 109.1). Kuruja_n:gala, as its name implies, was 116

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who migrated from Ba_hli in Central Asia to mid-India. MBh. 3.90-22-25 located the birth place of Puru_ravas on a hill near the source of the Ganges. The Ba_hli (or ila_vr.tavars.a) associated with the Ka_rddma kings may relate to the areas close to Gan:gotri and may not connote a reference to Bactria in the Oxus valley. “…the Papan~cha su_dani refers to the Kurus—the most important of the Ailas according to the Maha_bha_rata and the Pura_n.as—as colonists from the transHima_layan region known as Uttara Kuru. (Law, Ancient Mid-Indian Ks.atriya Tribes, p. 16)…In the Aihole Inscription of Raviki_rti, panegyrist of Pulakes’in II, dated S’aka 556 (expired) = AD 634-35, it is stated that at that time 3735 years had passed since the Bha_rata war: trim.s’atsu tri-sahasreshu bha_rata_d a_hava_d itah sapta_bda-s’ata-yukteshu gateshvabdeshu pan~chasu (Ep. Ind. VI, pp. 11,12). The date of the Bha_rata war which almost synchronized with the birth of Parikshit, is, according to this calculation and the testimony of A_ryabhat.a (CE. 499), 3102 BCE. This is the starting point of the so-called Kali-yuga era.” (Raychaudhuri, opcit., p. 24).

The connection of the Bharatas with the Kuruland is also attested by Vedic evidence. A Rigvedic ode (RV 3.23) speaks of the two Bha_ratas, Devas’ravas and Devava_ta, as sacrificing in the land on the Drishadvati_, the A_paya_ and the Sarasvati_. Some famous ga_tha_s of the Bra_hman.as and the epic tells us (S’Br. 13.5.4.11; Ait. Br. 8.23; MBh. 7.66.8) that Bharata Dauhshanti made offerings on the Jamuna, the Ganges (Yamuna_m anu Ga_n:ga_ya_m) and the Sarasvati_. [The Dasyu of the Bra_hman.a period are: Andhras, S’abaras (Savaris of Gwalior and Sauras of Vizagapatam), Pulindas (of Bundelkhand) and Mu_tibas (? Of Musi river near Hyderabad Deccan): Aitareya Bra_hman.a 7.18]. The territory indicated in these laudatory verses is exactly the region which is later on so highly celebrated as the Kurukshetra…Among theose kings who are mentioned in the genealogical lists of the Maha_bha_rata as ancestors and predecessors of Parikshit (A_diparva, ch. 94 and 95), the names of the following occur in the Vedic literature: Puru_ravas Aila (RV. 10.95), A_yu (RV 1.53.10; 2.14.7), Yaya_ti Nahushya (RV 1.31.17; 10.63.1), Pu_ru (RV 7.8.4; 18.13), Bharata Dauhshanti Saudyumni (S’Br. 13.5.4; Ait. Br. 8.23), Ajami_d.ha (RV 4.44.6), R.iksha (RV 8.68.15), Sam.varan.a (RV 8.51.1), Kuru (RV 10.33.4), Uchchaihs’ravas (Jaimini_ya Upanis.ad Br. 3.29.1-3), Prati_pa Pra_tisatvana or Pra_ti sutvana (AV 20.129.2), Balhika Pra_tipi_ya (S’Br. 12.9.3.3), S’am.tanu (RV 10.98) and Dhr.itara_s.t.ra Vaichitravi_rya (Ka_t.haka Sam.hita_ 10.6).” (H.Raychaudhuri, 1972, Political History of Ancient India, 7th edn., Calcutta, University of Calcutta, pp. 1122).

‘Kva pa_rikshita_ abhavan (whither have the Pa_rikshitas gone)?’ asks Bhujyu La_hya_yani; Yajn~avalkya responds: ‘Thither where the performers of the horse sacrifice abide.’ (Br.ihad. Upanis.ad, 3.3.1). This is clearly a reference to the continuing tradition of the as’vamedha in the Ganga-Yamuna doa_b and does not seem to refer to the haoma practices of the Avestan group who might have moved north-west to eastern Iran and moved to the right-banks of Sindhu river. An extraordinary evidence linking the R.gvedic references to the fire-workers echoed as fire-worshippers in the Zoroastrian faith and the emergence of the Bronze Age civilization along the Sarasvati and Sindhu River Basins is provided by the thousands of gabarbands constructed on many rivers, most of them perhaps datable to ca. 3500 BC. The importance of the ‘fire-workers’ in the civilization is enshrined in the term used in Sindh: the gabarband. Gabarband means,

Saryan.a_vat is the source for naming the present-day State of Haryana. Sarasvati_ River was the domain of the Bharatas. Puru_ravas Aila is mentioned only the tenth man.d.ala of the Rigveda and may denote a later-day king. The epic tradition (Ra_m. 7.103,21-22) notes that Aila is the son of a ruler 117

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literally, ‘Zoroastrian dam’; gabar = Zoroastrians or fire-worshippers; band = dam or an stone enclosure used to contain or redirect water as an irrigation facility. (For a discussion on the semantics of ‘gabar’ cf. Balfour, E., 1885, The Cyclopaedia of India: And of Eastern and Southern Asia, commercial, industrial and scientific. 3 Vols., 3rd edn. London: Bernard Quaritch). Gabarbands, in thousands, are found in Sindh Kohistan, Kirthar and Baluchistan (Gedrosia) regions. They dominate the riverine courses in Sarawan, Jhalawan and along the Hab River. It is noted that gabarband is an ancient technology and began in thee first half ot the third millennium BC. (Louis Flam, 1981, The Palaeogeography and Prehistoric Settlement Patterns in Sind, Pakistan (40002000 BC). PhD Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.

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Ahmad Gabarband in the Saruna Valley (After Hughes-Buller 903-04, Gabarbands in Baluchistan. Annual Report of the Archaeological Survey of India,903-04: 94-20: Pl. LXI; and Possehl, G.L., 999, Fig. 3.27). Parthians and Sassanians were also gabars, or fire-worshippers. The L-shaped gabarbands are stone dams built not as full-scale dams but to check and (using the wings of the stone walls to) re-direct the flood waters into the gabarband catchment area, so that alluvium could be build up behind the bands (or dams) creating fertile agricultural fields of upto about two hectares in size.Gabarbands aligned to contain water and to create alluvial tracts (After Possehl, G.L., 999, Fig. 3.28). often pronounced, Gavr, by a change of letters “Gabar. Pers. A person not a Mahomedan, in frequent general, but commonly a Zoroastrian, a Parsee in or fire-worshipper; an idol-worshipper, an Persian, infidel; any unbeliever in Mahomedanism in as in general; but the word is more specially applied other to a fire-worshipper. Meninski says, ‘’Ignicola, magus infidelis quivis paganus’. The word is more familiar to the people of Europe under the spellings Gaour and Geuebre. A small remnant of fire-worshippers exists in Persia, chiefly at Yezd in Khorasan; but most of their countrymen have emigrated to India, where, especially at Bombay, they flourish under the name of Parsee. According to the dictionary, Burhan-I-Kattea, Gabar is used in the name of Magi, which signifies a fire-worshipper, Gabar man-I-Magh bashad, keh atash purust ast, i.e., languages. Gavr, we learn from the dictionary Gabar means a Magh, which is a fireJahangiri, means those fire-worshippers who worshipper. This is sometimes written, and very observe the religion of Zardusht (or Zoroaster), 119

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and they are also called Magh. But Origen, in the 3rd century, defending Christianity against Celsus, an Epicurean, who had alluded to the mysteries of Mithra, uses Kabar as equivalent to Persians. “Let Celsus know,’ says he, ‘that our prophets have not borrowed anything from the Persians or Kabirs’ (Orig. contr. Cels. Lib. vi. p.291, Cantab. 1658). A Jewish writer, quoted by Hyde (Hist. Relig. Vet. Pers., cap. xxix), declares that the Persians call their priests (in the plural) Chaberin (or Khaberin), whilst the singular, Chaber or Khaber (occurring in the Talmud), is explained by Hebrew commentators as signifying Parsai or Persians…Dr. Hyde, however, as above cited, thinks that Chaber or Chaver denoted both a priest and a layman. There can be no doubt that the usages of a people which regard their dead are important evidences of the faith professed by them, or, if not clearly indicating it, that they may show what faith is not professed.

the valley of Jalalabad, and under the Safed Koh, human bones are so abundant on the soil that walls are made of them. There is every reason to suppose it a sepulchral locality of the ancient Gabar; coins are found in some number there—Ouseley’s Travels, I, p. 150.” (Balfour, E., 1885, The Cyclopaedia of India: And of Eastern and Southern Asia, commercial, industrial and scientific. 3 Vols., 3rd edn. London: Bernard Quaritch, p. 1158). The concordant terms, Chaber, Chaver mentioned in this entry in Balfour’s cyclopaedia provide a lead to the identification of the fire-worshippers. Dr. Rhys Davids locates Sauvi_ra to the north of Kathiawar and along the Gulf of Kach (Buddhist India, Map facing p. 320, and Bha_gavata, V, ch. 10; I, ch. 10, v.36); Alberuni equates Sauvi_ra with Multan and Jahrawar (Alberuni’s India, vol. I, pp. 300, 302: Sauvi_ra includes the littoral as well as the inland portion lying to the east of the Sindhu as far as Multa_n, with the capital city called Vitabhaya, according to Jaina Pravachanasa_roddha_ra). Ma_rkan.d.eya Pura_n.a (ch. 57) notes that Sindhu and Sauvi_ra are in the northern part of India and close to Gandha_ra and Madra. Rapson identifies Sauvi_ra with Sindh province (Ancient India, p. 168). One conjecture is that Sauvi_ra was the Sophir or Ophir mentioned in the Bible. “Part of the modern territory of Sind may have been included in Sauvi_ra whose southern limits undoubtedly reached the sea, because the Milinda-Pan~ho mentions it in a list of countries where ‘ships do congregate’…In Skandapura_n.a (Prabha_sakshetra Ma_ha_tmya, Ch. 278), referring to the famous temple of the Sun at Mu_la-stha_na or Multajn_n, says that stood on the banks of the river Devika_…In the Agnipura_n.a (Ch. 200), the Devika_ is brought into special relations with the realm of Sauvi_ra (sauvi_rara_jasya pura_ maitreyobhu_t purohitah tena ca_yatanam vis.n.oh ka_ritam devika_tat.e)…Kachcha had come under the sway of the Great Satrap (Rudrada_man) as early as 130 A.D…” (Raychaudhuri, H., 1972,

The semi-exposure adopted by the Siah-posh has contributed probably to their being suspected to be a remnant of the Gabar, or followers of the reformer Zartusht, but no account has been heard of the least mention of fire-worship amongst them. There is the certainty that within the last three centuries there were people called Gabar in the Ka_bul countries, particularly in Lughman and Bajur; also that in the days of Baber there was a dialect called Gabari. We are also told that one of the divisions of Kafiristan was named Gabrak, but it does not follow that the people called Gabar then professed the worship of fire. That in former times fire-worship existed to a certain, if limited, extent, in Afghanistan, is evidenced by the pyrethrae, or fire-altars, still crowning the crests of hills at Gard-dez, at Bamian, at Seghan, and at other places. Near Bamian is a cavern, containing enormous quantities of human bonesf, apparently a common receptacle of the remains of Gabar corpses; and to the present day the Parsees expose their dead on tower summits, but Tibetans, Chinese and Hindus often lay their dead on plains or in rivers. At Murki Khel, in 120

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Political History of Ancient India, 7th edn., Calcutta, University Press, pp. 544-547).

religion...Vis’ta_spa put the a_dar-burzenmihr on its cultic place on mount Revand, which is also called pus’t-e-Vis’taspa_n that is revant of Yt. 19.6...This Revand—another one lies not far south—is situated northwest of Nishapur, not far from Tos, near the turquoise mines (Herzfeld, Ernst, 1947, Zoroaster and His World, Princeton, I, 81-82). The Revand is a mountain in Khorasan on which the Burzin fire is settled. (Avesta, Bund. 12.18; Sirrozah 1.9).

The Gabars or fire-worshippers were Sauvi_ras. The discovery of ‘fire-altars’ in the archaeological sites of regions east and west of Sindhu River Basin (cf. the fire-pits of hundreds of sites in Bahawalpur province), on the banks of the Sarasvati River and in Kalibangan, Banawali (both located on the banks of the Sarasvati River) and Lothal (perhaps an outfall area of the Sarasvati River, linking with the Nal Sarovar south of the Little Rann of Kutch) dated to the 3rd millennium BC is a clear indication of the dominance of the fire-worship in the entire Sarasvati River Basin. This is an affirmation of the myth of vad.ava_nala fire carried by the Sarasvati River as people moved eastward and westward with progressive desiccation of the mighty river.

Suniti Kumar Chatterji notes that the Latvian writer, Fr. Malbergis, wrote in 1856 that the Latvians like the Russians and Germans came from the banks of the Ganga. The Latvian tradition is that a wise people, Burtnieks brought all science and knowledge to Latvia from India. The tradition further holds that Videvuds was a teacher of this profound wisdom. The Vaidilutes, the old Lithuanian priestesses tended the sacred fire as part of the Old Indo-European Balt religious rite and a modern Lithuanian poet suggested that this fire arrived in Lithuania from the banks of Ind. (Chatterji, S.K., 1968, Balts and Aryans in their Indo-European Background, Simla, pp. 23-24).

Bhagwan Singh notes (Bhagwan Singh, 1995, The Vedic Harappans, New Delhi, Aditya Prakashan, p. 224) that the term revata_ used in the context of Pan.is may be related to the mount Revand mentioned in reference to Vis’ta_spa: “When Zoroaster brought the Plaks.a

Sarasvati_ River is said to originate from the Plaks.a tree. What is the nature of the Plaks.a? Where was the tree located?

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Ficus Gibbosa or infectoria or caulocarpa or caulobotrya or urostigma stipulosa (After Basu, B.D., 1913, Indian Medicinal Plants, Pt. IV, Pl. 892) Ficus rumphii or cordifolia (After Basu, B.D., 1913, Indian Medicinal Plants, Pt. IV, Pl. 896B) This monumental work provides the following details about this plant. Distribution: Punjab, N. India, Assam, Burma, Central India, W. Peninsula, S. India, Malay Peninsula, Malay Archipelago. A moderate sized deciduous tree at first usually epiphytic, all parts glabrous…The Santals use the fruit as a drug. The juice is used in the Konkan to kill worms and is given internally with turmeric, pepper and ghi, in pills, the size of a pea, for the relief of asthma; it causes vomiting. Names: Assam: pakri; Bengal: gaiaswat, galasvattha; Burma: nyaungbyu; Cachar: satbur; Canarese: bettaarali, bettaragi, kadarali; garwal: kabaru; garo: prab; Hindi: gagjaira, gajiun, gajna, kabar, khabar, pakar, pilikhan, papal, pipul; jaunsar: pilkhoi; kolami: sumanpipar; Kumaon: kabaipipal; Lohardugga: ganjar, kabaipipal, sumanpipar; Marathi: asht, ashta, pair, payar; Mundari: duranggahesa; Nepal: pakar; Punjab: badha, palak, pilkhan, pulakh, rumbal; Rajputana: paraspipal; Santali: sunamjor. The

sp. shown in Plate 896A is described as ficus religiosa with distribution in sub-Himalayan forests, Bengal, Central India and is referred to variously as asvattha or papal; Kolqamui: hesar, hissa, pipar; Konkani: pimpoll; Santal: hesak; Tulu: attasa; Uriyua: osto, oshwottho, pippolo, usto. itti white fig, ficus infectoria, ficus gibbosa prarasitica; tailed oval-leaved fig, ficus talboti; icci oval-leaved fig; jointed ovate-leaved fig, ficus tsiela; icciya_l, iccil jointed ovate-leaved fig; iratti jointed ovate-leaved fig; subserrate rhomboid-leaved fig, ficus gibbosa tuberculata; iratakam jointed ovate-leaved fig; ir-ali = white fig; ir-r-I tailed oval-leaved fig (Ta.); itti, ittiya_l waved leaved fig-tree, ficus venosa; a parasitical plant, loranthus coriaceus (Ma.); itti ficus gibbosa (Kod.)(DEDR 460). cuvalai papal; cuvi white fig, ficus infectoria; stone fig, ficus gibbosa parasitica (Ta.); cuvann-a_l ficus infectoria (Ma.); juvvi mara wavy-leaved fig tree, ficus infectoria (Ka.); ficus tsiela (Te.); papal, ficus religiosa (Kol.); 122

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ju_ meri sp. ficus religiosa (Pa.); ju_ ma_r.a ficus sp. (Go.)(DEDR 2697).

Ficus lacor, Linn. Or ficus infectoria Roxb. (After Basu, B.D., 1913, Indian Medicinal Plants, Pt. IV, Pl. 897). The work describes the medicinal plant as a large spreading deciduous fast-growing tree, all parts glabrous…Distribution: plains and lower hills of India, Ceylon, Malaya; all parts are acrid, pungent, cooling; useful in diseases of the blood and the vagina, ulcers, burning sensations, biliousness, kapha, inflammations, leprosy, hallucinations, loss of consciousness (Ayurveda)…the fruit is sour; the seeds are useful in bronchitis, biliousness, scabies, boils, inflammation (Yunani). The bark of this, along with the barks of other four species of Ficus and of Melia azadarichta, pass by the name of Panchavalkala (or the 123

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five barks); they are used in combination. A decoction is much employed as a gargle in salivation, as a wash for ulcers, and as an injection in leucorrhoea. Names: Bengal: pakar; Bombay: bassari, pakri, pipli; Burma: nyaungchin; Canarese: basari, basarigoli, juvvi, kabbasari, karibasri, plaksha, ulabasari; garo: prab; Gond: serelli; Gujarati: pepri; Hindi: kahimal, khabar, pakar, pilkhan, ramanjir; Kolami: baswesa; Konkani: killah; Kurku: pepere; Lambadi: katpipri; Malayalam: bakri, chakkila, chuvannal, itti, jati; Marathi: bassari, dhedumbara, gandhaumbara, lendwa, pakari, pepar; Mundari: basuhesa, dindaputkal, gusahesa, gusihesa, hesaputukaldaru, jojohesa; Nepal: safedkabra; NW Provinces: pakur; Punjab: bathar, janglipipli, pakhar, palakh, palkhi, pilkhan, pilkin; Sanskrit: ashvatthi, charudarshani, dridhapraroha, gardabhanda, jati, kandaralu, karpari, parkati, pimpari, plaksha, plavaka, shringi, suparshva, varohashakhi, vati; Saora: juvvi; Sinhalese: kalaha, kiripella; Tamil: jovi, kallal, kurugatti, kurugu, suvi; Telugu: badijuvvi, jati, juvvi; Tulu: basarigoli; Urdu: pakharia; Uriya: pakodo, rushorchona.

It is very complex indeed to precisely identify the ficus species intended by the various lexemes used in Indian languages. However, considering the consistency with which the word, plaks.a is used for ficus infectoria, it would appear that the plant referred to is the one shown in Plate 897, i.e., the ficus lacor or, Linn. or ficus infectoria, Roxb. This is confirmed by the use of the roots of Ficus infectoria as poultice on wounds in the Philippines, comparable to the external applications in Indian Medicine. (Quisumbing, E., 1978, Medicinal Plants of the Philippines, Manila, Katha Publishing Co., p. 237). The lexeme plaks.a is explained in Monier Williams’ Sanskrit lexicon in the following terms: the waved-leaf fig-tree, ficus infectoria (a large and beautiful tree with white fruit), AV.; dvi_pa (Pur.); (with prasravan.a, Ta_n.d.Br. name of the river Sarasvati, MBh; plaks.aga_ name of a river, VP; plaks.aja_ta_ rising near the fig-tree, name of the Sarasvati,l MBh; plaks.ati_rtha, plaks.a_vataran.a name of a place of pilgrimage Hariv.MBh.Ma_rkP.; plaks.atva the state or condition of being a figtree, MaitrS.; plaks.anyagrodha, du. Ficus infectoria and ficus indica, Pa_n. ii,2,29; plaks.asravan.a, plaks.aprasravan.a, plaks.ara_j, plaks.ara_ja source and king of the fig-tree, name of the place where the Sarasvati rises; plaks.avat surrounded by fig-trees, name of a river (prob. The Sarasvati); plaks.as’a_kha_ branch of the fig-tree, MaitrS.; plaks.asamudhbhava_, plaks.aja_ta_, plaks.a samudra-vacaka_ name of the river Sarasvati_; plaks.o_dumbara a species of tree, Kaus’.; pla_ks.a being or relating to or coming from the ficus infectoria, TS; AitBr; pl. the school of Pla_ks.i, Pa_n. iv, 2,112,Sch.; the fruit of the fig-tree, L.; pla_ks.aprasravan.a name of the place where the Sarasvati_ rises; pla_ks.i, pla_ks.aki, pla_ks.a_yan.a fr. plaks.a TA_r., TBr. Pa_n. iv,1,65,Sch. Plaks.ara (formed to explain plaks.a) caus. Praks.a_rayati to cause to stream forth, pour out, MaitrS. Taittiri_ya A_ran.yaka (8.1.1) pinpoints the location of Kuruks.etra: ...tes.a_m kuruks.etram vedira_si_t tasyai kha_n.d.avo tu_rghnamuttara_rdhah parin.ajjaghana_rdhah mara utkarah...

daks.ina_rdha

a_si_t

The sacrifice performed by the devas used Kuruks.etra as their altar. The kha_n.d.ava (or region near kha_n.d.ava prastha or Indra prastha) constituted the southern half of this altar. Tu_rghna (or Srughna) was its northern half, Parin.at the lower or western half and the Marus or the Marwar desert was its rubbish pit. Parin.at was perhaps the lower part of the Sarasvati_-Dr.s.advati_ doab. (Bharadwaj, O.P., 1991, Ancient Kuruks.etra, New Delhi, Harman Publishing House: p. 8). MBh composed in the cradle of Vedic civilization, refers to the rivers Sarasvati_ and Dr.s.advati_ as the northern and southern boundaries of the holy Kuruks.etra region; a sacred lake called ma_nus.a is said to be located at a distance of one kros’a to the west of the river a_paga_. (MBh. 3.83). The 124

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reference to ma_nus.a may be a reference to the lake Ma_nus.a close to Kuruks.etra,10 kms. west of Kaithal is a place called Mansa. A_paga_ is the a_paya_ of the R.gveda (3.23.4; the hymn composed by r.s.is devas’rava_ and deva_ta of the clan of Bharatas): Va_mana Pura_n.a calls Sarasvati_, kuruks.etra-prada_yini, since she flowed through the region of Kuruks.etra. The yajn~a for the da_rs.advata session has to start near the confluence of river Dr.s.advati_ at Parin.ah. There are many references in S’an:kha_yana S’rauta Su_tra (Varadattasuta A_narti_ya and Govinda, Commentators., Alfred Hillebrandt, ed., 2 vols., Reprint, Delhi, 1981): sarasvatya_ vinas’ane di_ks.a_ sa_rasvata_na_m (13.29.1) prati_pam pu_rven.a paks.asa_ yanti (13.29.11) apyaye dr.s.advatya_h (13.29.14) samvatsare pari_n.ahyagni_na_dha_ya dr.s.advatya_ ti_ren.a_gneyena_s.t.a_kappa_lena s’amya_para_se s’amya_para_se (13.29.29) trih plaks.a_m prati yamuna_mavabhr.thamabhyavayanti (13.29.30)

daks.in.ena yajama_nja aiti

Jaimini_ya Bra_hman.a refers to Parin.ah as the name of a lake in the lower half of Kuruks.etra. tes.a_m u tes.a_m pari_n.aditi kuruks.etrasya jaghana_rdhe saraskandantam di_ks.a_yai te pra_n~co yanti samaya_ kuruks.etram (Raghuvira, ed., Nagpura, 1954: 2.300). La_t.ya_yana S’rauta Su_tra (10.19.1) explains Parin.ah as ‘bhu_merunnataprades’ah’ or risen ground: samvatsara_du_rdhvam pari_n.am na_ma sthali_ kuruks.etre tasya_magni_na_dha_ya This interpretation seems to be confirmed by Ka_tya_yana S’rauta Su_tra (24.6.32): Kuruks.etre parin.ahi sthalegny a_dheyamanv a_rambhan.i_y a_ntam bhavati in Tva? dxe/ vr/ Aa p&i? w/Vya #¦a?yas! p/de sui? dn/Tve Aûa?m! , †/;Ö?Tya/m! manu; ? Aap/yaya
3.023.04 I place you in an excellent spot of earth on an auspicious day of days; do you, Agni, shine on the frequent (banks) of the Dr.s.advati, A_paya_ and Sarasvati_ rivers. [In an excellent spot of earth: pr.thivya_ il.a_yaspade, in the footmark of the earth in the form of a cow; i.e. on the northern altar; frequented banks: ma_nus.e, relating to man or to Manu; implies, manus.yasam.caran.avis.aye ti_re, on a bank, a place frequented by men; the Dr.s.advati_ and Sarasvati_ rivers are well known (r.s.ayo vai sarasvatya_m satrama_sata, the seers performed a sacrificial season on the Sarasvati_; they drove away Kavas.a Ailu_s.a from the soma : Aitareya Bra_hman.a 2.19)]. Va_k is Sarasvati

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Gopatha Bra_hman.a (2.20) states that worship of Sarasvati_ pleases Va_k, because Va_k is Sarasvati_: atha yat sarasvati_m yajati, va_g vai sarasvati_ va_cam eva tena pri_n.a_ti. The very institution of the yajn~a itself which is identified with the gods is also identified with Va_k (TB 1.3.4.5: atho praja_pata_v eva yajn~am pratis.t.ha_payati praja_patir hi va_k; TB 16.5.16: va_g vai sarasvati_ va_g vairu_pam vairu_pam eva smai taya_ yunakti; Sa_yan.a’s commentary: va_k s’abda_tmika_ hi sarasvati_ vairu_pan~ ca va_ksamatutam; Sarasvati_ is speech in the form of sound (s’abda or dhvani); the word ‘ru_pam’ suggests a number of forms of speech; vairu_pam is the object denoted by speech). S’atapatha Bra_hman.a states that Sarasvati_ is speech and speech itself is sacrifice. (S’B 3.1.4.9,14). Sarasva_n is identified with mind and Sarasvati_ with Va_k. (sa_rasvatau tvo tsau pra_vata_m iti mano vai sarasva_n va_k sarasvaty etau: S’B 7.5.1.31; 11.2.4.9, 6.3). Sarasvati_ is pa_viravi_ (RV 2.1.11; AB 3.37); this is interpreted as s’odhayitri_ or as purifying; or, as sound created by a spear or lance (pavi_ra) or Indra’s thunderbolt. [pa_viravi_ = a_yudhavati_]. Sarasvati_’s connection with the mind and the cow (beneficial yield) led her giving full inspiration (dhi_) to compose hymns, and, consequently, she became the goddess of wisdom. (J. Gonda, Pu_s.an and Sarasvati_, p. 10; Book Review, JRAS, 1986, no. 1, pp. 120-21). In the Brahma_n.d.a Pura_n.a (4.7.27), Sarasvati_ is described as one of the nine Ma_tr.kas accompanying Lalita_ in her fight with Bhan.d.a_sura. Sarasvati_ personified as river goddess with apsaras pouring water from the heavens; Cave no. 29, Ellora; Va_ka_t.aka, 5th cent. A.D. [In Cave 6 (Maharwada) of Ellora, there is a female figure with a peacock on her left, a male figure is seen reading; an apparent representation of Sarasvati_ as goddess of learning; on the wall at the south entrance of Cave 8, there is a sculpture of Sarasvati_; descending to the court of Cave 6 by the south staircase, a cave about 37X5 feet has trwo square pillars and pilasters in front; on the backwall, there is a figure of Sarasvati_ holding a rosary]. Bharatiya Civilization dawned on the banks of River Sarasvati. On the banks of this river were composed the Veda which is a continuing tradition in Bharat. The R.gveda is an allegorical account spanning many phenomena: yajn~a, vrata and soma. The Vedic people were yajn~ika and vra_tya. Both processed soma, a process related to a product elaborated in an entire man.d.ala of the R.gveda. The process relates to the purification of electrum (gold-silver compound) ore. Vra_tya were yogi-s. They were artisans, they spoke in mleccha dialect and wrote in mlecchita vikalpa. 126

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The language underlying about 4000 epigraphs of the civilization is mleccha (Meluhha), the language spoken by Yudhis.t.hira and Vidura in the Mahabharata. The writers of these epigraphs and the owners of objects containing these epigraphs were yajn~ika and vra_tya. Many epigraphs relate to furnaces, minerals and metals and metallic products produced and owned by and traded-in by these people across a vast domain stretching from Har-ki-dun valley in Uttaranchal to TigrisEuphrates doab in Mesopotamia. River Sarasvati is adored in the R.gveda and in the Mahabharata. It is dotted with ti_rthastha_na and a_s’rama of many r.s.i-s, the Veda dras.t.a_. Place Name Chandi S’ri Kolayatji Pehoa (Pr.thu_daka) Markanda River Jageri, Bikaner Beas River

R.s.i Cyavana Kapila Vasis.t.ha Ma_rkan.d.eya Ya_jn~avalkya, S’aunaka Vis’vamitra

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Vidya_devi Sarasvati Presiding deity of Vidya_-mandira established by Bhoja, the ruler of Parama_ra dyanasty of Dha_ra_, Ma_lawa (who reigned from 1018-10060 A.D. The king is said to have founded a Sanskrit College within the temple dedicated to Sarasvati_.) Now displayed as Stuart Bridge Collection (No.84); British Museum. Parama_ra, 1034 A.D. with a late na_gari inscription. She is standing in tribhanga pose, is bejewelled; has four arms; a garland is held in her left upper hand and a manuscript is held in her left lower hand. Five ji_nas are carved seated on the upper part of the black slab; an apparent indication that the image depicts the Jaina goddess of learning. On the base are two female attendants and a squatting worshipper on either side; to the right, a male and to the left, a female, perhaps representing the donors. The base of the image has an inscription in na_gari mentioning that it was made by the sculptor Manthala in 1034 A.D. She is stgated to be the protectress of the sixth Ti_rtha_nkara Padmaprabha. The eight anklets worn on her two ankles are reminiscent of the anklets worn by the bronze image unearthed in Mohenjo-daro dated ca. 2750 B.C. The inscription is read byh KN Dikshit (ASI) as follows: “On Sri_mad Bhoja narendra chandra nagari_ vidyadhari (?) romonadhih nama Sa* Sma* khalu Sukham (pra* pya na) ya_ psara_h Va_gdevi_ (m) pratima(m) vidha_ya janani yasya_-rjji (tanam trayi)***phaladhika_m dhara (sarin) murttim subham nirmmame iti subham//sutrodh ra-sahira-suta mana thalena ghatitam//vi tika sivadevena likhitam iti san 1091” (Translation: Om the Vidyadhari of the town Bhoja, the moon among kings** having first made the mother goddess speech*** great in fruit*** created the auspicious image. This was made by Manathala, the son of the craftsman Sahira. Written by Sivadeva, in the Samvat year 1091). The legacy and perpetuated memory of the Sarasvati River across many generations, unites the peoples of Bharat, right from pre-historic times in an unbroken, continuous sequence as evidenced by the archaeological finds consistent with the literary, epigraphic and other textual references. Location of Va_lmi_ki A_s’rama on the banks of River Tamasa Ra_ma_yan.a 2.65.5 describes Bharata’s route from Kekaya (capital: Rajagriha), after visiting his uncle Yudhajit, back to Ayodhya. Bharata crossed the confluence of Ganga and Sarasvati and entered the Bharudna forest. The very next s’loka (Ra_ma_yan.a 2.65.6) describes Yamuna as surrounded by mountains (’Parvatavrta’’). Thus the references in the Ra_ma_yan.a clearly refer to the Tamasa-Sarasvati-Yamuna in close proximity in the Himalayan mountains. Kekaya kingdom may be located in Kashmir, thus making Bharata’s journey returning from Rajagriha to Ayodhya as from north to south-east crossing the Tamasa-Sarasvati, Yamuna and Ganga rivers. The riverbank of Tamasa (Tons), is not far-off from River Jahnavi i.e., river Ganga. Some time after Narada left, Va_lmi_ki went to the river Ganga to bathe. A disciple by name Bharadwaja was with him carrying his clothes. On the way they came across the Tamasa (Tons) Stream. The water in it was very clear. Va_lmi_ki said to his disciple, "Look, how clear is this water, like the mind of a good man ! I will bathe here today." [Va_lmi_ki Ra_ma_yan.a - Bala Kanda in Prose Sarga 2]. 128

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The A_s’rama should be close to Yamunotri and Naitwar, en route to Har-ki-dun valley where the river Tamasa (Sarasvati tributary) originated from Rupin-Supin glaciers in Svargarohin.i himalayan peak (Bandarpunch massif). As the crow flies, the Gangotri glacier, the Yamunotri glacier and the Rupin-Supin (Sarasvati) glaciers are approximately within a distance of 20 kms. from one another. Svarga_rohin.i, Bandarpunch Massif, Uttaranchal, Himalayas; Har-ki-dun valley inhabited by Parvatis (who adore Duryodhana as a god)Har-ki-Doon, where the Tamasa (Tons) River originates from Rupin glacier, as a tributary of Sarasvati River is 20 kms. from Netwar and 20 kms. fromYamunotri. In Har-ki-dun valley live a people called Parvati-s who have an annual mela celebrating Duryodhana! thus attesting the historicity of the Maha_bha_rata.

The origin of the Palaeo-Saraswati lies at 5 km south - west of Naitwar. Situated on the confluence of the Rupin and the Tamasa (Tons) rivers, the former emerging out of the Rupin Glacier and the latter emerging out of the Glacier named 'Saraswati Glacier' by Puri. 'The Saraswati Glacier was 58.8 km in length that possessed an average width of 3.5 km, covering an area of 205.8 km.' From Naitwar the Palaeo-Saraswati, same as modern Tamasa (Tons), flowed for 40 km in southwesterly direction where it met another glacier-fed river called 'Pabbar', after the name of the glacier. From here the Palaeo-Saraswati took a southerly route and travelled for 100 km before entering the region of Paonta Doon. It is here that the Palaeo-Saraswati joined the Algar, the Yamuna and the Giri rivers coming to Paonta Doon from northwesterly region. From here 'it took a course that is aligned along south of Kalsi, Garibnath, Paonta and Bata valley, i.e, west to south-westerly direction and flowed over the raised and filled platform of the Siwaliks.' In the third and last stage, when the PalaeoSaraswati reached the Bata valley, it took the southwesterly swing and 'entered the plains through Adh Badri'. Archaeological evidence of the settlement sites on the banks of the Sarasvati River indicates the possibility of migrations away from the banks of the river between ca. 1900 to 1500 BCE (i.e. 3,900 to 3,500 years B.P.) and seems to correlate with environmental changes analysed using lithological data and water levels in different strata in the Lunkaransar and Didwana lakes. The desiccation of the Sarasvati River and the changes in climatic conditions were perhaps the principal causes for the abandonment of the ancient settlements of the civilization which had been nourished by the glacial waters of Sarasvati River and the freshwaters of the lakes between ca. 3500 and 1000 B.C. (i.e. 5,500 to 3,000 B.P.) 129

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Climate: 7000-10,000 BP Increase in rainfall at 8000 BP. Advent of wet phase. Freshwater conditions begin at 9500 BP. Lakes start filling up. Wet phase continues till 4000 BP Onset of aridity. Lakes start drying up and salinity increases at 3700 Sources: Allchin et al 1978; Bryson and Swain 1981; Kaale and Deotare, 1997; Singh et al 1972, 1974; Swain et al. 1983; Sharma and Chauhan, 1991; Wasson et al. 1983; Ahmad, 1986; Kar, 1988; Pandya, 1967; Sridhar et al. 1997b, 1999. The banks of the river are also dotted with over 2,000 archaeological sites of a civilization – the Sarasvati Civilization, the cultural traditions of which continue even into the present day Bharat. Manasarovar glacier. The parikrama is 120 kms. The ancient courses of this river have been fully traced over a course of 1,600 kms. from Manasarovar in the Himalayas to Somnath (Prabhas Patan) in Gujarat. The desiccation of this river was a traumatic event caused by plate tectonics and resultant migrations of tributary and anchorage rivers. Migration of S’utudri (Sutlej) westwards and of Yamuna eastwards resulted in Yamuna carrying the waters of Sarasvati to join Ganga to constitute the Triven.i san:gamma cherished as a tradition and celebrated every 12 years as a Maha_kumbhamel.a. The memories of Sarasvati are so intense in Bharatiya tradition that 42 rivers are named as Sarasvati as noted in the topo maps of Survey of India. A tributary river of Kubha (River Kabul) also gets this name: haraxvaiti, just as a river joining the Little of Rann of Kutch originating from the mountains of Mt. Abu (Aravalli ranges), not far from Pus.kar in Rajasthan, is also called Sarasvati. Sarasvati is cherished in the spiritual traditions of Bharat honouring the ancestors, pitr.-s. Just as Gaya is called pitr.-gaya, Siddhapura in Gujarat and Pehoa (called Pr.thu_daka in Mahabharata) in Haryana are called ma_tr.-gaya. At these pilgrim centers, s’ra_ddha ceremonies are performed by pilgrims in memory of the ancestral mothers. River Sarasvati is thus called ambitame, nadi_tame, devitame (best of mothers, best of rivers and best of divinities) in the R.gveda. She had attained the stature of a divinity even in R.gvedic times. She is celebrated as the divinity of water, divinity of arts and crafts, divnity of va_k (speech), divinity of jn~a_na, wisdom and learning.

The accounts presented relate to the period between 4th and 2nd millennia – a time span of two millennia from circa 3300 BCE to 1500 BCE. This was the period which witnessed the Mahabharata war on the banks of River Sarasvati, the dawn and evolution of a civilization phasing from chalcolithic to the bronze age. Since the civilization was essentially riverine and maritme, the waterways provided by the Rivers Sarasvati, Sindhu, Tigris, Euphrates, Gulf of Kutch, Persian Gulf, Gulf of Khambat, provided the resources available: s’ankha (turbinella pyrum), chalcedony, agate and other colourful stones which could be worked on by lapidaries to make beads and ornaments, copper of Khetri mines and prospecting for tin and other alloying minerals such as zinc and arsenic which created bronze, bell-metal and brass as hard metals. The process of alloying constituted a revolutionary advance in technology. It resulted in the manufacture of hard tools to clear jungles, to use ploughshares to support organized farming, sickles to harvest crops, axes, saws, adzes and 130

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chisels to cut and work on wood and stone. S’ankha industry which began circa 6500 BCE as evidenced by the finds of wide bangles and other shell ornaments in the grave of a woman continues to the present day in Gulf of Khambat and Gulf of Mannar (ki_r..akkarai, Tiruchendur). S’ankha becomes a spiritual tradition since a s’ankha trumpet is carried as an a_yudha by Kr.s.n.a and is called Pa_n~cajanya, lit. of the five peoples. A_yudha_ni (weapons) which adorn the mu_rti-s of divinities in the a_gama tradition is an adoration of the metallurgical tradition which created property. The tradition of recording epigraphs on copper plates, which started in Sarasvati Civilization, continues into the historical periods to record property transactions. The lapidaries and the smiths (kavi, according to the R.gveda and Avestan tradition) who alone had the competence to inscribe on weapons themselves, apart from objects such as copper plates become the early vra_tyas who could create the epigraphs for recording property items owned and traded – items such as furnaces, minerals, metals and metal products – tools and weapons. The vra_tya emerge as ra_janya in the historical periods and constitute the framers of the Bha_rata ra_s.t.ra, referred to as Bha_ratam Janam by R.s.i Vis’va_mitra in the R.gveda. The decoding of the epigraphs is presented in this perspective of technological advances made through the use of fire – of furnaces and kilns to smelt/melt mineral ores and through the use of cire perdue techniques of sculpting in bronze. The ability to cut into rock to create a water-reservoir of massive dimensions evidenced in Dholavira explains the creation of man-made caves in many parts of Bharat during the historical periods, exemplified by the caves of Ellora and Ajanta as architectural marvels and by the gabarbands on River Sindhu and anicut on River Kaveri. The underlying language, mleccha resulting in the mlecchita vikalpa, cipher writing (of epigraphs of the civilization) yields a paradigm-shift in our understanding of the early languages of Bharat. During the days of the civilization, i.e. between 3300 BCE (emergence of Harappa) and 1500 BCE (submergence of Dwaraka) within the Sarasvati drainage basin of north-west Bharat, there was a linguistic area, a dialectical continuum which ranged from Nahali of Tapati River basin to Maithili of Ganga basin, from Tamil of Tamraparn.i river basin to Santali of Mahanadi basin, from Kashmiri of Ravi River to Sindhi of River Sindhu basin. The thousands of lexemes of all Bharatiya languages provide the basis for reconstructing the gloss of this dialectical continuum, this linguistic area, unraveling the glyphs used on epigraphs as rebus lexemes. The Egyptian hieroglyphs were glyptic representation of syllables, the Sarasvati hieroglyphs were glyptic representation of both phonetics and semantics of lexemes.

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Dilmun, Magan, and sea-faring merchants of Meluhha = shakes (OMarw.) (CDIAL 14121). Hillo = a jerk, a shake; a push; a shock; hello = a jolting of a carriage (G.) helao = to move, drive in (Santali). The semantics, ‘rocking to and fro’ and ‘wave’ point to sailing on high seas. This is authenticated by a Tamil lexeme: e_le_lo = a word that occurs again and again in songs sung by boatmen or others while pulling or lifting together; e_le_lan- = name of a Chola king; e_lappa_t.t.u = boatmen’s song in which the words e_lo_, e_le_lo occur again and again (Ta.lex.) This leads to a possible interpretation of some of the mlecchas, who shout, ‘he ‘lavo, he ‘lavo’, as ‘sea-farers’ and is consistent with the evidence of economic texts from Mesopotamia which point to extensive trade relations with ‘meluhha’, which is generally equated with the Indic civilization area.

Dilmun, Magan, Meluhha are three regions which had traded with Mesopotamia (After PRS Moorey, 1994)

Alfred Hillebrandt argues that the degradation of the term asura- (from its basic meaning ‘lord’ to the meaning of ‘evil spirit’) occurred because of the encounters between Indians and Iranians after their separation, but before Zarathus’tra’s reform. He adds that the phrase he ‘lavo attributed to the asuras in the S’atapatha Bra_hman.a indicates that Indian enemies from the east are also included among asuras, since this phrase would be a Prakrit form from that area. (Alfred Hillebrandt, Vedische Mythologie, 3 vols., Breslau, Verlag von M. and H. Marcus, 1902, vol 2., p. 440). The following Indic etyma may explain the use of the term he ‘layo: halla_ = tumult, noise (P.Ku.N.B.Or.H.); halphal = shaking, undulation (A.)(CDIAL 14017). Hallana = tossing about (Skt.); hallai – moves (Pkt.); alun = to shake (K.) ale, alaku = to shake (Ka.)(CDIAL 14003; 14918). Hillo_la = wave (Skt.); hillo_layati = swings, rocks (Dha_tup.); hilorna_ = to swing, rock to and fro (H.); hilolai

S.C.Roy notes that Mun.d.as have a tradition that India was previously occupied by a metalusing people called Asuras. One tribe of the Mun.d.a group are called Asuras today. (Rai Bahadur S.C. Roy, The Asuras—ancient and modern, The Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society, 12, 1926, 147). This analysis is consistent with the characterization of asurawith creative activity. Considering the seafaring merchants of Indic civilization had traded in metals and ores over an extensive area and the evolution of the bronze-age, ca. 3500 B.C. in the region with the invention of alloying copper with tin to yield bronze and manufacture of hardened metallic weapons and tools, the dominant ‘lordship’ of the civilization would have rested with the people with asuric or creative capabilities, who were later identified as a group of people called ‘asuras’.

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Networks that connected from Meluhha (Bharat) during the Harppan Period (2600-2000 BCE) with their hinterlands – Sarasvati and Sindhu River Basins and distant resource mobilization and trading areas [After Kenoyer, 1998] which find many cognates in Marathi, Gujarati Vedic age was a peaceful age and the devas and Kurukh languages; these verily constitute respected the asuras as their neighbours; the substram Pra_kr.ts which influenced Vedic indeed, the devas even worshipped the asuras Sanskrit with words such as khala (threshing for their superior power: floor), la_n:gala (plough)..

H. Skold argued that asura could not have been derived from as’s’ur. If the derivation were true, the s’ in as’s’ur should appear in Sanskrit as s’ and in Avestan as s, not as the s and h we have in asura- and ahura-.(Hannes Skold, Were the Asuras Assyrians? The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Socierty of Great Britain and Ireland, April 1924, pp. 265-7). Von Bradke suggested that asura- could derive from as, ‘to be’, or ans, ‘to support’, perhaps the latter. (P.von Bradke, Beitrage zur altindischen Religions – und Sprach-geschichte, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, 40, 1886, 3478). Polome connects as’s’ura with Hittite has’s’us, which means king. (E.Polome, L’etymologie due terme germanique *ansuz

yatha_ deva_ asures.u s’raddha_m ugres.u cakrire (RV 10.151.3) “Just as the devas rendered faithful worship to the powerful asuras…” Two views of the formation of North Dravidian. are elucidated by Elfenbein, J.H., 1987, A periplous of the ‘Brahui problem’, Studia Iranica, 16; pp. 215-33. A pattern of separation of the Brahuis is suggested consistent with the suggestion earlier made by Jules Block that the Brahuis came to Baluchistan from South or Central India where other cognate languages were spoken. The vocabulary of Brahui is strongly influenced by Sindhi and Siraiki with substrate Indic words 133

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‘dieu soverain’, Etude Germanique, 8, 1953, 41). Schlerath analyzes asura as as-ura and derives Avestan ahu- and ahura-, Indic asura-, Hittite has’s’u and Latin erus from reconstructed root *axs- meaning ‘beget’. (Bernfried Schlerath, Altindisch asu-, Awestisch ahu- und a_hnlich klingende Worter, in: Pratida_nam: Indian, Iranian and IndoEuropean Studies presented to Franciscus Bernardus Jacobus Kuiper on his Sixtieth Birthday, ed., by J.C. Heesterman, G.H. Schoker, and V.I. Subramoniam, The Hague, Mouton, 1968, p. 146). Hale proposes an alternative to Schlerath’s etymology by suggesting an Indo-European *Hesu- from which came Avestan ahu- ‘lord’ and Hittite has’s’u ‘king’ and an Indo-Iranian derivative of this word, *asura- from which Avestan ahuraand Vedic asura- derive.. (Wash Edward Hale, opcit., p. 36). Hale’s argument is not convincing; if *Hesu- could have yielded Hittite has’s’u, Vedic asura- could also have yielded the Hittite has’s’u and Assyrian as’s’ura. Such a straight-forward VedicAvestan route may also explain the presence of Sanskrit lexemes in Kikkuli’s horse training manual, Indic names among the names of Mitanni kings and Vedic deities named in the Mitanni treaty. A validation of this hypothesis can be made by tracing the so-called Dravidian lexemes in R.gveda and identifying concordant Avestan glosses.

endings and personal endings are more perfecdt in the oldest language than in later Sanskrit.” ((Maurice Winternitz, 1907, Geschichte der Indischen Literatur, tr. A History of Indian Literature, 1981, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 35-36). There is undoubtedly close relationship between the language of the Veda and the Indo-Iranian basic language as evidenced by the earlier texts related to the Avestan language which evolved into the Ancient Persian of cuneiform inscriptions and the Ancient Bactrian of the Avesta. The work of Prof. Witzel is titled “Substrate Languages in Old Indo-Aryan” and appeared in the Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies, Vol. 5, 1999, Issue I (September). The following extracts are from the this work taken from the internet web pages: Language of the Indus People: mleccha There is no evidence, whatsoever, that the Munda influenced directly the Avestan. On the contrary, there are many words in the R.gveda which can be traced to the Munda-Dravidian substrate. The Avestan words cognate with the Rigvedic are explainable as derived from the Vedic language which included the ParaMunda substrates in the earliest Vedic period in the region which came to be called Bharatavars.a. The pura_n.ic and epic age was an era of cultural fusion. “Intermarriages between the two tribes (devas and asuras) continues unchecked. Bhi_ma married Hidimba_, the son, born of their union, Ghat.otkaca fought on behalf of the Pa_n.d.avas in the Kuruks.etra battle. Aniruddha, the grandson of Va_sudeva married Us.a_, the daughter of Ba_n.a_sura. Pururava_’s son A_yu married the daughter of Svarbha_nu, an asura. Not only the inter-tribal marriages was acceptable, even the earlier Brahmanical law-givers went to the extent of including the custom of Asura form of marriage into their law-books and called Asura marriage. In such marriage, the bride was bought from her father by paying bride price (A_s’vala_yana

The linguistic arguments favouring the hypothesis that Vedic language was an indigenous evolution in India come from a recent (1999) work by Prof. Witzel of Harvard University. Winternitz had noted earlier as follows: “The vedic language differs from Sanskrit almost not at all in its phonetic content but in its greater antiquity especially by a richer stock of grammatical forms. Thus for example, Ancient Indian has a subjunctive which is lacking in Sanskrit; it has a dozen different infinitive endings of which there is only one left behind in Sanskrit. The aorist forms, plentifully represented in the Vedic language disappear more and more in Sanskrit. The case134

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Gr. S. 1.6; Baudha_yana Dharma S. 1.35; Gautama Dharma S. 4.12; Manusmr.ti 3.31). The Vasis.t.ha Dharma Su_tra (1.35) recognizes such marriage belonging to Manus.a form. Though other sacred texts look on it with disfavour, the Arthas’a_stra (3.2.10) allows it without criticism: pitr.prama_n.a_s’ catva_rah pu_rve dharmya_h ma_tr.pitr.prama_n.a_h s’es.a_h. As for instance the marriage of Das’aratha of Ra_ma_yan.a and Pa_n.d.u of Maha_bha_ratta may be taken. Das’aratha of Ayodhya_ married Kaikeyi_and their son was illustrious Bharata. The sister of S’alya namely Ma_dri_ was united with Pa_n.d.u on payment of heavy bride price (MBh. 1.105.45)…Pura_n.as…Yaya_ti married S’armis.t.ha_, the daughter of the Asura king Vr.s.aparva_ and had three sons namely Druhyu, Anu and Puru. Because of his affiliation with the mother’s side, Puru was called an Asura…matriarchal nature of Asura society…the celebrated Brahminical myth of the churning of the oceasn is a popular ojne, where the Asuras seize the ambrosia, churned out of the ocean before the gods took possession of it…”. (Upendranath Dhal, Mahis.a_sura in Art and Thought, 1991, Delhi, Eastern Book Linkers, p.27).

expansion in India, JBROS, XII.2, June 1926, pp. 243-285; II Asura expansion by sea, JBROS, XII.3, Sept. 1926, pp. 334-360; V Asura Institutions, JBROS, XII.4, December 1926, pp. 503-539). The settlements of Assur or Asura in Magadha or South Bihar are noted. (D.R. Bhandarkar, Aryan Immigrants into Eastern India, ABORI, XII.2, 1931, pp. 103116). A comprehensive survey of the texts from the R.gveda and Bra_hman.as is used to analyse the meaning of the term ‘asura’ as lord, leader and as corroborated by Iranian mythology. It is noted that the terms asura and deva are both used to qualify the same Vedic deity—for example, Indra, Varun.a, Mitra, Agni, while the Iranian works recognize ‘asura’ as divine and ‘daeva’ as demoniac. (Wash E. Hale, Asura in Early Vedic Religion, Ph.D. Dissertation, Harvard University, 1980; Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1986). An anthropological perspective identifies the asura as a scheduled tribe of Netarhat plateau of Chotanagpur, Bihar and surveys their customs, rites, economic and social conditions. (K.K.Leuva, The Asur—A Study of Primitive Iron Smelters, New Delhi, Bharatiya Adimjati Sevak Sangh, 1963). Asuric culture through the ages is attempted, as a fusion of cultures. (K.P. Chattopadhyaya, The Ancient Indian Culture Contacts and Migrations, 1970, Calcutta, Firma KL Mukhopadhyaya). The dominance, in ancient times, of Asuras in extensive areas of Africa and Eurasia is emphasized. (K.L. Jain Vasasiya, Indian Asuras Colonised Europe, 1990, Delhi, Itihas Vidya Prakashan). The myths related to the Asura Bali-Va_mana, as a benevolent king and as a devotee of S’iva, is presented. (G.C. Tripathi, Der Ursprung und die Entwicklung der Vaman-Legende in der indischen Literatur, 1968, Wiesbaden, Otto Harrassowitsz). The mythology of Bali is also presented. (Clifford Hospital, The Righteous Demon—A Study of Bali, 1984, Vancouver, University of British Columbia). Mahis.a as a leader of Asuras in the context of the mythology of Mahis.a_suramardini is presented. In an evaluation of the genesis of the concept of Asura, it is noted the Ashur Marduk, the

As’ur (Akkadian) has, by the nineteenth century BC, been recognized as the national god of Assyria. In political terms, he bestowed the scepter and the crown and blessed the Assyrians. (Tikva Frymerkensky, Ashur, Encyclopaedia of Religion, Vol. I, Ed. M. Eliade, pp. 461 ff.) The enmity of Asuras with the gods is noted. (Brown, W.Norman, Proselytizing the Asuras: A noteor R.gveda 10.12, Journal of the American Oriental Society, 39, Part 2, 1919, pp. 100-103). Historicity of the Asuras is evaluated and Asuras are described as immigrants from Assyria and were the builders of the Harappan culture. As’ur the deity was symbolized by a winged diSkanda The As’ur people were renowned for magic, medicine, sculpture, architecture and military prowess. (A.Banerji Sastri, The Asuras in Indo-Iranian Literature, JBROS, XI.1, March 1926, pp. 110-139; Asura 135

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p&/wU rwae/ di]?[aya Ayae/Jy! @en
supreme deity of Babylonian pantheon was adopted as Ahur Mazda by the Persians after occupying Assyria.. (Upendranath Dhal, Mahis.a_sura in Art and Thought, 1991, Delhi, Eastern Book Linkers).

ASwu> , k«/:[adœ %dœ A?Swadœ A/yaR ivha?ya/z! icik?TsNtI/ manu; ? ay/ ]ya?y . 1.123.01 The spacious chariot of the graceful (dawn) has been harnessed; the immortal gods have ascended it; the noble and all-pervading Us.a_ has risen up from the darkness, bringing health to human habitations. [daks.in.a_ya_h = of the clever one; she who is skilled in her own function, svavya_pa_ra-kus'ala; bringing health: cikitsanti, healing, remedying the malady of darkness].

The following Dravidian lexemes are concordant with the semantics of a_rih, [cf. O.Ir. aire = nobleman]. To cite Mayrhofer: “To trace back the name of Aryans in IndoGermanic time is not plausible, as the word evidently represents only an inner-aryan evolution which is based in a_rih. O.Ir. aire, nobleman is to be kept away according to Thumeysen.” (M.Mayrhofer, Kurzgefasstes etymologisches worterbuch des altindischen, Heidelberg. 1953-77, Vol. I, p. 52). ar_an_ = sacrificer; ar_aviya virtuous; ar_aviya_n- = virtuous man; ar-avan- one who is virtuous, god, Buddha; ascetic; ar-am = moral or religious duty, virtue, dharma, Yama (Ta.); ara, ar-u virtue, charity, alms, law, dharma, Yama (Ka.); ar-am = law, dharma (Ma.)(DEDR 311). Grassman translates a_rya as: 1. good, kind, gracious, friendly which is said of gods, godly beings, of the singer presenting the offerings; 2. true, produce (yield etc.), stranger (from the meaning opposed to godly); 3. stranger (of the songs). (H. Grassmann, Worterbuch zum Rigveda, Wiesbaden: O. Harrassowitz, 1955, col. 115). Naighan.t.u explains arya as master, lord (Pa_n. iii.i.103). Grassman (ibid., p. 183), connects the root a_r to praise, extol, commend (Geldner: erkennen; cf. RV. VIII.16.6; RV 10.48.3). The Dravidian lexemes cognate with the semantics of a_r: a_r to shout (Ta.); a.r(a.t-) to call (Ko.); a_r, a_rcu to cry aloud (Ka.); ara- to moo, make loud hoarse noise (Kod.); a_rbat.a a joyful cry, triumph (Tu.); a_rcu to cry aloud, shout (Te.); a_r to sound (as bell etc.)(Pa.); a_rpa to shout (Kond.a); to call (Kui); a_rh’nai to invite (Kuwi)(DEDR 367).

Mayrhofer rejects Wust’s suggestion aht the term a_rih is comparable with Lat. Ara_re, ploughman. (M.Mayrhofer, Kurzgefasstes etymologisches worterbuch des altindischen, Heidelberg. 1953-77, Vol. I, p. 79). The Dravidian lexemes which are consistent with the seamntics of ‘plough’ are: araka a plough with bullocks etc. complete (Ta.); are a plough (Ma.)(DEDR 198). A possible link with the semantics of a herdsman are seen in lexemes: a.r.yeka.m head cattle-boy (Ko.); a_reku~_d.u a watchman (Te.); a_raike, a_re_kti care of, oprotection (Tu.); a_rayu, arayu to think, search (Te.); a_ra_y to seek (Ta.)(DEDR 377). Mayrhofer, however, while noting the Iranian parallel Av. airya_, OP ariya, a_rya, derives the terms arya (good, true, strange) and a_rya (also, a_ria) from aryah = lord, hospitable lord; master of the house. The terms arya and a_rya occur 68 times in the R.gveda. (H. Grassmann, Worterbuch zum Rig-veda, Wiesbaden: O. Harrassowitz, 1955, cols. 115-116 and 185-86). iv/Tv]?[>/

sm&t ? aE

c³mas/jae

=?suNvtae/

iv;u[ ? >

suNv/tae v&/x> , #NÔae/ ivñ?Sy dim/ta iv/-I;?[ae ywav/z< n?yit/ das/m!

In RV 1.123.1, arya_ is explained by Sa_yan.a as noble; Geldner interprets the term as kind, favourable.

AayR>? . 5.034.06 Thinning (his enemies) in battle, and accelerating the wheels (of his car), he turns 136

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away from him who offers no libation, and augments (the prosperity of) the offerer; Indra, the subduer of all, the formidable, the lord, conducts the Da_sa at his pleasure.

is translated as the Aryan nations. [J. Darmesteter, The Zend Avesta, Part I, Oxford, Sacred Books of the East IV, 1880; In Yas’t V.69, there is a legend related to Jama_spa who sees the enemy’s army advancing to battle. He pleads with Ana_hita to guide him to victory as also all the other Arians (airya)]. Another phrase used is airyo s’ayana (Yas’t X.13) (explained as ‘Arian lands or homestead’). In Yas’t XIII.87, Ahura Mazda creates ‘the race of all Arian regions, the seed of all Aryan lands’.

Powerful in fight, stopping the wheel, the opponent of non-pressing one, the strengthener of the pressing one, compeller of everyone, frightening, Indra, the a_rya leads the da_s as he wills. (Geldner) Aa p/Kwasae? -la/nsae? -n/Ntail?nasae iv;a/i[n>? iz/vas>? ,

s ih ³tu>/ s myR>/ s sa/xurœ im/Çae n -U/dœ AÑ‚t ? Sy

Aa yae =?nyt! sx/ma AayRS ? y g/Vya t&Tsu_? yae

r/wI> ,

Ajgn! yu/xa n¨n! .

tm! mex; e? u àw/m< dev ? /yNtI/rœ ivz/ %p? äuvte d/Smm!

7.018.07 Those who dress the oblation, those who pronounce auspicious words, those who abstain from penance, those who bear horns (in their hands), those who bestow happiness (on the world by sacrifice), glorify that Indra, who recovered the cattle of the Arya from the plunderers, who slew the enemies in battle. [Those who dress: Denominations of the persons assisting at religious rites are: 1. paktha_sah, havis.am pa_cakah, cooks of the butter offered in oblation; 2. bhala_nasah, bhadra va_cinah, speakers of that which is lucky; 3. alina_sah, tapobhir apravr.ddhah, not eminent by austerities; 4. vis.a_n.inah, having black horns in their hands for the purpose of scratching kan.d.uyana_rtham, the same as di_ks.itah, having undergone the preliminary purification called di_ks.a; 5. s'iva_sah, ya_ga_dina_ sarvasya lokasya s'ivakarah, the makers happy of all people by sacrifice and the like].

AarI>? . 1.077.03 For he is the performer of rites, he is the destroyer and reviver (of all things), and, like a friend he is the donor of unattained wealth; all men reverencing the gods, and approaching the well-looking Agni, repeat his name first in holy rites. [marya and sa_dhu = destroyer and reviver; or, killer or extirpator of all and the producer]. [vis’a a_ri_h = clans)

These people, i.e. Pakthas, Bhala_nasas, Alinas and Vis.a_nins named themselves as his good friends. The feast companion of the A_rya (a_ryah) who led his men in the battle has come to help out of longing fot the cows of Tr.tsu. [Here Indra is the a_rya]. (Geldner).

Ôiv[ae/dam!.

He is the insight, he is the young man, he is an excellent creature, he is the wonderful leader (insight?). Him the master, the divinely devoted Arya clans, call first the devoted Arya clans in the sacrifice. (Geldner). tm! $?¦t àw/m< y?}/sax

pu/Çm!

-?r/t<

s&/àda?nu<

de/va

A/i¶<

xa?ryn!

1.096.03 Approaching him,let all men adore Agni, the chief (of the gods), the accomplisher of sacrifices, who is gratified by oblations and propitiated by praises--the offspring of food, the sustainer of (all men), the giver of continual gifts; the gods retain Agni as the giver of (sacrificial) wealth. [prathama = lit. the first;

In Avestan, Yas’t, the compound term used is: airya dainha_vo_ (Yas’t VIII.9.56) This phrase 137

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here, mukhya, chief (of the gods)]. [The term used is: vis’a a_ri_h = of the Aryas, Aryas].

seven rivers; or, on the shores of the seven seas].

The A_ryan clans (vis’a a_ri_h) called him as the first, sacrificial director, poured in (with butter), the prominent one, the sun of power, the Bharata which has got wide gifts. (Geldner).

The term dasyu is used in RV. 6.18.3, 7.5.6, 2.11.18, 1.51.8 with the possible connotation of ‘people in general or inhabitants who are associated together in a place’. Some of the epithets associated with dasyu are: abrahman (RV 4.16.9, without prayer), avrata (RV 1.51.8; 175.3; 6.14.3; 9.41.2, without vows), anyavrata (RV. 8.70.11, with different vows), apavrata (RV 5.42.9, with bad vows), ayajvan (RV 8.70.11, not sacrificing); ayajyu (RV 7.6.3, not sacrificing).

y \]a/dœ A<h?sae mu/cdœ yae vayaRt ? ! s/Ý isNxu; ? u, vx?rœ da/sSy? tuivn&M[ nInm> . 8.024.27 (He it is) who rescues men from the wickedness of evil beings, who enriches (the dwellers) on the seven rivers; now hurl, you who abound in wealth, your weapon at the Da_sa. [Dwelleres on the seven rivers: sapta sindhus.u, i.e. the dwellers on the banks of the seven rivers; or, on the shores of the seven seas].

Tve A?su/y¡ vs?vae/ Ny! \{v/n! ³tu
You who protected us out of the danger from the bear, or you who turned away the weapons from the a_ryas in the seven streamed land of the da_sas, you courageous one. (Geldner).

7.005.06 Reverencer of friends, Agni, th Vasus have concentrated vigour in you; they have been propitiated by your acts; generating vast splendour for the Arya, do you, Agni, expel the Dasyus from the dwelling.

This hymn attests that the da_sa as well as Indra inhabited the region of the seven rivers (Sapta Sindhu or Avestan: Hapta Hindu). This is the airya dainha_vo_ (Yas’t VIII.9.56) (the Aryan nations). Avestan dakhyuma, da_khyuuma was the name of a deity of a land. Cognate lexemes are: dasma, dasra denoting accomplishment of wonderful deeds. (Ch.Bartholomae, Altiranisches Worterbuch, Berlin, 1925 (?), Col. 706-711; derived from dan:h; cf. Kanga, An Avesta-English-Gujarati Dictionary, Bombay).

Tv< h/ nu Tydœ A?dmayae/ dSyU/@k>? k«/òIrœ A?vnae/rœ AayaRy ? , AiSt? iSv/n! nu vI/y¡ tt! t? #NÔ/ n iSv?dœ AiSt/ tdœ \?tu/wa iv vaec ? > .

6.018.03 You are he who has quickly humbled the Dasyus; you are the chief one who has given posterity to the Arya;but, Indra, is not verily your power such? If it be not, then in due season confess. [Not beholding Indra, the r.s.i began to question his attributes and power; next verse explains his belief in these attributes and power].

y \]a/dœ A<h?sae mu/cdœ yae vayaRt ? ! s/Ý isNxu; ? u, vx?rœ da/sSy? tuivn&M[ nInm> . 8.024.27 (He it is) who rescues men from the wickedness of evil beings, who enriches (the dwellers) on the seven rivers; now hurl, you who abound in wealth, your weapon at the Da_sa. [Dwelleres on the seven rivers: sapta sindhus.u, i.e. the dwellers on the banks of the

ix/:va

zv>?

zUr/

yen?

v&/Çm!

A/vai-?n/dœ

danum ? !

AaE[Rva/-m! ,

138

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Apa?v&[ae/rœ Jyaeit/rœ AayaRy ? / in s?Vy/t> sa?id/ dSyur? œ

perform no religious rites, compel them to submit to the performer of sacrifices; be you, who are powerful, the encourager of the sacrificer; I am desirous of celebrating all your deeds in ceremonies that give you satisfaction. [A_ryas are those who practise religious rites;Dasyus do not observe religious ceremonies and inimical to those who do].

#NÔ .

2.011.18 Indra, hero, keep up the strength wherewith you have crushed Vr.tra, the spiderlike son of Da_nu, and let open the light to the A_rya; the Dasyu has been set aside on your left hand. [The spider-like son of Da_nu: da_num aurn.ava_bham: aurn.ava_bham = aurn.ana_bham; aurn.a = a spider; a_bha = resembling].

There are thousands of microlithic sites in India and neighbouring regions and the areas of the substrate languages of Naha_li, Irul.a, Vedda and Rodiya (After Schwartzberg, Joseph, ed.,1978, A historical atlas of South Asia, Chicago; loc. cit., Parpola, 1994, Fig. 8.9) It is likely that many lexemes of the Pra_kr.ts were derived from the hundreds of such languages which should have constituted the substratum of the Linguistic Area in Indic protohistory.

iv ja?nI/ý! AayaR/n! ye c/ dSy?vae b/ihR:m?te rNxya/ zas?dœ Aì/tan! , zakI?

-v/

yj?manSy

caeid/ta

ivñet!

ta

te?

sx/made; ? u cakn .

1.051.08 Discriminate between the A_ryas and they who are Dasyus; restraining those who

139

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From Sarasvati to Haraquaiti

Haraquaiti near Kandahar and Mundigak, joining the Haetumant (Hilmand) river; archaeological sites in Arachosia, Drangiane, Gandhara, Areia, Baktriane (After Fischer, K., 1970, Projecfts of archaeological maps from Afghan-Seistan between 31 20’ to 30 50’N and 62 00’ to 62 10’E., in Zentralasiatische Studien, No. 4, Wiesbaden; loc. cit., Fischer, Klaus, 1973, Archaeological Field surveys in Afghan Seistan 1960-1970, in: Norman Hammond, ed., South Asian Archaeology, Duckworth, London, Fig. 10.1). “Many explorers, MacMahon and Curzon for example, agree that Seistan offers a special phenomenon which puzzles students of comparative geography and archaeology. The shallow lakes alternately swell, recede and disappear and the rivers are constantly shifting their beds. Consequently settlements were created and abandoned in short periods. While the country owes to the abundant alluvium its

wealth and fertility, it also contains more ruined cities and habitations than are perhaps to be found within a similar space of ground anywhere in the world...An archaeological map of Afghanistan shows the major sites of historical and artistic interest explored so far: the prehistoric mound of Mundigak with pottery ornamented both in ancient Iranian style and with the Indus valley patterns, the provincial capital of Kandahar in the vicinity of which were discovered Greek and Aramaic versions of Ashoka inscriptions; Buddhist monasteries, stupas and caves embellished by Gandhara-style sculpture and painting, namely Bamiyan, Fondukistan, Hadda, Qunduz; the ‘mother of cities’ from Zoroastrian to Islamic times—Balkh; a dynastic sanctuary of the Kushans to be connected with the art of MathuraSurkh Kotal; places with remains of Hindu-Shahi temples and images, for example 140

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Gardez and Chigha Sarai; centers of Islamic architecture and decoration—Lashkari Bazar, Ghazni and Heart. Seistan, known to the Greek and Roman world as Drangiane, is just being explored. The vast desert is covered by mudbrick remains. Moving sand dunes encircle old fortresses, like that of Sangar. Recently we have located prehistoric and early historic tepes, mounds and wall systems deriving from the periods of the Parthians, Sakas and Sasanians, and abandoned Islamic cities with soaring mud-brick walls and towers...Seistan was in prehistoric times a densely populated country...Seistan was crossed by Alexander the Great in the autumn of 330 BC...During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the inhabitants opposed the Mongol invasion, were conquered and totally destroyed. The irrigation works were wasted, the cities burnt and life seemed to end...The water of the Helmand was again used in canals and carried to distant points in the country; new canals were built and old ones repaired. Natural changes in climate and reduction of water supply seem to have restrained people from settling far from the river. Finally the population was forced to keep cattle and fields in the plain near the Helmand.” (Fischer, Klaus, opcit., pp. 133-134).

middle country. There at the Arghandab (Greek: Etymander) in Arachosia, Vadhryas’va’s son Divoda_sa fought against the Pan.is, Pa_ra_vatas and Br.saya, and the river of the country “who consumed the Pan.is” (RV 61.1) stood by his side as a guardian deity. In the same book which thinks of the Pan.is with special hatred we see Pu_s.an “who pierces the Pan.is” at the center of the cult, and he is mentioned once in the Sarasvati_ hymn also (RV 6.61.6). Pu_s.an and Sarasvati_ occur side by side elsewhere too. 6.49.7 Sarasvati_; 8 Pu_s.an; 10.17.3-6 Pu_s.an; 7-9 Sarasvati_; 65.1 (Va_yuh) Pu_s.a_ Sarasvati_. Their association has been continued especially in liturgical texts. (cf. TS 1.2.2; 6.1.2.2: sarasvatyai pu_s.n.e ‘gnaye sva_ha_; 5.5.12:…dha_tuh; sarasvatyai s’a_rih s’yeta_ purus.ava_k, sarasvate s’ukah s’yetah purus.ava_g, a_ran.yo ‘jo nakula_ s’aka_ te paus.n.a_ va_ce…; MS 1.10.5 (145.16): sarasvaty eva sr.s.t.a_su va_cam adadha_t pu_s.an.am pratis.t.ha_m abhy asr.jyanta; va_vai sarasvati_, pas’avah pu_s.a_; Abr. 2.24.5: indrah pu_s.an.va_n, indrah sarasvati_va_n)…Goat and sheep-rearing flourished in the mountains of Afghanistan. Pu_s.an’s chariot is drawn by goats and he weaves the woolen garment for the sheep. As the goat is sacred to Pu_s.an so is the ewe, mes.i_, sacred to Sarasvati_ at least in the ritual. (TS 2.1.2.6; S’Br 13.2.2.4; a ram in the Sautra_man.i_; TBr. 2.6.15.1). The R.gvedic period is familiar with the sheep-rearing in Gandha_ra, at the Sindhu and perhaps also at the Parus.n.i_. (Pischel and Geldner, Vedische Studien, II, p. 210). RV 1.126.7, the only passage which is more significant speaks of sheep-rearing, mentions a woman “who is hairy like the ewe among the Gandha_ris” (Zimmer, H., Altindisches Leben, pp. 30 ff., 229)…But the Sarasvati_ of Arachosia alone does not hold good for the entire RV. It is likely that the memory of this home of the Vedic clans is preserved in some single passages of the Bra_hman.a literature as well. But already the seventh book takes us to other surroundings, to the banks of the holy river in the inner India.

It would appear that change of the Old Indic names into Iranian forms when they moved into the area may explain the following concordances: Sarasvati_ as Haraxvaiti, Sarayu as Haroiiu and Gomati as the Gomal. In this context of faunal remains found in mesolithic sites in Rajasthan, it will be apposite to review a claim made by Alfred Hillebrandt that the early references to Sarasvati_ in the R.gveda should be traced to Sarasvati_ of Arachosia, which according to Hillebrandt is the ‘western Sarasvati_’ as distinct from the ‘eastern’ Sarasvati_ in located in Kuruks.etra. “The worshippers of Pu_s.an lived in the vicinity of the Sarasvati_…Book VI takes us to the banks of the western Sarasvati_ and book VII, on the other hand, to the area of Kuruks.etra, to the holy Sarasvati_ of the 141

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(RV 7.96.2: ‘When the Pu_rus seize both the andhas (on your banks) by force, then, you radiant one, be merciful to us as the friend of the Maruts and direct the favour of the mighty ones towards us’.(Geiger, Ostiranische Kultur im Altertum, p. 364 ff.) AV 6.30.1:

frequent occurrence, about 2.48 million years ago, of stegodon insignis ganesa, archidiskodon planifrons, elephas hysudricus, equus sivalensis, rhinoceros sivalensis, R. palaeoindicus, Sus spp., camelus sivalensis, cervus spp., colossochelys atlas, geoclemys sivalensis, crocodylus spp. and a host of other new forms (Badam, G.L., Pleistoceene Fauna of India, Pune, Deccan College; S.N.Rajaguru and G.L. Badam, Late Quaternary Geomorphology of the Markanda Valley, Himachal Pradesh, in: B.P. Radhakrishna and S.S. Merh, eds., Vedic Sarasvati, 1999, Bangalore, Geological Society of India, p. 149). An alternative view is that the word Harakhaiti or harahvaiti itself traveled from India to Afghanistan, with the linguistic change of ‘s’a, sa and s.a’ to ‘ha’, “as we proceed from the traditional region of Madhya des’a towards the west. To take only a couple of instances even now Sa_dhu is pronounced as Hau, S’ivaji as Hibji, Sukhdeva as Hukhdeva, Das’a as Daha and Sa_huka_ra to Hauka_ra in dialects of Marwar…The same process operated in the evolution of S’aryqan.a_ in the R.gveda later to Harya_n.a_…The consistent operation of this linguistic process of the replacement of sibilants by “Ha” thus justifies the conclusion that the name Sarasvati_ also logically underwent the same process in its westward journey and became Harahvaiti or Harkhaiti in Arachosia.” (O.P. Bharadwaj, Studies in Historical Geography of Ancient India, Delhi, 1986, pp. 176-191; cf. Vedic Index, II, 364). The place name spelt as Taus.a_yan.a by Pa_n.ini changed to Tohana at some later stage. (V.S.Agrawal, 1974, India as known to Pa_n.ini, 2nd edn., Varanasi, p. 74). So, too the changes from asura to ahura (Isaac Taylor, 1980, The Origin of the Aryans, Reprint, Delhil, pp. 184-186). and Sindhu to old Persian Hindu (V.S. Agrawal, V.S. 2011, Bharata ki maulika ekata_ (Hindi), Allahabad, p. 30f; Tola Frernando and Dragonetti Carmen, 1986, India and Greece before Alexander, ABORI, vol. LXVII (pts. I-iv), pp. 159-194)..

deva_ imam madhuna_ samyuitam yavam sarasvatya_m adhi man.a_v acarkr.s.uh indra a_si_t si_rapatih s’atakratuh kina_s’a_ a_san marutah suda_navah The gods sowed at the Sarasvati_ barley mixed with honey over an amulet. Indra S’atakratu was the lord of the plough, the abundantly bestowing Maruts were the drivers. [Hillebrandt notes: “Here the stream is closely associated with the Maruts, and this is exactly the case in the R.gvedic verse (RV 7.96.2)…Pu_rus must have extended their territories upto the Yamuna_ and Parus.n.i_…The events described in books III and VII which take place mostly farther in the east on the Parus.n.i_, Yamuna_, Vipa_s and S’utudri_ make it improbable that the Sarasvati_ mentioned in RV 7.95, 96, on the banks of which the Pu_rus dwelt, can still be identical with the Arachotos.”). The reference to goats and sheep should not automatically link Sarasvati_ with Arachosia, Afghanistan, since faunal remains of goats and sheep have been found in the region close to Parus.n.i_, in North-West India, Rajasthan. It may not be necessary to postulate two Sarasvati_’s to explain the contextual references in Book VI and Book VII. The rationale for identifying Haraqaiti (arachotos) as the earlier, western Sarasvati_ is based on very flimsy grounds of rearing of sheep in Afghanistan. It would appear that sheep were reared in North West India, Rajasthan as well. Close to Parus.n.i_, in the Markanda valley, a lot of faunal material, dated as early as to the Pleistocene period, has been recovered from the Upper Siwaliks in general and the neighbouring areas in particular Mention has been made of 142

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“The linguistic evidence in the Vedic texts themselves points, of course, to a close relationship with the Iranian speaking tribes. However, it is not entirely clear where the combined Indo-Iranians lived together before they left for Iran and India, when they went on their separate ways, by which routes, and in what order. Furthermore, as G. Morgenstienrne (1975) has shown, the Kafirs or Nu_rista_ni_s constitute a third branch of the Indo-Iranians who were early on isolated in the impenetrable valleys of the Kunar and its tributaries.” (Witzel, M., 1995, Early Indian history: Linguistic and textual parameters, in: G. Erdosy, ed., The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia, Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal, p. 92).

knew the footsteps, found light and stole the cattle), and are said to be conversant with the stations, padajn~a_ (RV 9.97.39). They are not only recalled in the course of overland journeys, but also during sea voyages (RV 8.12.2) spreading over ten months (RV 5.45.11).” (Bhagwan Singh, 1995, The Vedic Harappans, New Delhi, Aditya Prakasan, p. 198). “There is no river of Afghanistan mentioned in the R.gveda which does not flow into the Indus. However, in a wider perspective, we find Afghanistan, South Central Asia, West Turkistan, Kazakistgan, (Azerbaydzhan) Iran (Mandas in western Persis, 2500 BC and Zarathustrians in central Iran), Turkey (Hittites in the second millennium BC), Syria, Palestine (Mitannis, 1400 BC), and Babylonia (Kassites, 1760 BC) related linguistically and commercially, directly and immediately to the Vedic Indians as well as the Harappans...No serious attempt appears to have been made for proper assessment of the relative position of Harappan traders in the contemporary world which, in view of the spread of Indo-Aryan languages and vestiges of their colonies in and around the great civilizations of West Asia, must have been hegemonic. Although linguistic testimony is meager, the impact on both Babylonian and Assyrian mythology and rituals as noted by competent authorities on the subject (Carnoy, Albert Jr., 1917, Mythology of All Races, IV, Iranian Mythology, Boston)...Afthanistan has been so thoroughly Aryanised that till the Greek times it was called A_rya_na_...Why is there no archaological evidence of the presence of Aryans in India? And the answer comes with a resounding echo: Because Harappan archaeology is hardly different from the Vedic one. We find almost the same geographical area occupied by the ‘Aryans’ as is covered by the material remains of the Harappans. Almost the same area is covered by the Indo-Aryans and Indo-Iranians abroad as was being explored and exploited by the Harappans for mineral wealth.” (Bhagwan

The strongest evidence for the migration is the name of the Croatians who are a people mentioned in the Behistun inscription as Hravaits, a clear derivative from Sarasvati River Bank~Haraquaiti region, which link is logical in the context of the evidence of the earth sciences of the course of the 1600 kms. long Himalayan river called Sarasvati_. In the continuing search of the Indo-Europeans, the people of the Sarasvati_ River valley dated ca. 3500 BC are likely to be the oldest representatives who evolved and sustained a continuity of culture into the historical periods and into the present day civilization of India. Both the terms, atharvan and navagva are used as synonyms in R.gveda. “...they (Atharvans and Navagvas) are credited with having entered a mountain pass (RV 1.112.18; RV 5.29.12), breaking mountain ranges (RV 1.62.4; 1.71.2; 4.2.15; 4.3.11), obtaining riches (RV 7.52.3), breaking mineral rich mountains (RV 4.2.15), winning cows (RV 1.62.2), and possessing miraculous powers (RV 3.53.7). These seers called Navagvas and Das’agvas are seven in number (sapta vipra_: RV 4.2.15) and reminding us of the number of stars in the constellation by their names. They are remembered as manes or pu_rve pitarah (RV 3.55.2: fathers of the old times who know the region; RV 9.97.39: our sires of the old who 143

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Singh, 1995, The Vedic Harappans, New Delhi, Aditya Prakashan, pp.47-49).

courses from where have been unearthed over 1200 archaeological sites (of the fourth and third millennium BC) of the bronze age of the Indian Civilization, including Rakhigarhi (150 miles north of Delhi, on the banks of the Sarasvati River; apart from the clusters of hundreds of sites in Bahawalpur province (north of Sind province), again on the banks of the Sarasvati River) which is about 220 ha., and hence, 3 times the size of Mohenjodaro in extent.

The identification of the Vedic Sarasvati River with the Indus or its tributaries on the right bank such as Argandab or Helmand is erroneous because in the Vedic texts, the upper course of Sarasvati is detailed as located between S’utudri_ in the West, a tributary of Beas (as also attested in a R.gvedic su_kta.) and Yamuna in the East, once upon a time; the Sarasvati river is also associated with the Maruts and is located close to a desert. The R.gvedic descriptions fit the Sarasvati_ river

The kingdom of Videha, across the Gandak river, (Map after Raychaudhuri, opcit., p. 54). Videha had nine states of importance as noted in the Bra_hman.as and Upanis.ads: gandha_ra, kekaya, madra, us’I_nara, matsya, kuru, pan~ca_la, ka_s’i and kosala. Videha (of King Janaka) is mentioned in Yajur Veda. (Vedic Index, II.298). This corresponds to the modern Tirhut in North Bihar (‘Videha comprised the country from Gorakhpur on the Ra_pti to

Darabhanga, with Kosala on the west and An:ga on the east. On the north it approached the hills, and to the south it was bounded by the small kingdom of Vais’a_li’—Pargiter, 1897, JASB, 89). S’atapatha Bra_hman.a seems to state that Videgha Mathava who came from the banks of the Sarasvati_ founded the Videhan kingdom. (Vedic Index, I.436): the fire god went burning along this earth from the Sarasvati_ towards the east, followed by 144

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Ma_thava and his priest, Gotama Ra_hu_gan.a till he came to the river Sada_ni_ra_ (Ra_pti river) which flows from the norther (Hima_laya) mountain, and which he did not burn over. Thinking ‘it has not been burnt over by Agni Vais’va_nara (the fire that burns for all men)’, Brah_man.as did not go across the stream in ancient times. Only Ma_thava’s arrival led to the movement of people into this area.

Ancient Daks.ina_patha in the age of the Later Videhas (After Raychaudhuri, opcit., p. 76). Rigveda refers to daks.in.a_pada_ (RV 10.61.8); Pa_n.ini refers to da_ks.ina_tya (4.2.98): Maha_bha_rata (Nalopa_khya_na) refers to daks.in.a_patha as south of Avanti (Malwa) and the Vindhyas and to the south of the Vidarbhas and the Southern Kosalas (who lived on the banks of Wardha_ and Maha_nadi_). The age of the later Videhas had the names of Nimi and Kara_la as kings who expanded into the territory extending to the Reva_ or the Narmada_ and the Goda_vari_ rivers. Nimi’s Vidarbha region included the modern Berar and also varada_tat.a (region between Wardha_ and Waingan:ga_) and up north upto the river Payos.n.i_, a tributary of Ta_pti_ river. Nimi was of Yadu lineage (Matsya Pura_n.a 44.36; Va_yu Pura_n.a 95.35-36).

Kosala [including the cities of Ayodhya_, Sa_keta and Sa_vatthi_ (S’ra_vasti_)] was bounded by the Gomti on the west, Sarpika_ (or Syandika_ or Sai) river on the south and Sada_ni_ra_ on the east and the Himalayas on the north. Buddha notes in Sutta Nipa_ta (SBE, X, Part II, 68-69): “Just beside Himavanta there lives a people endowed with the power of wealth, the inhabitants of Kosala (kosalaem niketino or having an abode in Kosala). They are A_dichchas by family (A_ditya or solar group), S’a_kiyas by birth; from that family I have wandered about, not longing for sensual pleasures.”

Br.hada_ran.yaka Upanis.ad refers to a sage Vidarbhi_ Kaun.d.inya (an apparent derivation from the capital city of Vidarbha called Kun.d.ina, which is associated with a place in the Ch_n.d.ur ta_luk of Amraoti, on the banks of Wardha_ river). Sa_tvatas and Bhojas are also referred to as offshoots of the Yadu on the banks of the Yamuna_. (Matsya Pura_n.a 44.36; Va_yu Pura_n.a 95.35-36). Bhojas also seem to have ruled Dan.d.aka (da_n.d.ako na_ma bhojah ka_ma_t bra_hman.akanya_m abhimanyama_nas sabandhu ra_s.t.ro vinana_s’a: a Bhoja king known as Da_n.d.akya, or king of Dan.d.aka, made an attempt on a bra_hman.a girl and perished along with his relations and kingdom: Kaut.ili_ya Arthas’a_stra). The finds at Mehrgarh dated to ca. 7000 BC indicate the early phases of village farming communities communities. Prof. Possehl provides a broad spectrum of phases related to the absolute chronology of the “Indus Age”: •

Beginnings of Village Farming Communities and Pastoral Camps (Kili

145

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Ghul Mohammad and Burj Basket-marked phases) 7000-4300 BC •

Developed village farming communities and pastoral societies: 4300-3200 BC

•

Early Harappan phases (Amri-Nal, Kot Dijian, Sothi-Siswal, Damb Sadaa) 32002500 BC

•

Mature Harappan 2500-1900 BC

•

Post-urban Harappan 1900-1000 BC

•

Early Iron Age 1000-600 BC

well-reasoned arguments were unsuccessful in rooting out the misinterpretations entrenched in the popular literature. (Brown, Dale M., ed., 1994, Ancient India: Land of Mystery, Alexandria, Va., Time-Life Books)...there is no archaeological or biological evidence for invasion of mass migrations into the Indus valley between the end of the Harappan Phase, about 1900 BC and the beginning of the Early Historic Period, around 600 BC. In Central Asia and Afghanistan the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC), dating ffrom around 1900 to 1700 BC, represents a complex mixture of nomadic and settled communities, some of these may have spoken Indo-Aryan dialects and practiced Indo-Aryan religion. These communities and their ritual objects were distributed from the desert oases in Turkmenistan to southern Baluchistan and from the edges of the Indus Valley to Iran. As nomadic herders and traders moved from the highlands to the lowlands in their annual migration, they would have traded goods and arranged marriages as well as other less formal associations resulting in the exchange of genes between the highland and lowland communities.” (Kenoyer, J.M., 1998, p. 174).

(After Gregory L. Possehl, 1999, Indus Age: The Beginnings, New Delhi, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., Table 1.2) Evolution of Indian Civilization and Vedic Culture “The discovery of unburied skeletons among the latest levels of the Harappan occupation at Mohenjodaro combined with uncritical and inaccurate readings of the Vedic texts led some scholars to claim that the decline of the Indus civilization was the result of ‘invasions’ or ‘migratgions’ of Indo-Aryan speaking Vedic/Aryan tribes. (Wheeler, R.E. Mortimer, 1968, The Indus Civilization, 3rd edn., Cambridge History of India, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press). The invasion and/or migration models assumed that the IndoAryan speaking Vedic communities destroyed the Indus cities and replaced the complex urban civilization with their new rituals, language and culture. Many scholars have tried to correct this absurd theory, by pointing out misinterpreted basic facts, inappropriate models and an uncritical reading of Vedic texts. (Jarrige, Continuity and Change in the North Kachi Plain; Shaffer, Reurbanization: The Eastern Punjab and Beyond; loc. cit. Kenoyer, J., 1998, Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, Karachi, Oxford University Press). However, until recentgly, these scientific and

Since Wheeler’s hasty generalization, many discoveries have been reported which render it possible to reconstruct an indigenous and continued evolution and development of the civilization in the Sindhu Sarasvati River Basins. Outside these river basins, cultural complex of Bactgria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BAMC) has been discovered. There is little evidence of cultural materials being transferred into or from this complex, though evidences of trade contacts have been identified. (Frederik T. Hiebert, 1994, Production evidence for the origins of the Oxus civilization, Antiquity 68: 372-87; Victor Sarianidi, 1993, Recent archaeological discoveries and the Aryan problem, in: South Asian Archaeology, 1991, Adalbert J. Gail and Gerd J.R. Mevissen, eds., Stuttgart, Steiner: 252-63). The internal migrations to the GangaYamuna, caused principally by the desiccation 146

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of the Sarasvati River, have been well documented, with reference to new surveys and excavations of new sites. (Bisht, Ravinder Singh, 1987, Further excavations at Banawali, 1983-84, in: B.M.Pande and B.D. Chattopadhyaya, eds., Archaeology and History, Delhi, Agam Kala Prakashan: 135-56; Dikshit, K.N., 1991, The legacy of Indus civilization in North India, in: Puratattva 21: 17-20; Joshi, Jagat Pati, 1978, Interlocking of Late Harappan culture and Painted Grey Ware culture in the light of recent excavations, in: Man and Environment 2: 90-101; Shaffer, Jim G., 1993, Reurbanization: the eastern Puunjab and beyond, in: Urban Form and Meaning in South Asia in: Howard Spodek and Doris Meth Srinivasan, eds., The Shaping of Cities from Prehistoric to Precolonial Times, Washington D.C., National Gallery of Art: 53-67). Similarly, the migrations from Sind to Rann of Kutch and beyond, southwards towards the Saurashtra and Kathiawar regions of Gujarat have also been documented based on new surveys and excavations. (Bahn, Kuldeep K., 1992, Late Harappan Gujarat, in: Eastern Anthropologist 45: 1-2: 173-92; Possehl,

Gregory L., 1992, The Harappan civilization in Gujarat: the Sorath and Sindh Harappans, in: Eastern Anthropologist 45:1-2: 117-54; Possehl, Gregory L., 1991, The Harappan cultural mosaic: ecology revisited, in: Catherine Jarrige, ed., South Asian Archaeology, 1989, Madison, Wis., Prehistory Press: 237-44). A review of these new discoveries and evaluations have led to the presentation of alternative theories to explain the decline of the Indus cities and the continuation of the urban Indo-Gangetic tradition. (Kenoyer, J. Mark, 1995, Interaction systems, specialized crafts and culture change: the Indus Valley tradition and the Indo-Gangetic Tradition in South Asia, in: George Erdosy, ed., The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Cultgure and Ethnicity, Berlin, de Gruyter, 213-57; Shaffer Jim. G, and Lichtenstein, Diane A., 1995, The cultural tradition and palaeoethnicity in South Asian archaeology, in: George Erdosy, ed., The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity, Berlin, de Gruyter, 126154).

147

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Bharat c. 500 B.C. (Republics at the time of coronation of Bimbisa_ra c. 545-44 BC) (After Raychaudhuri, opcit., p. 174). The most remarkable feature of the civilization during all its phases from 7000 to 1000 BC is the

homogeneity of monuments and artifacts; the agreement among Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan, Dholavira, Banawali, Kunal and Lothal is striking indeed, while regional variations are overshadowed by the 148

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preponderant shared features of life such as domestication of animals, cultivation of wheat and barley, canal irrigation and use of wells, house-building, organization of towns, weaving of textiles, wheel-turned pottery, river navigation, use of carts, metal-working, ornament-making using faience, ivory, bone, shell and semi-precious stones and use of inscriptions to facilitate trade. (cf. Marshall, John, 1931, The age and authors of the Indus Civilization. in: Marshall, John, ed., Mohenjodaro and the Indus Civilization, 3 vols., Arthur Probsthain, London: 102-12). The homogeneous nature of the culture was evolved and sustained over the largest Bronze Age civilization of the world, covering an estimated area of 1,310,000 square kilometers. This is in comparison with the Mesopotamian Civilizzation which covered an estimated area of 400,000 square kilometers during the Akkadian Dynasty and with the Egyptian Civilization which covered a small area of ca. 17,100 square kilometersduring the Old Kingdom. (Butzer, Karl W., 19776, Early Hydraulic Civilization in Egypt: A study in Cultural Ecology, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, Prehistoric Archaeology and Ecology Series: 83). The region covered the entire drainage system of the Sarasvati River, the northern Ganga-Yamuna doab in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, western fringe of southern and central Rajasthan, Gujarat, almost the whole of Pakistan (excepting for the northern mountainous areas) and southern Afghanistan. That homogeneity in culture was maintained over such vastg distances given the transport systems of river crafts and bullockcarts (and perhaps pack-animals) is an era of peaceful coexistence unparalleled in the history of human civilization. For example, the mature Harappan pottery was seen over all parts of the civilization area and so were the seals, styles of beads, brick sizes and weights commonly shared. This lends credence to the possibility that this entire area was truly a Linguistic Area and given the legacy which continued in India into the historical periods, the decipherment of the inscriptions have to be related to the

essential semantic unity of languages currently spoken in many parts of India also as a legacy of the cultural unity sustained during ancient times. On the aspects of cultural unity, Possehl notes (1999, p. 157): “From the archaeological record one senses that in spite of this differentiation, we are still seeing a single ancient culture at some level of abstraction. How were the norms of this culture maintained over such immense distances? What kept it all together? The answer to these questions is obviously ‘communication’, either direct, face to face contact, or a more indirect form. Without some convention of communication, areas that are geographically removed from one another tend to take their own course of cultural change and gradual differences will emerge. The two most obvious mechanisms that can be documented that would have sustained the midrange and longer communication networks are the movements of pastoral nomads, and other itinerants, some of which are tied to seasonal changes, and the internal commerce of the Indus Age.”

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Sources of tin: the great enigma of Early Bronze Age archaeology

zu/nhaeÇ ? e;u mTSv à/ja< dei? v ididfœiF n> .

Network of mineral resource locations: tin, copper, gold, lead/silver (After J.M. Kenoyer, 1998, Fig. 5.20f). “Copper ore was probably smelted near the mining sources and brought into the Indus Valley as bun-shaped ingots. Major copper sources are located to the west of Baluchistan, the east in Rajasthan and across the gulf in Oman. Any of these areas could have produced enough copper to supply the entire Indus Valley civilization, but the Indus merchants were trading with all these areas. One can imagine traders shouting out the benefits of Oman copper. ‘It is a bit more expensive, but more pure than the slag from Baluchistan or Rajasthan.’ A merchant from Baluchistan would shout back, ‘Omani copper is soft like the meat of a date, while the highland copper is strong and hard like the pit.’ Marine shell was also brought from three sources. The Gulf of Kutch and Saurashtra to the east produced species of shell that were used to make bangles, ladles and inlay. Similar species were obtained from the coast west of Karachi, and a third source was the Omani coast..At the coastal site of Balakot, a local species of clam shell was used.” (J.M.Kenoyer, 1998, p. 94).

ya te/ mNm? g&Tsm/da \?tavir ià/ya de/ve;u/ juþi? t . 2.041.16 Sarasvati_, best of mothers, best of rivers, best of goddesses, we are, as it were, of no repute; grant us, mother, distinction. [ambitame, nadi_tame, devitame: the superlatives of ambika_, a mother, nadi_ , a river and devi_, a goddess].

#/ma äü? srSvit ju/;Sv? vaijnIvit ,

2.041.17 In you, Sarasvati_, who are divine, all existences are collected; rejoice, goddess, among the S'unahotras, grant us, goddess, progeny. 2.041.18 Sarasvati_, abounding in food, abounding in water, be propitiated by these oblations, which the Gr.tsamadas offer as acceptable to you, and precious of the gods.

R.s.i Gr.tsamada is ecstatic while adoring Sarasvati in the Rigveda:

Sarasvati_ is among the 27 synonyms for a river (Hemachandra, Abhida_na cinta_man.i, 4, 145-146: nadi_, hiran.yavarn.a_, rodhovakara_, taran:gin.i_, saiva_livi, vaha_, hradini_, srotasvini_, nimnaga_, srota, nirjharin.i_, sarit, tat.ini_, ku_lan:kas.a_, va_hini_, kar.su_, dvi_pavati_, samudradayita_, dhuni, sravanti_,

AiMb?tme/ ndI?tme/ deiv?tme/ sr?Svit , A/à/z/Sta #?v Smis/ àz?iStm! AMb ns! k«ix . Tve ivña? srSvit iï/tayUi
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sarasvati_, parvataja_, a_paga_, jaladhiga_, ku_lya_, jamba_lini_.

bharan.am pos.an.am vis’ambhalam tatkartum ks.ama_ vis’ambhalya_ ta_dr.s’i_. Sarasvati_ is thus vais’ambhalya_ or one who brings up the whole people. This epithet is an apparent expansion of Sarasvati_ as a river nourishing the settlements of people with her waters and promoting agriculture and other livelihood activities of the people, she was indeed the giver of food, va_jinni_vati_. Sarasvati_ is called satyava_k: pra te mahe sarasvati_ subhage va_jinni_vati_ satyava_ce bhare matim idam te havyam ghr.tavat sarasvati satyava_ce prabharema_ havi_m.si: (TB 2.5.4.6; S’ri_ Ma_dhava explains the dative form, sartyava_ce: anr.tava_kyarahita_yai; thus, Sarasvati_ as Va_k is all truth, free from falsehood; in RV 1.3.11, she is codayitri_ su_nr.ta_na_m, the impeller of pleasing and true speeches). The waters are medicinal for the world (vis’vabhes.aji_h: TB 2.5.8.6). Sarasvati_ is sumr.d.i_ka_ (Taittiri_ya A_ran.yaka 1.1.3, 21.3, 31.6, 4.42.1); this is explained as having good soil (sumr.d), that is, land having good (fertile) soil. Sarasvati_ is described as both the land and the water: sarasvati saroyuktabhu_miru_pa is.t.ake (TA 1.1.3). During her flight back from heaven, Ga_yatri_ encountered the Gandharva Vis’va_vasu who robbed her of the soma. Gods became anxious as Ga_yatri’s return from heaven with soma was being delayed and realized that the Gandharvas had stolen soma. (S’B 3.2.4.2). Then, they planned to send Va_k to the Gandharvas, who were fond of women, to retrieve soma for the gods. (S’B 3.2.4.3). In the encounter of Va_k with the Gandharvas, the latter demanded that the gods should offer Va_k in exchange for soma. The gods agreed to the demand with the condition that if Va_k wanted to return the Gandharvas should not force her to remain with them against her will (S’B 3.2.4.4). Both the gods and gandharvas began to woo Va_k; gandharvas recited the Veda (S’B 3.2.4.5); gods played on a lute to entice Va_k. Gods won and the gandharvas lost both the soma and Va_k. (S’B 3.2.4.6-7). Mantraru_pa_ va_k, deified speech becomes, in the Bra_hman.as, the goddess of speech. She is

An alternative view could be that the Pari_n.ah may be a reference to Pa_ripa_tra. “Pa_ripa_tra is the western part of the Vindhya range extending from the course of the Chambal to the Gulf of Cambay (Asiatic Researches, vol. VIII, p. 338); according to Dr. Bhandarkar it is that portion of the Vindhya range from which the rivers Chambal and Betwa take their rise (History of the Dekkan, see.III; Vara_ha Pura_n.a, ch. 85). It comprised the Aravali mountains and the hills of Rajputana including the Pathar range which is perhaps a contraction of Pa_ripa_tra. It appears to have included the countries of Apara_nta, Saura_s.t.ra, S’udra, Ma_lapa (Ma_lava), Malaka and others (Ku_rma Pura_n.a, Pu_rva ch. 47), in short a great portion of the western coast of India. According to the Ra_ma_yan.a, Pa_ripa_tra or Pa_riya_tra was situated on the western sea (Kishkinda_ Ka_n.d.a, ch. 42, v.20; Pa_riya_tra = Pa_ripa_tra: Va_mana Pura_n.a, ch. 13; Brahma_n.d.a Pu_ra_n.a, pt. II, ch. 16).” (N. Dey, 1979, The Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, Delhi, Cosmo Publications, p. 149). This equivalence and the pattern of movement of the people away from the Sarasvati and Dr.s.advati_ towards the Chambal indicates the possibility that the name vais’ambha_lya of Sarasvati_ river may indeed refer to the shortened popular form: Chambal River. Zimmer notes that Kavas.a was the Purohita of the joint tribes named Vaikarn.a who comprised the Kuru Pa_n~ca_las. (cf. Vedic Index, Vol. I, p. 143)."…the Sarasvati_ still has a similar name, Vai'sambhalyA (with many variants, always a sign of foreign origin, in the Brahmana texts: TB 2.5.8.6, -bhAlyA, pAlyA, -bAlyA Ap'SS 4.14.4, -bhAlyA BhAr'sikSA; cf. also RV vi'spAla?), which is to be derived from something like *visambAz/*visambAL, ..." (Witzel, M., 1999, Substrate languages in OIA, EJVS, 1999, p. 11) Taittiri_ya Bra_hman.a’s reference to Sarasvati_ as vais’ambhalya_ (2.5.8.6). is elaborated by Sa_yan.a: vis’va_m praja_na_m 151

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associated with Vis.n.u and described as his tongue or residing in his mouth. (Skanda. P. 7.33.96). In Va_yu Pura_n.a (1.23.34), Sarasvati_ is described as one with a loud roar, maha_na_da_.

refgion famed as Madhyades’a. They possessed that Mid-land definitely and made it their own thoroughly, so that it was ‘their true pure home’, as Sir G. Grierson describes it linguistically. (ibid., p. 357). They expanded afterwards into the Panjab and East Afghanistan, into West India and the north-west Dekhan, into East and South Bihar and into Bengal—precisely as he finds the Aryans did linguistically in those very regions, which he calls the ‘Outer Band’. (ibid., p. 358). Also it has been pointed out that the Ayodhya_ realm was non-Aila, was not subdued by the Ailas and was only influenced by them. This agrees exactly with his linguistic inference, that in Oudh ‘there is a mixture (of language) of the same nature, although here the Midland language has not established itself so firmly as it has in the west and south.’ (ibid. p. 359). Thus the political account as tradition reveals it accords precisely with Sir. G. Grierson’s linguistic exposition, and explains the linguistic facts simply and fully. Current opinion, in order to explain those facts, postulates not only an invasion of Aryans from the north-west, but even a double invasion, and the theory is that ‘the inhabitants of the Midland represent the latest stage of Indo-Aryan immigration’, and that the latest invaders entered ‘into the heart of the country already occupied by the first immigrants, forcing the latter outwards in three directions, to the east, to the south and to the west.’ (ibid., p. 358). This theory is improbable in itself, and certainly implies a severe and bitter struggle between the second and the first immigrants, of which one would expect to find some echo in tradition, for it concerned the very heart of India, yet there is absolutely none. It is wholly unnecessary according to the tradition…These conclusions raise the question, what does tradition say about the origin of the Ailas or Aryans? It makes the Aila power begin at Allahabad and yet distinctly suggests that they came from outside India. The legends and fables about the progenitor Puru_ravas Aila all connect him with the middle Himalayan region. He was closely associated with the Gandharvas. His wife Urvas’I_ was a Gandharvi_, as well as

The name of one of the two gandharvas, namely, sva_n, who guarded the stolen soma is significant. In Yas’t 10.67, Mitra is stated to come, driving in a chariot, from the eastern continent Arezahi_ to the splendid continent of Xvaniratha. The last two lines of the verse are rendered by Gershevitch as: “(Mitra comes) equipped with prompt energy, Mazda-created fortune, and Ahura-created victoriousness”. (I. Gershevitch, The Avestan Hymn to Mithra, Cambridge, 1959). The name of the continent, Xvaniratha, seems concordant with Sva_n, the gandharva who guarded the soma. The eastern continent, ‘Arezahi_’ may be a reference to Arachosia < haraquaiti < sarasvati_ region. Sarasvati_ is called ‘ams’umati_’, full of the soma: “…Soma, frightened by Vr.tra, fled to the Ams’umati_, flowing in the Kuruks.etra region. He settled there and gods, too, settled there along with him. They used soma, and thereby evolved Soma-sacrifices.” (Su_ryakanta, Sa_ras, Soma and Si_ra_, ABORI, vol. XXXVIII, Poona, 1958, p. 115). Migration of Ailas Yadu are mentioned in the Rigveda; Yadu is associated with Turvas’a, Druhyu, Anu and Pu_ru: RV 1.108.8; RV 1.36.18; 6.45.1;8.6.46; about the middle of the second millennium BC, epigraphs of the Kassites and Mitanni refer to Rigvedic gods (Su_rya—shurias; Marut— maruttash; Indra, Mitra, Varun.a, Na_satyas and Daks.a—dakash, star, Cambridge Ancient History. 1.553). Gandha_ra princes are referred to as descendants of Druhyu in Matsya 48.6 and Va_yu 99.9 Pura_n.as. “According to tradition in chapter XXIV (G. Grierson, 1907, Imperial Gazetteer of India, I, pp. 349 f.) the Ailas or Aryans began at Allahabad, conquered and spread out north-west, west and south, and had by Yaya_ti’s time occupied precisely the 152

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called an apsaras. The places he frequented were Manda_kini_, Alaka_, the Caitraratha and Nandana forests, the mountains Gandhama_dana and Meru, and the land of Uttara Kuru—regions to which the Gandharvas were assigned. (Matsya 114.82; MBh. 5.110.3830-1; 6.6.212; Vis.n.u 39 to 41). From the Gandharvas he obtained sacrificial fire; his sons were known in the Gandharva world (Ku_rma 1.23.46); and he ultimately became united with the Gandharvas. Further, the fables about his birth point to that region, and two accounts connect his alleged parent Ila with the northern country Ila_vr.ta, which they say was named after him. (Matsya 12.14; Padma 5.8.119)…that (north) region, the countries in and beyond the middle of the Himalayas, has always been the sacred land of the Indians. Indian tradition knows nothing of any Aila or Aryan invasion of India from Afghanistan, nor of any gradual advance from thence eastwards. On the other hand it distinctly asserts that there was an Aila outflow of the Druhyus through the north-west into the countries beyond, where they founded various kingdoms and so introduced their own Indian religion among those nations. (JRAS, 1919, pp. 358-61). The north-west frontier never had any ancient sacred memories, and was never regarded with reverence. All ancient Indian belief and veneration were directed to the mid-Himalayan region, the only original sacred outside land (See the eulogy of the Northern region: MBh. 5.110; 6.12); and it wasd thither that rishis and kings turned their steps in devotion, never to the north-west. The list of rivers in Rigveda 10.75 is in regular order from the east to the north-west (See M.A. Stein, JRAS, 1917, p. 91)—not the order of entrance from the northwest but the reverse. If the Aryans entered India from the north-west, and had advanced eastward through the Panjab only as far as the Sarasvati_ or Jumna when the Rigvedic hymns were composed, it is very surprising that the hymn arranges the rivers, not according to their progress, but reversely from the Ganges which they had hardly reached. This agrees better with the course of the Aila expansion and its outflow

beyond the north-west. (Perhaps the arguments used to prove the advance of the Aryans from Afghanistan into the Panjab might simply be reversed)...Suda_s’s battle with the ten kings…(Suda_s) was an Aila king of North Pan~ca_la, and the Ailas (or Aryans) had entered and dominated North India long before his time. It was part of his conquests westward into the Panjab…Tradition or myth thus directly indicates that the Ailas (or Aryans) entered India from the mid-Himalayan region, and its attitude towards the NW frontier lends no support to any invasion from that quarter. (The only passages which may lend support to the theory of a north-western invasion are the two in the Ra_ma_yan.a, which make Ila king of Ba_lhi or Ba_lhi_ka, if these words mean Balkh; but they might mean the Va_hli_ka country in the Panjab…)…Indian tradition suggests a reverse origin for the Iranians, which is linguistically tenable, which harmonizes with the Boghazkai treay, and which can account for their language and religion….Puru_ravas was succeeded by A_yu at Pratis.t.ha_na (the later Praya_ga or Allahabad), and another son Ama_vasu founded another kingdom, the capital of which was then or afterwards Ka_nyakubja (Kanauj). A_yu was succeeded by Nahus.a, and another son Ks.atravr.ddha established himself at Ka_s’i. Nahus.a was a famoud king. His son and successor Yaya_ti was a renowned conqueror, extended his kingdom widely and was reckoned a samra_j (MBh. 1.75,3156)…He had five sons, Yadu, Turvasu, Druhyu, Anu and Puru…” (Pargiter, F.E., 1922, Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 296-298, p. 302, p. 259). According to Skanda Pura_n.a, the river A_paga__ (A_paya_ of Kurudes’a) had S’ivaks.etras (I.iiiu.3.10); a_paya_ was a tributary of Sarasvati_ and Maha_bha_rata (Karn.a Parvan XLIV.10) locates the river in Va_hika des’a (that is, Punjab) ruled by S’alya. All the four treaty gods are mentioned in one hymn of the R.gveda (RV. 10.125.1). Paul Thieme demonstrated that the gods of the Mitanni treaties are specifically Vedic gods, 153

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and that they cannot be Proto-Aryan. Macdonnel is more emphatic: "It is a fact, however, that this particular grouping of the gods Varun.a and Mitra, Indra and Na_satyau, with these forms of their names, can be traced only in the Veda. For this reason I agree with Jacobi, Konow and Hillebrandt in considering these gods to be Indian, Vedic deities and that there is no possible justification for any other view. We shall have to assume that, just as there were Aryan immigrations into India from the west, there must have been isolated migrations back to the west." (Macdonnel, opcit, 1927, p. 805).

Gandharvaku_pa and flows further on a westward course. (7.i.26,27). Traversing through Bhu_ti_s’vara and Rudrakot.i before reachintg S’rikan.t.ha des’a (7.i.35,29-31; with its capital Stha_nes’vara or Thanesar near Kuruks.etra), she reaches Kuruks.etra and flows on through Vira_t.anagara, Gopi_yanagari (near Vira_t.anagara) and Deviks.etra, before reaching Pas’cima des’a (7.i.36.52). She then traverses the Kharjuri_vana (where she is called Nanda_), Ma_rkan.d.a_s’rama, Arbuda_ran.ya, Vat.avana, Vam.s’astamba, Ka_kati_rtha, Dha_res’vara, Pun.d.ari_ka, Ma_tr.ti_rtha, Anaraka, San:games’vara, Kot.i_s’vara and Siddhes’vara. She joins the Pas’cima Sa_gara. (7.i.35.32-51). She is called Pra_ci_ Sarasvati_ (5.i.57.31), Sa_vitri_ and Vedama_ta_ (5.iii.3.10). As Vedama_ta, she is the very personification of the Vedic culture. She is bra_hmi_ mu_rtih, the incarnation of Brahma_ and hence, sacreed (5.iii.9.47). (loc.cit. A.B.L. Awasthi, 1965, Studies in Skanda Pura_n.a, Pt. I, Lucknow, Kailash Prakashan, pp. 153-154).

Skanda Pura_n.a describes the course of the Saravati_ River. Sarasvati_ issues from the water-pot of Brahma_ (1.ii.56.13; 3.ii.25.1-7, 10-16, hence called Brahman.ahsuta_: 3.ii.25.7) and flows on a downward course from Plaks.a (7.1.33.40-41) on the Himalayas. At Keda_ra, she turns west (pas’cima_bhimukhi_) and conceals herself underground. (7.i.35.25,26). Beyond Pa_pabhu_mi, she reaches

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Mleccha, Mlecchita vikalpa: Language and writing system

s of R.gveda. She is a mother, a divinity. She is reality, she is nadi_, river of the saptasindhu or region of seven rivers; she nurtured a civilzation on her banks. She is Bra_hmi, the glyptic representation of parole (bha_s.a_). She is va_k (parole); she is jn~a_na devi (wisdom divinity).

Mleccha is the language spoken by Vidura and Yudhis.t.hira according to the Mahabharata. Mlecchita vikalpa means a ‘cipher writing’ according to Va_tsya_yana’s Ka_masu_tra which describes it as one of the 64 arts. Mleccha was the language of the Sarasvati Civilization as evidenced in about 4,000 objects with epigraphs. Some epigraphs are on copper plates and some are inscribed on weapons themselves. Many are seals and tablets. The tradition of recording property transactions on copper plates which began in the days of Sarasvati Civilization (circa 5300 years Before Present) continues into the historical periods of Bharat.

The central theses presented in the saptathi Sarasvati, are that in comprehending reality, metaphor is a powerful poetic, artistic medium which bursts forth in a r.ca or su_kta or a glyptic representation called mlecchita vikalpa (cipher writing). R.gveda, which is perhaps the oldest human document, which has been handed down as a heritage, with astonishing phonetic fidelity, like a tape recorder preserved and passed on from generation to generation, abounds in metaphors. The task of a seeker is to unravel the reality from the web (ni_d.am) of metaphors. The epigraphs of the civilization are composed of glyphs as metaphors. So are many sculpted mu_rti-s metaphors. Stone s’iva lin:ga found in Harappa and terracotta representations of lin:ga found in Kalibangan are metaphors, representing the shape of the summit of Mt. Kailas. The a_gama tradition of Bharat cherishes a metaphor of S’iva who sits in penance on the summit of Mt. Kailas. His consort is Pa_rvati, parvata putri_, daughter of the mountain. The mountain, the mighty Himalayan ranges – devata_tma_ himalaya according to the poet Ka_l.ida_sa -- is a reservoir, a veritable water tower holding lifesustaining, sacred waters, a_pah. As S’iva sits in penance, River Ganga emerges from the locks of his hair. It is a metaphor representing the flows of waters and alluvium into the plains of Bharat, sustaining a civilization.

Metaphor is an exquisite and powerful tool of general semantics.

Metaphors as semantic indicators: the sacred is the secular In GK Chesterton’s Father Brown, the detective makes a perceptive observation: somehow, nobody notices a postman who quietly enters into a house, commits a murder and walks away; somehow, nobody notices a postman. This metaphor is apt in describing an attempt to unravel the language(s) of Bharat circa 5000 years ago spoken on the banks of Rivers Sarasvati and Sindhu. The postman, the language is mleccha! the lingua franca, the parole. Pre-history has not vanished, it is all around us. Using the epigraphs of Sarasvati civilization, it is possible to unravel the attributes of both the message and the messenger and relate them to archaeology and continuing tradition in Bharat.

In the unique a_gama tradition of Bharat, a_yudha_ni carried by mu_rti-s sculpted by artisans, the vis’vakarma, are metaphors of the attributes of divinity which permeates every

Sarasvati is a metaphor adored in ecstatic terms in brahma, the prayer invoked in over 70 r.ca155

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phenomenon. Life itself is a metaphor, a quest cosmic order and dharma, which holds this order together. Everything secular is enveloped in spirituality. There is no reality but the spiritual metaphor. The R.gvedic yajn~a is a metaphor. It is a representation of the reality of unity of cosmic and individual consciousness.

for understanding r.ta, the glyph evokes an associated sound; the sound evokes a meaning. This can be illustrated by the splendid glyph of the Bra_hman.i or Zebu bull. In Santali, the glyph of the Zebu bull evokes a sound: adar, adar d.an:gra In Kashmiri d.an:gur = bullock.

The glyphs of the civilization are abiding records of such metaphors, glyphs such as the svastika_, the dotted-circle, the endless knot, the branches of a tree or twigs from a branch, the horns. The glyphs are an artisan’s way of representing meaning, representing lifeactivities unraveling the nature of material phenomena – of the minerals which could be moulded into metals and artifacts of a civilization.

In Sanskrit, a tree evokes a sound: dru Cognate words in the linguistic area of Bharat, the dialectial continuum are: ad.aru = twig (Kannada. Tulu). Such a glyph can be ligatured, as a headdress, to a glyph of a standing or seated person ligatured to the back of a bull (adar), as a phonetic determinant. d.hagara_m = n.pl. the buttocks; the hips (G.) Or, as a person carrying a club: d.an:gorum, d.an:go, d.an:goro = a thick club; a cudgel (G.lex.)

This metaphor as the communication medium is succinctly expressed by a great grammarian, Tolka_ppiyan in Tamil: ella_ccollum porul. kur-ittan-ave (all words are semantic indicators).

Even a mere splinter can, as a glyph--

“--

represent this sound: at.ar = a splinter (Ma.); ad.aruni = to crack (Tu.) which is rebus (sounds

Thus over 1,0000 glyphs represented on epigraphs of the civilization are semantic indicators. These are hieroglyphs governed by a concordance: image = sound = meaning. A like) aduru ‘native metal’ (Ka.)

In Kannada, another language in a dialectical continuum of Bharatiya language spectrum of over 5000 years ago, the sound associated with the Zebu bull glyph evokes a meaning from a cognate sound: aduru = native metal, i.e. a metal which is not subjected to smelting or melting in fire. In almost all languages of Bharat, the sound d.han:gar evokes a meaning, d.han:gar ‘blacksmith’ (WPah.); d.a_n:ro = term of contempt for a blacksmith (N.); t.ha_kur ‘blacksmith’ (Mth.) dha~_gar = a professional group whose business it is to dig wells, tanks etc. (H.) When a phoneme evokes more than one image, the artist who creates the glyptic representations uses ligatures. Thus, ko_la = woman (Nahali) kol = tiger (Santali). The representation in glyptic are yields a ligature of a woman and a tiger. The phonemes and the associated glyph evoke a meaning: kol ‘metal’ (Ta.) cu_d.a = tiger’s mane (Pkt.) cu_r.a_ = bracelet (Go.); cu_d.a = bracelet (Skt.Pkt.) These sounds result in the construction of an image by the artist. He creates a person adorned with bracelets with the face composed of tiger’s mane. These glyphs and associated phonemes evoke a meaning: cul.l.ai = potter’s kiln, furnace (Ta.); culli_ = fireplace (Skt.); culli_, ulli_ id. (Pkt.) 156

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The meaning conveyed by penance itself can be composed as a glyph: a person seated in a yogic posture. kamad.ha, kamat.ha = a type of penance (Pkt.). This word can also be imaged like a ficus leaf,: kamat.ha (Skt.) or a bat, kabat.a (Ka.) This sound of this word evokes meanings related to tools of trade of a professional artisan : kamat.a = a portable furnace for melting precious metals (Te.) kamat.ha_yo = a learned carpenter or mason, working on scientific principles (G.)

kammat.i_d.u = a goldsmith, a silversmith (Te.)

The Meluhhan being introduced carries an antelope on his arm. Cylinder seal Impression. Akkadian. Inscription records that it belongs to ‘S’u-ilis’u, Meluhha interpreter’. Musee du Louvre. Ao 22 310, Collection De Clercq.

Old Indic or Proto-Bharatiya Lingua Franca or parole (spoken tongue)

There are hundreds of lexical isolates attested in ‘Indo-Aryan’ which are not found in other branches of Indo-European. These are clearly a substratum layer of Old Indic which was spoken by the people of Bharat on the Sarasvati-Sindhu river basins and on the coastal settlements of Sindhu sa_gara (Arabian Sea). Some of these people were called Meluhhan in Mesopotamian texts. The Austroasiatic components of this substratum have to be resolved further in the context of (1) ancestors of Brahui and Elamite; and (2) other Austroasiatic groups such as those in the Brahmaputra (Lohitya)-Meghna-Barak river basins and around the Bay of Bengal. The lingua franca (or parole, spoken tongue) of Bharat circa 5000 years ago is hypothesized as a continuum of dialects, evolving in tandem with the cultural setting and technological innovations. Since the civilization which emerged on and was nurtured on the banks of Rivers Sarasvati and Sindhu continues into the historical periods in Bharat, the language spoken circa 5000 years Before Present can be reconstructed from the languages of present-day Bharat and based on the lexical work done by philologists from the days of Yaska (circa 6th century BCE) upto the discovery of Bangani in the 20th century. 157

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"...the entire Indo-Aryan realm (except for Sinhalese) constitutes one enormous dialectical continuum...The speech of each village differs slightly from the next, without loss of mutual intelligibility, all the way from Assam to Afghanistan....Mitanni kingdom...Indo-Iranians appear in northern Syria a full half millennium becore their appearance in western Iran. How did they get there?...To call these Mitanni kings 'Indo-Iranians', however, is to beg an important question...Some have held that these linguistic fragments are specifically Indo-Aryan. Others including Burrow (1955) held they represent undifferentiated Indo-Iranian, before the split between Iranian and Indo-Aryan...An IndoAryan identification would demand an earlier dating of the Iranian/Indo-Aryan split; with it have also been associated speculations regarding the route taken by the Aryans to India (e.g., the Asia Minor route...), or, possibly a back migration of Aryans from India. (If the latter, the date of the Aryan settlement of India would have to be moved back far enough to allow not only for them to reach Syria by 1500 BC, but also for their language to have died out by then, leaving only the terminological residue noted...)...the philological evidence alone does not allow an Indian origin of the Aryans...there is the matter of the nature of the common vocabulary shared by Sanskrit with the rest of Indo-Europen, which points to a more northerly ultimate home...The native Dravidian vocabulary has not been reconstructed. Burrow and Emeneau's Dravidian Etymological Dictionary (1960) only assembles materials for it... The civilization seems to have continued peacefully in Gujarat until a comparatively late period, i.e. 800 BC (Fairservis 1975: 307), after which it dissolved into the subsequent culture, which makes that area one of prime importance in detecting any Harappan influence on Aryan language and culture." (Colin P. Masica, The Indo-Aryan Languages, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991).

Language X, Nahali, Vedic A remarkable clue is provided by the existence of Nahali as an isolate language in the Narmada Valley, a valley which has assumed prominence as a neolithic precursor (ca. 10000 years Before Present) of the bronze-age civilization on the Sarasvati Sindhu River valleys. Was Nahali an Austro-asiatic language; or was it an Indo-European language? The vocabulary of Nahalii contains a number of words which may be interpreted as the Indo-Aryan substratum. The Gulf of Khambat Cultural Complex (GKCC) close to the area of the Nahali-speakers is only 300 kms. from Padri, Dholavira and Surkotada which are replete with stone structures; in Dholavira, ringstones and polished pillars of stone have been found. A maritime, riverine culture of the GKCC parallels the land-based, riverine, Mehrgarh neolithic evidence. Close to the Gulf of Khambat Cultural Complex where two submerged rivers have been discovered (possible extensions of palaeo-channels of River Tapti) are the speakers of Nahali language which is described as an Indo-Aryan language. http://www.hindunet.org/saraswati/khambat/khambat01.htm Sea-faring early Sarasvati, Meluhhan

Gulf of Khambat: locus of sunken rivers, 158

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extensions of palaeo-channels of Rivers Narmada and Tapati. (Courtesy: NIOT, Chennai)

culture: Amri-Nal sea coast settlements “…inhabitants were well acquainted with the sea and its resources” (After Fig. 4.124 in G. Possehl, 1999, p. 618)

Late Harappan settlements, Gujarat. Neolithic and Harappan period settlements in the cradle of the Sarasvati Civilization. The delta area is now called Rann of Kutch. [After KS Valdiya, 2002, Fig. 1.3]

Piotr Gasiorowski, a linguist active on the cybalist group: “Strictly speaking, Nahali (spoken on the upper Tapti) is not an isolate, though it's classified as such e.g. on the SIL site. Present-day Nahali is genetically an Indo-Aryan language whose lexicon shows several layers of absorbed substrates. Though the exact percentages apparently vary from dialect to dialect (while minor and endangered, Nahali is not a monolithic languages), according to Kuiper's estimates the largest lexical component (ca. 36%) is borrowed from Kurku (a.k.a. Korku, a Munda language), about 9% of Nahali words are Dravidian (e.g. the numerals 2, 3 and 4, whereas 5 and higher are Indo-Aryan), and some 25% are of unknown origin. Because of the high proportion of Munda loans Nahali has also been erroneously classified as a Munda language or even a dialect of Kurku. The etymologically obscure part of Nahali vocabulary is thought to represent an ancient pre-Indo-Aryan substrate of the Madhya Pradesh/Maharashtra border. Although the figure 25% may be exaggerated, the substrate -- unrelated to any known family -- seems to be real enough. Kuiper's attempts to establish a distant relationship between Nahali and Ainu ("Isolates of the world, unite!") should not be taken too seriously. It's quite possible that Central India was once a crazy quilt of tiny families. Relics of the Nahali substrate and perhaps of other, hitherto unidentified extinct languages may be lurking in the local varieties of Indo-Aryan, e.g. in the numerous but poorly investigated languages of the Bhil group.” http://groups.yahoo.com/group/cybalist/message/13915

Yes, Nahali is spoken on the upper reaches of the Tapati river valley. The Tapati river extensions have been submerged in the Gulf of Khambat when the gulf was formed ca. 10,000 yrs. Before Present and resulted in the start of regular monsoons in India. Nahali provides the key to unravel further the proto-Indo-Aryan using epigraphs of the 4th to 2nd millennia. Piotr's thoughts jibe with Emeneau's postulate on a linguistic area and Norman Brown's 159

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observations. Recognizing the structure of a proto-Indo-Aryan linguistic area may help explain the glyphs on inscribed objects found between ca. 3500 to 1500 BCE in SarasvatiSindhu River basins. bharukaccha, bharu-rat.t.ha = a kingdom which is said to have been swallowed up by the sea (Pali.lex.Ja_taka 2.169). Bhr.gu (cognate with bharu-) is va_run.i in R.gveda and is closely associated with the sea. Bharukaccha (Bharuch) is on the coast of Sindhu sa_gara (Arabian ocean) close to where the River Narmada joins the ocean. Was Nahali a language of the Bhils of western Bha_rata? Nahali was spoken on the River Tapti, NW of Ellichpur in Madhya Pradesh. Of the vocabulary, 36% are of Kurku (Munda) and 9% of Dravidian origin. Kuiper lists 123 items of vocabulary not reducible to Austro-Asiatic, Dravidian or IE roots, and calculates that “about 24 per cent of the Nahali vocabulary has no correspondence whatever in India”. (FBJ Kuiper, 1962, Nahali, a comparative study. Amsterdam: Noord-Hollandse Uitgevers Maatschappij, pp.49-50; 1966, The sources of Nahali vocabulary, in: H. Zide, Studies in comparative Austroasiatic. Linguistics, ed. N. H. Zide, The Hague, pp. 96-192). Bernard Sergent thinks that Nahali is an Austro-Asiatic language (Genèse de l’Inde, p.31.) About 40% of agricultural terminology in Hindi is derived from Language X (Colin P. Masica). Nahali language (like Basque or Burushaski) is an isolate language unrelated to the Indo-European family. http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/languagefamilies.html The genetic affiliation of Nahali is controversial and can be related to the 'linguistic area' of ca. 3500 BCE in the civilization area. About 40% of the lexicon is cognate to Munda languages, and some linguists therefore put it in that group. Among the numbers, 2-4 are borrowed from Dravidian, and 5-10 from Indic. Numerals in Nahali: bidum (m.), bidi (f.), 'one'; ir, ira 'two'; motho 'three', na_lo 'four'; pa~co 'five'; chah 'six'; sato 'seven'; atho 'eight'; nav 'nine'; das 'ten'; ba_ro 'twelve'. http://euslchan.tripod.com/isolated.htm Gondi manja 'man, person'; Tamil mântar 'people, men', man 'king, husband'; Old Japanese womina 'woman' (Modern Japanese onna); Ainu mene-ko 'woman'; Papuan munan, mando, mundu 'man'; Nahali mancho 'man'; Egyptian sn 'smell'; Hausa sansana 'smell'; Georgian sun 'smell'; Tamil, Malayalam cuNTu 'bill, beak, snout'; Basque sunda 'smell'; Tibetan sna 'smell'; Nahali chon 'nose'; Seneca oseno 'smell'; Wintu sono 'nose' "Nahale north of Amalwadi in Jalgaon District speak a language similar to Ahirani (Indo-European). Nihali and Nahali may be different languages. Nihal in Chikaldara taluk and Akola District have 25% lexical similarity with Korku (Munda). Nahal near Toranmal have 51% to 73% lexical similarity with several Bhil languages (Indo-European). They live in or near Korku villages, and identify closely with the Korku. Investigation needed: intelligibility with nearby Bhili languages, bilingual proficiency in Korku (Munda), Hindi, Marathi. Tropical forest. Mountain slope." http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=NHL

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Panchajanya: language of the five peoples of Bharat The sound of panchajanya s’ankha is symbolic of the sounds of the language spoken by the five peoples of Bharat. This language can be unraveled using the epigraphs of the Bharatiya civilization. Bhima killed 'As’vattha_ma', the elephant. Dron.a was struck with grief. Drona asked Yudhisthira if that was true. Yudhisthira said, Ashvatthama is killed; "elephant, not the man" he added in a low voice and the last phrase was not heard, was lost in the loud om-ka_ra (sound of om) generated by the blowing of the conch of Krishna, Panchajanya. Panchajanya lit. means ‘of the five people’, i.e. of all the five peoples, all the Bha_ratiya-s who lived in a civilization area of 1.25 million sq. kms. covering the regions of present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan and north-west Bharat. This shows the importance of s’ankha industry in the Sarasvati Krishna blowing the Panchajanya Civilization. This also shows that the s’ankha was s’ankha, Kurukshetra war an industry in which all the peoples of Bharat were engaged. The five people are referred to as Bha_ratam Janam by Vis’vamitra Gathina in the Rigveda. The continuity of the culture from the Sarasvati (Bharatiya) Civilization into the historical periods of Bharat has been attested by archaeological discoveries. Study of Archaeology and Language It is apposite to echo the views of Schrader who attempted a study of languages in the context of archaeological finds, to serve as an introduction to this analysis on the language of Sarasvati Sindhu Valley Civilization: "As the archaeologist armed with pick and shovel, descends into the depths of the earth, in order to trace the footsteps of the past in bone and stone-remains, so the student of language-- washed on the shore of history from ages immeasurably remote-- to reconstruct the picture of the primeval age... (Evolving a new method called the 'Comparative Antiquities')... It is on this triple basis that the present work is founded, bring designed as a comprehensive account of what we know at present about the pre-historic period of the Indo-European race." Schrader, O., Pre-historic Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples, 1890, Translation by Jevons, F.B.,from German Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte, 1890 (From the Author's Preface to the English Translation, p. iii-iv). Tradition and a dialectical continuum Such a metaphor of a Zebu bull or other thousand hieroglyphs can be expressed on any medium: copper plate inscription, glyphs assembled on a sign-board or incised on a weapon itself. The glyptic tradition of writing endures in Bharatiya tradition. The svastika_, the tree, the range of 161

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mountains, the dotted circle, the leaf, the tiger looking back, the antelope looking back, hooded serpent, are all hieroglyphic metaphors representing meaning, the material phenomena which provide for life-sustaining activities organized in a community which lives together, in an interdependent economy. The glyphs on the epigraphs are semantic indicators of a bharatiya language substratum called mleccha or bha_s.a_, the parole (va_k) a dialectical continuum traceable in all languages of Bharat: vedic mantra or Sanskrit lexemes (s’abda or dha_tu) or va_kyapadi_ya (lit. steps of va_k) elaborated by Bhartr.hari. The dialectical continuum evidenced by languages of Bharat (of all linguistic families) is matched by the cultural continuum in all parts of Bharat with the over-5000-year-old roots found on the banks of River Sarasvati.

Statuette showing a priest wearing uttari_yam, upper garment, leaving the right-shoulder bare. The garment has trefoil motif as on a stone pedestal used perhaps to mount a s’iva lingam.

Seated male figure with head missing (45, 46). On the back of the figure, the hair style can be partially reconstructed by a wide swath of hair and a 162

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braided lock of hair or ribbon hanging along the right side of the back. A cloak is draped over the edge of the left shoulder and covers the folded legs and lower body, leaving the right shoulder and chest bare. The left arm is clasping the left knee and the hand is visible peeking out from underneath the cloak. The right hand is resting on the right knee which is folded beneath the body. Material: limestone Dimensions: 28 cm height, 22 cm width Mohenjo-daro, L 950 Islamabad Museum Marshall 1931:358-9, pl. C, The texts of contiguous civilizations provide evidences of speakers of Bharatiya languages moving into new lands west of River Sindhu. The evidences relate to Bogazkoi inscriptions, Mitanni treaties and the glyphs of Mesopotamia and Elam, apart from Avestan texts which can be demonstrated as a direct evolution from Vedic. When availability of soma, electrum, diminishes, substitutes – plants -are used both in the Avestan and the Bra_hman.a periods, succeeding the Vedic periods. Juxtaposed to this evidence cluster, there is no evidence whatsoever, either textual or archaeological, supporting movements of people into Bharat during the lithic or chalcolithic or bronze or iron ages. Sarasvati is not a myth; theories proposing such movements into Bharat are myths created by an inadequate understanding of the indigenous evolution of cultures and cultural continuity of Bharatiya civilization. Sarasvati flowed in all majesty, the a_suri_ sarasvati for many millennia before the 4th millennium BCE and saw the dawn of a civilization, nurtured this civilization and left a heritage which is cherished even today all over Bharat. As projects get implemented, River Sarasvati will be re-born to create the impetus for effective water management and to continue to cherish the traditon of a_pah as sacred waters. The tradition flowing as Dharma, R.ta, Vrata and R.n.a is enduring: every phenomenon is an expression of the cosmic order, an affirmation of the consciousness order which is a quest for unifying the a_tman and the parama_tman, emphasizing responsibility. The very purpose of life is to understand the r.ta, the order, the inexorable rhythm. Every function governed by individual potential is a discharge of the debt, the r.n.a owed to ancestors, because the present life itself is a product of history and evey individual is a spark from the divine anvil. Vrata is a life lived enveloped in spirituality and yoga and with a discipline to 163

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relate oneself to social responsibility. This is the central message of the metaphor of Sarasvati as devi, divinity who can be seen as an a_pri_ devata_ and even in ghr.ta (clarified butter) as ghr.ta_ci_ This work presents two types of epigraphs: one type is the set of celestial epigraphs observed and recorded by Veda Vya_sa; the other type is the set of terrestrial epigraphs created by artisans, the vra_tya and yajn~ika of the Sarasvati civilization.. Sarasvati is associated with a writing system: Bra_hmi is another name for Sarasvati. The is the name of an early script used all over Bharat including Tamilnadu and S’ri Lanka. In the philological tradition of Bharat, bha_s.a_ is the parole, the mleccha. Vedic is the mantra. Samskr.tam is the literary, ‘correct’ form, which is a grammatically, morphologically reconstructed parole, represented by the spoken languages – such as Prakrit and Pali. All these dialectical variations evidence intense borrowings and constructions based on the substratum lexemes used by Bha_ratam Janam, the people of the nation of Bharat. The decoding of the epigraphs results in the reconstruction of the bha_s.a_ in vogue as lingua franca, circa 5500 years Before Present. The reconstruction covers over 2,000 glosses represented by over 600 hieroglyphs used on epigraphs of Sarasvati Civilization. The cumulative evidence, presented by archaeology and texts of contiguous civilization areas, affirms indigenous dawning and autochthonous evolution of the civilization of Bharat with intimations recording contacts with neighbouring civilizations in search of resources and exchange of products. Sarasvati Civilization was a riverine, maritime civilization; this is the reason why the civilization spanned an expansive area unparalleled in any civilizational area, during the 4th millennium BCE. This is also an abiding civilization since the cultural traits which unify the nation of Bharat can be traced to the roots which formed on the banks of River Sarasvati. The R.gveda adores River Sarasvati in 72 r.ca-s with just one mention of River Ganga which was later, during historical periods, to emerge as the river basin which supported the emergence of janapada-s and chakravarti ks.etra.

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Hieroglyphs of Sarasvati Civilization

Large updraft kiln, Harappa (ca. 2400 BCE), found in Mound E, 1984. (After Fig. 8.8, Kenoyer, 1998). A full-scale reconstruction of the ancient Harappan kiln. Harappa Archaeologcal Research Facility used to fire large storage jar, pottery and figurine replicas. (After Fig. 8.9, Kenoyer, 1998) Furnace for stoneware bangles. Mohenjodaro, DK-B, C dumps. View of the slag with the coated sub-cylindrical bowl enclosing the stoneware bangles in central position. (After Fig. 1, Massimo Vidale, 1984).

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Some samples of epigraphs presented with lexemes using rebus method The code of the epigraphs which use over 1000 glyphs has been cracked. The glyphs are hieroglyphs representing words rebus (sounding like), unlike the hieroglyphs of Egyptian civilization which are rebus syllables. The epigraphs are property items possessed by the owner of the object on which epigraphs are inscribed. The items are: minerals, metals, furnaces, tools and implements made of minerals and metals. The inscriptions occur on copper tablets and also on weapons themselves, apart from seals, tablets and bangles. Only a metallurgist and lapidary had the competence to inscribe on metal. The legacy continues into the historical periods in Bharat when copper plate inscriptions are used to record property transactions. Rebus: kuduru = goldsmith’s portable furnace (Te.) h172B The over-arching glyph is that of a lizard. kudur d.okka a kind of lizard (Pa.); kudur d.okke id. (Go.); kudur d.ekke garden lizard (Go.); kidri d.okke house lizard (Go.)(DEDR 1712). The glyph is sometimes shown catching the scale of a fish. a~s = scale of fish (Santali); rebus: ayas ‘metal’ (Skt.) bed.a = either opening of a hearth (G.); bed.a hako = a type of fish (Santali) cf. assem ‘electrum’ (Old Egyptian) cf. kamsala = of the goldsmith’s caste; kamsamu = bell-metal; kamsalava_d.u = a goldsmith, a silversmith, a jeweler working in gold, silver and gems; kamsa_lava_d.u, kamsa_li = kamsa (Te.) ams’u = filament of soma (S’Br.); amsu thread (Pali); amsu sunbeam (Pkt.)(CDIAL 4) hasli_ = gold or silver collar (P.); hasu = silver collar (S.)(CDIAL 6).

m0492At

m0492Bt Pict-14: Two bisons standing face to face.

samr.obica, stones containing gold (Mundari.lex.) saul., saul = rather brackish (M.); caud.u = fuller’s earth (Te.)(DEDR 2386) Depicting gold (metal) and a goldsmith in hieroglyphs of Sarasvati Civilization It is hypothesized that soma in the R.gveda is derived from the substratum lexemes: samanom ‘gold’ (Santali); hom ‘gold’ (Ka.); somnakay ‘gold’ (Gypsy) cf. assem ‘electrum’ (Old Egyptian) soma man.al = sand containing silver ore (Winslow Ta. Lexicon) cf. haoma = soma (Avestan) A number of glyphs depicted on epigraphs may relate to this substantive semant. connoting ‘gold’. A fine distinction can be drawn between the glosses: hom ‘gold’ and samanom ‘gold’: hom (< soma) may connote the ore (unpurified); samanom may connote the metal after the mineral ore has been subjected to fire and purified by oxiding the baser metals in the ore. Glyph: saman = to offer an offering or sacrifice, to place in front of (Santali) ho_ma = the act of making an oblation to the gods by casting clarified butter into the fire, accompanied with reciting mantras; an oblation of clarified butter, an oblation with fire, a burnt-offering; a sacrifice; ho_ma_gni = sacrificial fire, the fire for an oblation (Ka.) sa_man = song accompanying processing of soma in sa_maveda (Vedic) The cluster of semant. in this section, points to the processing of soma as related to electrum. Rebus substantive: samanom = an obsolete name for gold (Santali) hom = pom, hem = gold; hombat.t.al = a golden cup; hombara.ni = a gold jar or vase; hombar-e = go gild; hombesavu = gold 166

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soldering (Ka.) hem = a medicinal garden plant with yellow heads of flowers, spilanthes semella (Ka.) hon, honnu = gold (Ka.) honnu = gold, an old gold coin; honnittad.i = a kind of brass which has the appearance of gold (Te.) somn.a = gold (Pkt.); son.n.a = golden (Pali); suvarn.a = of bright colour, golden (RV); gold (AV); sovnakay, so_nakai, somnakay = gold (Gypsy)(CDIAL 13519) soni = jeweller (Bi.)(CDIAL 13623). sa_ma_nu = instruments; apparatus, furniture, goods, chattels (Ka.M.); sama_na (H.) sa_ma_nu = things, goods, articles, tools, apparatus (Te.) 2222 Pict-80: Three-faced, horned person (with a threem1181A leaved pipal branch on the crown), wearing bangles and armlets and seated, in a yogic posture, on a hoofed platform Glyph: camman.am, cappan.am = sitting cross-legged (Ta.); camman.am = id. (Ma.)(DEDR 2350). Glyph: saman.a = ascetic (Pali.Pkt.); s’raman.a, s.aman.a (KharI.); s’raman.a = ascetic, religious mendicant (S’Br.)(CDIAL 12683). Root: s’ram = weary (Skt.); s’rama = labour (RV)(CDIAL 12682). Thus, s’raman.a can be semant. interpreted as a worker, a labourer. In the context of samanom ‘gold’ (Santali), s’raman.a may be elaborated as a goldsmith. Such an artisan can be represented glyptically by an ascetic, or a yogi in penance (as a horned person seated on a platform). Glyph: sama_n.o = a goldsmith’s pincers (G.); cimat.ige, cimat.a = a pair of tweezers, pincers, nippers (Ka.M.); cimat.a_, cimit.a_, cimmat.i (Te.); cavan.e, cavin.e (Ma.); ca_man.a, ca_van.a, s’ravan.a (Ta.)(Ka.lex.) cimt.a_ to pinch (B.); cimat.n.e~ id. (M.)(CDIAL 4822). cimut.u = to squeeze, pinch (Ka.)(DEDR 2540). Glyph: homa = bison (Pe.); hama id. (Mand.); soma = a wild buffalo (= bison)(Kui); homma bison (Kuwi); ho_ma sambar (Kuwi)(DEDR 2849). koma, komo = horn (Pe.); kumu id. (Mand.); komma, ko_ma, komma = branch (Kuwi); kommu = horn (Kuwi)(DEDR 2115). Glyph: som = both (of parts of the body)(Kho.); som pa_zo = on your two breasts (Kho.); sama = every, pl. all (RV); all (Pkt.)(CDIAL 13174). Glyph: saman = front, to front or face; samna samni = in front, face to face, confronting; samne = facing, face to face; in the presence of (Santali) cf. sama_na = equal, like (G.) sama_na = same, alike ($RV); an equal (VS); like, equal (Pali); sama_n.a (Pkt.); sama_n = like, equal, average (K.); sama_n.u~ = like, equal (G.)(CDIAL 13211). sama = equal, alike, level (RV); sama id. (Pali.Pkt.); somo = friend of the same age (Sh.); somu, sombu = level (K.); so~a_ (B.)(CDIAL 13173). cimmar.na_ = to copulate (P.); cimat.na_ = to embrace closely (H.)(CDIAL 4822). sa_mu = fencing, athletics, gymnastics, calisthenics (Te.)

Yogi with bangles, headdress and seated on a hoofed platform: silver smithy, metal kiln 167

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2222 Pict-80: Three-faced, horned person (with a three-leaved pipal branch on m1181A the crown), wearing bangles and armlets and seated, in a yogic posture, on a hoofed platform. There are other objects with epigraphs with a comparable motif of a yogi. Unprovenanced Harappan-style cylinder seal impression; Musee du Louvre; cf. Corbiau, 1936, An Indo-Sumerian cylinder, Iraq 3, 100-3, p. 101, Fig.1; De Clercq Coll.; burnt white agate; De Clercq and Menant, 1888, No. 26; Collon, 1987, Fig. 614. A hero grasping two tigers and a buffalo-and-leaf-horned person, seated on a stool with hoofed legs, surrounded by a snake and a fish on either side, a pair of water buffaloes. Another person stands and fights two tigers and is surrounded by trees, a markhor goat and a vulture above a rhinoceros. Text: 9905 Prob. West Asian find Pict-117: two bisons facing each other. Mohenjo-daro. Sealing. Surrounded by fishes, gharials? (monitor lizards) and snakes, a horned person sits in 'yoga' on a throne with hoofed legs. One side of a triangular terracotta amulet (Md 013); surface find at Mohenjo-daro in 1936. Dept. of Eastern Art, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. The yogi is in penance. Glyph: kamad.ha, kamat.ha, kamad.haka, kamad.haga, kamad.haya = a type of penance (Pkt.lex.) kabat.a, kapat.e, kappat.e, kappad.i, kappad.e, kabat.e, kabbat.e, gabbila_yi = a bat (Ka.); kapt. = butterfly, moth (Ko.)(DEDR 1216). Rebus: kamat.amu, kammat.amu = a portable furnace for melting precious metals; kammat.i_d.u = a goldsmith, a silversmith (Te.lex.) Glyph: ko_t.u = horns (Ta.) Rebus: kod. = artisan’s workshop (Kuwi) The glyph of seated person may be analysed with reference to the orthographic details depicted in two parts: one above the waist and the other below the waist. Glyphs above the waist seem to depict the semant. of kiln, furnace. Glyphs below the waist seem to depict the semant. of workshop. The substantive property item conveyed by the message is a kiln or furnace (cul.l.ai) for native metal (aduru). Rebus: cul.l.ai = potter’s kiln, furnace (Ta.); cu_l.ai furnace, kiln, funeral pile (Ta.); cul.l.a potter’s furnace; cu_l.a brick kiln (Ma.); culli_ fireplace (Skt.); culli_, ulli_ id. (Pkt.)(CDIAL 4879; DEDR 2709). 168

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Rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ (Ka.) 1. The face is depicted with bristles of hair, representing a tiger’s mane. cu_d.a_, cu_la_, cu_liya_ tiger’s mane, topknot, peacock;’s crest (Pkt.); cula_ hair of head, lock, headdress (B.); cu_r. topknot, ceremony of tonsure (H.)(CDIAL 4883). The person wears bangles on his arms, from wrist to fore-arm. Glyph: cu_d.a = bracelet (Skt.); cu_d.a, cu_laa bracelet (Pkt.);. cu_r.o (S.); cu_r., cu_r.a_ (L.P.); cur.o (Ku.); curo, curi (N.); suri_ a kind of ornament (A.); cu_r., cur.a_ bracelet (B.); cu_r.i_ (Or.Mth.); cu_ra_ anklet, bracelet (OAw.); cu_r.a_ ring on elephant’s tusk, bracelet; cu_r.i_ bangle (H.); cu_r., cu_r.i_, cu_r.o (G.); cud.a_ (M.)(CDIAL 4883). chur. bangle, bracelet (P.) chhura_ (P.) tsud.o, tsude.a_ (Kon.); suri, surye (Kon:kan.i) [Note the glyph of a horned, seated person wearing bracelets from wrist to forearm] Alternative rebus of glyphs of person seated on a platform: hasani ‘furnace’; asani ‘seated’; pin.d.i ‘platform’; Rebus: bhin.d.ia ‘a lump, applied especially to the mass of iron taken from the smelting furnace’. 2. The person wears a headdress with twigs; the glyph can be represented by two lexical clusters. cul.li = dry twigs, small stick, branch (Ta.); a dry spray, sprig, brushwood (Ma.); cul.l.ai a chip, fuel stick; nul.l.i small sticks for firewood (Ma.); cul.k long pliable stick, stalk of plant (Ko.)(DEDR 2706). ad.aru twig; ad.iri small and thin branch of a tree; ad.ari small branches (Ka.); ad.aru twig (Tu.)(DEDR 67). Cf. at.artti = thickly grown as with bushes and branches (Ta.) d.ar a branch; dare a tree; a plant; to grow well; ban: darelena it did not grow well; toa dare mother, the support of life (Santali) The glyphs below the waist (waist-band, hoofed platform) may be related to silver (khura) workshop (man.d.a_) He wears a waist-band. Rebus: karma_ras’a_la = workshop of blacksmith (Skt.) Glyph: kamarsa_la = waistband (Te.) Rebus: khura silver (Nk.); kuruku ‘whiteness’; kuru brilliancy (Ta.); kuro silver (Kol.Nk.Go.)(DEDR 1782). koru = bar of metal (Ta.) khura = razor (Pali); ks.ura (RV.), sharp barb of arrow (R.); khura_ iron nail to fix ploughshare (H.) khuro (N.) head of a spear That silver metal is conveyed by the glyph is reinforced on other epigraphs where a seated person is shown with hooked snakes rearing on either side of the platform. Since silver ore occurs with lead, the snake glyph may be read as: na_ga ‘snake’ (Skt.) Rebus: na_ga = lead (Skt.) cf. anakku = lead, tin (Akkadian). On glyphs of composite animals, a hooked snake is depicted as a tail of the animal 169

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composite. xola_ = tail (Kur.) Rebus: kol ‘metal’ (Ta.) Thus conveying lead-metal: na_ga kol cf. tuttuna_kam = zinc (Te.); tuttuna_gamu = zinc, pewter (Te.) man.d.ana an ornament, a decoration; jewels; trinkets; adorning (G.) fr. man.d. (Skt.)

m0453At m453BC 1629 Pict-82 Person seated on a pedestal flanked on either side by a kneeling adorant and a hooded serpent rearing up. Glyph: khura = hoof (Santali) Thigh = khura (Ka_tyS'r.), kuracu , kuraccai = horse's hoof (Ta.), kul.ampu = hoof (Ta.) kur_aku (Ma.) ku_t.a = hip (Tu.) kurki = thigh (Go.) Rebus: man.d.a_ = warehouse, workshop (Kon.lex.) man.n.u to do, perform, adorn, decorate, polish (Ta.); man.ai to create, fashion (Ta.); manayuka, maniyuka to fashion, form earthenware, make as a potter (Ma.)(DEDR 4685). man.i jewel of office (Skt.); man.iyam office of the village headman (Ta.); superintendence of temples, palaces, villages (Ma.); man.e.v, man.ye.v the office of monegar (Ko.); man.iya, man.iha, man.eya, man.e superintendence of temples, maths, palaces, customhouses (Ka.); man.iga_re revenue inspector (Tu.); man.iyamu office or duties of the manager of a temple (Te.)(DEDR 4674). Glyph: seated: asan man.d.ao ‘to sit tailor-wise for a long time, to sit about with nothing to do; lazy; to lie down, as an animal in its lair’; asan man.d.ao akanae, hokrho kan leka ‘he has taken up his position as if he were a watchman’ (Santali) mat.ku squat, squab, fat and short (Santali) asan man.d.ao, pat.gan.d.o to squat, to sit tailorwise (Santali) man.t.i kneeling on one knee as an archer (Ta.); man.tuka to be seated on the heels (Ma.); man.d.i what is bent, the knee (Ka.); knee (Tu.); kneeling on one knee (Te.); men.d.a_, mind.a knee (Go.); med.a, men.d.a id. (Kond.a); mend.a id. (Pe.KuiKuwi); mand.u_ki part of elephant’s hind leg; met. knee-joint (M.)(DEDR 4677). man.d.i = kneeling position (Te.lex.) mandil, mandir = temple (Santali) ma_d.a = shrine of a demon (Tu.); ma_d.ia = house (Pkt.); ma_l.a a sort of pavilion (Pali); ma_l.ikai = temple (Ta.)(DEDR 4796). Glyph: platform: man.d.hwa, man.d.ua, man.d.wa ‘a temporary shed or booth erected on the occasion of a marriage’; man.d.om ‘a raised platform or scaffold’; ma~r.om ‘a platform, used to keep straw on, or from which to watch crops’ (Santali) man.ai low wooden seat, low earthen dais, wooden base of cutting instyruments, footstool (Ta.); man.i, man.e stool, low bench, seat (Ka.); man.e low stool to sit upon (Tu.)(DEDR 4675). Duplicated and paired glyphs A characteristic feature of use of glyphs to compose epigraphs is the duplication of glyphs or pairing of the same glyph. Some examples are: • • • • • •

Duplicated and paired one-horned heifer Duplicated and paired shor-horned bull Duplicated and paired antelope looking back Duplicated and paired scorpions Duplicated and paired fishes Duplicated and paired bangles (or millstone) 170

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m0296 Two heads of one-horned bulls with neck-rings, joined end to end (to a standard device with two rings coming out of the top part?), under a stylized tree with nine leaves.

1387

kamat.ha ‘ficus religiosa’; rebus: kampat.amu ‘furnace’. Substantive: lo ‘iron’ (Assamese, Bengali); loa ‘iron’ (Gypsy) Glyph: lo = nine (Santali); no = nine (B.) [Note the count of nine ‘ficus’ leaves depicted on the epigraph.] damad.i, dammad.i = a ka_su, the fourth part of a dud.d.u or paisa (Ka.M.); damad.i_ (H.) damr.i, dambr.i = one eighth of a pice (Santali) dammid.i = pice (Te.) Grapheme: damad.i, dammad.i = a small tambourine with gejjes (Ka.) Grapheme: damr.a m. a steer; a heifer; damkom = a bull calf (Santali) Rebus: damha = a fireplace; dumhe = to heap, to collect together (Santali)

m440AC Two short-horned bulls facing each other on the top register. Rebus: aduru = native metal (Ka.) Glyph: ad.ar = bull (Santali)

Lothal123A

Lothal123B

er-r-a = an earthworm; era a bait, food (Te.lex.) [Note. The earthwork flanked by two antelopes on a Lothal Persian Gulf seal]. Rebus: ere ‘a dark-red or dark brown colour, copper’ (Ka.); eruvai copper (Ta.)(DEDR 817). mlekh = antelope; melukka = copper. What is depicted is Meluhha copper. Rahman-dheri01A and B Rhd1: Two scorpions flanking a ‘frog?’ [?kamat.ha] and a sign T with two holes on the top, possibly to be tied on a string [Together with bica_, sand ore, the sign, ‘T’ may connote another ore, perhaps tin]. Glyph: kaca kupi = scorpion (Kuwi) Rebus: kanca_ = a marble (made of stone or lac)(Ka.) Stone beads! ka_ca_ = glass (Santali) kan~cu = bronze (Te.)

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Sa_n~ci stu_pa with a glyph of two fishes ligatured. S’ri_vatsa symbol seems to have evolved from a stylized glyph showing ‘two fishes’. In the sa_n~ci stu_pa, the fish-tails of two fishes are combined to flank the ‘sri_vatsa’ glyph. In a Jaina a_ya_gapat.a, a fish is ligatured within the s’ri_vatsa glyph, emphasizing the association of the ‘fish’ glyph with s’ri_vatsa glyph. bed.a = either of the sides of a hearth; be = two (G.) be_d.a = one-eighth part; two-anna piece (Te.) Glyph: bed.a hako = fish (Santali) hako = axe (Santali) be_d.isa = a sort of carp, the silver-fish, cyprinus chrysoparius (Te.) Grapheme: be_d.i = a chain, a fetter (Ka.Te.)

Glyph: cur.i a bracelet, a bangle (Santali) Glyph: millstone: san:ghat.i = a millstone, that crushes (Ka.) Grapheme: cur.a a pinnacle, spire, crest (Santali) cu_d.a_ = topknot on head; cu_lika_ cockscomb (Skt.) Rebus: cu_l.ai, ‘kiln’ (Ta.) culli = a fireplace (Ka.) The pairing can be explained by a lexeme: san:gad.a = two; san:gad.am double-canoe (Ta.); jan:gala (Tu.); san:gala pair; han:gula, an:gula double canoe, raft (Si.)(CDIAL 12859). Rebus: san:gha_d.o, saghad.i_ (G.) = firepan; saghad.i_, s'aghad.i = a pot for holding fire (G.)[cula_ sagad.i_ portable hearth (G.)] Thus, the pairing or duplicating a glyph is a way of connoting a saghad.i_ ‘a portable hearth’ (G.) Each of the paired glyphs can be explained as a hearth, saghad.i for (1) copper; (2) native metal; (3) tin alloy; (4) axe; and (5) bangle: • • • • • •

Rebus: damr.i = copper; tamb(r)a = copper (Skt.); tamba = copper (Santali) Glyph: onehorned bull damr.a ‘steer, heifer’ Rebus: aduru = native metal (Ka.) Glyph: ad.ar = bull (Santali) Rebus: t.agromi = tin metal alloy (Kuwi) Glyph: tagara = antelope, ram (Skt.) [Looking back: krammarincu (Te.) Rebus: kamar = blacksmith (Santali)] Rebus: kanca, kancu = bell metal (Ka.); kan~ca = id. (Ta.); kamsa = id. (Ka.) kanca_ = a marble (made of stone or lac)(Ka.) Glyph: kaca kupi = scorpion (Kuwi) kaccu = biting, a bite (Ka.) Rebus hako = axe (Santali); bed.a = hearth (G.) Glyph: bed.a hako = fish (Santali) Rebus culli = furnace, kiln (Ka.) Glyph: cur.i = bangle (Santali) 172

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Recurrent pairs of signs and paired lexemes These high frequency pairs of glyphs can be explained by many indic lexemes using the rebus method to identify each glyph and corresponding substantive message sought to be conveyed on epigraphs.

Sign342 (1395) kanka = rim of pot (Santali) Rebus: kan:ka = a metal (Pali); kan- = copper (Ta.) kanaka = gold; kanaka_dhyaks.a = superintendent of gold, treasurer (Skt.) kan-n-a_r, blacksmiths, coppersmiths (Ta.) kan.d.a = a pot of certain shape and size (Santali) Rebus: kan.d. = altar, furnace (Santali) khan.d.a = instrument, implement, weapon; khan.d.a puruskedae, he stretched his arm grasping the sword as high as he could; khan.d.a bhan.d.a = implements of all kinds, arms of all sorts (Santali.lex.) khan.d.a puruskedae, he stretched his arm grasping the sword as high as he could (Santali.lex.)

Sign 17 (91) The glyph is a ligature of a ‘guard’ + ficus glomerata: ban:ku + loa (Te.Santali) Rebus: ban:gala = goldsmith’s portable furnace (Te.) + loh ‘iron, metal’ (Santali) kambiga = a mace bearer, a doorkeeper (Ka.) Rebus: kambi = wire (Ka.Ta.Te.Ma.Tu.); kammi id. (Te.); kambi = an iron band; a bar of iron, a rail; a bar (Ka.); kambi = a club, a mace (Ka.); kambu id. (Ma.) Rebus: kambu = s’ambu = a conch, a shell; a bracelet (Ka.) Sign 18 (27)

(25)

Copper tablets (15)

Sign 25 (53)

Copper tablets (12)

Pairing glyph: nine divisions; lo ‘nine’ (Santali) rebus: loh ‘iron, metal’ (Skt.); khan.d.a ‘division’ (Skt.); kan.d. = furnace, altar (Santali) lokhan.d. ‘iron, ironware, tools’ (G.) lo + khan.d. = rebus: loh ‘iron’ + kan.d. ‘furnace, altar’ (Santali) Glyph: t.ha_t.hum = a frame-work, the body; t.ha_t.ha = state, dignity, pomp (G.) Hem. Des. t.ha_n.a = Skt. ma_nah pride, fr. Skt. stha_nam manner of standing, fr. stha_ ‘to stand’ (G.) Rebus: t.hat.era = a brazier, a caste who manufacture and sell brass ware; t.hat.ori = a worker in brass, a goldsmith (Santali)

(14) Sign 1 (134) t.ha_t.hum = a frame-work, the body; t.ha_t.ha = state, dignity, pomp (G.) Hem. Des. t.ha_n.a = Skt. ma_nah pride, fr. Skt. stha_nam manner of standing, fr. stha_ ‘to stand’ (G.) 173

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t.a_t.um = a bamboo-frame which serves as a seat (G.) t.hat.ra = a kind of bamboo mat (Santali) Rebus: t.hat.era = a brazier, a caste who manufacture and sell brass ware; t.hat.ori = a worker in brass, a goldsmith (Santali) t.ha_n:kum = a skelton (G.) ten:goc = to stand upright (Santali) ten:go, ‘to stand’; ten:go, ‘to assume responsibility (Santali) te_jate_ = is sharp, sharpens (RV); te_jati = is sharp, shapens, incites (Pali); te_ai sharpens (Pkt.); tevn.e~ = to shine, burn (M.)(CDIAL 5945). Te_jas = sharp edge of a knife, glow (RV); fiery energy (AV); te_h = fire, arrogance (K.)(CDIAL 5946) tega = a sword; tega_ = a scimitar (G.Persian) tega_r = property, substance (G.Persian) t.a_n:kan.um = a chisel (G.); t.an:ka_ = an instrument for digging, khanitram (Hem.Des. G.)

(93) Sign 8 (105) A variant of Sign 8 is a horned, standing person ligatured to the buttocks of a bull. d.hagara_m = pl. the buttocks, hip (G.) Rebus: d.han:gar = blacksmith ban:ku = guard (Te.) Rebus: ban:gala = kumpat.i, an:ga_ra s’akat.a ‘chafing dish, portable stove, goldsmith’s portable furnace’ (Te.)

Sign 12 (80)

kut.i ‘water carrier’; rebus: kut.hi ‘furnace’

Graphemes, i.e. glyphs which could be rebus for kol ‘metal’: kol.i_ = water carrier (M.) xola_ = tail (Kur.); qoli = id. (Malt.)(DEDR 2135). kolli = a fish (Ma.); koleji id. (Tu.)(DEDR 2139). ko_la_ flying fish, exocaetus, garfish, belone (Ta.) ko_la_n, ko_li needle-fish (Ma.)(DEDR 2241). ko_li = a stubble of jo_l.a (Ka.) ko_le a stub or stumpof corn (Te.)(DEDR 2242). Ko_l.i = banyan, fig (Ta.Ma.); go_l.i fig (Ka.); banyan (Tu.)(DEDR 2254). ko_l raft, float (Ta.Ka.); kola boat, raft (Skt.BHSkt.); kulla (Palli)(DEDR 2238) ko_la decoration (Ka.); ko_lam = form (Ta.Ma.)(DEDR 2240). Rebus: kol = metal (Ta.)

(26)

Sign 15 (126)

Sign 15: Ligature: kut.i ‘water-carrier’ + kanka ‘rim of pot’; rebus: kut.hi ‘furnace’ + kan‘copper 174

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Pairing glyph: kan:kata = comb (Te.) Rebus: kan:gar = portable furnace (K.) 1.Finely burnished gold fillet (headband) with holes at both ends to hold a cord. Each end is decorated with a punctuated design of standard device. 42 x 1.4 cm. Mohenjodaro Museum, MM 1366; Marshall 1931: 220.527. Pl. CXVIII, 14 (for punctuated design) 2. Detail of gold fillet with punctuated design of standard device at both ends of the gold fillet. (After Fig. 7.32, Kenoyer, 1998)The standard device is a ligature of a lathe and a portable furnace. It is san:gad.a

Standard device. Centre: carved in ivory (HR 93-2092) flanked by device depicted on faience tablets (HR 90-1687, H93-2051),

Harappa

Processional scene from a terracotta tablet. After Marshall 1931, Pl. CXVIII,9 (10)

Sign 28 (50)

Ligature on sign 28: dhanus ‘bow’ (Skt.) dhan.i_ = the owner, the possessor (G.) Glyph: kama_t.hiyo = archer; ka_mat.hum = a bow; ka_mad.i_, ka_mad.um = a chip of bamboo (G.) ka_mat.hiyo a bowman; an archer (Skt.lex.) Rebus: kamat.ha_yo ‘a learned carpenter or mason, working on scientific principles’ (Santali) kammat.a = mint, gold furnace (Te.) Pairing sign: t.agara = taberna mntana (Skt.) t.agromi = tin metal alloy (Kuwi)

(114) 36 (10)

Sign 48 (168)

Copper tablets (13)

h172B Field Symbol

Sign 48: barad.o = spine, the backbone, back (G.) Rebus: bharatiyo = a caster of metals, a brazier; bharatar, bharatal, bharatal. = moulded; an article made in a mould (G.) Glyph: t.hat.ra = m. emaciated (Santali) Rebus: t.hat.era = a brazier, a caste who manufacture and sell brass ware; t.hat.ori = a worker in brass, a goldsmith (Santali) 175

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(16)

(40)

Sign 53 (130)

era_ = claws of an animal that can do no harm (G.) era, eraka = copper (Ka.) Substantive: dha_tu ‘mineral’ (Vedic); a mineral, metal (Santali); dha_ta id. (G.) tan.t.ava_l.am = cast iron, iron rail, girder (Ta.); tan.d.ava_l.a cast iron (Ka.)(DEDR 3050). d.ato ‘claws or pincers (chelae) of crabs’; d.at.om to seize with the claws or pincers, as crabs, scorpions (Santali) Pairing sign: a~s = scale of fish (Santali) Rebus: ayas = metal (Skt.) The three signs together: Middle sign: kan.d. kanka ‘rim of pot’; rebus: kan.d. ‘furnace’ + kanka ‘copper metal’ Flanking this sign are d.ato ‘claws’; rebus: dhatu ‘mineral’; a~s ‘scales of fish’; rebus: ayas ‘metal’. Thus furnace for metal and mineral.

(10)

Sign 155 (49)

(55) (44) Symbol 36 (17)

Sign 59 (381)

Copper tablets (14)

h172B Field

Sign 59 : bed.a hako = a fish (Santali) Rebus: bed.a = hearth; hako = axe (Santali) Sign 155: kan.d.a, ka_n.d.a, ka_d.e = an arrow (Ka.) ka_n.d., ka_n., ko_n., ko~_, ka~_r. arrow (Pas'.); ka~_d.i_ arrow (G.) Rebus: kan.d. = altar, furnace (Santali) Glyph: kan. = arrow, wooden handle of a hoe, pickaxe or other tool (Ta.)(DEDR 1166). Rebus: kan- = copper (Ta.) s'ili_ dart, arrow (Skt.) s’ila = rocks (Skt.)

(44)

(24)

(18)

(20)

Sign 65 (216)

Copper tablets (16)

176

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Sign 65 is a ligatured glyph: bed.a hako = a fish. Rebus: bed.a = hearth (G.) ligatured with a ‘lid’ glyph. d.aren-mund.i lid of pot; d.aren, ad.aren to cover up pot with lid (Bond.a); d.arai to cover (Bond.a.Hindi) Rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ (Ka.), i.e. hearth for native metal.

Pairing sign

Liquid measure: ran:ku; rebus: ran:ku = tin (Santali)

Pairing sign savat.u, savut.u, saut.u, so_t.u = ladle, spoon (Ka.) Rebus: caval.ai = lead, silver (Ta.)

(28)

(26)

(32) (21) Sign 67 (279) Copper tablets (8) Sign 67: a~s ‘scales of fish’; rebus: ayas ‘metal’ (RV) bed.a hako = a fish; rebus: bed.a = hearth. Thus, a~s bed.a = metal hearth.

(10) Sign 70 (73) Copper tablets (5) A spot or mark is ligatured to ‘fish’ glyph: dag = to mark, stain, brand, cauterize; a blemish, a spot, stigma, mark (Santali) Rebus: dagad.a, dagad.o = a large stone; a large lump of earth (G.) bed.a hako = a fish; rebus: bed.a = hearth. Thus, Sign 70 denotes a hearth for stone or lump of earth.

(10)

(24)

(21) Sign 72 (188) Copper tablets (20) Glyph is a slanting stroke ligatured to ‘fish’ glyph: d.ha_l.iyum = adj. sloping, incliding; d.ha_l. = a slope; the inclination of a plane (G.) Rebus: : d.ha_l.ako = a large metal ingot; d.ha_l.aki_ = a metal heated and poured into a mould; a solid piece of metal; an ingot (G.) bed.a hako = a fish; rebus: bed.a = hearth. Thus, Sign 72 denotes a hearth for metal ingot. (12) (10) Sign 86 (149) Glyph: a long linear stroke; kod.a = in arithmetic, one (Santali) Rebus: kod.a, kor.a = shell (Santali)

177

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: at.ar a splinter; at.aruka to burst, crack, slit off, fly open; Together with pairing sign Sign 99 at.arcca splitting, a crack; at.arttuka to split, tear off, open (an oyster)(Ma.); ad.aruni to crack (Tu.)(DEDR 66) the epigraph of Signs 86 and 99 may be read as: shell, native metal (kod.a aduru).

is a ligature of kan.d.a kanka ‘rim of pot’ + kut.i ‘water carrier’. Rebus: kan.d.a kanka ‘altar for copper’ + kut.hi ‘metal furnace’. (9) (58)

Sign 127 (50) Sign 51 (105)

(39) Sign 130 (63) h172B Field Symbol 36 (10) Sign 51 kaca kupi ‘scorpion’ (Santali) Rebus: kan~cu = bronze (Te.) Sign 130 : t.un.d.a = to prod, to poke at as with a stick (Santali) Pairing sign Sign 127 du~_t.u = butt, push (Te.)(DEDR 3380. to_r.o~_ = a pole with an iron hook or branch curved at one extremity (Kur.) Rebus: tun.d.u – fragment, piece (Ka.); tun.d.u piece, slice (Te.)(DEDR 3310). (44) Sign 150 (63) Sign 149: glyph: kod.a, kor.a = in arithmetic one; kod.a, kor.a = a shell, a mite (Santali) Rebus: kod., ‘artisan’s workshop’ Sign 150 glyph: tat.am = road, path, route, gate, footstep (Ta.); dad.d.a road (Ir.); dar.v path, way (Ko)(DEDR 3024). tot.xin, tot.xn goldsmith (To.); tat.t.a_n- gold or silver smith (Ta.); goldsmith (Ma.); tat.t.e = goldsmith (Kod.); tat.rava_~d.u = goldsmith or silversmith (Te.); *t.hat.t.haka_ra brassworker (Skt.)(CDIAL 5493).

tat.t.ai = mechanism made of split bamboo for scaring away parrots from grain fields (Ta.); tat.t.e = a thick bamboo or an areca-palm stem, split in two (Ka.)(DEDR 3042).

178

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: at.ar a splinter; at.aruka to burst, crack, slit off, fly open; Pairing sign, Sign 99 at.arcca splitting, a crack; at.arttuka to split, tear off, open (an oyster)(Ma.); ad.aruni to crack (Tu.)(DEDR 66). Rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ (Ka.) (11)

(11)

(30) Sign 123 (193) Pairing glyphs: a~s ‘scales of fish’; rebus: ayas ‘metal’ (RV) Ligature on fish: ‘lid’ : d.aren-mund.i lid of pot; d.aren, ad.aren to cover up pot with lid (Bond.a); d.arai to cover (Bond.a.Hindi) cf. at.al = a kind of fish (Ta.); at.ava = a marine fish (Ma.); ad.ami_nu = a fish; ad.a_vu id. (Tu.)(DEDR 68). Rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ + bed.a hako = fish; rebus: bed.a ‘hearth’ + hako ‘axe’. Cf. ha_t.aka = gold; ha_t.aka-giri = Meru mountain; ha_t.akes’vara = name of lin:ga in pa_ta_laloka (Ka.) Pairing sign: kan.d.a kanka ‘rim of pot’. Rebus: kan.d. kanka ‘furnace for copper, kan-‘

(17) (16) (65) (24) (29)

(16) (40) (43) (17) (19)

Sign 99 (649)

The ligature is made up of two glyphs: ( ) together with tagara = taberna montana (Skt.) Rebus: t.agromi = tin metal alloy (Kuwi) kut.ila = bent, crooked (Skt.) kut.ila (Skt. Rasaratna samuccaya, 5.205) Humpbacked kud.illa (Pkt.) Rebus: kut.ila, katthi_l = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin) [cf. a_ra-ku_t.a, ‘brass’ (Skt.)] Sign 99 : at.ar a splinter; at.aruka to burst, crack, slit off, fly open; at.arcca splitting, a crack; at.arttuka to split, tear off, open (an oyster)(Ma.); ad.aruni to crack (Tu.)(DEDR 66). Rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ (Ka.) era_ = claws of an animal that can do no harm (G.) era, eraka = copper (Ka.) 179

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Substantive: dha_tu ‘mineral’ (Vedic); a mineral, metal (Santali); dha_ta id. (G.) tan.t.ava_l.am = cast iron, iron rail, girder (Ta.); tan.d.ava_l.a cast iron (Ka.)(DEDR 3050). d.ato ‘claws or pincers (chelae) of crabs’; d.at.om to seize with the claws or pincers, as crabs, scorpions (Santali)

Sign 48

: barad.o = spine, the backbone, back (G.)

Rebus: bharatiyo = a caster of metals, a brazier; bharatar, bharatal, bharatal. = moulded; an article made in a mould (G.) Glyph: t.hat.ra = m. emaciated (Santali) Rebus: t.hat.era = a brazier, a caste who manufacture and sell brass ware; t.hat.ori = a worker in brass, a goldsmith (Santali)

Is this a variant of Sign 97

Sign 98 (88)

(67)

?

(78)

(42) Sign 87 (365) Copper tablets (21) bar, barea ‘two’ (Santali); rebus: ba~r.ia~ = shopkeeper, pedlar (Santali) mer.go = rimless vessels (Santali) Rebus: med. iron, iron implements (Ho.) me~rhe~t ‘iron’; me~rhe~t icena ‘the iron is rusty’; ispat me~rhe~t ‘steel’, dul me~rhe~t ‘cast iron’; me~rhe~t khan.d.a ‘iron implements’ (Santali) (Santali.lex.Bodding) Alternative: luiha = an iron vessel or pot used for cooking and other purposes (Santali) Rebus: luhui = iron-stone sand; iron obtained by washing the sand of river beds and nallahs (Santali) bed.a hako = a fish (Santali) Rebus: bed.a ‘hearth’ (G.) hako ‘axe’ (Santali) Pairing sign kan-‘ (10)

(44)

: kan.d.a kanka ‘rim of pot’. Rebus: kan.d. kanka ‘furnace for copper,

Sign 328 (323)

(124)

Sign 89 (314) 180

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Copper tablets (29)

Sign 89 tebr.a = three (Santali) ta_mbum = copper (G.); ta_mra (Skt.); ta_mba_ na_n.um = copper coin; ta_mba_ va_d.ako = a porringer made of copper; ta_mba_ kun.d.i_ a copper trough in which water for bathing is kept; ta_mbad.i_ = a copper pot (G.)

mer.go = rimless vessels (Santali) Rebus: med. iron, iron implements (Ho.) me~rhe~t ‘iron’; me~rhe~t icena ‘the iron is rusty’; ispat me~rhe~t ‘steel’, dul me~rhe~t ‘cast iron’; me~rhe~t khan.d.a ‘iron implements’ (Santali) (Santali.lex.Bodding) Alternative: luiha = an iron vessel or pot used for cooking and other purposes (Santali) Rebus: luhui = iron-stone sand; iron obtained by washing the sand of river beds and nallahs (Santali) (58)

Sign 95 (64)

(21) (24) Sign 104 (70) pon, ponea, ponon = four (Santali) Rebus: pon, hon = a gold coin, the half of a varaha (Ka.); honnu = gold (Ka.); ponnu (Te.); pon-, por- = metal, gold, luster, beauty (Ta.); pol = gold (Ma.) Pairing signs could be graphemes or variants of the same glyph, i.e., glyphs connoting the same lexeme. tagara = taberna montana (Skt.) Rebus: t.agromi = tin metal alloy (Kuwi)

(27)

Sign 194 (58)

(14) (27)

Sign 197 (60) (11)

Sign 112

Sign 112 (70)

Copper tablets (10)

is composed of four and three: pon, ponea, ponon = four (Santali)

Rebus: pon- = metal (Ta.) 181

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tebr.a = three (Santali) ta_mbum = copper (G.); ta_mra (Skt.); ta_mba_ na_n.um = copper coin; ta_mba_ va_d.ako = a porringer made of copper; ta_mba_ kun.d.i_ a copper trough in which water for bathing is kept; ta_mbad.i_ = a copper pot (G.) Pairing signs: kan.d.a kanka ‘rim of pot’; rebus: kan.d. kan- = copper furnace.

gat.a = a small stream or water course (Santali) gat.t.u = a shore, a bank; a dam, embankment, dike (Te.) kat.t.a_ platform (Kol.); kat.t.a bund of field, dam, dike (Nk.)(DEDR 1147). Rebus: Ingot: gat.t.i ban:ga_ru = gold in ingots or bars (Te.) kat.t.i = clod, lump (Ta.); solid, ingot (Ma.); kat.y solid lump (Ko.); gad.d.a = lump, mass, clod (Te.)(DEDR 1148). kad.rna_ to congteal (Kur.); kat.hina hard, firm (Skt.)(CDIAL 2650). kat.hara, kat.hura, kat.hora hard (CDIAL 2651) kad.d. to be hard, severe (DhP.)(CDIAL 2657). gat.i = nodular limestone; gat.i cun = lime made from nodular limestone (Santali)

Thus pairing with (gat.t.i).

Sign 112, the pair of signs can be read as: gold (pon) or metal (tebr,a) ingot

(14) Sign 121 (70) Glyph: twelve fingers' measure = s'an:ku (IL 2878), co~ga_ = two hand-breadths (IL 3121) Rebus: s’ankha = turbinella pyrum, conch shell (Skt.)

Pairing sign

: kan.d.a kanka ‘rim of pot’; rebus: kan.d. kan- ‘copper furnace’ (Santali.Ta.)

182

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Continuing tradition of s’ankha industry from 8500 years Before Present

Turbinella pyrum: s’ankha kr.s’ana (conch-pearl) Burial From Gulf of Kutch and Saurashtra: ornaments made of shell and stone disc beads, and Spiney murex, chicoreus ramosus (a), turbinella pyrum (sacred conch, s’an:kha) bangle, knobbed whelk, fasciolaria trapezium Tomb MR3T.21, Mehrgarh, Period 1A, ca. 6500 BCE. (b), and sawn fragments of the sacred The nearest source for this shell is Makran coast near conch (s’an:kha), turbinella pyrum Karachi, 500 km. South. [After Fig. 2.10 in Kenoyer, [After Fig. 5.21 in Kenoyer, 1998]. 1998]. Parvati, wore conch shell bangles – s’an:khaka -- created by Sage Agastya Muni and Divine architect Vis’vakarma. S’an:kha is a Kubera’s treasure – one of the nine or nava-nidhi-s.

Turbinella Pyrum is a species which is native to the coastline of Bharat. The tradition continues even today in Gulf of Khambat (near Surat) and in Gulf of Mannar (near Tiruchendur). West Bengal Handicrafts Development Corporation has an office in Tiruchendur to acquire s’ankha to make them into bangles. The annual turn-over of s’ankha products in Tiruchendur is Rs. 25 crores. Every Bengali marriage has to provide for s’ankha bangles to the bride. The importance of s’ankha in the mature periods of Sarasvati civilization may be seen from the following archaeological artifacts: Mohenjodaro: libation vessel made from turbinella pyrum. Spiralling lines were incised and filled with red pigment. The vessel is used to anoint kings and to dispense sacred water or milk. Used even today for ritual oblations and to

Turbinella pyrum conch shell trumpet. Hole at apex is roughly chipped. Used to call people for battle or ritually throughout South and Southeast Asia. Essential component of Hindu and Buddhist traditions, one of 8 auspicious

183

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dispense medicinal preparations.[After Fig. 6.38 in Kenoyer, 1998; J. M. Kenoyer, 1983, Shell working industries of the Indus Civilization: an archaeological and ethnographic perspective, PhD diss., UCAL, Berkeley]. 11.4 X 5.4 cm

symbo ls. 9.66 X 5.1 cm. Harap pa; Lahore Museu m, P501

Wide bangle made from a single conch shell and carved with a chevron motif, Harappa; marine shell, Turbinella pyrum (After Fig. 7.44, Kenoyer, 1998) National Museum, Karachi. 54.3554. HM 13828.

Seven shell bangles from burial of an elderly woman, Harappa; worn on the left arm; three on the upper arm and four on the forearm; 6.3 X 5.7 cm to 8x9 cm marine shell, Turbinella pyrum (After Fig. 7.43, Kenoyer, 1998) Harappa museum. H87-635 to 637; 676 to 679.

184

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A skilled sawyer and shells ready for sawing, Calcutta.

Turbinella pyrum shell bangle manufacturing process. [a to f]: preliminar y chipping and removal of internal columella; [g to k]: sawing shell circlets; [l to n]: finishing the shell blank; [o]: final incising [After Fig. 5.23 in Kenoyer, 1998]. yai->? k«/zanu/m! As?ne Êv/Sywae? j/ve yai-/rœ yUnae/ AvRN? t/m! Aav?tm!, mxu? ià/ym! -?rwae/ yt! s/rfœ_y/s! tai-?rœ ^/ ;u ^/iti-?rœ Aiñ/na g?tm! . RV 1.112.21 With those aids by which you defended Kr.s'a_nu in battle, with which you succoured the horse of the young Purukutsa in speed, and by which you deliver the pleasant honey to the bees; with them, As'vins, come willingly hither. [Kr.s'a_nu are somapa_las, vendors or providers of Soma; hasta-suhasta-kr.s'a_navah, te vah somakrayan.ah (Taittiri_ya Sam.hita_1.2.7); kr.s'a_nu = agni; purukutsa was the son of Mandha_ta_ and husband of Narmada_, the river; the text has only 'of the young', Purukutsa.is added]. S’an:khah kr.s’anah = pearl-shell won from the ocean and worn as an amulet (AV 4.10.1). S’ankhah kr.s’a_na mentioned in the R.gveda is a shellcutting bowman. Sandstone sculpture of S’iva Bhairava, holding a conch in his left hand, 11th cent. S’ivapuram, South Arcot Dist., Bha_rata (Dept. of Archaeology and Ancient History, MS Univ., Vadodara).

Tradition of sindhur adornmentSindhur worn in the parting of the hair. Nausharo: female figurine. Period 1B, 2800 – 2600 BCE. 11.6 x 30.9 cm.[After Fig. 2.19, Kenoyer, 1998].Hair is painted black and parted in the middle of the forehead, with traces of red pigment in the part.This form of ornamentation may be the origin of the later Hindu tradition where a married woman wears a streak of vermilion or powdered cinnabar (sindur) in the part of her hair. Choker and pendant necklace are also painted with red pigment, posssibly to represent carnelian beads. 185

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Sindur on the parting of the hair in unique Bharatiya tradition, circa 4800 years Before Present The hair is painted black and parted in the middle of the forehead, with traces of redpigment in the parting. This form of ornamentation may be the origin of the later Hindu tradition where a married woman wears a streak of vermilion or powdered cinnabar (sindur) in the parting of her hair. The choker and pendant necklace are also painted with red pigmen, possibly representing carnelian beads. Other figurines of similar design have yellow pigment on the disc-shaped ornamens at the shoulde, possibly representing gold or polished bronze brooches. The eyes are puctated and the ornaments and hair are all appliqué. This figurine comes from Nausharo, Period IB, but is identical to many figurines from Mehergarh Period VII, datin between 2800 and 2600 BCE. Material: terracotta; 11.6 cm. high, 30.9 cm. wide. Nausharo NS 91.01.32.01. Dept. of Arch., Karachi. Jarrige 1988: 87, fig. 41 (After fig. 2.19, Kenoyer, 2000). The inset shows a lady from Bengal wearing sindhur on the parting of her hair; the tradition lives on.

(12) (30)

Sign 97 (91) (16)

(13)

(44)

Sign 124 (78)

Copper tablets (17)

Sign 149 (92)

h172B Field Symbol 36

(10) (40) Field symbol 83 (10) (48)

Sign 162 (212)

Sign 169 (240)

h352C Dotted circles.

Copper tablets (60) Hare. Field symbol 16 (19)

Glyph: field symbol: kulai = hare (Santali) Rebus: kol = metal (Ta.); kola = blacksmith (Ma.); kol, kollan- (Ta.); kolime, kulime, kolume = a fire-pit or furnace (Ka.); kolime id., a pit (Te.); kulume kanda_ya = a tax on blacksmiths (Ka.) kolimi titti = bellows used for a furnace (Te.) Graphemes: kolike, kun.ike, kulike, kol.ike = a clasp, a hook (Ka.Te.); kol.uvu = to connect, join, tie together, hook (Ta.) Grapheme: tamar = hole in a plank, commonly bored or cut; gimlet, spring awl, boring instrument; tavar = to bore, a hole; hole in a board (Ta.); tamar = hole made by a gimlet; a borer, gimlet, drill (Ma.); tamire, tagire = the pin in the middle of a yoke (Te.); tamiru = gimlet (Tu.)(DEDR 3078). tavaru, tavara, trapu, tavarinadu, tagara, tamara = tin, tra_pus.a (Ka.); tavaramu, tamaramu (Te.); tamara = tagara = tin, lead; trapu = id. (Ka.) trapulamu, trapuvu = tin; lead (Te.) 186

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Graphemes: ko_li = a stubble of jo_l.a (Ka.); ko_le a stub or stump of corn (Te.) cf. tagara = taberna montana (Skt.) Rebus: tagromi tin metal alloy (Kuwi) Sign 169 thus connotes a specific metal (kol): tin; lexemes: t.agromi + ko_li; glyphs: stubble, taberna montana: tagara ko_li Grapheme: ko_lemu = the backbone (Te.)

Pairing sign

(40)

: kan.d.a kanka ‘rim of pot’; rebus: kan.d. kan- ‘copper furnace’ (Santali.Ta.)

(76)

(7)

Sign 171 (132)

Sign 173 (38) Glyph: ad.ar ‘harrow’ (Santali); Rebus: aduru ‘native metal’(Ka.)

(30) 36 (11)

Sign 182 (43)

Sign 183 (11)

(12)

h172B Field Symbol

Copper tablets (10) Hare. Field symbol 16 (9)

(31)Sign 204 (76)

(11)

Copper tablets (22)

Sign 211 (227)

Field Symbol 14 (19)

m1148 Field Symbol 7

(9) (23)

(34)

(29)

Sign 216 (90)

Ivory or bone rod (3)

Sign 244 (89)

187

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(70)

14 (20)

(21)

Sign 245 (207)

Copper tablets (48)

Field Symbol

Field Symbol 29 (10)

(54)

(47)

Sign 249 (170)

Sign 258 (20)

h172B Field Symbol 36 (8)

Sign 254 (73)

(291)

(32)

Sign 267 (376)

(9)

Sign 284 (41)

(37)

Sign 287 (88)

Copper tablets (15) Field Symbol 52 (6) Glyph: kama_t.hiyo = archer; ka_mat.hum = a bow; ka_mad.i_, ka_mad.um = a chip of bamboo (G.) ka_mat.hiyo a bowman; an archer (Skt.lex.) Rebus: kamat.ha_yo ‘a learned carpenter or mason, working on scientific principles’ (Santali)

Sign 287: kut.ila = bent, crooked (Skt.) kut.ila (Skt. Rasaratna samuccaya, 5.205) Humpbacked kud.illa (Pkt.) Rebus: kut.ila, katthi_l = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin) [cf. a_ra-ku_t.a, ‘brass’ (Skt.)]

(54) Sign 293 (136) Hare. Field symbol 16 (10)

h172B Field Symbol 36 (12) 188

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(28)

Sign 294 (53)

(32)

Sign 296 (35)

(8) Sign 307 (69) Glyph: ka_mat.hum = a bow; ka_mad.i_, ka_mad.um = a chip of bamboo (G.) Rebus: kammat.amu = gold furnace (Te.) (18)

Sign 326 (35)

Copper tablets (6)

(16) Sign 327 (42) loa = ficus glomerata (Santali) Rebus: loha = iron, metal (Santali) kamar.kom = fig leaf (Santali.lex.) kamarmar.a_ (Has.), kamar.kom (Nag.); the petiole or stalk of a leaf (Mundari.lex.) kamat.amu, kammat.amu = a portable furnace for melting precious metals; kammat.i_d.u = a goldsmith, a silversmith (Te.lex.) Substantive: kamat.ha_yo ‘a learned carpenter or mason, working on scientific principles’ (Santali) Pairing sign: kan.d. kanka ‘rim of pot’; rebus: kan.d. ‘furnace’ + kan-ka ‘copper metal’ (126)

(13)

(12)

Sign 336 (236)

Copper tablets (27)

m1148 Field Symbol 7

(10)

(16) (87)

(184)

Sign 341 (59) (17)

Sign 342 (1395)

Field Symbol 36 (38)

(12)

Copper tablets (82)

h172B

h352C Field symbol 83 (33)

Sign 343 (177) 189

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Sign 345 (51)

(110)

Sign 347 (118)

(31)

Sign 358 (32)

Ivory or bone rods (5)

Copper tablets (20)

Field Symbol 14

(19)

(17)

Sign 373 (61)

(10)

(12)

Copper tablets (14)

Sign 375 (57)

(16)

(28)

(15)

(15)

(11)

Sign 387 (102)

(15)

Sign 389 (134)

Copper tablets (25)

(16) Sign 402 (99)

ko_d.i = a kind of flag, an image of garud.a, basava, or other demi-god set upon a long post before a temple; cf. gud.i, temple (Ka.lex.) Rebus: kod. = place where artisans work (G.lex.)

(34)

(21)

Sign 403 (93) 190

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(10)

(17)

(26)

Sign 407 (48) Copper tablets (34) Glyph: cur.i a bracelet, a bangle (Santali) Grapheme: cur.a a pinnacle, spire, crest (Santali) cu_d.a_ = topknot on head; cu_lika_ cockscomb (Skt.) Rebus: cu_l.ai, ‘kiln’ (Ta.) culli = a fireplace (Ka.)

Glyph: san:gad.a = two; san:gad.am double-canoe (Ta.); jan:gala (Tu.); san:gala pair; han:gula, an:gula double canoe, raft (Si.)(CDIAL 12859). Glyph: san:ghat.i = a millstone, that crushes (Ka.) Rebus: san:gha_d.o, saghad.i_ (G.) = firepan; saghad.i_, s'aghad.i = a pot for holding fire (G.)[cula_ sagad.i_ portable hearth (G.)]

(17) Sign 409 (26) Rebus: mo~r.e~ = five (Santali) Grapheme: mon.d. the tail of a serpent (Santali) Sign 409: glyph: cart: gad.i ‘cart’ (Santali) gat.t.i = ingot, as in: gat.t.i-ban:ga_ramu = gold ingot (Te.) Paired with the glyph denoting ‘five’, the epigraph may read: five metals (alloy)

(83)

(24)

Sign 391 (195)

era, er-a = eraka = ?nave; erako_lu = the iron axle of a carriage (Ka.M.); cf. irasu (Ka.lex.) Metal: akka, aka (Tadbhava of arka) metal; akka metal (Te.) arka = copper (Skt.) erka = ekke (Tbh. of arka) aka (Tbh. of arka) copper (metal); crystal (Ka.lex.) araka = sublimation, sublimate (Ka.); arka id. (M.) erako molten cast (Tu.lex.) agasa_le, agasa_li, agasa_lava_d.u = a goldsmith (Te.lex.)

191

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Sign 99 : at.ar a splinter; at.aruka to burst, crack, slit off, fly open; at.arcca splitting, a crack; at.arttuka to split, tear off, open (an oyster)(Ma.); ad.aruni to crack (Tu.)(DEDR 66). Rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ (Ka.) aduru = gan.iyinda tegadu karagade iruva aduru = ore taken from the mine and not subjected to melting in a furnace (Ka. Siddha_nti Subrahman.ya’ S’astri’s new interpretation of the Amarakos’a, Bangalore, Vicaradarpana Press, 1872, p. 330); adar = fine sand (Ta.); adaru = a sparkle (Te.); ayir – iron dust, any ore (Ma.) tot.xin, tot.xn goldsmith (To.); tat.t.a_n- gold or silver smith (Ta.); goldsmith (Ma.); tat.t.e = goldsmith (Kod.); tat.rava_~d.u = goldsmith or silversmith (Te.); *t.hat.t.haka_ra brassworker (Skt.)(CDIAL 5493).

tat.t.ai = mechanism made of split bamboo for scaring away parrots from grain fields (Ta.); tat.t.e = a thick bamboo or an areca-palm stem, split in two (Ka.)(DEDR 3042).

When reduplicated, this may be read as: erako ‘nave’ san:gala ‘pair’; rebus: erako ‘molten cast’ san:gad.a ‘furnace’. As distinct from non-melted native metal, aduru.

erako ‘molten cast (copper)’;

erako san:gala = furnace for metal.

This may explain the multiple use of the glyph on Dholavira signboard.

Glyph = furnace for metal.

Glyphs:

: erako ‘nave’; san:gala ‘pair’ Rebus: erako san:gad.a

erako (nave); rebus: erako ‘molten cast’.

Glyph: kod.a, ‘one’; rebus: kod., ‘artisan’s workshop’. Glyph: khu~t., ‘corner’; rebus: kun.d.amu = a pit for receiving and preserving consecrated fire; a hole in the ground (Te.) 192

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Glyph: ad.aren, d.aren ‘lid’; rebus: aduru ‘native metal’

Glyphs: erako (nave) + khut.i (pin) + lo kamat.ha (ficus leaf) = Rebus: erako ‘molten cast’ + khut.i ‘furnace’ + lo kamat.ha ‘metal mint: kammat.a’ [khut.i Nag. (Or. khut.i_) diminutive of khun.t.a, a peg driven into the ground, as for tying a goat (Mundari.lex.) khu~t.i_ wooden pin (M.)(CDIAL 3893)]

Alternative: tamire = the pin in the middle of a yoke (Te.) Rebus: tavara = tin (Te.Ka.) Molded terracotta tablet showing a tree with branches; the stem emanates from a platform (ingot?). Harappa. (After JM Kenoyer/Courtesy Dept. of Archaeology and Museums, Govt. of Pakistan). kut.i, kut.am = tree; rebus: kut.hi = furnace

(9)

(10)

Sign 176 (355)

‘Tree’Field symbol 44 (12)

Ivory or bone rods (12) h352C Dotted circles. Field symbol 83 (23)

h172B Field Symbol 36 (17) Glyph: comb kangha (IL 1333) ka~ghera_ comb-maker (H.) Rebus: kan:g = brazier, fireplace (K.)(IL 1332) Portable brazier ka~_guru, ka~_gar (Ka.) whence, large brazier = kan:gar (K.) Pairing sign: kan.d. kanka ‘rim of pot’; rebus: kan.d. ‘furnace’ + kan-ka ‘copper metal’

(29) symbol 44 (6)

Sign 178 (35)

‘Tree’ Field

The ligature is made up of two glyphs: ( ) together with tagara = taberna montana (Skt.) Rebus: t.agromi = tin metal alloy (Kuwi) kut.ila = bent, crooked (Skt.) kut.ila (Skt. Rasaratna samuccaya, 5.205) Humpbacked kud.illa (Pkt.) 193

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Rebus: kut.ila, katthi_l = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin) [cf. a_ra-ku_t.a, ‘brass’ (Skt.)]

va_holo = adze; vahola_ = mattock; bahola_ = a kind of adze (P.lex.) Rebus: ban:gala = kumpat.i = an:ga_ra s’akat.i_ = a chafing dish, a portable stove, a goldsmith’s portable furnace (Te.lex.) cf. ban:garu, ban:garamu = gold (Te.lex.)

(13) Sign 252 (51) implements (2) ‘Tree’ Field symbol 44 (7)

Copper tablet (11); bronze

may be a grapheme, a synonym of sign 99 : at.ar a splinter; at.aruka to burst, crack, slit off, fly open; at.arcca splitting, a crack; at.arttuka to split, tear off, open (an oyster)(Ma.); ad.aruni to crack (Tu.)(DEDR 66). Rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ (Ka.) aduru = gan.iyinda tegadu karagade iruva aduru = ore taken from the mine and not subjected to melting in a furnace (Ka. Siddha_nti Subrahman.ya’ S’astri’s new interpretation of the Amarakos’a, Bangalore, Vicaradarpana Press, 1872, p. 330); adar = fine sand (Ta.); adaru = a sparkle (Te.); ayir – iron dust, any ore (Ma.)

Liquid measure: ran:ku; rebus: ran:ku = tin (Santali)

(11)

(16) Sign 175 (54)

(18) Sign 180 (44)

(14) (13) Sign 230 (54) ‘Tree’ Field symbol 44 (5) ku_t.amu = summit of a mountain (Te.lex.) Rebus: ku_t.akamu = mixture (Te.lex.) ku_t.am = workshop (Ta.) era_ = claws of an animal that can do no harm (G.) Rebus: era, eraka = copper (Ka.) Substantive: dha_tu ‘mineral’ (Vedic); a mineral, metal (Santali); dha_ta id. (G.) tan.t.ava_l.am = cast iron, iron rail, girder (Ta.); tan.d.ava_l.a cast iron (Ka.)(DEDR 3050). d.ato ‘claws or pincers (chelae) of crabs’; d.at.om to seize with the claws or pincers, as crabs, scorpions (Santali) 194

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Pairing sign: kan.d. kanka ‘rim of pot’; rebus: kan.d. ‘furnace’ + kan-ka ‘copper metal’ The Sign 230 thus connotes an alloyed metal, ku_t.a [e.g. copper + dha_tu ‘mineral (ore)’ as in: a_raku_t.a = brass (Skt.)] Glyphs: tiger, antelope looking back, waist-zone (pannier): smith, smithy

m0488ct

2554

Glyph: krem = the back (Kho.)(CDIAL 2776). krammar-a = to turn, return (Te.); krammar-ilu, krammar-illu, krammar-abad.u = to turn, return, to go back; krammar-u = again; krammar-incu = to turn or send back (Te) kamar ‘looking back’; thus, an antelope looking backwards is: melh ‘goat’ (Br.); mr..e_ka goat (Te.) kamar (melukka kamar ‘copper-smith’); a tiger looking backwards is: kol ’tiger’ kamar (kolhe ‘smelters of iron’ + smith) On a terracotta image, a tiger is ligatured to a woman. In Nahali, kola means ‘woman, wife’. On m0488 tablet, the tiger stands beneath a tree; on the branch of a tree, a spy is seated. The word for spy is: heraka (Pkt.); rebus: eraka = copper (Ka.). The tree is kut.i; rebus: kut.hi ‘furnace’ (Santali); the branch of a tree is ad.aren (Santali); rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ (Ka.). Elephant trunk ‘ibha sun.d.’ Rebus: ib ‘iron’; sund ‘pit, furnace’ Seal. Elephant. Elephant is covered with a saddle cloth. (After Scala/Art Resource) The depiction of a saddle cloth on the elephant may also be related to the orthographic significance of depicting a pannier on a one-horned bull. It may connote a waist-zone, belt, kamarasa_la (Te.); rebus: kamma_rasa_le = workshop of a blacksmith (Ka.) When an elephant is shown on epigraphs with such a saddle cloth, the depiction may be of a kamma_ra ‘smith’ involved in ironsmithy: ib ‘iron’; rebus: ibha ‘elephant’. The most frequently occurring glyph is that of a one-horned bull with a pannier; it occurs on 1159 epigraphs (according to Mahadevan corpus). The orthographic accent is on the waist-zone, the pannier.

195

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Glyph: kamarasa_la = waist-zone, belt (Te.) kammaru = the loins, the waist (Ka.Te.M.); kamara (H.); kammarubanda = a leather waist band, belt (Ka.H.) kammaru = a waistband, belt (Te.) kammarincu = to cover (Te.) kamari = a woman’s girdle (Te.) komor = the loins; komor kat.hi = an ornament made of shells, resembling the tail of a tortoise, tied round the waist and sticking out behind worn by men sometimes when dancing (Santali) kambra = a blanket (Santali) m1656 On this petoral, the pannier is vividly displayed. This is an orthographic feature unique to the one-horned heifer. It is a phonetic rebus determinative of the artisan’s workhop. kamma_r-asa_le = the workshop of a blacksmith (Ka.); kamasa_lava_d.u = a blacksmith (Te.) kamba_r-ike = a blacksmith’s business (Ka.) kamarsa_ri_ smithy (Mth.) kamba = a post, pillar (Ka.Te.Tu.Ta.Ma.); sthambha (Skt.) kamat.amu = a portable furnace for melting precious metals (Te.) Rebus: kamar = blacksmith (Santali) ka_rma_ra = metalsmith who makes arrows etc. of metal (RV. 9.112.2: jarati_bhih os.adhi_bhih parn.ebhih s'akuna_na_m ka_rma_ro as'mabhih dyubhih hiran.yavantam icchati_) kammar-a, kamma_r-a, kammaga_r-a, karma_ra, karmaka_ra, kammaga_r-a, kamba_r-a = one who does any business; an artisan, a mechanic; a blacksmith (Ka.) kamma_l.a = an artisan, an artificer: a blacksmith, a goldsmith (Ta.Ka.); a goldsmith (Ka.) kammara = the blacksmith or ironsmith caste; kammaramu = the blacksmith’ss work, working in iron, smithery; kammarava_d.u, kammari, kammari_d.u = a blacksmith, ironsmith; kammarikamu = a collective name for the people of the kamma caste (Te.) kabbin.a, kabban.a, kabbuna, karbuna = Te. inumu, Ta. irumbu; the dark-coloured, black metal: iron (Ka.)

196

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The stone sculpture of "Priest" from the Civilization may have originally had a horned head-dress affixed to the back of its head. Graphic reconstruction of the "Priest" [courtesy of Professor Michael Jansen (RWTH, Aachen University)] After http://bosei.cc.u-tokai.ac.jp/~indus/english/2_3_02.html The zebu is: ad.ar d.an:gra (Santali); rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ (Ka.) d.han:gar 197

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‘blacksmith’ (WPah.) The bull is tied to a post. tambu = pillar (G.); stambha id. (Skt.) Rebus: tamba = copper (Santali) tamire = the pin in the middle of a yoke (Te.) Rebus: ta_marasamu = copper, gold (Te.) Woman with horns and two stars: ko_la = woman (Nahali); rebus: kol ‘metal’ ko_d.u ‘horns’ (Ta.); kod. artisan’s workshop (Kuwi) ko_l. = planet (Ta.); kol ‘metal’; a pair (planets): sagal.a = pair (Ka.); saghad.i_ = furnace (G.) Ficus glomerata: loa, kamat.ha = ficus glomerata (Santali); rebus: loha = iron, metal (Skt.) kamat.amu, kammat.amu = portable furnace for melting precious metals (Te.) kampat.t.am = mint (Ta.) kammat.i_d.u = a goldsmith, a silversmith (Te.) Seated person adorned with horns: kamad.ha = a person in penance (G.) Rebus: kamat.amu, kammat.amu = portable furnace for melting precious metals (Te.) kampat.t.am = mint (Ta.) kammat.i_d.u = a goldsmith, a silversmith (Te.) cu_r.i = bangles (H.); rebus: culli = fireplace, kiln (Ka.) The seated person’s face is like a tiger’s mane: cu_r.i Priest: tammad.a, tammad.i = an attendant on an idol (Ka.); tammal.ava_d.u, tammal.i, tammad.i, tammali, tambal.ava_d.u (Te.) Rebus: tamba = copper (Santali) tamire = hole; t.ebra = three (cf. glyph of trefoil inlaid on the uttari_yam – upper garment); Rebus: tamara = tin (Ka.) tibira = merchant (Akkadian) The seven volumes on Sarasvati (in press) by Dr. S. Kalyanaraman elaborate on this methodology and explore the possibility of decoding other glyphs on epigraphs.

198

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S’ankha, Bhairava, Man.d.ala The s’ankha industry in Bharat is based on an 8500-year maritime tradition. Burial ornaments disc beads, and conch, s’an:kha) Mehrgarh, Period

made of shell and stone turbinella pyrum (sacred bangle, Tomb MR3T.21, 1A, ca. 6500 BCE. The nearest source for this shell is Makran coast near Karachi, 500 km. South. [After Fig. 2.10 in Kenoyer, 1998].

Parvati, wore conch shell bangles – s’an:khaka -- created by Sage Agastya Muni and Divine architect Vis’vakarma. S’an:kha is a Kubera’s treasure – one of the nine or nava-nidhi-s. Kanjari : a long blouse embroidered and with mirror work. Shell bangles are worn by a Kutchi woman, from wrist to shoulder -- a cultural heritage from the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization as evidenced by the bronze statue found at Mohenjodaro wearing bangles in similar style.

199

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Shell ladle perhaps used to pour librations. A hole in the shell has been plugged with lead to make it watertight. Harappa. Made from a spiny murex shell. Found in a burial. (After JM Kenoyer/Courtesy Dept. of Archaeology and Museums, Govt. of Pakistan).

This shell lade provides a remarkable evidence for the innovativeness in using lead on shell as an early cementation process.

Libation vessels made of s’ankha (turbinella pyrum) with incised lines and perhaps red paint inlaid. (After JM Kenoyer/Courtesy Dept. of Archaeology and Museums, Govt. of Pakistan). USES OF TURBINELLA PYRUM (s’an:kha, conchshell) for libation, trumpet, seal Mohenjodaro: libation vessel made from turbinella pyrum. Spiralling lines were incised and filled with red pigment. The vessel is used to anoint kings 200

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and to dispense sacred water or milk. Used even today for ritual oblations and to dispense medicinal preparations.[After Fig. 6.38 in Kenoyer, 1998; J. M. Kenoyer, 1983, Shell working industries of the Indus Civilization: an archaeological and ethnographic perspective, PhD diss., UCAL, Berkeley]. 11.4 X 5.4 cmBet Dwaraka...A small rectangular seal (20 x 18 mm) of conch shell with a perforated button at the back was found in trench UW6 of Bet Dwarka. A composite animal moif representing the short horned bull, unicorn and goat are engraved in an anticlockwise direction. Turbinella pyrum shell bangle manufacturing process. [a to f]: preliminary chipping and removal of internal columella; [g to k]: sawing shell circlets; [l to n]: finishing the shell blank; [o]: final incising [After Fig. 5.23 in Kenoyer, 1998] Bet Dwarka. Inscription on a jar [After Pl. XLIX in SR Rao] Turbinella pyrum conch shell trumpet. Hole at apex is roughly chipped. Used to call people for battle or ritually throughout South and Southeast Asia. Essential component of Hindu and Buddhist traditions, one of 8 auspicious symbols. 9.66 X 5.1 cm. Harappa; Lahore Museum. A skilled sawyer and shells ready for sawing, Calcutta.

Kr.s’a_nu, a bowman; shell-cutter with a bow saw With those aids by which you defended Kr.s'a_nu in battle, with which you succoured the horse of the young Purukutsa in speed, and by which you deliver the pleasant honey to the bees; with them, As'vins, come willingly hither. [Kr.s'a_nu are somapa_las, vendors or providers of Soma; hasta-suhasta-kr.s'a_navah, te vah somakrayan.ah (Taittiri_ya Sam.hita_1.2.7); kr.s'a_nu = agni; purukutsa was the son of Mandha_ta_ and husband of Narmada_, the river; the text has only 'of the young', Purukutsa is added] (RV 1.112.21). s’ankhah kr.s’anah = pearl shell won from the ocean and worn as an amulet. (AV 4.10.1) Rigveda: 1.112.21 yai->? k«/zanu/m! As?ne Êv/Sywae? j/ve yai-/rœ yUnae/ AvRN? t/m! Aav?tm!, mxu? ià/ym! -?rwae/ yt! s/rfœ_y/s! tai-?rœ ^/ ;u ^/iti-?rœ Aiñ/na g?tm! . Cakra samvara, man.ibhadra: protector of lapidary crafts 201

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Sandstone sculpture of S’iva Bhairava, holding a conch in his left hand, 11th cent. S’ivapuram, South Arcot Dist., Bha_rata (Dept. of Archaeology and Ancient History,

MS Univ., Vadodara). “…Sontheimer has shown, Mârtanda Bhairava is identified with the folk-deities Mhasobâ, Birobâ and especially Khanobâ in the Deccan, where he often resides as a snake within the termite mound, which is itself identified as his mother Gangâ-Sûryavantî, the womb of the hidden sun. The anthill is believed to contain treasure in the form of golden turmeric powder: the resonances with the Vedic Agni and Soma are unmistakeable.” Elizabeth Chalier-Visuvalingam, 2002, Shiva and his Manifestations (Different Forms of Bhairava, Vîrabhadra, etc., as Folk Deities). Cf, Chalier-Visuvalingam, E., (1986). Bhairava: Kotwal of Varanasi, in T. P. Verma, D. P. Singh, and J. S. Mishra (eds.), Varanasi Through The Ages. Bharatiya Itihas Sankalan Samiti. Varanasi, pp. 231-260. In Vajraya_na Buddhism, Cakra Samvara is compared with Bhairava who is worshipped in the circular Yogini_ temples of Orissa. (Vidya Deheja, 1986, Yogini_ cult and temples: A tantric tradition, New Delhi). It is unclear if Samvara is cognate with S’abara (cf. Sra <S’abara in Orissa) and with S’ambara as an enemy of Indra (Maha_bha_rata). (cf. Asko Parpola, 1993, Bronze age Bactria and Indian Religion, Studia Orientalia, 70: 81-87). Groundplan of the temple-fort in Dashly-3, Bactria, ca. 2000 BCE (After Sarianidi, Viktor I., Die Kunst des alten Afghanistan. Leipzig. 1986: 59). Inside the square walls (150 m. wide) around the fort are buildings; three are circular buildings with concentric walls. Asko Parpola’s surmise is that this so-called ‘temple’ corresponds to the Vedic description of the Da_sa or Asura forts (tripura). This surmise is not based on any textual evidence linking Asura to such circular structures.

The evidence of the man.d.ala-s in BMAC archaeological sites (forts of Kutlug-Tepe and At-Tchapar ca. 500 BCE of the Achaemenid period) and the man.d.ala created in a stu_pa with 24 spokes found at Sanghol, Punjab (Kushana period) point to the migrations of people away from the Sarasvati River basin during 2nd millennium BCE and during the historical periods. There is no archaeological evidence to assume that the man.d.ala of Gonur Tepe and other sites points to migrations of people from BMAC area into Bharat. The comparative analyses of Vedic and Avestan tradition clearly establishes the chronology: Vedic texts > Bra_hman.a-s > Avestan.

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Cylindrical stupa of the Kushana period found at Sanghol (Dist. Fatehgarhsahib Punjab) with three concentric rings of rick masonry with intervening space divided by radiating spokes of similar brick masonry at regular nervals. At Sanghol site the core is made of a thick circular wall of brick masonry filled with earth. At Sanghol was discovered a carved lid of the relic casket with an inscription in Kharoshti script dated to circa 1st century BCE; the epigraph reads: Upasakasa Ayabhadrasa. He is man.ibhadra, the protector of the beads and gems, exemplified by the cut s’ankha which adorns his left hand in the S’ivapuram sandstone sculpture. Agni Purâna (51, 17) describes S’iva as a Kshetrapâla. Bhairava is located in the northeast of the Hindu mandiram, the protector of the settlement, the ks.etrapa_la. He is the kotwal (guardian-magistrate) of Vis’vana_tha of Varan.a_si. Adored in 64 forms, in a manifestation of the formless divine parama_tman, in the Hindu (Kashmir S’aivism), Buddha and Jaina traditions, the central form is ma_rta_n.d.a-bhairava. Man.d.ala geometrical patterns of settlements are preserved in Newar, Nepal, as evidenced by Bhaktapur in Nepal. Consistent with Agni Purâna (52) Bhairava is presented in the center of a circle of Yogins has 12 arms corresponding to 12 Âdityas who preside over the twelve months of a year. In the Buddha tradition, Maha_ka_la is the ka_la bhairava; other forms are Samvara and Heruka (cf. the image of Ka_rttikeya in Swa_mimalai is called E_raka Subrahman.ya). In Nepal, he is also celebrated as La_t. Bhairava, connoting the la_t. or yu_pa, on the twelfth day of the kr.s.n.a paks.a in Bha_dra month, the same date on which Indra dvaja or Indra Maha_ is celebrated. Another substitute form is Vi_rabadra. S’iva Pura_n.a describes Bhairava as transcendent (pu_rnaru_pa) complete form. He is called Bhairava because he protects (bharati), because he is effulgent terrifying (bha_). He is ka_la bhairava (the divinity of time). In the southern parts of Bharat, he is Khan.d.oba or Ma_rta_n.d.a Bhairava married to representatives of the settled agricultural-trading as well as vanava_si. Rudra of R.gveda is the predecessor form of Bhairava. He is presented in images of: brahmas’iras’chedaka (kapa_lin), kan:ka_lamu_rti and bhiks.a_t.anamu_rti. Stella Kramrisch notes eloquently, "No contradictions were adequate and no single iconographic likeness sufficed to render the total, tremendous mystery of Bhairava. The furthest outreach of contradictory qualities was gathered in the intensity of myth, and split in the variety of images in bronze and stone." Kubera

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Just as Bhairava is a ks.etrapa_la, Yaksha is a guardian deity of the earth and wealth of the earth; a guardian of treasures and waterholes or lakes, just as na_ga is a guardian of the underworld. Yaksha-s live in alaka_puri. Pandava-s came upon a lake that was guarded by a Yaksha. Yaksha, Parkham, 200 B.C. Kubera is the keeper of the chief treasures of the earth. Pushpaka is his vima_na used by Ra_ma.

Ambika Mata temple, Jagat One of the dikpalas, Kubera is lord of the yakshas and guardian of the north direction. In his left hand, Kubera holds a pomegranate. Beneath his left hand is a personified water jar. Beneath his right hand, a personified mongoose dangles a snake, in a pose echoed by Krishna in the Delhi National Museum. Kubera Yaksha, from the Bha-rhut Stu-pa, early 1st century BCE. S’unga period. After Heinrich Zimmer, The Art of Indian Asia, Princeton, 1955, Bollingen Series, Plate 34a (India Office, courtesy Mrs. A.Coomaraswamy)

Kubera is one of the Regents (lokapalas) of the Four Quarters in Pali Buddhism who are attended by numerous yakshas, including Manibhadra (Maniyakkhasenapati in Pali). (This rarely depicted group 204

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is found among glazed plaques at the twelfth century Ananda temple in Pagan, Burma.) By the Gupta period, Manibhadra was substituted for Kubera in Sanskrit texts such as the Mahavastu and Lalitavistara, perhaps explaining his importance at Mathura. Vais’ravan.a, guardian of the North (Kubera) Tibet 1600 – 1699 Uncertain Lineage 95.25x59.69cm (37.50x23.50in) Ground Mineral Pigment on Cotton Collection of Shelley & Donald Rubin Vais’ravana (Tibetan: nam to se. English: the Son of Namto), Guardian of the Northern Direction, King of the Yakshas and Leader of the Worldly Dharma Protectors. Tibetan: Nam to se Barhut, Chandra Yakshi Sanchi, yaksha; stupa 1, east toran.a, s’unga period.

In the appearance of a warrior god, he has a round full face with eyebrows, moustache and a beard - brown in colour. Large round eyes gaze to the side. The right hand at the chest holds a tall victory banner topped with flowing silks of various colour. The left holds in the lap a brown mongoose expelling jewels from the mouth, like a rain shower, creating a pile of precious wishing gems on the ground below. Adorned with an ornate five-pointed crown of gold and jewels, earrings and tassels, he is richly garbed in the raiment of a king, opulent with silk brocades and elaborate designs in varieties of colour. Seated on a purple mat above a rocky bench, in a relaxed posture and wearing boots, the right leg is supported by an ugly yaksha daemon in an acquiescent kneeling posture. The left foot presses down on the prone form of another yaksha serving as a footstool. The head is encircled by a green areola edged with flames. The background is entirely filled with swirling purple smoke and the foreground sparse and green. "With vajra armour, a garland of jewel ornaments and the beautiful heavenly banner - fluttering, illuminated in the middle of a hundred thousand Wealth Bestowers; homage to Vaishravana, chief among the protectors of the Teaching." (Nyingma liturgical verse).

Vais’ravana, leader of the yaksha race, is a worldly guardian worshipped as both a protector and benefactor (wealth deity). He lives on the north side of the lower slopes of mount Meru in the Heaven of the Four Great Kings. As the leader of the Four Direction Guardians, he like the others, swore an oath of protection before the buddha Shakyamuni. The stories and iconography of the Four Guardian Kings arise originally with the early Buddhist sutras and become fully developed in the later Mahayana sutras. They are common to all schools of Tibetan Buddhism. Paintings of the 205

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Kings are generally found in association with a larger thematic set featuring the buddha Shakyamuni and the 16 Great Arhats. Lord Parshva Yaksha is the divine guardian associated with the Twenty-Third Tirhankara, Parshvanath. His complexion is dark, he has an elephant-like face, and his head is sheltered by the hood of a cobra. He has four arms. His carrier is a tortoise. On is right side he holds a snake and a special fruit known as Bujjpurak. In his left hands he holds a snake and a mongoose. He is considered very influential; he can be compared with Ganesh, who is a Hindu God. Yeak (Sanskrit: Yaksha) in Khmer Legends are ogre demons (often female). Yeak are depicted as a ferocious figure in armour, with a pointed helmet on his head, a wide mouth, long canines, swollen eyes and slanting eyebrows, holding a long stick in his hand. But Yeak can change shape to a human figure. Vis.n.u blowing s’ankha trumpet. Vishnu’s fight with the Rakshasas led by Malyava_n, Ma_li and Suma_li as narrated in the Uttarka_n.d.a of the Ra_ma_yan.a (Cantoes VI-VIII). [A Terracotta Panel from Bhitargaon Showing a Ramayana Scene By P. Banerjee http://ignca.nic.in/pb0020.htm]"valampuri por-itta ma_ ta_n:ku tat.akk kai" (mullaippa_t.t.u: 2) "the long arms with finger prints of valampuri [conch with clockwise turns] and embracing Tirumakal. (or Laks.mi)" The terracotta plaque is at the Brooklyn Museum, U.S.A. On stylistic grounds it can be ascribed to the fifth century and and also be presumed to have originally belonged to the brick temple of Bhitargaon, Kanpur District, Uttar Pradesh. The plaque has been described by Dr. Army Poster (Figures in Clays from Ancient India, No. 52, Brooklyn, 1973) and by Dr. Pratapaditya Pal (The Ideal Image: The Gupta Sculptural Tradition and Its Influence, Fig. 28, p.81, the Asiatic Society, Inc. 1978).

The glyphs of s’ankha and cakra not only adorn the hands of mu_rti-s of Vishnu in many temples all over Bharat but also have been inscribed on coins of kings of historical periods, attesting to a continuing historical tradition for over 8 millennia. Coin issued by King Mahinda V of Sinhala, CE 956-972 Obverse: in bead circe, Elephant standing left, trunk pendent. Before legs, a symbol; over back a conch. Reverse: In similar circle, horse prancing left, before it a brazier or a lamp, ligatured to a corn-stalk and over back, a cakra. Thus, the coin depicts two sacred symbols: s’ankha and cakra.

Among the finds of Mesopotamian civilization were shells used for decorative purposes. Harappa excavations have yielded shell ilays, beads, bangles, ladles, game-pieces, and shell necklaces. At Mohenjodaro was found s'ankha workers' quarters and heaps of oyster shells, pointing to possible 206

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use of pearls for ornaments and for long-distance trade. At Lothal were found complete shells, and a shell-working center (Rao, S.R., 1962: 22-3). S'ankha is clearly an indigenously evolved industry and tradition and coast-based. S'ankha (turbinella pyrum) is found abundant along Gulf of Mannar, Gulf of Khambat, Gulf of Kutch and Makran coast and only in this coastline of Bharat, at 16 to 20 m. depths close to the coastline. The northern limits of the occurrence of the species is the mouth of River Godavari. It also occurs in Andaman islands (Nayar and Mahadevan 1974: 122-124). During low tide, the coral reef of Gulf of Kutch between Sacchna and Okha (a distance of 200 kms.) gets exposed and s'ankha is found close to coral reef patches. The s'ankha occurs at a depth of 4 to 6 m. in this gulf. (Pota and Patel 1991: 446). This zoological species is not found anywhere else in the world and thus constitutes a marker to identify products made and traded from Sarasvati Civilization, from the coastline of Bharat stretching from Makran coast in the west to the mouth of Godavari river on the east, along the long coastline. Ancient chank bangle fragments from Gujarat and Kathiawar with one from Bellary (1516). (Foot-collection, Madras Museum) After Pl. IV in Hornell, opcit. Sectioning chank shells in a Dacca workshop. After Fig. 2 in Hornell, opcit. S'ankha is certainly not a product brought in by the mythical invading or migrating Aryans – a myth created by some indologists without any archaeological evidence to support it. Vis.n.u is mentioned in the R.gveda but without the s'ankha adorning one of his hands. So, clearly, the s'ankha iconographic tradition is post-vedic, and attested archaeologically in Sarasvati Civilization, in 6500 BCE at Mehergarh, 300 kms. north of Makran Coast, north-west of Gulf of Kutch, close to the Amri-Nal cultural coastline. "…Vishnu is almost certainly one of the gods borrowed from the indigenous people as his complexion is characteristically represented as dark-hued whenever his image is shown in colour…first notices occur in the two great Indian epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. In these we get frequent reference to the employment of the chank as a martial trumpet by the great warriors whose more or less mythical exploits are recounted. Particularly is this the case in the Mahabharata, where in the Bhagavat-Gita we find the heroes heartening their forces to the fight with loud blasts on their battle-conches. Each hero has his famous conch distinguished…we read in the Bhagavat-Gita (verses 11 to 19) how the prelude to battle was the deafening clamour sounded by the leaders on their great conchs. 'The ancient of the Kurus, the Grandsire (Bhisma), the glorious, sounded on high his conch. 'The Lion's Roar'. Then conchs and kettledrums, tabors and drums and cowhorns, suddenly blared forth with tumultuous clamour. Stationed in their great war-chariot yoked to white horses, Ma_dhava (Krishna) and the son of Pa_n.du (Arjuna) blew their divine conchs. Panchajanya was blown by Hrishikes'a (Krishna) and Devadatta by Dhananjaya 207

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(Arjuna). Vrikodara (Bhim) of terrible deeds blew his mighty conch, Paundra. The king Yudhishthira, the son of Kunti, blew Anantavijaya; Nakula and Sahadeva blew their cochs Sughosha and Manipushpaka. And Ka_shya of the great bow and Shikhan.d.i, the mighty car-warrior, Drisht.adyumna and Vira_t.a and Sa_tyaki, the unconquered. Drupada and the Draupadeyas, O Lord of Earth, and Saubhadra, the might-armed, on all sides their several conchs blew. That tumultuous uproar rent the hearts of the sons of Dhritara_s.t.ra, filling the earth and sky with sound.' From the earliest times the conch has also been used in India to call the people to their sacrifices and other religious rites and as an instrument of invocation to call the attention of the gods to their ceremonies to be performed. With this intimate association with the chief religious rites, the people gradually came to reverence the instrument itself, and to adore and invoke it…In the ceremonies attending the coronation of great kings the chank naturally played a great part. (During coronation of Yudhishthira)…the king was to touch such auspicious articles as corn, white flowers, svastika, gold, silver and jewels…Krishna took in his hand the sacred conch-shell, which was filled with holy water, sprinkled the water over the heads of the king and queen…" (p. 117-126). Together with the cakra, the discus wielded by Krishna, the s'ankha is an artefact associated with war; one is a weapon, the other is a trumpet calling the troops to arms and signaling the beginning of combat. Bhairava, a form of S'iva is also depicted carrying a sawn s'anka, a representation of the s'ankha industry, practiced by the vra_tya, the precursors of the ks.atriya-s and early worshippers of ekavra_tya Rudra, mentioned in the Atharva Veda. Kathiawar is the sacred land associated with the life of Krishna who is adorned with the Panchajanya s'ankha. "…the S'anku Ta_li Vel.l.a_l.an-s, a section of the great Vellalar caste, who wear, according to Winslow, a representation of the chank on either side of a central symbol…Two other castes with the same marriage badge occur on the West Coast…This is an immigrant branch of Idaiyans known locally as Puvandans, settled in Travancore…Their tali is known as sankhu tali and a small ornament in the form of a chank is its most conspicuous feature. The other West Coast caste using a sankhu tali is that of the Thandan Pulayan, a small division of the Pulayan, who dwell in South Malabar and Cochin…Sixty years ago chanks constituted the currency of the Naga tribes…a cow was valued at ten chank-shells, a pig at two shells…on some coins issued by the ancient Pandiyan and Chalukyan dynasties of southern India a chank-shell appears as the principal symbol (Thurston, I, 328)…" (p. 146, p. 162, p. 166). "…in ancient days the cusom of wearing these pecular ornaments (of chank) was widely spread throughout the greater part of India and that bangle-workshops, equally widely scattered, stretched from Tinnevelly in the extreme south to Kathiawar and Gujarat in the north-west, through a long chain of factories located in the Deccan. Reference to ancient Tamil classics furnishes evidence scanty but conclusive of the existence of an import chank-cutting industry in the ancient Pandyan kingdom in the early centuries of the Christian era. Similar evidence is also extant of a widespread use of carved and ornamented chank bangles in former days by the women of the Pandyan country which may considered roughly co-extensive with the modern districts of Tinnevelly, Madura, and Ramnad, forming the eastern section of the extreme south of the Madras Presidency…Maduraikkanchi, a Tamil poem which incidentally describes the ancient city of Korkai (sea-port at the mouth of Tambraparni), once the subcapital of the Pandyan kingdom and the great emporium familiar to Greek and Egyptian sailors and traders and described by the geographers of the 1st and 2nd centuries AD under the name of Kolkhoi. In one passage (LL. 140-144) the Parawas are described as men who dived for pearl oysters and for chank shells and knew charms to keep sharks away from that part of the sea where diving was being carried on…" (p. 42)

Dharmi, the Brahmin questions Nakki_rar:

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An:kan:kulayariva_l.i neyppu_cip pan:kampat.a viran.t.u ka_lparappic cankatan-ai ki_rki_renavarukkun: ki_ran-o_ ven-kaviyai ya_ra_yumul.l.attavanTrans. Is Ki_ran fit to critize my poem? Spreading his knees wide, his joints loosened (by the labour), does he not saw chanks into sections, his ghee-smeared saw murmuring the while kir-kir? The poem is rendered in the presence of the Pandyan king, Neduncer..iyan- II, contesting the competence of Nakki_rar, a Parawa, the poet-president of Tamil sangam in Madura. Nakki_rar responds: can:kar-uppa ten:gal. kulan can:karan-a_rk ke_tu kulam pan:kamar-ac con-n-a_l par..uta_me can:kai yarintun.t.u va_r..vo_ maran-e_ nin-po_la virantun.t.u va_r..vatillai Trans. Chank-cutting is indeed the calling of my caste; of that I am not ashamed. But of what caste is S'ankara? We earn our livelihood by cutting chanks, we do not live by begging as he did. This is textual evidence for chank-cutting in Korkai, the principal settlement of the Parawa-s. This is how Hornell describes the finds of chank workshop at Korkai: "I unearthed a fine series of chank workshop waste -- seventeen fragments in all. The whole number were found lying on the surface of the ground in a place where old Pandyan coins have from time to time been discovered according to information gathered in the village. The fragments unearthed all bear distinct evidence of having been sawn by the same form of instrument, a thin-bladed iron saw, and in the same manner as that employed in Bengal in the present day. Eight fragments represent the obliquely cut 'shoulder-piece', six consist of the columella and part of the oral extremity of the shell and the remaining three are fragments of the lips -- all show a sawn surface, the positive sign of treatment by skilled artisans…It is also noteworthy that the huge funeral urns found in tumuli of the Tambraparni valley (at Adichanallur) have yielded a few fragments of working sections cut from chank shells, associated in the urns with beautifully formed bronze utensils, iron weapons and implements and gold fillets. So old are these tumuli that they are classed as prehistoric though it is obvious that the people of these days were skilful artisans in gold, bronze, iron and must have been contemporaries of historic periods in the story of Egypt and Mesopotamia. Ovari is the name of a small fishing village not far distant on the adjacent coast and may possibly be the Ophir of Solomon and the port whereto the fleets of Tarshish sailed to fright home the treasures of India…The localities in Gujarat and Kathiawar form a second well-marked geographical area, being situated around the Gulf of Cambay adjacent to where chanks are fished in the present day…Damnagar, Amreli Prant…a great number of chank bangles in a fragmentary condition were found…Babapur…situated 13 mile westward of Amreli…13 fragments of finished chank bangles…Ambavalli. Seventy-one fragments of broken bangles from an old site…numerous portions of sawn sections of chank shells…Va_la_bhipur (modern Walah)…chank bangle fragments…sawn working sections…Kamrej, 12 miles north-east of Surat. The summit of a small islet in the Tapti river at this place yielded three sawn shoulder slices (workshop waste) of chank sells and a single fragment of finished bangle…a broad and closely worked zig-zag groove…two fragments of sandstone hammers…Eight sites can clearly be indicated as probable centers of the chank-bangle industry in Gujarat and Kathiawar, namely -- (a)Sigam, Hiran valley, Baroda Prant, (b) Kamrej, on the Tapti, (c) Mahuri, on the left bank of the Sabarmati, Baroda State, with (d) Ambavalli, (e) Damnagar, (f) Kodinar, and (g) in and on the alluvium of the Shitranj river above Babapur, all four in Amreli Prant, Kathiawar, also (h) Va_la_bhipur in Vala State, Kathiawar…at the Ambavalli site, an iron knife with a tang was discovered…a chank-saw as is to-day in common use in Bengal chank factories for cutting patterns upon the bangles….In several other cases (Srinivasapur in Mysore, Havaligi Hill in Anantapur, and Bastipad in Kurnul) pieces of iron slag were found in association." (pp. 45-61).

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Details of bangle manufacture. "The tool employed for breaking away the columella is a hammer fashioned on the principle of the well-known geologist's hammer, sharp-edged on the one side and square on the other. The shell is now ready for the sawyer, who sits on the earthen floor tightly wedged between two short stakes of unequal length driven into the ground. Against the longer, measuring some 15 inches above the ground, the worker's back is supported, while against the shorter, only 4 to 5 inches high, his toes are pressed. The space between the two stakes measures no more than 18 inches, hence the workman although he sits with his knees widely separate -- is very tightly jammed between the rests. This is found essential as it is necessary that the limbs should be rigid during his work, as his feet have to function as a vice during the sawing of the sections, the shell to be cut being placed between the right heel and the toes of the left foot. After the columella and lip of the shell are removed, a disc of hard wood is placed over the moth aperture of the shell to provide a firm purchase for the foot pressed against the side of the shell. The worker is now ready to begin sawing the shell into sections. For this purpose he is provided with a heavy hand-saw of great apparent clumsiness. The iron blade…is of a deep crescentic form ending in an attenuate horn at each end. A little way from each of these tapered extremities the end of a long iron tang is riveted to the back of the saw; the further ends of the two tangs are connected by a thin cane cross bar or handle lashed by twine to the tangs, which are covered with a serving of the same twine. IT is noteworthy that the tangs are not straight but have a hook-like bend near the attachment to the blade. The latter is a stout forged iron plate, 2 mm. Thick except for a distance of one inch from the cutting edge where it is worked down to a thickness of 0.6 mm. Between the tangs the back of the saw if protected by a piping of iron. A saw of this description costs Rs. 12, each workman providing his own. After sharpening, a new ssaw is adorned on each side of the blade with a number of red spots as auspicious marks. In beginning work, the shell is placed somewhat obliquely between the feet, the apex directed to the right and away from the worker, who places his left hand on one twine-covered tang of the saw and the other on the horn of the blade at the opposite extremity. Balancing the saw carefully in his hands, and at right angles to his body, he applies the edge to the shell and begins a vigorous to and fro movement of the saw from side to side, the course of the hands being through a short arc of a circle at each swing. Several times he pauses momentarily to adjust the shell anew as the work progresses. On an average it takes 4 1/2 minutes to saw once through a shell…The rubbing down of the inner surface of the working circlet is accomplished in an ingenious manner by means of a wooden spindle 18 to 20 inches long, covered with an abrasive coating of fine river sand embedded in a rough lac basis…In Bengal and wherever in the adjoining provinces of Assam, Behar and Orissa…every married woman of all castes which are thoroughly Hinduised is bound to possess a pair of chank bangles laquered in vermilion as one of the visible tokens of her married state; the red sankha or shakha as it is called in Dacca is indeed as necessary of assumption during the marriage ceremonies as is the performance of that other Hindu custom of smearing a streak of vermilion on the forhead or down the parting of the bride's hair…bala and churi. The former are broad bangles worn on each wrist. The churi on the contrary is always quite narrow, generally 1/6 to 1/5 inch in widh, and usually of conventional scroll design worn in a set of three on each wrist…The section of the Kurmi caste found in Chota Nagpore and Orissa also wear chank bangles…in the hill tracts of Chittagong, we find the women of the Maghs, a race of Indo-Mongolian extraction and Buddhists by religion, using very broad unornamented sections of chank shells as bracelets…considerable demand for chank bracelets comes from Thibet and Bhutan…" (p. 91-107) {James Hornell, 1914, The sacred chank of India: a monograph of the Indian conch, turbinella pyrum, Madras, Madras Fisheris Breau, Bulletin No. 7}.

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Sculptural tradition The tradition of sculptural art in Bha_rata is a legacy of the Sarasvati Sindhu Valley Civilization. Recumbent mouflon, Mature Harappan period, ca. 2600–1900 B.C. Indus Valley Marble; L. 11 in. (28 cm) “This powerful sculpture represents a mouflon, a type of wild sheep native to the highland regions of the Near East. The animal's head, now partially broken away, is held upward and is twisted to the right, creating an impression of alertness. The artist has achieved a realistic rendering of an animal at rest, its weight thrown fully onto its left haunch, and its left hind leg tucked under its body. The bottom of the statue has been worn away, but it is likely that the hidden leg was originally indicated there. The entire body is contained within a single unbroken outline. The horns, ears, tail, and muscles were modeled in relief, although time and secondary use have flattened the contours on the right side. This combination of closed outline with broadly modeled masses and a minimum of incised detail is characteristic of animal sculpture from the Harappan-period levels at the site of Mohenjo Daro in the lower reaches of the Indus River. The function of these animal sculptures is unknown.” http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ho/02/ssa/hod_1978.58.htm Sarasvati Cultural Style. (ca. 3300 to 1300 BCE). The so-called Harappan conventions of building, art style, and technology were remarkably uniform in hundreds of sites. The evidence of writing was only on seals and tablets and inscriptions on copper plates and weapons. Technology had advanced in the areas of weights and measures, brickmaking, in gold, silver, bronze and copper work and in beads of varieties of stones. The underlying basis of the economy was agriculture and animal husbandry; sites are located close to sources of water, preferably in the flood plains of the major rivers, Sindhu and Sarasvati. Only very few large sites, perhaps only four or five, which may be called cities are found. There is no archaeological or linguistic evidence to assume a dichotomy between the Vedic society and the Harappan cultural style. Art of making seals Stone seals or steatite seals and bosses on them were first cut into shape by a saw, whose thickness was 0.025 in. (Faience was used for amulets, animal figurines, balls and marbles, beads, button, finger rings, bracelets, head ornaments, seals, studs, vessels and weights.) The rounding off of the boss was perhaps done with a knife and finished off with an abrasive. A hole was bored through the boss from opposite sides. (MIC, II, 377). The Harappan seals found at Kish, Mesopotamia had traes of oroginal blue or green colouring, indicating the use of glazing techniques. Herbert Beck concluded that the surface of the seal was painted with some alkali and then subjected to heat (FEM, 346). Marshall felt that the vitreous paste on faience objects was an Indian invention and was applied to faience. Glaze as mixed with a siliceous powder and manganiferous haematite or red ochre as pigments, and fired at high temperature; the paste resembled glass in some respects. The system of writing epigraphs on copper plates continued, which started in the Sarasvati civilizationperiod, into the historical periods in Bharat to record property transactions and donations to temples. 211

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Bronze standard 10th - 7th century BCE. A figure, in the centre fights with two one-horned bulls (?).Bronze horse-bit of Luristan type, with cheek-pieces showing a sculpturalal ligaturewith an animal's body, wings, and a horned human head.10th - 7th century BCE.

http://www.artarena.force9.co.uk/luristan.html

Bronze axe-head of Luristan type. shaped in the form of a stylized lion's mane ending in four animal heads.10th - 7th

It's socket is head,with it's century BCE.

Worker in ivory, sculptor on in stone A magnificent example of the artistry of an ivory worker. Orissa, 13th cent. CE From Left: 1. One of the four legs of a throne made of ivory. Hunting-and-battle scenes are *carved out. A caparisoned horse; a hunter shoots at a deer with his bow. 2. Back view of the throne shown in 1. A bow is hung around the left hand of the horse-soldier and a quiver filled with arrows is tied on his back. A circular shield is shown. 3. Side-view of the throne leg shown in1. 4. Another side-view of the throne leg shown in 1. Lower portion shows a hunter shooting at a deer with his bow. A quiver, filled with arrows, is tied to the waist of the hunter. [After Pl. IL to LII, GN Pant, 1978, Indian Archery, Delhi, Agam Kala Prakashan].

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The multi-headed sculpture of S'iva is a remarkable evidence of the continuity of the 'ligaturing' traditon evident in the inscriptions of the civilization (with three-headed animals, 'fabulous' animal and so on). In this sculpture of S'iva, the head is ligatured with: a human face, a lion's head and an antelope's head. Cf. Doris Meth Srinivasan, 1997, Many heads, arms and eyes: origin, meaning and form of multiplicity in Indian art, Leiden, Brill. If the ligatured heads and conical cap are hieroglyphic, they may connote aru 'lion' (Akkadian); rebus: ara = copper; mr..eka 'goat' (Te.); rebus: mleccha mukha = ingot of copper (Skt.); mu~ha = quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace (Santali) cu_d.e = face (Ka.); s'u_la = trident (Skt.); culha = furnace, fireplace (Santali.) kulla = cap (Ta.) kol = alloy of five metals (Ta.) Three-headed S'iva. Gandhara. 2nd cent. Grey schist 18.6 X 10.5 cm. (MIK I 5888). "Originally the figure had four arms; now only two remain. He holds the trident (tris'u_la) in the right hand, and a small receptacle (kaman.d.alu) containing the elixir of life (amr.ta) or holy water in his left. The long hair is piled high on the top of the head in the ascetic style with the help of a hair-band (kes'abandha) and is stylized in the shape of flames. In the centre of the forehead, is a horizontal third eye...The figure wears no ornaments apart from the sacred threwad (upavi_ta) which passes from the left shoulder across the naked torso, and a piece of cloth draped over the left upper arm. The figure is clothed only in a striped (tiger-skin) loin-cloth out of which protrudes an erect phallus... The very complex iconography of S'iva, which is difficult to interpret, is further complicated by two animal heads emerging 213

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literally from behind his human head. The head on the right is that of a lion while the other seems to be of an antelope. According to Lobo, the heads of animals are meant to portray S'iva as the lord of animals, Pas'upati (Palast der Goetter 1992: 176), whether, this is indeed so remains an open question..." (Raffael Dedo Gadebuch, Exhibit 19 in: Saryu Doshi, ed., 1998, Treasures of Indian Art: Germany's tribute to India's cultural heritage, Delhi, National Museum, p.29).

Ligaturing as an artistic style continues into the historical periods as evidenced by the sculpture on a capping stone of a stupa of the Buddha tradition. It depicts an elephant ligatured to a kalpa-ratha (sacred vine) and a metaphor for support to the universe with rain clouds. The yaks.i sculpture on a railing pillar of a stupa evokes the female figurines of Sarasvati Civilization. A part of the door jamb shows the figures of Yamuna and Sarasvati rivers personified, together with Kubera and other yaks.a. The R.gvedic adoration of River Sarasvati as divinity (devitame) continues as a strong cultural tradition in Bharat even to the present day. Photos courtesy: http://bosei.cc.u-tokai.ac.jp/~indus/english/3_2_01.html Artistic tradition of ligatured forms

One characteristic feature of depiction of forms of divinities is to endow them with a multiplicity of forms, some are multi-headed and some have multiple arms each arm carrying a particular weapon or presenting a particular abhaya mudra_, a symbolic representation of the aspect of protection conveyed by the sculptor through the unique art form. There are many inscribed objects with multiple heads ligatured to the body of an animal. There are also objects in the round with multiple heads. Animals are depicted with human features such as 214

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horns and human faces. Buffalo horns become humanized with a ligature to a human face. This is the incipient idea of imbuing divinity in animate beings and also in objects. Ligatured sculpture: tiger, bull (or buffalo) and elephant. Nausharo. NS 92.02.70.04. 6.76 cm. High. Dept. of Archaeology, Karachi. EBK 7712. C. Jarrige, 1982: 132-5. “Hollow threeheaded animal figurine. This complex figurine depicts a tiger with bared teeth, a bull or buffalo head with punctuated hair spots on the forehead, and possibly an elephant with multiple lines outlining the eyes. The tiger’s face is finely modeled, but the other animals’ features are less refined. This is the second such object found at Nausharo, and although comparable figurines have not been reported from other sites, multiple-headed animals are depicted on seals. Nausharo. Period III, Harappan 2300-2200 BCE.” [JM Kenoyer, 1998, p. 219]. Ligatured statuette: elephant, buffalo and feline. Nausharo. NS 91.02.32.01.LXXXII. C. Jarrige, 1992: 132-5. “Hollow three-headed animal figurine. The most complete figure is of an elephant with a hollow trunk. Two horns of a water buffalo curve along the cheeks of the elephant, and the bottom jaw of a feline with bared teeth appears at the back of the elephant’s head. This complex figure is finely modeled and incised with delicate strokes to portray the character of the elephant. Such multiple-headed animals are depicted on seals and must represent important myths. This object may have been used as a puppet or sacred figure in a cult ritual. Ca. 2300-2200 BCE.” (JM Kenoyer, 1998, p. 219).

Maha_vi_ra (Lit. Great Warrior) pot. Anthropomorphic. The hero or warrior carries a dagger on his right hand. Ca. Mauryan period. Indian Museum, Calcutta (Acc. No. A11221). Maha_vi_ra Pot. A. Anthropomorphic pot. Sonkh. Ca. Mauryan period. Museum fur Indische Kunst, Berlin (Acc. No. So 64(51). B. A conjectural drawing [After JAB van Buitenen, 1968, The Pravargya, Poona].

The following r.ca-s explain the function performed by the pravargya pot which is the soul of the yajn~a. The pot is to hold ghr.ta or dadhi used in the metallurgical process of reduction by oxidising the baser elements.. 215

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Tvm! m/oSy/ daext ? >/ izrae =?v Tv/cae -?r> , Ag?CD> sae/imnae? g&/hm! .

[r.s.i: it.a bha_rgava] 10.171.02 You have carried off the head of the trembling yajn~a from his skin; come to the dwelling of the presenter of the Soma. [Legend: Yajn~a attempted to escape from the divinities. Yajn~a assumed a human form, that of a warrior. Indra took the form of an ant and gnawed at the bowstring and then cut off the head of yajn~a. The head of yajn~a is the pravargya or preliminary stage of pouring fresh milk into boiling ghi_ (clarified butter)]. c/Tvair/ z&¼a/ Çyae? ASy/ pada/ Öe zI/;ˆR s/Ý hSta?sae ASy , iÇxa? b/Ïae v&; ? / ae raer? vIit m/hae de/vae mTyaR/Aa iv?vez . [r.s.i: va_madeva gautama]4.058.03 Four are his horns; three are his feet; his heads are two, his hands are seven; the triple-bound showerer (of benefits) roars aloud; the mighty deity has entered among men. [This verse is preferentially applied to Agni, identified either with yajn~a or with A_ditya; the four horns of the yajn~a are the four vedas; of A_ditya, the four cardinal points of the horizon; the three feet of yajn~a are the three daily sacrifices; of A_ditya, morning, noon, evening; the two heads of yajn~a are two particular ceremonies termed brahmaudanam and pravargya; of A_ditya, day and night; the seven hands of yajn~a are the seven metres; of A_ditya, the seven rays, or the six seasons and their aggregate, or the year, the seventh; the term vr.s.abha phala_na_m var.sita_, the rainer of rewards, applies to yajn~a and A_ditya; so does roraite, he roars, implying the noise made by the repetition of the mantras of the vedas; the three bonds of yajn~a are: mantra, kalpa and bra_hman.a, the prayer, the ceremonial; the rationale of A_ditya, the three regions, earth, mid-air and heaven; another view is to limit vr.s.abha ka_ma_nam vars.ita_ to yajn~a; the four horns are the priests: the hota_, udga_ta_, adhvaryu and brahma_; the three feet are the three vedas; the two heads the havirdha_na and pravargya rites; the hands are the seven priests, or seven metres; the three bonds the three daily sacrifices; Nirukta 13.7 applies the verse to yajn~a]. ià/y< Ê/Gx< n kaMy/m! Aja?im ja/Myae> sca? , "/maˆR n vaj?jQ/rae =?dBx>/ zñ?tae/ d->?/. [r.s.i: vavri a_treya]5.019.04 May (Agni) with his two relatives, (heaven and earth), hear this faultless (praise), acceptable as milk; he who, like the mixed oblation, is filled with food, and unsubsdued, is ever the subduer of his foes. [He who, like the mixed oblations, is filled with food: gharmo na va_jajat.harah, he in whose belly is food like the gharmah; the ordinary sense is warm, hot and day; it is further identified with the ceremony called pravargya: pravargya iva gharmo yatha_ havyena_jyenapayasa_ sikta_, like the pravargya the gharma, sprinkled with the oblation butter and milk; gharma = a vessel, a pitcher]. tdœ va
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he would cut off his head if ever he taught them to any one else; the As'vins prevailed upon him, nevertheless, to teach them the prohibited knowledge, and, to evade Indra's threat, took off the head of the sage, replacing it by that of a horse; Indr, apprised of Dadhyan~c's breach of faith, sturck off his equine head with the thunderbolt; on which, the As'vins restored to him his own. The pravargya vidya_ is said to imply certain verses of the r.k, yajur and sa_ma vedas, and the madhu-vidya_ the Bra_hman.a]. A/y< va. [r.s.i: s'as'akarn;a ka_n.va]8.009.04 This oblation is poured out, As'vin, to you with praise; this sweet-savoured Soma is offered to you, who are alluent with food, (animated) by which you meditate (the destruction) of the foe. [Oblation: gharma = pravargyam, a ceremony so-called; also the name of a sacrificial vessel, as well as of the oblation it contains: gharmasya havis.a a_dha_rabhu_to maha_vi_ro gharmah].

R.gveda also uses two technical terms: avame_hanti, nime_ghama_na: 6029.Damp: mehra_rna_ to get damp (from air moisture); mehrta'a_na_ to damp (Kur.); mehare to be damp (as rain)(Malt.)(DEDR 5085). avame_hanti, nime_ghama_na is wet (RV.); me_gha_yate_ becomes cloudy (= me_gham. karo_ti)(Pa_n..)(TS.); meha_b to get wet (Aw.); miha_na_ to become damp (H.)(CDIAL 10338a). me_hati pisses (RV.); mik to piss (Kho.)(CDIAL 10338). cf. me_ha urine (Mn.); ame_ha retention of urine (TS.); mi_ze urine (Pr.); mi~_n (Tir.); mo~ (Sh.); mi_ke pl. urine; mi_k pissing (Sh.)(CDIAL 10337). The semantics are explained by the shape of the maha_vi_ra pots: Buxar. A male pot figure. Ca. 1st cent CE. Allahabad Museum (Acc. No. 5433). Pot-hero (with horns, seated on a stool and a necklace). Two views Mathura. Ca. Mauryan period. Russek collection (5751(SU1) [After Pl. 14.16 in DM Srinivasan]. Kalibangan. Harappan period. Double-head. [After Illustrated London News, March 24, 1962]. Mohenjo-daro. Mask with horns showing a humanized bovine. Harappan period. [After E. Mackay, Further Excavations at Mohenjodaro, New Delhi, 1938]. Terracotta double-faced head. Kus’a_n.a period. Lucknow. State Museum (Acc. No. 6.15/14); b. Terracotta double-head. Side view of a; c. Isimu. Mesopotamia. Post-Akkadian period. Staatliche Museum zu Berlin (Ac. No. AN 20500). [After Doris Seth Srinivasan, Pl. 13.12 to 14]. 217

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Bharhut. Double-faced head. Ca. 2nd century BCE. Muse+um fur Indische Kunst, Berlin (acc. No. 1.10.126). A Vais.n.ava divinity. Malha_r, Madhya Pradesh. 1st Cent. BCE. The divinity carries a large pat.a, sword [After Donald M. Stadner].

Vis.n.u carrying a gada_ and a cakra. Sulta_npur, Uttar Pradesh. 10th cent. CE. Lucknow, State Museum (Acc. No. 0.199). Kot Diji. Bovine (buffalo) depicted with long horns has a human face. Harappan period. Islamabad Museum. [Photo and drawing after Dept. of Archaeology and Museums, Govt. of Pakistan]. ko_la = woman (Nahali); ko_l. = planet (Ta.) Rebus: kol ‘metal’ (Ta.) kod.u = horn. Rebus: kod. = artisan’s workshop (Kuwi)

Vis.n.u. Deogarh, Gupta period. C. 500 CE. ASI. Asleep in the Cosmic Ocean, resting upon A_dis’es.a, the Cosmic serpent and is attended by deva-s and asura-s carrying weapons. Lower panel depicts six warriors *carrying different weapons: quiver, spear, sword, cakra (discus), s’anku (spear), and gada_ (personified as gada_ devi).

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Narasim.ha with Vr.s.n.i vi_ra. The heroes carry a variety of weapons analogous to the Aanantas’ayana Vis.n.u panel at Deogarh, Madhya Pradesh. Kondamotu, Andhra Pradesh. Early 4th cent. CE. State Museum, ASI, Hyderabad. Coin of Va_sudeva I. Oe_so on reverse. A trident and a bow are held by Oe_so. No. 526 in Robert Gobl.,System and Chronologie der Muntzpra_gung des Kus’a_nreiches, 1984. Neminatha flanked by Samkars.an.a/Balara_ma and VasudevaKr.s.n.a. Balara_ma carries a mace on his right hand. Mathura. Late Kus.a_n.a period. [Govt. Museum, Mathura. Acc No. 342488]. Vis.n.u’s continued association with the Cosmic Waters is depicted in the Ra_ji_m sculpture symbolised by the Na_ga ra_ja who worships Vis.n.u as he takes the Third Stride. Vis.n.u as Trivikrama. Rock-cut sculpture. Cave 3, Ba_da_mi, Mysore. 6th cent. DCE. ASI. Trivikrama carries a number of weapons: gada_, cakra, s’ankha (homonym: s’an:ku, spear), sword, bow. Trivikrama spans Varun.a of asura-s of the Nether World, Br.haspati of the deva-s of the upper world and Vis.n.u for the totality of the universe. In this Ba_da_mi sculpture, Vis.n.u comes as a tiny brahmaca_rin to confront King Bali and challenges him as to who could take the longer ‘stride’. The dignity of the sculpture and the depiction of weapons as powerful protective symbols of Mankind’s Saviour is breath-taking as it unravels a profound conception of the totality of opposed moieties. 219

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Vis.n.u Trivikrama and Na_ga. Ra_ji_va Locana temple. Ra_jim, Raipur Dist., M.P. Early 8th cent. CE. Vis.n.u Trivikrama. One one hand a dagger is held. Mathura. Kus.a_n.a period. Govt. Museum, Mathura Acc. No. 50.3550 [After Pl. 18.14 in DM Srinivasan].

Vis.n.u with eight arms. A vajra, a dagger and a flat sword (pat.a) are held. Mathura. 4th cent. CE. [Sothby’s Inc., New York]. Harappa. Lin:gam in situ in Trench Ai, Mound F [After Pl. X © in MS Vats, Excavations at Harappa] Kalibangan: Terracotta lin:gacum-yoni. Mature

Harappan (Courtesy ASI) S’iva lin:ga were found at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. The religious tradition of S’iva worship is a continuing tradition in Bha_rata. [After Mackay, FEM, Pl. CIV, #27 and 28 and bases to hold the lin:ga, #24. and 25. The base #25 is engraved with tre-foil pictorial motifs, an apparent depiction of divinity associated with the lin:ga the base holds. Note the two matching holes on the base #25 and #28 to hold the lin:ga in position, using rivets. nd

S’iva. Bhita, Uttar Pradesh. Pan~camukha lin:ga. 2 cent. BCE. Lucknow, State Museum (Acc. No. H4). Another view [After photograph by DM Srinivasan, Pl. 14.4].

Shell bangles from burial of an elderly woman at Harappa, c. 2600 BCE; Wide bangle made from a single conch shell and carved with a chevron motif. Harappa, c. 2400 BCE. [After Figs. 7.43 and 7.44 in JM Kenoyer, 1998]. Bangles are the 220

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traditional ornaments worn by women of Bha_rata to the present day. There is an example of a middle-aged adult male with a broken shell bangle that appears to have been worn on the left wrist. [JM Kenoyer, 1998, p. 144]. A sinuous tree with short leaves. Terracotta tablet. Harappa H95-2523 (After Fig. 6.3 in JM Kenoyer, 1998]. Nausharo. Jar with three papal leaves. Period 1D, 2600 – 2550 BCE [After Samzun, 1992, Fig. 29.4, no.2; cf. Fig. 6.4 in JM Kenoyer, 1998] Harappa. Mount ET Square molded tablet. A. one-horned bull sealing and script on one side; and B. deity under papal arch with 13 leaves, and a stylized branch with three ‘leaves’ projecting from the centre of the head and a long braid hanging at the back. Both arms covered with bangles and held at each side in a formal pose. On other tablet has an arch of 13 leaves; three tablets have sevenand eight-

leaved arches.on the reverse. [After Fig. 6.5 in: JM Kenoyer, 1998]. Many triangular terracotta cakes were found inside hearths and kilns indicating their use to retain heat during firing of pottery or metals and as packing material to keep the heated objects in place without dislocation during intense heat. Similar might have been the use of terracotta cones. It is possible that some of them were used as weights for threads during weaving.

Moulds were used to make intricate designs on figures as seen from the mould used to make the head of a bull. (After photo in: http://bosei.cc.utokai.ac.jp/~indus/english/2_2_03.html)

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Terracotta cones found at Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Could have been used as packing

material while firing terracotta objects such as pottery. (After JM Kenoyer/Courtesy Dept. of Archaeology and Museums, Govt. of Pakistan). Pottery heads, Kish. [After Pl. IX, 8 and 9 in Gregory L. Possehl, ed., 1979, Ancient Cities of the Indus, Delhi, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.]

Bangles. Blue glass paste. 3.5 in. dia. Harappa. [After Pl.II in: Gregory L. Possehl, ed., 1979, Ancient Cities of the Indus, Delhi, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.] The pattern is reproduced on the pannier of a one-horned bull which is a frequently occurring pictograph on inscribed objects of the civilization. Three standing figurines attest to the sartorial styles of the civilization. The left showsa female wearing necklaces and headdress. The center figurine is a male. Mohenjodaro. (After photo in: http://bosei.cc.u-tokai.ac.jp/~indus/english/2_2_02.html)

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Statue of a man with a double-bun hair-dress. A fillet around the head. Mohenjodaro. (After JM Kenoyer/Courtesy Dept. of Archaeology and Museums, Govt. of Pakistan).

Fillet on the head: a symbol of a warrior 223

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Male torso. Harappa, 8.5 cm. high Finely braided or wavy combed hair tied into a double bun on the back of the head and a plain fillet or headband with two hanging ribbons falling down the back. The upper lip is shaved, and a closely cropped and combed beard lines the pronounced lower jaw. The stylized almond-shaped eyes are framed b long eyebrows. The wide mouth is similar to that of the ‘priest-king’ statuette. Stylized ears are made of a double curve with a central knob. Mohenjodaro Museum. Dales 1985: pl. IIb; Ardeleanu-Jansen 1984: 139-157. Male head probably broken from a seated sculpture. Carved sand-stone head. Mohenjodaro. 13.5 cm. high Depiction of an Elamite cutting his bow in an Assyrian relief [After E. Strommenger, 1994, Elamier, Perser und Babylonier, in: Dietrich, M. and Loretz, O., eds., Beschreiben und Deuten in der Archaologie des Alten Orients: Festschrift fur Ruth MayerOptificius, Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, 312-25: Taf. 1d]. The style of wearing a fillet on his head is

paralled on some figurines found in SSVC. Limestone. 33.5 cm. High. Mohenjodaro Museum, MM 432. “Seated male sculpture with shell inlay still remaining in one eye. The braided or combed hair lies back straight, and a plain fillet or ribbon encircles the head and falls down the back of the neck. Two strands of a ribbon or braided hair hang over the shoulder. The stylized ear is a simple cup shape with a hole in the center. The upper lip is shaved and a short, combed beard covers the lower jaw. The forward projecting head and large lips may reflet a specific personality or may be due to the particular style of carving. Slight traces of what may have been a cloak are visible on the back, but the legs are clearly visible and not totally covered with a garment as in other sculptures. The left arm rests on top of the lowered left knee, while the right hand rests on the upraised right leg. This sitting pattern is opposite of that seen on most other sculptures. Other sculptures show the left knee raised and the right knee lowered.” [After JM Kenoyer, 1998, p.215] 224

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Twisting figure of a male dancer, gray sandstone. Harappa, 8.5 cm. high; conjectural sketch of dancer from Harappa, after Marshall 1931, fig. 1 Mohenjo-daro. Terracotta figurine. Hair-do (turban?). [After Marshall, MIC, Pl. XCV, 30]. Perhaps this may represent ka_kapaks.a described of S’ri Ra_ma in the Ra_ma_yan.a by Va_lmi_ki. Three views of the bronze cast statue with exquisite hairknot tied into a bun at the back and wearing a threebeaded pendant, bracelets from wrist to shoulder on one hand and on the wrist and elbow on the right hand

[Marshall, MIC, Pl. XCIV, 6 to 8]. This is distinctly different from the bearded figures shown wearing shawls, with fillets on their foreheads, clean-shaven beards, almost all bald-headed and some wearing a long pig-tail flowing down at the back. Priests: statuary [Marshall, MIC, Pl. XCVIII; four views 1 to 4; Pl. C, 1 to 6]. There are statuary showing bearded persons with hair-knots tied into a bun at the back. [Marshall, MIC, Pl. XCIX, 4 to 9]. Yogin. Seated limestone sculpture. Mohenjodaro.

On the back of the figure, the hair style can be reconstructed as composed of a wide-swath of hair and a braided lock of hair or ribbon hanging along the right side 225

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of the back. A cloak draped over the edge of the left-shoulder covers the folded legs and lower body, leaving the right shoulder and chest bare. This style of leaving the right-shoulder bare is also seen in the statuette of the so-called ‘priest-king’. This style of wearing the uttari_yam continues in the Bharatiya cultural tradition among yogins, sadhus and sants. The left arm clasps the left knee and the hand shows underneath the cloak. The right hand rests on the right knee, which is folded beneath the body. Islamabad Museum. Marshall 1931: 358-9, pl. C. 1-3. After Figure 5.31, Kenoyer, 1999 The statue of a priest king (National Museum, Karachi), about 2300 BC. Three views of the bronze cast statue with exquisite hair-knot tied into a bun at the back and wearing a three-beaded pendant, bracelets from wrist to shoulder on one hand and on the wrist and elbow on the right hand [Marshall, MIC, Pl. XCIV, 6 to 8]. Mohenjo-daro. Terracotta figurine. Hair-do (turban?). [After Marshall, MIC, Pl. XCV, 30]. Perhaps this may represent ka_kapaks.a described of S’ri Ra_ma in the Ra_ma_yan.a by Va_lmi_ki.

This is distinctly different from the bearded figures shown wearing shawls, with fillets on their foreheads, clean-shaven beards, almost all bald-headed and some wearing a long pig-tail flowing down at the back. Priests: statuary [Marshall, MIC, Pl. XCVIII; four views 1 to 4; Pl. C, 1 to 6].

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Cotton textile, weaving, and carpet making crafts

A toy bed at Harappa bore this textile impression showing a piece of tightly woven cloth using uniformly spun thread. (After Harappa Archaeological Research Project/Courtesy Dept. of Archaeology and Museums, Govt. of Pakistan).The find relates to the Harappan Phase (c. 2600-1900 BCE). This example shows a fairly tightly woven normal weave. . [Color representation of the photograph after slide 115 from the Harappa excavations after 1996.]

Fibers to wrap copper razor A copper razor (H2000/2164-01) was found in the debris layers at the edge of the kiln dump in Trench 54. Wrapped with fibers, pseudomorphs and impressions of which are preserved in the in the corroded copper, this type of curved razor may have been used in the making of textiles such as carpets. [After slide 196 from the Harappa excavations after 1996.] 227

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Cotton, Gossypium arboreum, was found at Mohenjodaro. Fibres of cotton were discovered adhering to a silver vase at Mohenjo-Daro (Turner and Gulati, 1928), and several faiences and vessels from Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa had impressions of woven fabric made of finely spun thread (Marshall, 1931). While the production of cotton, embroidery and woolen fabrics may be surmised as crafts of the civilization, direct archaeological evidence is lacking. However, the figurines of male and female show wearing skirts and cloaks. Cotton was said to have been imported from Meluhha according to Mesopotamian texts. Recent excavations at Harappa have produced evidence of many plain-weave fabric impressions on the interior of faience vessels. “The uniform thickness of threads in a single piece of fabric and the tight weave reflected by these impressions indicate the use of spinning wheels… Traces of cotton fabric were identified at Mohenjo-daro where they were preserved by contact with a corroding silver jar. Many examples of cotton thread and fabric were identified on copper tools. At Harappa possible cotton threads were foud wrapped around the handle of a small copper mirror from a female burial and also around the handle of a curved copper razor…Indirect evidence for the production of carpets has been found in the Indus cavities in distinctive curved copper/bronze kinives that are functionally very similar to the curved blades used today for cutting the knotted threads of pile carpets…Weaving and carpetmaking were undoubtedly important household or cottage industries throughout the Indus Valley and may have contributed to the exports traded to Mesopotamia and neighbouring regions.” (Marshall, Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilization. AN Gulati and AJ Turner. A Note on the Early History of Cotton. Bulletin 17. Technological Series 12, Bombay, Indian Central Cotton Committee, 1928; Ernest JH Mackay, Further Excavations at Mohenjodaro, New Delhi, Government of India, 1938, p. 440; JM Kenoyer, 1998, Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, OUP, p. 159). One use of circular platforms inside smaller buildings may be surmised in the context of dyeing textiles. “Even though these circular platforms were found near the granary, it is important to note that they were constructed inside smaller buildings and that they belong to many different building phases. In other words, there is little to suggest a connection between the circular platforms and the so-called granary…In the VS area of Mohenjo-daro, a room with specially prepared brick basins, a water-tight floor and corner drain may have been a workshop for starching or dyeing cloth. A brick dust bin for garbage and a square sump pit connected to a drain are visible across the street.” (JM Kenoyer, 2000, Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, OUP, p. 65, p. 128.) Gundestrup cauldron and Sarasvati Civilization glyphs Artistic motifs and cultural icons do travel far and wide – and, over time: see glyphs on the Gundestrup cauldron and parallels with inscribed objects of Sarasvati Sindhu Civilization. The parallels are too vivid and emphatic to be brushed aside as mere chance coincidences. A note on the Gundestrup cauldron is appended. A lizard appears on the Gundestrup cauldron. It is celebrated in Sarasvati sculpture at Dholavira. Dholavira. Stone sculpture of monitor lizard. 228

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This is comparable to the glyphs of the lizard which appear on many seals and tablets containing epigraphs of the civilization. Sculpting in stone is a tradition traceable to exquisite miniature figurines of faience made in Mohenjodaro, circa 4500 years before present. Mohenjodaro. Faience squirrel.

Mohenjodaro. Faience monkey. Stone sculptural tradition. Sanchi stupa stone panel, 1st century BCE Warriors are shown riding horned lions. Dhameka Stupa in Sarnath, 500 CE

The architectural excellence finds an early, utilitarian expression in the rock-cut reservoirs of Dholavira and the tradition continues in the building of step-walls in many parts of the country. “Water. It is revered whenever it's hard to find, in places where the dry and draining heat burns for months on end, where monsoon rains visit only in summer, then vanish. To cope with this parched life, the people of western India more than a 1000 years ago built wells. But not the holes in the ground we know as wells, these were ornate, magnificent, maze-like structures made of stone, some 90 feet deep. Stepwells; respite from the heat and hallowed receptacle for that essential water. A place to bathe, to drink, and to pray.” [cf. Morna Livingstone, Milo Beach, 2002, Steps to Water; The Ancient Stepwells of India."] Nalanda. Stupa.

Nalanda University. Sculpture in stone depicting a person seated and holding a round stone in his right hand

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Pattadakkal. Stone sculpture of Bhairava on a panel. Bhairava is depicted as wearing a long necklace of stone beads. Badami, Karnataka. Stone panel 12 hands and Ganes’a standing

depicting S’iva dancing with nearby.

Pattadakkal. Temple s’ikhara. Ellora caves created between th th 4 and 10 centuries CE are magnificent examples of rock-cut architecture [over 200,000 tons of rock to a depth of 100 ft were removed], a tradition which can be traced to the rock-cut reservoirs of Dholavira.

This tradition of scooping out rocks to create caves and of sculpting in stone as an artistic medium has to be viewed in the context of the tradition evolved in sites like Dholavira in creating rock-cut reservoirs, ring-stones (as structural support) and even a monitor lizard sculpted in the round. The tradition of scooping out stone also finds its architectural echoes in the caves of central Bharat and western Maharashtra. Ring-stones constituted a structural support and in layers, constituted a pillar to create multi-storeyed structures. http://bosei.cc.utokai.ac.jp/~indus/english/2_4_02.html

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Sarasvati_. The legend shown on Bhita sealing, together with a ghat.a. Indian Museum, Calcutta No. A. 11254-NS. 1958 The association of Sarasvati_ with a ghat.a, water-pot is significant and relates to River Sarasvati_. Many pictorial motifs which recur on inscribed objects of Sarasvati Civilization are seen on ancient seals of the historical period of Bha_rata. It is notable that most of the later-day seals using the motifs of Sarasvati Sindhu Valley Civilization (SSVC) are relatable to royalty or military offices, to crafts and trade: nigama, kulika, ta_mboli_, ca_turvidya (learning of the four Veda). The devices such as the jar, cakra, zebu, persons seated in yogic posture, dotted circle, tree, svastik_, water-carrier, three-hills seem to have attained auspicious connotations, since the devices are apparently unrelated to the inscriptions mostly in Bra_hmi script (as also evidenced in the as.t.aman:galaka ha_ra on Bharhut sculptures of Yaks.i].

Thaplyal, Akhila antelopes with the antelopes with Sealing of Abhaya(sya), 6049. Device: II,4 in: Thaplyal, 1972]

Copper signet, Kaus’a_mbi, Allahabad Museum, no. 100: seal impression [After Pl. 1,1b in: Kiran Kumar 1972, Studies in Ancient Indian Seals, Lucknow, Bharatiya Sanskrit Parishad] The device is a pair of their hands turned back. There are many epigraphs of civilization with such glyphs of their heads turned backwards. king Abhaya (legend: Ra_jn~(o) Rajghat, Bharat Kala Bhavan, no. humped bull (Zebu?)[After Pl.

Sealing of the pradha_na in Kr.mila_ vis.aya, Nalanda, Indian Museum, Calcutta. Device: tree. [After Pl. XII,4 in: Thaplyal, 1972] Clay lump bearing impression of the seal of the offices of (a) kuma_ra_ma_tya and (b) bala, Ahichchatra_, Antiquity section of the ASI, New Delhi, No. AC II 4448. 2. Sealing of the military office attached to the Yuvara_ja-bhat.t.a_raka, Basarh, Indian Museum, Calcutta, No. A 11315—NS 6159. Sealing of Kulika S’a_libhadra, Basarh, Indian Museum, Calcutta, No. A 18499-NS 6195. 2. Sealing of S’resht.hi-sa_rtthava_ha-kulika-nigama, Basarh, Indian Museum, Calcutta, No. A 18459NBS 6205. 3. Clay lump bearing impressions of the seals of (a) Prathakakulika Ugrasim.ha and (b) Gomisva_mi, Basarh, Indian Museum, Calcutta, No. A 18600-NS 6205. 4. Sealing of a ta_mboli_, Kumrahar, KP Jayaswal Res. Instt., Patna. 5. Sealing of S’res.t.hi-sa_rthava_ha-prathama-kulikanigama, Basarh (vais’a_li), Directorate of Arch. And Mus., Bihar Govt., Patna, No. 273 G. 6. Clay lump bearing two impressions – (i) cakra and the legend namastasmai and (ii) of Kulika Hari, Basarh, Indian Museum, Calcutta, No. A 18684. 7. Sealing of a Nigama, Rajghat, Bharat Kala 231

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Bhavan, No. 6376. [After Pl. XXV in: Thaplyal, 1972] Sealing of the Ca_turvidya of Ra_jagr.ha, Nalanda, Indian Museum, Calcutta. The device includes two persons seated in yogic posture paralleling similar postures on SSVC inscribed objects. [After Pl.XXVII, 5 in: Thaplyal, 1972] Sealing with the device of six nandipada-s around a circle enclosing a dot, Sankisa, Dept. of AIH and Arch., Lucknow University. Device: dotted circle. [After Pl. XXXII,10 in Thaplyal, 1972]

Sealing, device of a tree on a platform, Kaus’a_mbi_, Allahabad Museum, No. 259. [After Pl. XXXII, 3 in: Thaplyal, 1972] Sealing showing the device of ‘Ujjain’ symbol and a yu_pa in railing, Rajghat, Bharat Kala Bhavan, No. 6459. [After Pl. XXXIV, 3 in: Thaplyal, 1972]. Sealing, yu_pa in railing and man with a bahangi (water-carrier paralleling the SSVC pictorial motif) and a hollow cross, Sonpur, Directorate of Mus. And Arch., Bihar Govt., Patna. Sealing with the device of a svastika_ within a circular border, Sonpur, Directorate of Mus. And Arch., Bihar Govt., Patna. Sealing with two impressions: a. crescent over a threearched hill, a taurine and a human figure; b. tree (?) in railing and crescent over a three-arched ‘hill’, Rajghat, Bharat Kala Bhavan, No. 6456. Divinity

Double-spiral on a copper pin at Manda, Himachal Pradesh (c. 3rd millennium BCE) This double-spiral motif occurs both at Harappa and Ur in the context of depicting a godess. Head-dress of a terra-cotta godess figurine.(Left) Harappa. Right: Double-spiral, a

symbol of a Babylonian godess. [After Pl.IV, 7 and 8 in: Gregory L. Possehl, ed., 1979, Ancient Cities of the Indus, Delhi, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.] 232

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Vis’varu_pa. S’a_mala_ji, Vis’ra_magha_t. sixth century CE. [After Pl. 11.1 in: Doris Meth Srinivasan, Many heads, arms and eyess: origin, meaning and form of multiplicity of Indian art, in: Jan Fontein, ed., Studies in Asian Art and Archaeology]. This extraordinary sculpture is a veritable 233

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museum in itself of all the arms and armour of the warriors of Bha_rata. Almost all the weapons and armour of the times are seen on the many forms of S’a_mala_ji depicted like branches of a tree above the triple-headed divinity. The armourer, ivory-carver and the sculptor are products of the tradition of valour, the heritage of the establishment of the Bha_rata ra_s.t.ra. Like the as.t.aman:galaka ha_ra worn by the Yaks.i in Bharhut sculpture, S’iva As.t.amu_rti panel in Can.d.ika_devi temple, 6th century CE is also a depiction of the weapons carried by different forms of the divinity and the postures of abhaya connoted by the mudra_ of the hands. The two forms flanking S’iva in the lower register are seen each carrying a tris’u_la and a dhanus. [After photography by Michael W. Meister]

Pa_vai vil.akku: the bowl on the right hand of the statue may have been used as a lamp. Two views. Bronze/copper. Mohenjo-daro. 13.cm. high; 4.7 cm. NMK 50.883; DK 12 728; Mackay, 1938: 274, pl. LXXIII.9-11. Cire perdue technique. Mohenjo-daro. Bronze figure wearing bangles, holding a small bowl in her right hand. Hair is tied in a horizontal bun hanging low on the back of the neck. Traces of long-almond-shaped eyes are visible. Bangles adorn the upper left arm and a few bangles are indicated above the right elbow. Bronze sculpture shows a high level of skill in modeling and lost-wax casting, a technology which continues to the present day throughout Bha_rata. [After Fig. 7.24 in JM Kenoyer, 1998].

Mehrgarh. Terracotta figure, with elaborate coiffure and ornaments from Period 234

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VI at Mehrgarh (ca. 3000 BCE) Terracotta figurine, Mohenjodaro.

Terracotta female figurines, Mohenjodaro, wearing jewellery (cf. Allchin, 1982, Fig. 8.14) Harappa. Female terracotta figure with four flowers arranged on the front part of a fan-shaped headdress. Two cups are on either side which might have been used as lamps.

Mohenjo-daro. Terracotta. 188.7 cm. High. Marshall 1931: 338, pl. XCIV,14. ‘Female figurine heavily adorned with six graduated strands of chokers and pendant bead necklaces. A triple-strand belt supporting a short skirt is closed with a triple-component clasp possibly like the bronze terminals on the massive carnelian bead belts. The head has a fan-shaped headdress with braided hair along the edges of what were once cup-shaped side pieces. The head and body may actually belong to different figurines.” [JM Kenoyer, 1998, p. 221].

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Durga_, the warrior-godess. Mathura. She has a lion as her va_hana, carries a tris’u_la and a dagger in her hands. circa. 2nd cent. CE. Museum fur Indische Kunst, Berlin (Acc. No. MIK I 5894). Durga_, warriorgodess. The lion, her va_hana is seated to her left as she grapples with the buffaloheaded asura; she carries a tris’u_la on her left hand. Mathura. Kus.a_n.a period. Mathura, Govt. Museum (Acc. No. 2317) [After Pl. 20.2 in DM Srinivasan].

Durga_ (Skt.) means a fort. Durga, and Sarasvati_ are divinities who protect and nurture a civilization. This is Bharatiya tradition with roots found in Sarasvati Civilization. The analyses of settlements reveals a remarkable penchant for building fortifications.

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Carving

of

capital

in

Mallikarjuna

temple,

Kuruvatti,

10th

century

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CE

Bead-making tradition Lapidary arts and crafts, in particular techniques for etching carnelian and agate beads, which evolved, perhaps in the region of the Gulf of Khambat, about 5,000 years before present continued into the historical periods all over Bharat. Tradition of dice and gaming board The game of dice is the critical wager which decides the between the Pa_n.d.ava and the Kaurava, elaborated in the Great Epic, the Mahabharata. This game of dice traces the tradition to the archaeologically attested artifacts of the Sarasvati Civilization. Gaming board designs : Lothal (After Rao 1985, Fig. 104; Harappa (H94/5340-1). Harappa. Cubical dice made of clay and stone. [After Fig. 6.40 in JM Kenoyer, 1998]. Incised ivory counter with 4 double circle-and-dot motifs on each side. Nausharo. Possibly used with other counters as gaming dice. Period III. Harappan 2300-2200 BCE. 6.81 cm. Long. Dept. of Archaeology, Karachi EBK 5656 [After JM Kenoyer, 1998, p. 214]. Carved ivory counters; a. duck ornament; b. stylized figurine with triple-circle motifs; c. double duckhead ornament. Mohenjo-daro. Mackay 1938, pl. CXXV.8[After Fig. 6.41 in JM Kenoyer, 1998].

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Cubical weights in a binary sequence. Harappa. (After JM Kenoyer/Courtesy Dept. of Archaeology and Museums, Govt. of Pakistan). The metrology system indicated by these weights in binary sequence was used in the Persian Gulf contact areas and continued into the historical periods. The weights were perhaps used by lapidaries and metalsmiths of the civilization. A woman in Channapattinam, India makes wooden beads with a bow drill used as a lathe.

Bead materials and bead-making Beads are a treasure which come in variegated colours and shapes. Heating deepens the colour of the beads and hence the finds of ‘fire-altars’ and ‘fire-pits’ can be explained in the context of bead-makers’ or lapidaries’ apparatus. Some beads are made of naturally-occurring seeds. Bharat was the land of gem cutters and jewelry makers who integrated beads in a remarkable system of measurement involving weights. According to Manu, eight of the motes seen in a sunbeam are supposed to weigh the same as a small poppy seed. Three small poppy seeds equal the weight of one black mustard seed. Three black mustard seeds equal the weight of a white mustard seed. Six white mustard seeds are equal to one medium barley grain. Three barleygrains equal one rati. So, one rati weighs 1296 motes in a sunbeam. The rati weight was eventually fixed at 1.75 grains. (There are 480 grains in one Troy ounce). Most dealers in precious metals and stones used a "double rati" of 3.5 grains as a unit of weight of precious metals such as gold. The builders of Sarasvati Civilization had exquisite tools to work with both (1) miniature stone beads and (2) large stones used in archicture such as polished pillars and ring-stones. The following conclusions can be drawn about the technological competence of the vis’vakarma’s of the civilization, from the cumulative evidence gathered from hundreds of civilization sites:

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•

• • • • • • •

They had used a cutting rock harder than quartz. They had used lathes to create the epigraphs on seals and tablets, many of which were incised with a very fine cutting point, as a sharp pointed graver. They had tube drills - drill bits and the machinery to hold them steady and apply rotational torque. They had saws that would cut limestone with ease and precision. They had the ability to sculpt hard rocks. They were accomplished at finishing stone in situ They had the ability to cut, level and polish stone to a sophisticated degree of flatness. They had lathes that would turn and polish stones (in ways we have not duplicated). They had the means to cut extremely accurate parallel limestone joints with remarkable flatness over large surface areas - 35 sq.ft.or more. They had the knowledge and technology to consistently lift, exactly maneuver and delicately place enormous weights of stone.

• Archaeological finds reinforce the importance of beads in ancient societies. This adult woman from ancient Harappa was buried with two shell bangles on her left arm and five carnelian beads at her waist. Harrappa Museum Pakistan. Courtesy of the Harrappa Archaeological Research Project.

Skeleton of an adult woman at Harappa was buried with shell bangles on her left arm Harrappa Museum Pakistan. Courtesy of the Harrappa Archaeological Research Project. "In burial sites in Harappa," Kenoyer notes, "we found one woman with five carnelian beads worn at her waist no gold, no silver, just five beads. We don't know what those five beads meant, but they clearly were an amulet for protection against a health problem. She wore them in life, and when she died, they buried her with them because amulets are associated with an individual and cannot be passed on."

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Using fire to colour and to add designs to beads A terracotta figurine shows how beads were worn. Mohenjodaro. Terracotta female adorned with six graduated strands of chokers and pendant-head necklaces. A triple-strand belt supports a short skirt. A fan-shaped headdress adorns the braided hair, along with edges of what were once cup-shaped side-pieces (lamps to hold oil and cotton wicks). Karachi, National Museum NMP 50.509 Marshall 1931: 338, pl. XCIV.14 Mohenjodaro. Beads of different shapes. Small short bicone is a composite bead made of laminated shell and stone to imitate natural banded agate. Material: agate, jasper, green-serpentine. Museum MM 1119; Marshall 1931: pl. CL “Some of the soft steatite beads were unfired, leaving the natural tan or grey-black color. Other beads were bleached and fired to a white color. Finally some beads were glazed with a blue green glaze that was applied to a roughened exterior. In addition to the steatite beads, they produced short and long biconical beads of harder stones, such as carnelian, banded agate, multicolored jaspers, lapis lazuli, and amazonite. The color combinations resulting from these beads would have been quite striking. Terracotta was also used to produce beads in many of the same shapes as the stone beads as well as unique forms that were only possible with clay. For example some of the small terracotta lenticular beads were impressed with fabric on both sides to create a patterned surface. Other terracotta beads were pinched with the fingers or palms of the hands, leaving the patterned lines of the maker's hands on the surface of the bead. Since many of the beads were also carefully smoothed to remove fingerprints, we can assume that the patterned surfaces were left intentionally. During the Kot Diji phase there is evidence for faience bead production to create microbeads as well as larger lenticular and biconical shapes. The faience beads in the later part of the Kot Diji phase are made from finely ground and refired frit that appears to be similar to the compact faience documented from the following Harappan Phase (Kenoyer 1994). This form of high quality faience is found only in the Indus Valley and not in other contemporaneous cultures, such as Mesopotamia or Egypt.“ (Kenoyer, 1999)

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Elegant necklace made of grossular garnet beads (green) with gold bicone beads and pendant beads of orbicular jaspers . Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan. Courtesy of the Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Pakistan. 1996 excavations at Harappa found a small pot with a collection of 133 beads and amulets. These beads were made from a variety of natural rocks; some were synthesized to imitate the colours of lapis lazuli, turquoise, and banded jasper. Harrappa Museum, Pakistan. Courtesy of the Harrappa Archaeological Research Project.

Harappa. Carnelian bead decorated with white, bleached elliptical design on both faces. H89-1484 Kenoyer observes: "In Harappa, they started out with the simplest technique - just pecking at it and popping a hole through. Then we have drilling with tapered stone drills that were just a bit harder than the bead stone. Later, they developed exquisite drills that were especially designed to perforate long stones."

Carnelian is a red stone made by heating an agate stone. Heating the stone brings out a deeper colour in the stone. Smelting was a process of preparing raw materials to be fabricated into beads. Stone tools were initially chipped; technology which was developed to grind stone beads led to the preparation of ground stone tools. From roughcuts of carnelian or agate stones, the first step is to chip them into a crude shape from the raw stone. The second step is to ground the blanks to shape. The third step is is to polish the beads. Chalcedony (Agate, quartz family of minerals) blanks from the medieval beadmaking site of Limudra, India.

The bow-drill constituted a significant invention, perhaps during the Neolithic period, to improve the efficiency of drilling beads. The drill was apparently made of a special rock as yet unknown. The drill is made with a piece of copper and grooving the tip, twisting it around to hold the special rock which constitutes the gimlet.

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Balakot. The original white bleached design on the carnelian bead has weathered away, leaving behind the appearance of an etched design. (Afgter Fig. 7.41, Kenoyer, 1999).

Mehrgarh, is a major site recording the Neolithic developments, characterized by simple mud walled buildings with four internal subdivisions and numerous burials with often quite elaborate burials offerings (Jarrige et al. 1995). The offerings included baskets, stone and bone tools, and a range of ornaments such as beads and bangles (Barthélémy de Saizieu 1990). The bangle types were: wide shell bangles, bracelets and anklets made from tabular beads of white shell or white limestone (Kenoyer 1995b). Also used were beads of blue-green turquoise, deep blue lapis lazuli, banded sandstone and polished copper, natural shell beads from brown and white striped Engina mendicaria, purple Spondylus shell disc beads and large disc pendants made from the flat spire of the cone shell (Conus sp.) The finds of shell ornaments in Mehrgarh 300 kms. north of the Makran coast show the early exploitation of marine-based resources. At Mehergarh, the Chalcolithic period (Periods II and III, from around 5500 to 3300 BCE), records an increased use of seatite bead necklaces and bracelets, along with pendants of lapis lazuli, carnelian and other semiprecious stones. At Mehrgarh and Nausharo production began of blue-green glazed faience beads which required fairly high firing temperatures as well as a specialized technology of frit and glaze preparation (Barthélémy de Saizieu and Bouquillon 1997). Etched carnelian bead, 'Royal Tombs of Ur'.

This etched carnelian bead was likely to have been obtained through trade, from Gujarat.

Evidence of trading links between the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization and Mesopotamia exists from circa 2600 BCE. The craftsman painted designs onto beads with a white paste, then heated the beads. The heating of the beads fused the design into the stone and resulting in a red-coloured stone with a white design. Many beads of this type have been found in many civilization sites. They have also been found in far-away places such as the Sumerian city of Ur, in southern Mesopotamia. Continuity

of

carnelian-agate

etching

techniques all over Bharat 243

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Etched beads of carnelian and agate are of frequent occurrence from many sites of Bharat. Some specimens have also been found in Mesopotamia at sites far removed from the Sarasvati River Basin and the coastal regions of Gujarat. Unpolished carnelian

Semi-precious stones and other raw materials such as tin were brought into Sindhu River Valley sites from areas to the east of the Indus Valley, i.e. from the Sarasvati River Basin. For example, mines have been found in the Aravalli Hills which would have supplied many craftsmen in the Indus Valley with the uncut stone needed to make carnelian beads. Sources for other types of materials used in the civilization sites have been found as far away as Afghanistan. Red carnelian beads. Bead-making skills are evident from many different shapes and sizes of beads found at all the major sites. The beads were worked on with bow-drill and chert drill. Chert from Rohri hills was also used to make scrapers and blades.

At Sehwan in upper Sind, the technique of etching which is dated to circa 5500 years before present, continued even upto 1929. (Bellasis, 1857, Further observations on the ruined city of Brahmanabad, JBBRAS, 5.471; Cousens, H., Antiquities of Sind, Archaeological Survey of India, New Imperial Series, No. XLVI, 1929). Potash, white lead and wild-grown kirar (capparis aphylla) bush are used for the decoration. The ingredients were made into a thick liquid, applied with pen on the carnelian or agate and exposed to a red heat in charcoal to achieve the indelible decorations. After decoration, the drilling of the beads would be taken up. To achieve black lines, mineral salts of copper and manganese are used to produce a purplish tinge as seen from the beads found at Chanhu-daro. Remarkably, the patterns and technology of etching are evidenced in sites of Ganga valley and megalithic sites of southern Bharat. Mackay demonstrated that etched beads were traded between Sumer and Meluhha (Sarasvati-Sindhu valley sites)(Mackay, E., 1925, Etched Carnelian Beads, Antiquaries Journal, XIII, 334-98). Horace C. Beck elucidated a typologial analysis of decorative patterns; he also demonstrated that black lines which appeared on etched beads of Type II were produced by mineral salts of copper and managanese. (Beck, H.C., 1927, Classification and nomenclature of beads and pendants, Archaeologia, 77; Etched Carnelian Beads, Antiquaries Journal, XIII, 1933; Sundry Asiatic Beads, MAN, 1930 Art. 150; Beads from Taxila, MASI, 65, New Delhi, 1941). Type II beads have been traced as far back as 2300 BCE and are found at many sites in Bharat; one has been found at Mohenjodaro and four at Chanhudaro. Similar specimens have been found at Tell Asmar, Ur and Kish in Mesopotamia. The patterns continue at a later period outside Bharat in the beads found n Persian Baluchistan and Damascus. Beads from Sirkap, Taxila are dated to First Century CE; those found from ganga valley (at CHirayya Kot, Kosam, Masaon and Rajghat) indicate that the process continued in these areas until the 15th Century CE. A specimen from Patna is believed to have come from Mauryan levels. Kolhapur beads point to the 2nd Century BCE; one was found in Bahmani layers (16th century CE). At Kondapur, Hyderabad State, a Satavahana date is assigned to a bead.

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"If the commerce with the various countries was by sea in the historical period, the place of Cambay as a great trading port deserves to be mentioned (Arkell, Cambay and the bead trade, Antiquity, 10.292-305). Agate and carnelian mines in its neighbourhood were being worked from a remote antiquity. Beads and other manufactured articles were being exported in large quantitie to different parts of the globe, particularly Persia, African coasts, Egypt, Asia Minor and even Rome. Literary data is replete with references on this oint Although no etched beads from the immediate vicinity of Cambay are at present known, it is possible that with the extensive bead trade was also carried the technique of etching. With the expansion of Roman commerce at various trading points, particularly in South India, the possibilities of such a procedure were immense...The possibilities of the land route from the Northwest Frontier are again not altogether barred, since many objects Mediterranean type have been found in the region around Taxila and Peshawar. Trade in precious is said to have stopped with the downfall of Perseus and Mithrades in Rome where oriental stones were brought after the conquest of Alexander." of the (MG Dixit, opcit, pp. 37-38). The main sites where etched beads were found: Northern Bharat: Sind: Brahmanabad, Chanhu-daro, Hisbani, Mohenjo-daro, Sirwahi; Punjab and NWF Province: Akra, Harappa, Sar Dheri, Taxila; United Provinces: Ahicchatra, Azamgarh, Behat, Bairant, Bhita, Chirayya Kot, Chosi, Indo Khera, Kosam, Kanauj, Madhuri, Masaon, Mathura, Rajghat, Rahtoyya, Serai Aghat and Benares district sites; Jaipur State: Rairh, Sambhar; Bihar: Basarh, Lauriya Nandangarh, Patna, Sabaur; Bengal:Bangad; Central India: Maheshwar, Ujjain; Southern Bharat: Mumbai Presidency: Kolhapur (Brahmapuri); Hyderabad State: Kadkal, Kallur, Kondapur, Maski, paithan, Raigir; Madras Presidency: Kupgal, Manjan-Karnai, Palghat, Paravai, Peyal, Sangakallu (Bellary), Shevroy Hills, Sulur, Vellalur, Mondapalle (Arikamedu), Billikambe Perunganad (Nilgiri hills), Chandravalli, Coorg, Moory Betta Hill (Coorg). Based on the methods of manufacture, principal types categorized by MG Dixit are: Type I – White patterns on red background; Type II – Black patterns on whitened surface of stone; Type III – Black patterns etched directly on the stone.

[After Pl. X, MG Dixit, 1949, Etched Beads in India, Poona, Deccan College Monograph Series 4] Etched beads of Type I; 1-23 Brahmanabad, Sind, Unstratified. The Plate is adopted from Cousens, Antiquities of Sind, Pl. XIII; and ASI, AR, 1903-1904, Plate XLIX. The material is probably 245

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carnelian. There are six beads similar to Fig. 7 in the collection and six resembling Fig. 8. Figs. 6 and 8 are also represented in the Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai; the rest are probably in the British Museum, London.

Etched Beads of Type I; 1-5 Mohenjo-daro; 6-13 Chanhu-daro; 14-16 Harappa • Car. Rect. Dbl. Convex. Ptn. 1. M-d, Pl. CXLVI,43 • Car. Rect. Dbl. Convex. Ptn. 1. FEM, CXXV, 5. • Car. Cir. Dbl. Convex. Ptn. Ring. M-d, Pl. CXLVI • Car. Sph. Dbl. Convex. Ptn.2 • Car. Ovl. Tabl. ZDbl. Convex. Ptn. 3. M-d, P. CXLVI, 44 • Car. Hexa. DBl. Convex. Ptn. Var. 1. Ch-d, Pl. LXXIX, 13 • Car. Ovl. Dbl. Convex. Ptn. with double quadrant arcs and a circle in the centre. Ch-d, Pl. LXXIX,15 • Car. Bar. Dbl. Convex. V-shaped lines. Ch-d, Pl. LXXIX, 16 • Car. Sph. Trun. Ch-d, Pl. LXXIX, 11. Ptn. Var.2 • Car. Cyl. Ptn. Var. 2, Ch-d, Pl. LXXIX, 9 • Car. Ovl. or Cir. Dbl. Convex. Ptn. 3, Ch-d, Pl. LXXIX, 1-3 • Car. Ovl. Dbl. Convex. Ptn. 4, Ch-d, Pl. LXXIX, 4-7 • Car. Ovl. Dbl. Convex. Ptn. 5, Ch-d, Pl.LXXIX, 9 • Car. Bar. Ptn. 2, Vats, Pl. CXXXI, 4a • Car. Ovl. Tbl. Ptn. 3, Vats, Pl. CXXXI, 4b-c • Car. Bar. Ptn. Horizontal Lines. Ancient India, No. 3, Pl. LI, 14 and Fig. 26: 11 246

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[After Pl. VII, MG Dixit, 1949, Etched Beads in India, Poona, Deccan College Monograph Series 4]

Etched Beads of Type I; 1-10 Taxila, Taxila Museum; 11. Hisbani, Sind, PW Museum, Mumba; 12. Sirwahi, Sind; 13-17 Akra, bannu, NWFP, Indian Museum, Kolkata (Nos. 3610-3615(. • Car. Cube. Crosses and lines at facets, BT. Pl. I, 4; First Century CE • Bl. Agt. Sph. Ptn. 18. BT. Pl. I, 6; First Century BCE • Bl. Agt. Bar. Ptn. 14. BT. Pl. II, 17; First Century CE • Car. Bar. Ptn. 28. BT. Pl. II, 25, First Century CE? • Agt. Bar. Zonal Bands, BT. Pl. II, 22, First Century CE • Car. Bar. Zonal bands, spots and waves. BT. Pl. II, 28; First Century CE or later • Car. Sph. Ptn. . Bt. Pl. II, 24; First Century CE • Car. Sph. Waves, BT. Pl. II, 23; First Century CE • Bl. Agt. Ptn. 8. BT. Pl. II, 19; First Century CE • Bl. Agt. Sph. Zonal stripes, BT. Pl. II, 21; First Century CE? 247

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• Car. Rect. Tbl. Crosses lines. JUB. 4-2, 18. PWM, Mumbai • Car. Ovl. Tbl. Ptn. on both sides, IA, II, p. 5, Fig. 21 • Car. Sph. Swastika Ptn. Unpublished • Car. Sq. Tbl. Cross. Unpublished. Indian Museum, No. 3614 • Car. Sph. Ptn. 7. Unpublished. Indian Museum, No. 3615 • Car. Sq. Dbl. Convex. Ptn. 7. Unpublished. Indian Museum, No. 3613 • Car. Hex. Tbl. Marginal bands. Unpublished. Indian Museum, No. 3611. [After Pl. IX, MG Dixit, 1949, Etched Beads in India, Poona, Deccan College Monograph Series 4] Principal Decoration Patterns. Each illustration is accompanied by a crosssection of the bead at righthand corner of each bead. Beads are arranged with perforation axes horizontal to the eye. Distribution patterns 6,10,14 and 24, 26 in Northern and Southern Groups respectively. Only one specimen of Pattern 23-24 occurs at Kosam; Pattern 26 occurs at Brahmanabad in Sind. Both these patterns are frequent in the Southern Group. Similarly, Pattern ;6a occurs at Kondapur (Spherical with Pentagons). [After Pl. VI, MG Dixit, 1949, Etched Beads in India, Poona, Deccan College Monograph Series 4]

[After Pl. IV, MG Dixit, 1949, Etched Beads in India, Poona, Deccan College Monograph Series 4] Etched beads of Type III and Varieties A-B; 1-4 Beads of Type III; 5-6 Beads of Variety A; 7 Bead of Variety B • Car. Ovl. Tbl. Frag. Ptn. 3, Harappa, 2300 BCE cf. Vats, Excavations at Harappa, Pl. CXXXI, Fig. 4d • Car. Sph. Zonal band. Sirkap, Taxila, First Century CE Beck, Beads from Taxila, Pl. I, Fig. 1 • Car. Bar Ptn. Var. 6a. Kosam, Vyas Collection. Ahd. Unpublished • Car. Bar. Ptn. 15. Kosam, Vyas Collection, Alhd. Unpublished 248

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• • •

Car. Sph. Ptn. 10 Kosam (Alhdb.Lck.); Patna (Patna Museum No. 1005); Rajghat (BKB); Chirayya Kot (Shah Coll.) Car. Cyl. Ptn. 26. Maski. Hyderabad Museum Car. Cyl. Zonal bands. Bhita. Lucknow Museum No. 48: 112 Etched beads of Type II: 1. Mohenjo-daro; 2-5 Chanhu-daro; 6-7 Taxila, Sirkap; 8-9 Patna; 10-11 Brahmanabad, Sind; 12 Ujjain, British Museum; 13Kanauj. Rivett Carnac Collection, British Museum; Masaon, Bharat Kala Bhavan, Benares 1. Car. Tbl. Circles and areas. FEM, Pl. CXI, 4 2. 2a. Car. Bar. Dbl. Convex Ptn. 2. Ch-d, Pl. LXXIX, 14 3. Car. Rect. Dbl. Convex. Ptn. 4. Ch-d, Pl. LXXIX, 12 4. Car. Ovl. Dbl. Convex. Ptn. Ch-d, Pl. LXXIX,6 5. Car. Trun. Sph. Ptnl. 2. Ch-d, Pl. LXXIX, 10 6. Car. Sph. Lines. BT. Pl. I, 2. Taxila Museum, First Century CE 7. Car. Sph. Ptn. 10. BT. Pl. II, 27. Taxila Museum. First Century CE or later 8. Car. Bar. Zonal bands and spots, Patna Museum

14 15

9. Car. Sph. Ptn. 10. Patna Museum 10. Car. Sph.l Ptn. Var. 7. Brahmanabad 11. Car. Bar. Zonal Bands and scroll, Brahmanabad 12. Car. Sph. Hexagonal pattern, British Museum 13. Car. Sph. Ptn. 8. British Museum 14. Car. Sph. Ptn. Var. 7. British Museum 15. Car. Cyl. Zonal Bands, BKB [After Pl. II, MG Dixit, 1949, Etched Beads in India, Poona, Deccan College Monograph Series 4] Roman trade contacts during historical periods Northwest Coast of Bharat; Ozene regia (Ujjain, the capital), upper right; Namadus flu (Narmada River), lower center; Barigaza emporium (Broach), lower left; the dotted boundary line includes the whole Narmada Valley and the principal port of Malwa stateat Broach. [Ptolemy’s map] Sardonyx Mountains in which (are) sardonyx stones, upper right ; Ozene regia (Ujjain, the capital), lower center [Ptolemy’s map]

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The sardonyx (a form of onyx) stones were, in fact, not mined from the mountains but the ancient courses of River Narmada, in areas around Ratanpur (lit. "Village of Gems"). The best known rock crystal deposits are found in the Rajpipla hills at Ratanpur, on the lower Narmada River. Carura regia (Karur, the capital), upper right; Muziris emporium (modern Cragnore?), lower left [Ptolemy’s map, southeast coast of Bharat]

Deposits of carnelian were mined and processed near the Mahi River, north of Baroda. Mines and workings of the stones were found at Ratanpur, (J.M. Campbell, 1878,Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. VI, p. 205). Ratanpur has been the international trade centre for articles made of agate and carnelian for over 2,000 years. Diamond-washing has been traditionally done by the tribes of Savara of Sambalpur area, Kols of Chota Nagpur, Gonds of Madhya Pradesh. [Biswas, Arun Kumar. 2001. Minerals and Metals in Pre-Modern India. New Delhi: D.K Printworld (P) Ltd.] Ptolemy shows the coastline as running east-west, instead of north-south. Ptolemy connects Muziris by Psuedostomus (lit. ‘false mouth or inlet’) River to the Chera capital of Karur. It was a false inlet because no sailing was possible between Muziris and Karur. Actually, Western Ghats intervene between Muziris and Karur. Thus, there were two rivers, a short one running coastward toward Muziris and a longer one running to the interior toward Karur. Muziris was close to a gap in the Ghats. Noyil River flowed past Karur. Just on the other side of the Palghat gap on this river was Kodumanal, which was a town just past Muziris and was famous for its goldsmiths. It was also very near the important beryl deposits [emerals is a deeply coloured beryl] and well as rock crystal, sapphire and probably amethyst sources. It was a key beadmaking center. Punnata (?) in which is beryl, upper center; Carura regia Cerotothri (Karur, capital of the Chera), left center [Ptolemy’s map] 250

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Poduca emporium (Pondicherry: ArikameduVirampattinam), right center; Cape Comorin and the Jaffna Peninsula, lower left [Ptolemy’s map]

Arikamedu (the archaeological name) and Virampattinum (the village) were known as Poduca. It was a major beadmaking center for millennia, using both glass and stones as raw materials. The glass beads and agate cameo blanks are found in the principal Roman Red Sea Port of Berenicé, Egypt.

Ganges River (Upper Right); Muziris (Lower Right); Scythia (Lower Left); Taprobane (Sri Lanka) Island at Bottom [Image taken from De Tabula Peutingeriana de kaart, Museumstukken II (edited by A.M. Gerhartl-Witteveen and P. Stuart) 1993 Museum Kam, Nijmegan, the Netherlands.] Produced around AD 300, this map situates Muziris in the center, marked with a big red circle. To the left of Muziris is an "Augustinian temple." which could mean a temple of Agasitya. [Ptolemy maps after: Asiae X Tab: -- Ptolmey's Map of India. Government Photozincographic Office, Poona, India1880.]

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Map of Southern Bharat indicating bead-making sites.

Raw materials for stone and glass beadmakers came from an area just off the northwest corner of the map and from around Kodumanal (on the Noyil River) to Arikamedu and to Kodumanal. Their beads passed through the Palghat Gap and down river to Muziris for export to the Roman West. A maritime route, through Mantai, Sri Lanka, may also have been used for the export. http://www.thebeadsite.com/UNIMPG-2.html

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Archery tradition Method of using the bow and arrow: practices in ancient Bha_rata (Dhanurveda) Use of bow and arrow is as old as the emergence of human civilization from the early palaeolithic stages of living. The method of using the bow and arrow is a unique Bharatiya tradition and has no parallel in the European methods of archery. This is a conclusive evidence for the autochthonous evolution of traditions of dhanurveda in Bharat. Dhanus means a bow and Dhanurveda deals not only with the use of bow and arrow as a weapon but the entire spectrum of arms and armour, warfare and military strategies. Composite bow. Gilt, overpainted with clear red varnish (lac?) and gold flower-heads. l. 72.5 Signed 'Hasan' and dated 1203 AH/2 October 1788 - 21 Sept. 1789 AD). Quiver, arrows and thumb-ring. Quiver: l.73; Arrows: l. 75. India (Oudh?), late 18th cent. The cylinder shape of the red leather quiver is unusual...The shape of the bone thumb-ring on the Powis qwuiver is also represented among the other items of jewellery. The identical arrows have pointed steel heads, and shafts painted gold, black and red. (After Figs. 63,64 in: Mildred Archer, Christopher Rowell and Robert Skelton, 1987, Treasures from India: the Clive Collection at Powis Castle, Herbert Press, London) Projectile (mukta) weapon types. In the centre is the composite bow or Kaman, with three different styles of arrow.. The strength of the Indian bow comes from composition rather than length; this is an 18th cent. CE example from Lucknow and is built up of horn, whalebone and cane lacquered red. The circle objects are cakram with sharpened outer edge. (Wallace Collection, London). [After Fig. In: Stephen Bull, 1991, An historical guide to Arms and Armor (ed. By Tony North), New York, Facts on File, p. 176]. The normal European method of archery is to use a number of fingers to release the arrow from the bow. A typical device used in ancient Bha_rata was a thumb-ring (made of agate, stag-horn, metal, wood, ivory, bone). A Bha_rati_ya archer's thumb was normally hooked around the bowstring. Since this technique brought tremendous presssure to bear on the thumb, the thumb-ring was a protection to relieve the pressure. The thumb-ring had one side much wider than the other. This was typically associated with Turkey, Persia and Bha_rata. It should be noted that the Chinese type was either cylindrical or D-shaped.

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Archer’s rings. 1. Turkey, Gray jade; 2. Turkey, light jade; 3. Turkey. Large ring of bone inlaid with brass; 4. Turkey. Bone with a leather guard; 5. Turkey. Red and white agate; 6. Turkey. Tortoise shell with a leather guard; 7. Turkey. Ivory with a leather guard; 8. Turkey. Bone with a flat end; 9. Persia. Carved greygreen jade; 10. Persia. Carved unite jade; 11. Persia. Carved dark green jade; 12. Persia. Carved Carved white jade; 13. Indo-Persia. Gray jade; 14. Indo-Persia. Jade; 15. Indo-Persia. White jade; 16. Indo-Persia. Jade inlaid with gold; 17. Indo-Persia. Yellow and white agate; 19. India, side and back. Light jade inlaid with jwels set in gold; 20. India. Light jade with dark veins; very high arch, upward end and large ridge at the back; 21. India. Light jade similar to the preceding; 22. India. Rock crystal; set with jewels which have been picked out; 23. India. Side and back. Ivory with a heart-chapel ornament on the back; 24. India, turned up end. Gray agate with curved white lines; 25. India. Gray agate with straight white lines; 26. India, end and side. White jade, flat inlay of gold, three jewels on the back; 27. India. Mattled green jade; 28,29,30. Korea. Black and white cow’s horn; 31. Probably Chinese, ivory; 32. Probably Chinese, ivory with incised rings at the back; 33. Ivory with a very high arch; 34. Probably Chinese. Gray jade; 35. Probably Chinese. Black and white stone. [After Fig. 22 in: George Cameron Stone, 1934, A glossary of the construction, decoration and use of arms and armour in all countries and in all times, New York, Jack Brussel]. Archer’s thumb-ring of jade. Archer’s thumb was normally hooked around the bowstring rather than using a number of fingers as in the normal European method. Methods of releasing the bow. Unique oriental method as opposed to the European method “There are several forms of arrow release. In the simplest the arrow is held between the thumb and first finger which surrounds the string, and the latter is pulled by the pressure of the arrow, 1, fig. 173. This is only possible with a very light bow and is only used by a few savage races. Professor Morse calls this the primary release (Bull. Essex Inst. 1885, 1922). In the secondary release the arrow is held as before but the string is pulled mainly by the tips of the second and third fingers which are placed against it, 2, fig. 173. The tertiary release is much like the secondary, the only difference being that the first finger is nearly straight and its tip also bears on the string and 254

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helps pull it, 3, fig. 173. These two forms of release are used by the greater part of the North American Indians, by the Siamese and Andaman Islanders among others. The next Professore Morse calls the Mediterranean release, because he says,’It has been in vogue among the northern Mediterranean nations for centuries, and among the southern Mediterranean nations for tens of centuries.’ In this the string is drawn by the tips of the first two or three fingers, the arrow being held between the first two, 4, fig. 173. This is the method used in Europe throughout the middle ages, two fingers only being used. ‘Modern English bowmen generally use three fingers. The Flemish the first and second only – a method adopted by some of our bowmen also.’ (Hansard 820). The Eskimo also uses this form of release. The Mongolian release is used in Turkey and through Asia. In it a ring is worn on the thumb which is passed around the string and under the forefinger, the base of the finger pressing against the arrow, 5, fig. 173. When using this release the arrow is placed to the right of the bow, with the secondary and Mediterrnean to the left. Some Japanese bowmen use a combination of the secondary and Mediterranean releases.” [GC Stone, Fig. 173, pp. 134-135].

The su_kta RV 6.75 is addressed to parts of battle by r.s.i pa_yu bha_radva_ja; (devata_: parts of battle):: 1. varma; 2. dhanu; 3.jya_; 4. a_rtni_; 5. is.udhi; 6. pu_rva_, sa_rathi_, utta, rays; 7. many horses; 8. ratha; 9. ratha gopa; 10. bra_hman.a, pitr., soma, dya_va_ pr.thivi_, pu_s.a_; 11-12, 1516. is.u samu_ha; 13. pratoda; 14. hastaghna; 17. yuddhabhu_mi, Brahman.aspati, and aditi; 18. varma-soma-varun.a; 19. devabrahma Hastaghna is lit. protection for the hand or a wrist-guard (RV 6.75.14; Nirukta 9.14). It is called talatra in MBh. (Vanaparva 37.19; Dron.aparva 125.16: kavaci_ satalatra_n.i_ baddha gotha_n:gulivava_nuh) In the medieval period, the leather sleeve worn on the left arm was called godha or godhu (Egerton, p. 114). arhiriva bhogaih pryeti ba_hum jya_ya_m hetim pariva_dhama_nah hastaghno vis'va_ vayuna_ni vidva_npuma_npumam.sam parim pa_tu vis'vatah 6.075.14 The ward of the fore-arm protecting it from the abrasion of the bow-string, surrounds the arm like a snake with its convulutions; may the brave man, experienced in the arts of war, defend a combatant on every side. [hastaghna = a shield, as well as the guard of the fore-arm; with its convolutions: ahiriva bhogaih = s'ari_rena, with the body]. It is likely that hastaghna also connoted the thumb-ring used on the thumb to protect the palm of the hand and arm from the impact of the bowstring. \/tJyen ? i]/àe[/ äü?[/s! pit/rœ yÇ/ viò/ à tdœ A?îaeit/ xNv?na , tSy? sa/XvIrœ #;?vae/ yai-/rœ ASy?it n&/c]?sae †/zye/ k[Ry ? aeny> .

The r.s.i who adores Rudra in RV 2.30.10 exhorts in RV 2.24.8 that the country should abound in brave warriors well-versed in the science of archery to maintain peace and order. Yajurveda (16.29: namah kapardine ca vyuprakes’a_ya ca namah sahasra_ks.a_ya ca s’atadhanvane ca namo giris’aya_ya s’ipivis.t.a_ya ca namo modus.t.ama_ya ces.ukate ca; the verse is clear that the science of archery is an essential qualification of a king who is referred to as s’atdhanva (i.e. the holder of hundred kinds of bows). Terms such as is.u-dhanva (Bow and arrow), is.u-dhanvina (holder of bow and arrow), adhijya-dhanva (bow fitted with string) occur in Vedic texts (Taittiri_ya Sam.hita_ 5.2; Aitareya Bra_hman.a 7.19; 1.25; S.Br. 9.1; 1.6). The archer wore a mudrika (lit. finger protector: MBh. Bhi_s.maparva 106.24; Dron.aparva 35.23, 40.16, 43.14). The ring was made of metal, horn, bone, ivory, tortoise shell and stones such as jade, 255

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agate, carnelian, crystal. “The (oriental) bowman, contrary to the English or Flemish custom, draws altogether with his thumb, the forefinger bent in its first and second joint being merely pressed on one side of the arrow nock to secure it from falling. In order to prevent the flesh being torn by the bowstring, he wears a broad ring. Upon the inside of this ring, which projects half an inch, the string rests when the bow is drawn, on the outside it is only half that breadth and in loosing the arrow, the archer straightens his thumb which sets the arrow free.” (Hansard, Manufacture of Bows, p. 133). G.C. Stones notes: “Throughout the greater part of the East the method of drawing and loosing the bow differs radically from those used in Europe. In it the thumb is put around the string and a ring is worn on it to protect it from the pressure and friction of the string, when it is drawn and released. It also allows of bringing the pressure at a single point, close to the nock, which makes the bow much more effective than the European method where three or four fingers are used to pull the bow.” (G.C. Stone,1961, A Glossary of the construction, decoration and use of arms and armour, Repr. New York, p. 14, figs. 22 and 23). Lady archer stretching a composite bow and carrying on her back, a quiver filled with arrows. Reproduced from a terracotta panel from Ahicchacchatra (UP) [After V.S. Agrawal, The terracottas of Ahichchachhatra, Ancient India, No. 4 (July, 1947-January, 1948), p. 171, Pl. LXVI]. Sanchi stu_pa (south gateway) depicts a battle-scne with warriors carrying bows, arrows and pellets. [John Marshall, A Guide to Sanchi, Pl. IV, V, XXVI, XXVII]. Bharhut stu_pa depicts warriors carrying bows and arrows. [A. Cunningham, The Stupa of Bharhut, Pl. XXXII]. “In one of the bas-relief (Sanchi, 2nd –1st century BCE), there is the representation of a siege, probably undertaken to recover possession of some holy relic. The soldiers wore a tight fitting dress and kilt; the arms are a sword and bows and arrows…the infantry usually carried a bow of the same length with the bearer.” (A. Cunningham, The Bhilsa Topes, p. 216). Bhilsa Topes also depict daggers, swords, spears with triangular heads, axes, battle-axes, tridents and shields used by infantry and cavalry. Gold coin of Kumaragupta I. C. 416-450 AD. National Museum, New Delhi. Obvese: The king as an archer is standing left in ‘visamapada’ pose wearing waist-cloth, jewellery and head-dress, shooting with fully strung bow drawn up to the chin. The stave is on the right hand and the string is drawn by the left. The king is trampling on a beast. The legend: S’riman vyaghrabalapara_kramah (the glorious (king) whose strength and valour is like that of a tiger). Reverse: goddess standing to left on crocodile, holding a

lotus of long stalk behind her in her left hand and feeding a peacock with fruits by her right hand. The legend: Kumaragupta_dhira_ja (His majesty Kumaragupta).[After Plate VI, GN Pant, 1978] Stone frieze shows ‘Joy after victory’ (vijayolla_sa). The warriors are both male and female; they carry an array of various types of weapons. One lady archer is drawing an arrow from a quiver 256

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tied on her back. Chauhan art, 10th cent. AD, Sikar, Rajasthan. National Museum, New Delhi. [After Pl. XVI, GN Pant, 1978]. Tripura_ntaka S’iva standing in a_li_d.ha pose on a chariot, holding his Pina_ka bow in adhasamdhana pose in his left hand. The stone panel is mutilated and hence the string and a part of the bow are not visible. The ratha shows a spoked wheel drawn by two horses. Western Ca_lukya art, 7th cent. CE, Aihole, Karnataka. National Museum, New Delhi. [After Pl. XI, GN Pant, 1978]

A stone sculptural panel showing animals (many of which are field symbols of inscriptions of the civilization of Bha_rata), in association with weapons and soldiers in a procession. The lead archer carries a composite bow and is led by a cow and

another bovine (one-horned bull?) , followed by a person with a mace, a person holding a bow leads an antelope, a person carrying a bow (?) leads an onager and the last person carries a round shield (shown with a dotted circle in the centre). Facing this procession is a ram with curved horns. In the upper register (perhaps with a joined head of a tiger or fod?) and another animal (rhinoceros?) in the lower register. This is a cattlecaravan with protective military or armed guards. [After Pl. CV, GN Pant, 1978, Indian Archery, Delhi, Agam Kala Prakashan). Harappa. After EJH Mackay. Thin, flat pieces of arrowheads made of copper having long barbs and without tangs. Wooden shafts over-lapped these arrow-heads, thus making a medial rib. Mackay notes that the tie-holes were to facilitate the insertion of wooden shafts. These arrowheads are identical to those from Zafer Papoura, Crete. Av. length: 1.19 inches, breadth 0.64 inches and thicknes 0.07 inches. Rama holds a kamatha_ bow. Ahilya_. Deogarh, 5th cent. AD. Gupta. Stone panel. Ra_ma holds a bow. A quiver is on his right shoulder. Laks.man.a is disfugiring S'u_rpanakha_ with a sword. Delhi. National Museum. Deogarh. Gupta. 6th cent. AD. 257

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Mahabharata as the sheet-anchor of Bharatiya Itihasa Mahabharata as history of Bharat The historicity of the events described in the Mahabharata is validated by two evidences: one is based on tradition and the other is based on jyotis.a, i.e. astronomy of observed celestial events which may be called sky epigraphs. The dates of the events described in the Mahabharata are about 3000 BCE. This just pre-dates the mature phases of Sarasvati Civilization. The chronology of prehistory and ancient history of Bharat can thus be related as a sequence: Veda (pre-4th millennium BCE) – Mahabharata (4th millennium BCE)– Sarasvati Civilization (3rd and 2nd millennia BCE) – Maurya (1st millennium BCE).

The evidence based on tradition is provided by the settlement in Har-ki-dun valley (i.e. lit. valley of the Divinities). The villagers who are called parvati-s, at Har-ki-dun village celebrate an annual festival; the divinity honoured in this festival is Duryodhana! Har-ki-dun is at the foothills of Bandarpunch massif (close to Svarga_rohin.i mountain), Western Garhwal, Uttaranchal, in the Himalayan ranges. This is the place of origin of Tamasa and Giri rivers which are tributaries of River Sarasvati and used to flow through the Bata divide between the Himalayan ranges and Siwalik hills to join the Markanda River, a trunk river joining with River Sarasvati at Pehoa (referred to as Pr.thu_daka in the Mahabharata, where Balarama offers homage to pitr.-s and where pilgrims perform s’ra_ddha ceremonies for ma_tr.-s), not far from Brahmasarovar, Kuruks.etra. The evidence based on jyotis.a is the set of astronomical observations recorded by Veda Vya_sa in relation to terrestrial events related to the Mahabharata episodes. Mahabharata is the sheet-anchor of Bharatiya Itihasa. This was established using planetarium software to validate the celestial epigraphs observed and recorded by Veda Vya_sa in the Great Epic. The colloquium was made possible by the critical edition of the text of the Mahabharata compiled by scholars of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute headed by the late Dr. Sukthankar. Dr. Raja Ramanna, a noted nuclear scientist inaugurated the colloquium. The colloquium included lectures on many facets of the use of jyotisha and bharatiya scientific tradition by Dr. KP Pandurangi, Dr. Suryanath Kamath, Prof. MKLN Shastri, Dr. SR Rao, Dr. BV Subbarayappa, Dr. A. Sundara, Dr. Nagaraju, Dr. M.A. Narasimhan, Dr. K.I. Vasu, Dr. Ramasubramanian. Key papers were presented by Dr. Narahari Achar, Dr. Balakrishna, Dr. Mohan Gupta, and Shri Holay.

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The consensus reached in the colloquium was that there were over 150 astronomical references in the critical edition of Mahabharata (compiled by Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute) which could be classified by types of celestial events observed and recorded. The sky inscriptions or celestial epigraphs included: planetary/constellation positions on dates of specific events related to the war and starting nakshatra and ending nakshatra of the pilgrimage of Balarama along the River Sarasvati (described in the shalya parva), the injury to Bhishma and his passing away on the winter solstice day on shukla ashtami tithi in Rohini, position of S'ani in Rohini, occurrence of a solar eclipse on jyeshtha and an eclipse season of three eclipses in one month with a solar eclipse occurring between two lunar eclipses and the latter sequence of solar eclipse penumbral lunar eclipse occurring within 13 tithis (a rare celestial event indeed), recorded events of meteor showers and occurrence of comets (possibly including the Haley's comet mahaaghoraa) during the war which lasted 18 days. Mahabharata is a historical document It was also noted that the celestial inscriptions or sky epigraphs were observed events, observed by Veda Vyasa from the banks of River Sarasvati in the Kurukshetra region. This has been validated by the references to the mighty river in the Mahabharata. Recent scientific researches have established that the River Sarasvati of Vedic times and of the days of the epic was not a myth but a geo-physical reality as mentioned in the texts and has been established as groundtruth. [ http://www.hindunet.org/saraswati ] Thus, the Mahabharata constitutes a historical document with a wealth of geographical, geophysical information and vivid pictures of the society and political institutions of the times (such as janapadas involved in nation-building), in continuation of the Vedic traditions which refer to Bha_ratam Janam. The consensus was that the determination of the dates of the war should be based on establishing the consistency of ALL the astronomical references contained in the text to make it a useful reference date for chronologies in ancient bharatiya itihaasa. •R.gveda (r.ca 3.53.12) uses the term, 'bha_ratam janam', which can be interpreted as 'bha_rata folk'. The r.s.i of the su_kta is vis'va_mitra ga_thina. India was called Bha_ratavars.a after the king Bharata. (Va_yu 33, 51-2; Bd. 2,14,60-2; Lin:ga 1,47,20,24; Vis.n.u 2,1,28,32). •y #/me raeds ? I %/-e A/hm! #NÔ/m! Atuò ? vm! , iv/ñaim?ÇSy r]it/ äüe/dm! -ar?t
Mahabharata is sheet anchor of modern Itihaasa Against this backdrop of consensus, scholars reached further consensus that the Mahabharata was a sheet anchor of the modern history of Bharat. Areas for further were identified as: • •

the concept of yuga and mahayuga knowledge of comets among ancient Bharatiya scientists 259

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•

• •

the need for compiling a critical edition of the Mahabharata astronomical references based on all variant readings and excluded verses listed as annexes in the Critical Edition and including the commentaries of Vadiraja and Nilakhantha and Madhvacharya's Mahabharata Tatparya Nirnaya further investigation of the reference to the occurrence of the war during night also on the 14th day of the war compilation and research on astronomical references in the Vedas, Puranas and other astronomical texts.

Thus, the use of modern tools of planetaria software and satellite image analyses will help in rewriting of bharatiya itihaasa and reinforce the historicity of the great epics as basic reference documents for itihaasa, in terms of both kaalaganana and geography. Sarasvati is ground-truth. On the banks of this river, a war was fought; a detailed account of the war is presented in the Mahabharata. So is the account presented in S’alya Parvan in over 200 s’lokas of a journey undertaken by Balarama from Dwaraka through Somnath to Mathura along the River Sarasvati paying homage to the ancestors and visiting a_s’rama-s of r.s.i-s on the banks of this sacred river. So is Mahabharata an account of the ancient history of Bharat. The dating of this epic is fundamental in establishing the historical chronology of ancient Bharatiya Itihaas. Veda Vyasa who wrote the Mahabharata observed the sky inscriptions from the banks of River Sarasvati. The epic describes a pilgrimage of Balarama (elder brother of Krishna) from DwarakaSomnath(Prabhas Patan) to Mathura along the banks of River Sarasvati in 200 shlokas in the S'alya Parvan. This date of Mahabharata War is crucial in determing the chronologies in the ancient history of Bharat since many epigraphs and inscriptions with a historical import, refer to time-reckoning based on the starting date of Kaliyuga which is close to the date of the Mahabharata War. Dating Mahabharata events using astronomical references Using a set of modern technology tools such as Planetarium Software (Sky Map Pro 5, Red Shift), Panchanga Software compiled by a Japanese professor to produce the equivalence between Kaliyuga dates and dates of the Christian era, Dr. Narahari Achar has tried to authenticate the accuracy of observations made by Veda Vyasa in the Mahabharata. In the epic, Veda Vyasa himself says that day in and day out he is watching the planetary positions on the skies. His recording of over 70 such planetary events are almost like a record of celestial inscriptions within the text. These celestial events are used to date the events which occurred on the banks of River Sarasvati -- events which are described in the epic poem. Since the planets on the sky and the celestial events are remarkably accurate and follow a precise pattern of cyclical movements, to a rhythm of time, the determination of planetary positions as observed by Veda Vyasa will help determine the date of events described in detail in the shlokas of Mahabharata. In the past, many scholars have attempted to arrive at the date of the war based on one or two celestial events mentioned in the text. But, the contribution made by Dr. Narahari Achar is unique in that he tries to find a series of dates which is consistent with almost ALL the 150 plus astronomical references contained in the text. 260

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Akhila Bharateeya Itihaasa Sankalana Yojana has published a reference work by Shriram Sathe as a compendium of astronomical references in the Mahabharata. This work has provided the basis for this International Colloquium. In a paper presented at the international colloquium held in Bangalore on Jan. 5 and 6, 2003 and organized by Akhila Bharatiya Itihasa Sankalana Yojana, Mythic Society and Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts Southern Chapter, Dr. Achar conclusively proves that the observed celestial events on the sky, observed by Veda Vyasa were based on a variety of observations: 1. Lunar-solar-lunar eclipse sequence occurring within a period of one month and one lunar-solar eclipse sequence occurring within just 13 tithi-s; 2. A comet (Haley's comet) is observed on the sky; 3. Bhishma waits for the uttarayana punya kaala (winter solstice) and ashtami tithi to arrive before his soul departs from the mortal body; 4. Karna describes to Krishna the observatin of unusual planetary conjunctions -- almost all the seven planets coming together; 5. Balarama's pilgrimage starts on a particular tithi and nakshatra and ends after 42 days on a particular tithi and nakshatra. All such observations are found by Dr. Narahari Achar to be consistent with only one date: about 3000 BCE, i.e. about 5000 years ago. No other date matches so consistenly with all the astronomical observations or, what may be called, celestial inscriptions. This finding is path-breaking and constitutes a watershed in our understanding of chronology in ancient itihasa of Bharat. Firstly, it establishes the historic authenticity of Mahabharata as a sheet anchor of Bharatiya Itihas. Secondly, Veda Vyasa should have recorded only observed celestial events when he provides precise astronomical details in the text. The observations should have been made from the banks of River Sarasvati close to Kurukshetra. Dr. Narahari Achar reconstructs the skies as seen by Veda Vyasa from this location close to Kurukshetra. Thirdly, together with the scientific discovery of the River Sarasvati in north-west Bharat as ground-truth and not a myth, it is possible to state with authenticity that the modern history of Bharat begins with the historic document, the Mahabharata and the War which occurred on the banks of River Sarasvati. Fourthly, Balarama's pilgrimage along the banks of River Sarasvati as described in 200 shlokas of Salya Parva of the Mahabharata was a historic event and provides a geographical account of northern Bharat. Fifthly, the history of modern Bharat begins from about 3000 BCE, that is, from the Kaliyuga which is reckoned from this date, according to Bharatiya Kala Ganana. Sixthly, there is no historic document in human history which records historical events with such astonishing accuracy, to the last tithi and nakshatra. 261

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Seventhly, this demonstrates the remarkable astronomical knowledge possessed by the rishis of Bharata, exemplified by Veda Vyasa as early as 5000 years ago and establishes Jyotisha which was evolved in Bharata, as an early astronomical scientific discipline. Thus, using modern astronomy computer-based software tools, it is now possible to state that Mahabharata of Veda Vyasa is the earliest recorded history of Bharat and the modern history spans from over 5000 years of continuous, indigenous civilization. The chronology of Bharatiya Itihas should be reconstructed from this date and based on this historical document, and need not be based on foreign travellers' accounts or theories propounded by western indologists. Next steps. It is proposed to transport this presentation onto Planetaria in many cities of the country and abroad; the presentation will show Veda Vyasa's text juxtaposed to the celestial inscriptions. This will be an effective means of popularising jyotisha and itihas, i.e. by reaching the research findings in Bharatiya Itihas to a large number of school children and scholars all over the world and promoting further studies in Mahabharata as a sheet-anchor of Bharatiya Itihas. Hopefully, the findings will also be recorded on CD's and distributed to all schools as part of the value-based revised curricula. Dr. S. Kalyanaraman’s presentation covered the following reports: The rebirth of River Sarasvati by using the waters of River Sutlej, River Beas and River Sharada (called Mahakali-Karnali in Nepal) is ongoing together with the development of the river basin as a world heritage basin. This has been the catalyst for the project to network Himalayan and Peninsular rivers of the country to solve the twin problems of frequent floods in some parts of the country and recurrent drought situations in other parts of the country. The work of the National Water Development Agency, Min. of Water Resources with 200 engineers who have worked for the last 20 years to prove the feasibility of these links almost entirely by gravity flows is a magnificent engineering project linking BrahmaputraGangaSubarnarekhaMahanadi-Godavari-Krishna-Pennar-Palar-Cauvery-Vaigai-VaipparGundar-Tamraparni to ensure equitable distribution of water resources in the country mainly fed from the glacier sources. Over 2,000 settlements which were nurtured on the banks of the river constituted the substratum of the Sarasvati Civilization dated to between circa 5500 to 3500 years Before Present. With the desiccation of the river, there were migrations eastward towards the Ganga-Yamuna doab, southwards towards the Godavari and western coastline, westwards towards Gandhara in the present-day Afghanistan. The neolithic cultures which are evidenced by the recent finds of the Gulf of Khambat Cultural Complex blossomed from a maritime culture into a riverine culture and emerged from chalcolithic to bronze age and the consolidation of the cultural traditions which are present in almost every facet of the heritage cherished all over Bharat and exemplify the cultural unity of the country from Mt. Kailas to Kanyakumari, from Somnath to Gawuhati. The civilization was most extensive and extended from Ropar in Punjab to the Tigris-Euphrates valley (Mesopotamian civilization area), from Caucus mountains to Daimabad on the banks of Godavari. The discovery of the courses of Vedic River Sarasvati traversing a distance of 1,600 kms. from Manasarovar (Mt. Kailas) to Gujarat is an unparalleled discovery in the history of human civilization. Carrying the waters of River Sutlej and River Yamuna, the mighty river had drained most of North-west Bharat for thousands of years prior to 3500 year Before Present (i.e. prior to 1500 BCE). The causes for the desiccation of the river have been established: tectonic events of the type which hit Bhuj in Gujarat on 26 Jan. 2000 which are plate tectonics (clash of Deccan Plate with 262

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the Eurasian Plate) resulted in river migrations and disappearance of the river into underground channels in many stretches. River Yamuna migrated eastward circa 4500 years Before Present (i.e. 2500 BCE) and River Sutlej migrated westward circa 3500 years Before Present (i.e. 1500 BCE) leaving the River Sarasvati entirely dependent upon monsoon waters of the Siwalik ranges, depriving her of the glacier waters of the Himalayas. River Yamuna captured the waters of River Sarasvati at Paonta Saheb (Himachal Pradesh), near a yamuna tear in the Himalayas, and carried them to join with Ganga at Prayag (Allahabad) thus establishing the ground-truth of what is referred to in Bharatiya tradition as Triveni Sangamam where a kumbhamela is held every 12 years. The discovery of the ancient channels which were as wide as 6 kms. over the entire distance has been substantiated by analyses of satellite imagery and by studies done by atomic scientists of Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai (tritium analysis). The tritium analysis was done in the wake of the Pokaran hydrogen-bomb blasts which occurred on 11 May 1998 to ensure that there has been no nuclear contamination of the ground-water aquifers. The most emphatic evidence that Sarasvati is not a myth but ground-truth came from archaeology of the last 50 years. Out of over 2,600 archaeological sites of the so-called Indus Valley Civilization, as many as 2,000 (i.e 80%) of the site are found on the banks of the River Sarasvati which flowed 300 kms. east of the River Sindhu. There are very large sites on this River banks: Rakhigarhi, Lakhmirwala, Bhatinda, Ganweriwala, each of which is larger than either Harappa or Mohenjodaro. There are also culturally vibrant sites such as Ropar, Kunal, Kalibangan, Kotdiji, Dholavira, Surkotada, Lothal, Rangapura, Rojdi, Padri, Dwaraka attesting to the maritime-riverine nature of the indigenous origins and evolution of the civilization. The cultural traits found in this civilization continue into the historic periods of Bharat and are present even today in the cultural mosaic of the nation. Some examples are: finds of shiva linga at Harappa (dated to 4,500 years BP), finds of 50 seals and copper plate inscriptions carrying the swastika glyph, find of a burial site of a woman at Mehergarh dated to 6500 BCE (i.e. 8500 BP) with a wide bangle and ornaments made of s'ankha (turbinella pyrum); this s'ankha is a Rs.5 crore industry even today in the coastline of Bharat particularly in Gulf of Mannar and Gulf of Khambat; find of a terracotta image of a woman wearing red sindhu on the parting of her hair; find of a statuette of a priest wearing angavastram as it is worn even today by priests in Bharat; find of polished stone pillars at Dholavira like the stone pillars found in many architectural monuments all over Bharat; find of a rock-cut reservoir and a pushkarini at Dholavira and Mohenjodaro, like the pushkara-s which are present in many tirthasthana-s of the country; find of boat and cart similar to those used even today in the region. The use of copper plate inscriptions continued into the historicla periods within the country. Such is the uniqueness of the River Sarasvati that there are 72 r.ca-s in the R.gveda adoring the river; one Rishi Grtsamada calls her ambitame, naditame, devitame sarasvati: i.e. best of mothers, best of rivers and best of godesses. There is only one reference to River Ganga in this document attesting to the fact that the oldest human document, the R.gveda was composed on the banks of the River Sarasvati. The vedic dharma and vrata traditions and the agama traditions which have their roots in the river basin, continue in the cultural mosaic of the nation. Such a great river got desiccated which led to migrations of people eastwards towards the gangayamuna doab, westwards towards Gandhara, southwards hugging the coastline. Thus, it is conclusively established that the roots of bharatiya civilization were indigenously evolved and there were only contacts with neighbouring civilizations such as Mesopotamia and Caucasus for trade. This is attested by the finds of decimal series of weights used in the civilization also used in the Persian Gulf sites. A cuneiform cylinder seal found in Mesopotamia depicts a Meluhha merchant visiting a royal personage in Mesopotamia accompanied by his wife carrying a kamandalu. It is generally accepted that Meluhha referred to the Sarasvati-Riverine-Maritime civilization area. The 263

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maritime nature of the civilization and the search for mineral resources from the bowels of the earth is exemplified by the powerful metaphor of churning the ocean, as a co-operative endeavour.

Samudra or ks.i_rasa_gara manthanam, 'Churning of Ocean of Milk' Deva and Da_nava churn the ocean, using Va_suki, the serpent as the rope and Mandara, the mountain as the churning rod. Ganesh Lena, Ellora, ca. 11th cent. CE.

The projects for reviving this river using check-dams and watershed management techniques to harvest the monsoon waters of Shivalik ranges, have started to ensure the availability of water in River Sarasvati from Adh Badri to Sirsa all the year round. With the dams on Sutlej (Bhakra and Nangal) and on Beas (Pong) providing the waters at the Harike reservoir, a Rajasthan Canal (also called Sarasvati Mahanadi Roopa Nahar) has transformed the desert areas into fertile lands over a stretch of 650 kms. Projects are ongoing to extend the Sarasvati Canal beyond Gedra Road (Barmer Dist.) upto Rann of Kutch. By augmenting this canal with the glacier waters of Mahakali-Karnali (Nepal) - Sharada (Bharat) which will be transferred across Yamuna, the Reborn Sarasvati will flow upto River Sabarmati. The discovery of Vedic River Sarasvati is a historic event unparalleled in the history of human civilization. The river is not a myth but is ground-truth and had drained in North-west Bharat over a distance of 1,600 kms. from Manasarovar, Mt. Kailas to Gujarat (Somnath, Prabhas Patan). The discovery has been made through analyses of satellite images, archaeological discoveries of over 2,000 archaeological sites on the banks of the river, tritium analysis by atomic scientists and geomorphological/ glaciological studies. The causes for the desiccation of this great river have also been established as due to plate tectonics and consequent river migrations over a period of 1000 years between 4500 to 3500 years Before Present. Projects have been started to make this river flow again. The river nurtured the civilization of Bharat on its banks and in the coastal areas surrounding Gujarat with emphatic evidences of indigenous evolution and continuity of culture in the historic periods of Bharat thus constituting the roots of Bharatiya Civilization. The following key dates are found to be consistent with the sky inscriptions observed by Veda Vyasa: • • • • • • • • • •

Krishna's departure on Revati Sept. 26, 3067 BCE Krishna's arrival in Hastinapura on Bharani Sept. 28, 3067 BCE Solar eclipse on Jyeshtha amavasya Oct. 14, 3067 BCE Krittika full moon (lunar eclipse) September 29, 3067 BCE War starts on November 22, 3067 BCE (Saturn in Rohini, Jupiter in Revati) Winter solstice, January 13, 3066 BCE Bhishma's expiry, January 17, 3066 BCE Magha shukla ashtami A fierce comet at Pushya October 3067 BCE Balarama sets off on pilgrimage on Sarasvati on Pushya day Nov. 1, 3067 BCE Balarama returns from pilgrimage on Sravana day Dec. 12, 3067 BCE 264

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•

On the day Ghatotkaca was killed moon rose at 2 a.m., Dec. 8, 3067 BCE

These dates, in particular the occurrence of Winter solstice which is a critical celestial event, gets corroborated by the chronology of Kaus'i_taki Brahmana which should not be far-removed from the date of S'atapatha Brahman.a (2927 BCE) which has been established by Dr. BN Narahari Achar based on the Brahmana observations that the Kritthika (Pleiades group) rose exactly at the east point (eta_ ha vai pra_cyai dis'e na cyavante: S'Br. II Kanda, Ch. 1, Br. 2,3). http://www1.shore.net/~india/ejvs/ejvs0502/ejvs0502.txt http://www1.shore.net/~india/ejvs/issues.html In Kaus'i_taki Brahmana there are two statements: sa vai ma_ghasya_ma_vasya_ya_mupas'asatyadangabha_vai sannupeme (KBr. XIX,3) mukham va_ etat samvatr.sarasva yatr. pha_lguni_ paurn.ama_si_ mukhamuttare puccham pu_rve (KBr., V,1) [cf. S'Br. VI.2.2.18; Taittiriya Br. 1.1.2.8]. These observations indicate that • •

the sun reached the winter solstice at the full moon Ma_gha the year was considered to be at its end at the full-moon at the star group Purva Phalguni_.

Dr. Phanindralal Gangooly notes: "From all of which we gather that the summer solstitial colure of the earliest Brahmana period when this was the case was 3100 BCE (PC Sengupta, Age of the Brahmana, in Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol. X, No.3, 1934). The vernal equinoctial colure passed through the star Rohini or Aldebaran. In the later Vedic times the sun's turning north very probably took place a fortnight earlier. The S'atapatha Brahmana says that 'some want to have a few nights more; if they want some more then they should begin the sacrifices on the night on which the moon becomes first visible before the full moon at the Phalgunis.' (S'Br. II,6.4 Br. 11). These sacrifices were begun as soon as the sun turned north. It shows that the solstices had precessed by about 15 degrees and that the date when this took place was 2000 BCE. The earliest Brahmana period may be called the Rohini-Phalguni_ period. Even at this time the five early luni-solar cycle was known. (pancas'a_radauyo va_ eva yajn~a iti: TBr. 2.7.11). The calendar was luni-solar in characte. The chief signals for the beginning and the end of the year were the full-moon at the U. Phalguni_ and that at the Purva Phalguni_ respectively; from which the intercalary month were detected." (Phanindralal Gangolly, ed., The Surya SIddhanta, a text-book of Hindu Astronomy, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, first edn. 1860, repr. Delhi 1989, Introduction, pp. xxxv-xxxvi). Date of Mahabharata War using Planetarium Software (based on a paper presented by Prof. B. N. Narahari Achar, The University of Memphis, Memphis TN 38152 at the International Colloquium held in Bangalore on 5 and 6 January 2003. Over 200 scholars and scientists participated in the deliberations which included presentation of welldocumented and well-researched papers/power-point presentations with sky maps, by scholars from Bharat and from USA.)

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Dr. Narahari Achar has conclusively demonstrated that the astronomical events described in the Mah˜bh˜rata show a remarkable consistency and they could have occurred at about 3000 BCE. These events must have been observed and could not have been back calculated by a clever astronomer to be interpolated into the text. The simulations of events then point to 3067 BCE as the date of the Mah˜bh˜rata war. This date is identical to the one given by Raghavan and appears to be the best in accounting for practically all of the astronomical references in the epic. More work is needed to establish the beginning date of kaliyuga. Further research is indicated in establishing the knowledge of the comets possessed by the ancient Indian astronomers. List of Figures Figure 1.

Distribution of the Date attributed to the Mah˜bh˜rata War and the

number of authors proclaiming it. (General) Figure 1a.

Methodologies used in the Dating of the War

Figure 2.

Distribution of the Date attributed to the Mah˜bh˜rata War and the

number of authors proclaiming it. (Astronomical) Figure 3.

Distribution of þlokas referring to astronomical events among the

parvas of the epic. Figure 4.

View of the sky in Delhi in July 857 BCE.

Figure 5.

View of the sky in Delhi in October 955 BCE.

Figure 6.

Winter Solstice in 955 BCE.

Figure 7.

View of the sky in june 1311 BCE

Figure 8.

New Moon in Jyeÿ÷ha in October 2449 BCE

Figure 9.

Winter Solstice in 2449 BCE

Figure 10.

K®ÿõa's Departure on revati Day

Figure 11.

Figure 14.

K®ÿõa's Arrival in Hastin˜pura on Bharaõi day K®ÿõa Rides with Karõa on uttraph˜lguõŸ day Jyÿ÷ha am˜v˜sy˜, October 14, 3067 BCE K˜rtika Full Moon, (lunar eclipse) September 29, 3067

Figure 15.

Retrograde Motion of Mars

Figure 16.

War starts, November 22, 3067

Figure 17.

Winter Solstice 3066 BCE

Figure 18.

BhŸÿma's Expiry January 17, 3066 BCE

Figure 19.

Prograde and retrograde motion of Budha

Figure 20.

Sky Diary for October 3067 BCE

Figure 21.

A fierce comet at puÿya

Figure 12. Figure 13.

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Figure 22.

The planets Saturn and Jupiter stay for a year

Figure 23. Figure 25.

magh˜su aðg˜rako vakra× þravaõeca b®haspati× viÿ˜khayo× samŸpasthau

Figure 26.

Sky Diary for November 3031 BCE

Figure 26a

A penumbral lunar eclipse

Figure 27.

Balar˜ma sets off on puÿya Day

Figure 28.

Balar˜ma returns on þravaõa Day

Figure 29.

Moon rising in the early morning hours

Figure 24.

Methodologies Used in the Dating of the War

• • • • •

Linuistics Textual Evidence from Vedic Texts Geneological Lists from the Puranas Archeological Evidence Astronomical References

Figure 1a.

Methodologies used in the Dating of the War

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Figure 2.

Distribution of the Date

attributed to the Mah˜bh˜rata War and Figure 1.

Distribution

of

the

Date

attributed to the Mah˜bh˜rata War and the

the number of authors proclaiming it. (Astronomical)

number of authors proclaiming it. (General)

Figure 3.

Distribution of þlokas referring

to astronomical events among the parvas of the

Figure 4.

View

of

epic.

Delhi in July 857 BCE.

the

sky

in

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Figure 6. Figure 5.

View of the sky in Delhi in

Winter Solstice in 955

BCE.

October 955 BCE.

Figure 7.

View of the sky in june 1311

Figure 8.

New Moon in Jyeÿ÷ha

in October 2449 BCE

BCE

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Figure 9.

Winter Solstice in 2449 BCE

Figure 11. Figure 10.

K®ÿõa's Departure on revati

K®ÿõa's

Arrival

Hastin˜pura on Bharaõi day

Day

270

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in

Figure 12.

K®ÿõa Rides with Karõa on

uttraph˜lguõŸ day

Figure 14.

Figure 13.

Jyÿ÷ha am˜v˜sy˜, October 14,

3067 BCE

K˜rtika Full Moon, (lunar

eclipse) September 29, 3067

Figure 15.

Retrograde Motion of Mars

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Figure 16.

War starts, November 22,

Figure 17.

Winter Solstice 3066 BCE

3067

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Figure 19. Figure 18.

Prograde and retrograde

BhŸÿma's Expiry January 17,

motion of Budha

Sky Diary for October 3067

Figure 21.

3066 BCE

Figure 20.

A fierce comet at puÿya

BCE

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Figure 22.

The

planets

Saturn

and

Figure 23.

magh˜su aðg˜rako vakra×

Figure 25.

viÿ˜khayo× samŸpasthau

Jupiter stay for a year

Figure 24.

þravaõeca b®haspati×

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Figure 26.

Sky

Diary

for

Figure 26a

A penumbral lunar eclipse

Figure 28.

Balar˜ma returns on þravaõa

November

3031 BCE

Figure 27. Day

Balar˜ma sets off on puÿya

Day

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Figure 29.

Moon rising in the early morning hours

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Sarasvati Civilization An overview A historical project in search of River Sarasvati to discover our roots, has become a magnificent opportunity for national resurgence and to make Bharat a developed nation. This is presented in three sections: observations, conclusions and areas for further research. Observations Many sparks have emerged from the anvils of scholars and researches of a variety of disciplines – all focused on the roots of civilization of Bharat. Collated together, these sparks have become a floodlight which throws new light on the civilization of Bharat. It is a new light on the civilization because of the following reasons: •

A mighty river, a river mightier than Brahmaputra had drained in North-west Bharat for thousands of years prior to 1500 BCE (Before Common Era).

•

The collective memory of a billion people, carried through traditions built up, generation after generation, recalls a river called Sarasvati; this memory is enshrined in the celebration of a Mahakumbha Mela celebrated every 12 years at a place called Prayag where the River Ganga joins with River Yamuna. River Sarasvati is also shown as a small monsoon-fed stream in the topo-maps of Survey of India and in village revenue records in Punjab and Haryana. Yet, the tradition holds that there is a triven.i san:gamma (confluence of three rivers). The third river is River Sarasvati. This tradition has now been established as a scientific fact – ground truth -- thanks to the researches carried out using satellite imageries, geo-morphological studies, glaciological and seismic studies and even the use of tritium analysis (of traces of tritium present in the bodies of water found in the middle of the Marusthali desert) by atomic scientists. The desiccation of the river was caused by plate tectonics and river migrations, between 2500 and 1500 BCE. These studies have established beyond any doubt that River Sarasvati was a mighty river because it was a confluence of rivers emanating from Himalayan glaciers; the River Sutlej and River Yamna were anchorage, tributary rivers of River Sarasvati. The river had drained over a distance of over 1,600 kms. from Manasarovar glacier (W. Tibet) to Somnath (Gujarat) with an average width of 6-8 kms. At Shatrana (south of Patiala), satellite image shows a 20 km. wide palaeo-channel (ancient course), at the confluence of five streams – Sutlej, Yamuna, Markanda, Aruna, Somb – referred to as Pan~ca Pra_ci_ Sarasvati in Bharatiya tradition. This becomes Saptatha Dha_ra Sarasvati when two other streams – Dr.s.advati and Ghaggar – join the River Sarasvati at Sirsa 277

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•

A civilization was nurtured on the banks of this River Sarasvati as recognized through the work of archaeologists and the geographical/historical facts contained in ancient texts of Bharat, such as the Mahabharata and Pura_n.a. This civilization was an indigenous evolution from earlier than 10000 BCE and can be said to be one of the oldest civilizations in the world, heralding the Vedic heritage. Over 2,000 archaeological sites have been discovered in the Sarasvati River Basin. There is a description, in 200 s’lokas, in the S’alya Parva of Mahabharata of a pilgrimage undertaken by Balarama, elder brother of Kr.s.n.a, along the River Sarasvati from Dwaraka to Yamunotri. • The oldest extant human document is the R.gveda which is a compilation of 11,000 r.ca-s perceived by hundreds of seers. An understanding of this document is fundamental to an understanding of the cultural ethos of Bharat. • R.gveda presents a world-view in allegorical and metaphorical terms perceiving an essential unity in cosmic phenomena and r.ta (a rhythm which modulates the terrestrial and celestial events alike). While the document presents the early philosophical thought related to dharma, it also describes the lives and activities of people – the Bharatiya. R.gveda thus presents a variegated picture covering a variety of facets of a maritime-riverine civilization, such as transport systems, agriculture, use of fire, minerals and metals to produce household utensils, ornaments, tools and weapons. Archaeologists have unearthed many examples of technology used in the days of the Sarasvati Civilization (from circa 3500 BCE to 1500 BCE). These provide evidence for the evolution of s’ankha industry in 6500 BCE, preparation of alloys such as pan~caloha, bronze, brass, pewter and bell-metal. • A dialectical continuum has existed in Bharat from the days of R.gveda and Sarasvati Civilization. The civilization constituted a linguistic area, as it is even today in Bharat. Mleccha was a language spoken by Vidura and Yudhis.t.hira as evidenced by Mahabharata. Mleccha were vra_tya-s who worked with minerals and metals. The semantic structures (words and meanings) of all languages of Bharat – Munda, Dravidian or Indo-Aryan categories – present an essential unity among the speakers of various dialects of Bharat. The seven volume work on Sarasvati substantially draws upon the Indian Lexicon, which is a comparative dictionary of over 25 ancient languages of Bharat. • Using this lexical repertoire of the linguistic area called Bharat, it has been possible to crack the code of the epigraphs of the civilization inscribed on over 4,000 objects including seals, tablets, weapons and copper plates. The epigraphs are composed of hieroglyphs (referred to as Mlecchita Vikalpa – picture writing --, one of the 64 arts listed by Va_tsya_yana). The code of hieroglyphs is based on rebus (use of similar sounding words and depicted through pictures) and represent the property possessions of braziers – possessions such as furnaces, minerals, metals, tools and weapons. These were also traded over an extensive area upto Tigris-Euphrates river valley in Mesopotamia and the Caspian Sea in Europe.

•

The tradition of epigraphy evidenced in punch-marked coins and copper plate inscriptions in the context of Sarasvati Epigraphs points to millions of manuscripts and documents remaining unexplored all over Bharat. 278

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•

•

Ongoing projects for the rebirth of River Sarasvati has opened a new vista in water management in Bharat, which has an ancient tradition of water management exemplified by the rock-cut reservoir in Dholavira, the grand anicut on Kaveri, the step wells and pus.karin.is in all parts of Bharat. Desiccation of River Sarasvati is a warning to us about the unpredictability of the impact of tectonics on hydrological systems sourced from the Himalayas, for e.g. the Rivers Ganga and Brahmaputra.

Conclusions •

River Sarasvati is neither a legend, nor a myth, but ground-truth, a river which was flowing for thousands of years prior to Vedic times. • Bharatiya Civilization is an indigenous evolution and cultural continuity is established from the Vedic times to the present day. • For thousands of years before the days of Mahabharata War (ca. 3000 BCE), the Bharatiya had contacts with neighbouring civilizations. • The historicity of Mahabharata has been established making it a sheet anchoe of Bharatiya Itiha_sa. • After the desiccation of River Sarasvati (finally by about 3000 years ago), Bharatiya-s moved to other parts of the world. • The metaphor of Samudra manthanam (celebrated in the Bha_vata Pura_n.a) is a depiction of the reality of a cooperating society which had united all the people of Bharat into life-activities including the environmentally sustainable use of natural resource offered by Mother Earth (Bhu_devi). • Sarasvati is adored in Bharatiya tradition as a river, as a mother and as a divinity – ambitame, nadi_tame, devitame sarasvati. This is an abiding spiritual foundation which resides in the heart of every Bharatiya. • The epigraphs evidence one of the early writing systems of the world. • The search and discovery of River Sarasvati has revealed a thread of essential unity – a bond among the people of Bharat. This has emerged from Vedic times and continues even today. This is the unity of an integral society, a resurgent nation and a unified culture which can be found in all parts of Bharat, from the Himalayas to the Indian Ocean. • Research Institutions have to be established in different disciplines of historical studies to study the manuscripts and documents in the archival collections in all parts of the country. • The initiation of a project for interlinking of rivers is a laudable, first step in creating a National Water Grid which has the potential to ensure equitable distribution of water resources to all parts of the country and to make Bharat a developed nation in 15 years’ time.

•

The establishment of the Water Grid is a national imperative and should be an unmotivated action (l’acte gratuite) devoid of political overtones. The establishment of an inter-disciplinary Sarasvati Research Centre in Kurukshetra will help in progressing further researches on water resources management, and study of our history, heritage and culture.

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Areas for further researches • • •

• • • • •

Glaciological researches are needed in relation to the glacial source of River Sarasvati which is referred to as Plaks.a Pras’ravan.a in the ancient texts. Seismological studies are needed to determine the chronology of events connected with the submergence of Dwaraka, the Gulf of Khambat and other coastal regions of Bharat. Meteorological, glaciological and seismological studies have to be related to plate tectonics – the dynamic Indian plate and the evolving Himalayas – for a better understanding of the hydrological systems, sustainability and management of a National Water Grid for Bharat. Archaeological work on the 2,000 sites on Sarasvati River Basin have to be related to the events described in the ancient epics: Ramayana and Mahabharata The Vedic texts, epics and Purana-s contain historical information.which can be validated through archaeological, astronomical and geographical studies. Epigraphical and language studies in relation to the evolution and spread of languages and scripts of Bharat. Scholars have to be encouraged to study the unexplored manuscripts lying in museums, libraries and private collections. Researches for establishing the National Water Grid should be objective and provide a new vision to reach out the water and agricultural resources of thecountry, equitably, to all people and for the development of the nation. *********

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Index Afghanistan, 31 Agastya, 44, 111, 114, 183, 199

Banawali, 24, 29, 80, 91, 109, 121, 147, 148 barley, 142, 149, 239 bastions, 84 bead, 80, 96, 206, 235, 239, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 248, 252 beadmaking, 242, 250, 251 beads, 3, 83, 84, 86, 87, 91, 130, 149, 171, 183, 185, 186, 199, 203, 206, 211, 230, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 248, 249, 251, 252 bed, 26, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 45, 48, 50, 51, 58, 59, 63, 64, 70, 72, 73, 85, 90, 92, 93, 99, 100, 101, 102, 111, 166, 172, 176, 177, 179, 180, 227 belt, 93, 195, 196, 235, 241 Bha_rata, 10, 12, 13, 54, 117, 131, 160, 161, 164, 185, 202, 211, 220, 221, 231, 234, 253, 257, 259 bha_s.a_, 155, 162, 164 Bhairava, 15, 83, 185, 199, 202, 203, 204, 208, 230 Bharat, 42 Bharata, 83, 109, 116, 117, 128, 135, 138, 142, 259, 262 Bhr.gu, 160 blade, 95, 96, 210 BMAC, 146, 202 boat, 38, 53, 174, 263 bone, 5, 47, 86, 87, 95, 149, 161, 187, 190, 193, 243, 253, 254, 255 boss, 211 bow, 175, 188, 189, 201, 208, 212, 219, 224, 239, 242, 244, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257 Brahmi, 17, 81 Brahui, 133, 157

Agate, 242, 245 agriculture, 48, 64, 151, 211, 278 Akkadian, 54, 135, 149, 157, 169, 198, 213, 217 Alexander, 25, 46, 100 Allahabad, 33, 35 Allchin, 32, 43, 130 amethyst, 250 Amri, 26, 54, 55, 146, 158, 207 antelope, 157, 162, 170, 171, 172, 195, 213, 214, 257 Anu, 135, 152 Arabian Gulf, 13 Aravalli, 42, 59, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 130, 244 arch, 221, 254 Archaeological Survey of India, 74, 80, 119, 244 archaeo-metallurgy, 12 archer, 170, 175, 188, 253, 255, 256, 257 architecture, 135, 141, 230 arrow, 47, 113, 169, 176, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257 arsenic, 91, 130 Aryan, 30 astronomy, 64, 258, 262 Atharva Veda, 54, 116, 208 Atharvaveda, 45 Austro-Asiatic, 160 Avestan, 8, 32, 117, 131, 133, 134, 137, 138, 152, 163, 166, 202 axe, 113, 172, 176, 179, 180, 212 Bactria, 78, 117, 146, 202 Balakot, 150, 243 Baluchistan, 19, 26, 55, 79, 107, 115, 118, 119, 133, 146, 150, 244 281

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cloth, 195, 213, 227, 228, 256 cobra, 206 coins, 84, 120, 206, 208, 209, 278 copper, 27, 44, 48, 80, 81, 83, 86, 87, 91, 130, 132, 150, 155, 161, 166, 171, 172, 173, 174, 176, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 187, 188, 189, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 198, 211, 213, 227, 228, 232, 234, 242, 243, 244, 257, 263, 278 cotton, 98, 228, 241 crocodile, 256 crown, 135, 167, 168, 205 cuneiform, 54, 115, 134, 263 cylinder seal, 168, 263 dagger, 215, 220, 236 deer, 212 deity, 45, 89, 113, 114, 128, 135, 138, 141, 204, 205, 216, 221 dharma, 136, 156, 263, 278 Dholavira, 24, 29, 30, 46, 47, 54, 55, 59, 79, 80, 91, 99, 100, 109, 131, 148, 158, 192, 228, 229, 230, 263, 279 dice, 238 digger, 55 Dilmun, 54, 132 dog, 87 dotted circle, 162, 231, 232, 257 Dr.s.advati, 17, 22, 40, 44, 85, 109, 124, 125, 151, 277 Dravidian, 8, 110, 111, 114, 133, 134, 136, 158, 159, 160, 278 drill, 186, 239, 240, 242, 244 drilling, 19, 74, 107, 242, 244 Druhyu, 135, 152 duck, 238 Durga, 91, 114, 236 Early Harappan, 26, 49, 63, 146 Egypt, 51, 149, 209, 241, 245, 251 Elam, 163

brass, 91, 130, 167, 173, 174, 175, 179, 180, 188, 194, 195, 254, 278 brazier, 173, 174, 175, 180, 193, 206 brick, 82, 83, 85, 141, 149, 168, 203, 206, 228 bronze, 81, 89, 91, 110, 128, 130, 131, 132, 144, 158, 163, 171, 178, 179, 186, 188, 194, 199, 203, 209, 211, 225, 226, 228, 235, 262, 278 Buddha, 83, 116, 136, 145, 203, 214 buffalo, 167, 168, 215, 218, 236 buildings, 79, 202, 228, 243 bull, 81, 86, 87, 91, 113, 156, 161, 170, 171, 172, 174, 195, 198, 201, 215, 221, 222, 231, 257 bun, 150, 223, 224, 225, 226, 234 burial, 39, 184, 200, 220, 228, 240, 263 calendar, 265 caravan, 101, 102, 257 carnelian, 26, 27, 86, 99, 185, 186, 235, 238, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 250, 256 carp, 172 carpenter, 157, 175, 188, 189 cart, 53, 87, 191, 263 cattle, 40, 87, 136, 137, 141, 143, 257 cemetery, 86 Central Asia, 88, 117, 143, 146 ceramic, 64, 86 Chalcolithic, 243 Chanhudaro, 46, 91, 100, 244 chert, 96, 244 chipped, 183, 201, 242 chisel, 55, 79, 174 Cholistan, 25, 26, 27, 49, 64, 92, 100 citadel, 47, 85 cities, 31, 37, 38, 47, 113, 140, 145, 146, 147, 211, 262 city, 30, 33, 46, 47, 59, 98, 120, 145, 208, 243, 244 clay, 28, 33, 83, 96, 238, 241 cloak, 162, 224, 225 282

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159, 207, 208, 209, 243, 244, 262, 264, 277 Gujarati, 124, 133, 138 Gulf of Khambat, 13, 30, 48, 54, 55, 59, 79, 94, 99, 100, 104, 105, 111, 130, 158, 159, 183, 207, 238, 262, 263, 280 hammer, 55, 210 Harappa, 25, 29, 31, 53, 54, 59, 64, 70, 73, 79, 86, 92, 95, 131, 148, 155, 165, 175, 183, 184, 193, 200, 201, 206, 220, 221, 222, 224, 225, 227, 228, 232, 235, 238, 239, 240, 242, 245, 246, 248, 257, 263 hare, 186 headdress, 156, 167, 169, 222, 235, 241 hearth, 94, 96, 166, 172, 176, 177, 179, 180, 191 Himalaya, 27, 73, 93, 102 Hindu, 12, 19, 32, 51, 107, 109, 138, 140, 142, 183, 185, 186, 201, 203, 206, 210, 265 horned, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 174, 195, 196, 197, 201, 212, 221, 222, 229, 257 horse, 45, 64, 78, 117, 134, 170, 185, 201, 206, 212, 216 hunter, 212 incised, 70, 86, 87, 161, 183, 200, 211, 215, 240, 254 Indo-Aryan, 6, 78, 79, 80, 134, 143, 146, 147, 152, 157, 158, 159, 160, 278 Indo-Iranian, 115, 134, 135, 143, 158 ingot, 177, 182, 191, 193, 213 inlaid, 198, 200, 254 inscription, 8, 47, 55, 83, 108, 128, 143, 161, 203 ivory, 149, 175, 212, 234, 238, 253, 254, 255 jackal, 81 janapada, 42, 164

elephant, 161, 169, 170, 195, 206, 214, 215 embroidery, 228 etched, 243, 244, 245 faience, 86, 149, 175, 211, 228, 229, 241, 243 Fairservis, 158 farm, 99 figurine, 83, 87, 165, 185, 186, 215, 222, 225, 226, 232, 235, 238, 241 fillet, 175, 223, 224 fish, 64, 83, 166, 168, 172, 174, 176, 177, 179, 180 Ganga, 16, 19, 24, 39, 43, 45, 49, 53, 65, 72, 73, 74, 78, 80, 89, 90, 92, 102, 104, 107, 108, 110, 111, 113, 115, 117, 121, 128, 130, 131, 146, 149, 155, 164, 244, 262, 263, 277, 279 Ganweriwala, 25, 59, 91, 263 gateway, 84, 256 Ghaggar, 22, 26, 28, 29, 36, 38, 41, 49, 50, 51, 56, 58, 59, 64, 70, 71, 72, 75, 90, 102, 104, 106, 277 glass, 84, 87, 171, 211, 222, 251, 252 glazed faience, 243 goat, 87, 141, 168, 193, 195, 201, 213 godess, 10, 232, 236 gold, 18, 46, 86, 107, 126, 150, 166, 167, 173, 175, 178, 179, 181, 182, 186, 189, 191, 192, 194, 198, 205, 208, 209, 211, 239, 240, 242, 253, 254 goldsmith, 157, 166, 167, 168, 173, 174, 175, 178, 180, 189, 191, 192, 194, 196, 198 granary, 67, 228 grapheme, 194 Gujarat, 13, 16, 17, 20, 21, 24, 31, 42, 43, 47, 52, 53, 54, 55, 59, 66, 67, 77, 78, 80, 93, 96, 97, 98, 103, 104, 106, 110, 111, 115, 130, 147, 149, 158, 283

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Jarrige, 146, 147, 186, 215, 243 jasper, 241, 242 jewelry, 239 Kalibangan, 24, 29, 38, 39, 41, 48, 59, 62, 79, 86, 91, 93, 109, 121, 148, 155, 217, 220, 263 Kalyanaraman, 1, 2, 4, 10, 11, 12, 14, 77, 94, 198, 262 Kannad.a, 6 Kashmir, 13, 45, 88, 110, 128, 203 Kashmiri, 41, 131, 156 Kenoyer, 3, 53, 64, 78, 133, 146, 147, 150, 165, 175, 183, 184, 185, 186, 193, 199, 200, 201, 215, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 226, 228, 234, 235, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243 Khetri, 44, 48, 108, 130 kiln, 156, 165, 167, 168, 172, 191, 198, 227 Kish, 211, 222, 244 kneeling, 170, 205 Kon kan.i, 6, 169 Kot Diji, 26, 56, 57, 146, 218, 241 Kunal, 59, 91, 148, 263 Kutch, 13, 20, 22, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 37, 38, 41, 46, 47, 48, 50, 55, 58, 59, 66, 67, 94, 98, 99, 100, 102, 103, 105, 106, 107, 108, 115, 121, 130, 147, 150, 159, 183, 207, 264 Lal, 39, 47, 59, 77 language, 5, 6, 10, 12, 59, 114, 115, 127, 131, 134, 146, 152, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 278, 280 languages, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 59, 80, 119, 124, 131, 133, 139, 143, 149, 151, 156, 157, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 278, 280 lapidary, 85, 166, 201 lapis lazuli, 31, 241, 242, 243

lead, 18, 34, 120, 150, 169, 177, 186, 200, 244, 257 lizard, 79, 166, 228, 229, 230 Lothal, 20, 24, 30, 31, 41, 46, 47, 59, 91, 92, 96, 98, 99, 100, 111, 121, 148, 171, 207, 238, 263 Mackay, 217, 220, 228, 234, 238, 244, 257 Magadha, 135 Magan, 54, 132 Maha_bha_rata, 35, 36, 37, 42, 45, 64, 88, 92, 109, 110, 113, 116, 117, 129, 145, 153, 202, 216 Mahadevan, 112, 195, 207 Makran, 3, 54, 55, 94, 183, 199, 207, 243 Marshall, 27, 149, 162, 175, 211, 225, 226, 228, 235, 241, 256 Meadow, 53, 64, 92 Mehrgarh, 3, 97, 145, 158, 183, 199, 234, 243 Meluhha, 53, 54, 127, 132, 133, 157, 171, 228, 244, 263 Meluhhan, 157, 158 merchants, 53, 132, 150 Mesolithic, 44, 96 Mesopotamia, 13, 53, 54, 55, 88, 127, 132, 163, 209, 211, 217, 228, 241, 243, 244, 263, 278 metal, 10, 81, 91, 130, 132, 149, 156, 166, 167, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 186, 187, 189, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 218, 253, 255, 278 metallurgy, 80, 89 metals, 127, 130, 132, 156, 157, 166, 168, 175, 180, 189, 191, 196, 198, 213, 221, 239, 278 microbeads, 241 mining, 150 Mleccha, 15, 155, 278 284

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pipal, 167, 168 plant, 49, 122, 123, 124, 167, 169 plants, 163 platform, 86, 95, 129, 167, 168, 169, 170, 182, 193, 232 Pleiades, 265 Possehl, 26, 27, 31, 46, 48, 49, 52, 70, 99, 105, 119, 145, 146, 147, 149, 158, 222, 232 pottery, 82, 83, 84, 86, 87, 96, 140, 149, 165, 221, 222 Pra_kr.t, 42, 133, 139 Priest, 197, 198 punch-marked, 278 Punjab, 13, 16, 18, 22, 24, 28, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 41, 45, 53, 57, 63, 66, 72, 78, 83, 90, 92, 103, 104, 106, 107, 111, 116, 122, 124, 146, 149, 153, 202, 203, 245, 262, 277 Puru, 116, 117, 135, 152 quartz, 240, 242 R.gveda, 2, 10, 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 20, 22, 25, 32, 35, 39, 40, 41, 45, 47, 54, 70, 92, 115, 125, 126, 127, 130, 131, 134, 135, 136, 141, 142, 143, 153, 155, 160, 164, 166, 185, 203, 207, 217, 259, 263, 278 Ra_ma_yan.a, 88, 114, 128, 135, 151, 153, 206, 225, 226 Rajasthan, 13, 16, 18, 20, 21, 22, 26, 32, 43, 44, 47, 48, 52, 53, 60, 66, 67, 70, 76, 78, 89, 90, 93, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 115, 130, 141, 142, 149, 150, 257, 264 Rakhigarhi, 24, 29, 59, 80, 85, 86, 91, 92, 144, 263 ram, 42, 84, 87, 141, 167, 172, 257 ratha, 79, 214, 255, 257 Ravi, 25, 28, 39, 40, 45, 50, 64, 75, 131 raw material, 31, 48, 242, 244, 251 rebus, 131, 156, 166, 169, 171, 173, 174, 176, 177, 179, 180, 182, 187,

Mlecchita, 15, 155, 278

Mohenjodaro, 27, 29, 31, 46, 53, 55, 59, 70, 92, 95, 109, 144, 146, 148, 165, 175, 183, 199, 200, 206, 222, 223, 224, 225, 228, 229, 235, 241, 244, 263 molded, 221 monkey, 18, 106, 229 mortar, 83 mould, 175, 177, 180, 221 mud-brick, 85, 141 Mundari, 122, 124, 166, 189, 193 Nausharo, 185, 186, 215, 221, 238, 243 necklace, 185, 186, 217, 230, 242 Neolithic, 159, 242, 243 Oldham, 28, 32, 33, 35, 37, 39, 40, 63, 71, 103 onager, 257 one-horned, 170, 171, 172, 195, 196, 212, 221, 222, 257 onyx, 250 ore, 79, 126, 150, 166, 169, 171, 192, 194, 195, 227, 255 organization, 12, 64, 149 ornaments, 3, 54, 79, 87, 130, 183, 186, 199, 205, 207, 208, 211, 213, 221, 234, 243, 263, 278 Oxus, 34, 78, 117, 146 Pakistan, 18, 25, 26, 27, 30, 56, 57, 72, 90, 92, 97, 99, 107, 118, 149, 161, 193, 200, 218, 222, 223, 227, 239, 240, 242 palaeolithic, 44, 253 Palaeolithic, 44, 96 Parpola, 78, 139, 202 peacock, 18, 91, 126, 169, 256 pendant, 86, 185, 186, 225, 226, 235, 241, 242 perforated, 201 Persian Gulf, 53, 54, 94, 130, 171, 239, 263 phallus, 213 285

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serpentine, 241 Shaffer, 78, 146, 147 sheep, 87, 141, 142, 211 shell, 3, 47, 54, 84, 131, 149, 150, 173, 177, 178, 182, 183, 184, 185, 199, 200, 201, 206, 208, 209, 210, 220, 224, 240, 241, 243, 254, 255 ship, 160 Sindh, 18, 27, 40, 48, 99, 107, 111, 117, 120, 147, 157, 199, 243, 244 Sindhi, 6, 99, 131, 133 Siwalik, 22, 23, 24, 25, 29, 36, 58, 62, 66, 74, 78, 79, 81, 90, 92, 93, 100, 102, 258, 263 snake, 168, 169, 202, 204, 206, 255 soma, 125, 126, 151, 152, 163, 166, 167, 255 spear, 126, 169, 218, 219 squirrel, 229 standing person, 174 steatite, 27, 53, 211, 241 stone bead, 230, 239, 241, 242 stone sculptures, 85 stoneware, 165 stoneware bangle, 165 stool, 168, 170, 217 storage jar, 82, 165 stupa, 82, 83, 203, 205, 214, 229 Sumerian, 168, 243 Sutlej, 17, 18, 19, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 37, 39, 40, 41, 45, 50, 51, 53, 56, 57, 58, 59, 62, 64, 65, 67, 70, 71, 73, 74, 90, 91, 92, 93, 102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 116, 130, 262, 264, 277 svastika_, 156, 161, 232 symbols, 54, 79, 183, 201, 206, 219, 257 tablets, 81, 155, 166, 173, 175, 176, 177, 180, 181, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 211, 221, 229, 240, 278

189, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 213, 278 red ochre, 211 reservoir, 55, 79, 91, 131, 155, 263, 264, 279 rhinoceros, 142, 168, 257 rice, 29, 92 Rojdi, 30, 41, 91, 98, 100, 263 Ropar, 25, 29, 58, 73, 74, 91, 92, 111, 262, 263 Sanskrit, 4, 6, 8, 34, 36, 42, 72, 111, 114, 115, 124, 128, 133, 134, 156, 158, 162, 205, 206, 231 Santali, 122, 131, 132, 156, 166, 167, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 180, 181, 182, 186, 187, 188, 189, 191, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 213 Sarasvati, 2, 4, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 84, 85, 86, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 97, 98, 99, 100, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 115, 116, 117, 121, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 133, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 146, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 183, 198, 199, 202, 207, 211, 214, 228, 231, 236, 238, 239, 243, 244, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 277, 278, 279, 280 Saurashtra, 30, 31, 38, 46, 59, 66, 96, 98, 108, 147, 150, 183 saw, 163, 201, 209, 210, 211 sealing, 221, 231 serpent, 40, 162, 170, 191, 218, 264 286

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Tamil, 4, 6, 111, 112, 114, 124, 131, 132, 156, 160, 208, 209 Taxila, 244, 245, 247, 248, 249 Telugu, 4, 6, 124 temple, 42, 81, 84, 85, 109, 111, 114, 120, 128, 170, 190, 202, 204, 205, 206, 220, 234, 237, 251 terracotta, 53, 79, 83, 84, 86, 87, 155, 168, 175, 186, 193, 195, 206, 221, 222, 235, 241, 256, 263 terracotta cake, 221 terracotta tablet, 175, 193 textile, 227 throne, 168, 212 tiger, 81, 156, 162, 169, 195, 198, 213, 215, 256, 257 Tigris, 127, 130, 262, 278 tin, 91, 99, 112, 130, 132, 150, 169, 171, 172, 175, 177, 179, 181, 186, 187, 188, 193, 194, 198, 244 tokens, 210 tools, 44, 91, 96, 97, 130, 132, 157, 166, 167, 173, 228, 239, 242, 243, 260, 262, 278 tortoise, 113, 196, 206, 255 traders, 143, 146, 150, 208 transport, 53, 103, 149, 262, 278 tree, 41, 81, 113, 121, 122, 123, 124, 156, 161, 169, 171, 193, 195, 221, 231, 232, 234 trefoil, 162, 198 triven.i, 115, 277 Turkmenistan, 146 turquoise, 121, 242, 243 Ur, 232, 243, 244 Valdiya, 17, 19, 29, 50, 58, 73, 90, 104, 159 Vats, 73, 220, 246, 248

vedic, 110, 111, 113, 134, 162, 207, 263 vessels, 46, 82, 180, 181, 200, 211, 228 Vindhya, 151 war, 20, 24, 40, 44, 117, 130, 161, 207, 208, 255, 259, 260, 266 warfare, 253 weapons, 91, 131, 132, 138, 155, 166, 209, 211, 218, 219, 234, 256, 257, 278 weaving, 89, 149, 221, 227 weights, 53, 54, 91, 149, 211, 221, 239, 240, 263 wheat, 149 Wheeler, 146 Wilhelmy, 73, 99, 100, 102, 103 workshop, 168, 169, 170, 178, 192, 194, 195, 196, 198, 207, 209, 218, 228 workshops, 208 worship, 41, 79, 88, 111, 114, 120, 121, 126, 133, 220 writing, 10, 12, 13, 15, 17, 80, 92, 131, 155, 161, 164, 211, 260, 278, 279 writing system, 10, 12, 13, 15, 17, 92, 155, 164, 279 yajn~a, 53, 54, 109, 115, 125, 126, 156, 215, 216, 265 Yama, 136 Yamuna, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 27, 29, 35, 39, 40, 44, 45, 48, 53, 59, 64, 72, 73, 74, 79, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 104, 106, 107, 108, 109, 115, 117, 128, 129, 130, 142, 144, 145, 146, 149, 214, 262, 264, 277 yogic, 157, 167, 168, 231, 232 Yudhis.t.hira, 127, 155, 278 Zebu, 156, 161, 231

287

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