Rs09 Ethics Revision Notes

Issue

Virtue Ethics

Christianity

Issues raised by science and technology Cloning –

e.g. Dolly the sheep 1997. DNA from the original sheep put into an egg which has been stripped of its DNA – then placed inside a sheep to mature as a normal embryo would. Two types: therapeutic (cloned for medical purposes, not allowed to develop beyond 14 days when the primitive streak has formed – thus the ability to feel pain) and reproductive (to form an individual person).

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Motivation – could bring massive gains to people – are these gains ethical? Depend on impetus behind them; e.g. companies pioneering reproductive cloning would make vast amounts of money – application of temperance over greed (Aristotle + MacIntyre) is important. Medicine as a ‘practice’ – MacIntyre – confers certain responsibilities on medical scientists to act in ways consistent with established values of medical practice – e.g.

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therapeutic value – this is consistent with the values inherent within the practice – but unsuccessful embryos die, which is violating key duty of care. respect for natural processes – interference – what is legitimate interference and want is a dangerous manipulation?

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respect for integrity of individuals – treat patient as an end rather than a means – does this dismiss even therapeutic cloning therefore? Justice – a wealthy person could purchase ‘elite’ characteristics for their children – is it fair that poorer people are disadvantaged? Unjust society based upon wealth, not moral deservedness. Genetic determinism – contradicts MacIntyre and Aristotle’s idea that we are essentially a blank canvas – undermines individual responsibility for development, so virtue ethicists would dismiss it.

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"Be fruitful and increase in number." – must we do this naturally? Doesn’t specify – so does this condone cloning? We are created in God’s image; does this mean we are perfect and should not manipulate God’s creation OR does this mean he has ordained us with the ability to act as co-creators?! Are we abusing the knowledge and wisdom God gave us, or utilising it for good? Perhaps it depends upon the impetus. Church of England – understands benefits of therapeutic cloning but protests every child has a right to a ‘natural birth’ and ‘two biological parents’ – condemning reproductive cloning. Also – we may have the power to do something, but it is up to us to decide whether it is good or bad and act, or not act at all, in accordance with this. Not for commercial reasons. R Catholics – cloning poses a ‘threat to our individuality’ – rejects all forms of cloning – ‘sanctity of life’. Pope John Paul II – ‘all forms of human cloning are wrong’. Rejects therapeutic cloning on the basis that life starts at the moment of conception – tantamount to murder. Apply Christian virtues/sins. Virtues: hope, charity, love, justice, prudence, temperance, courage. Sins: pride, lust, sloth, greed, gluttony, anger, envy. Natural law (Aquinas) Divine command (see above quotes) Situation ethics – agapé Conscience – voice of God – if we feel guilty doing something, it’s probably wrong.

Genetic engineering

– the screening or manipulation of genetic structure o f cells to modify them. Can bring about changes in one generation that could take many years to evolve naturally. Four types –

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Somatic cell gene therapy – where genes of a particular

organism are modified but not passed on to next generation. E.g. diabetics can be given gene treatment to control production of insulin, curing the disease.

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Germ-line gene therapy –

germ-line cells are reproductive cells; can be altered to combat and eradicate diseases; alterations are transferred to future generations, consequently affecting the human gene pool. E.g. no consensus over which ‘defects’ need eradicating – down’s syndrome, homosexuality? Haemophilia could be a good one – hereditary disease.

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Enhancement –

Aristotelian virtues, as listed in Nicomachean Ethics: Courage, temperance, liberality, magnificence, magnanimity, proper ambition/pride, patience/good temper, truthfulness, wittiness, friendliness, modesty, righteous indignation. Summary: somatic and germ-line can be good...enhancement and eugenics rarely good. Espesh eugenics! Unjust – ppl dying just to make an ‘improved’ race – really quite unfriendly as well! Temperance – there’s only so many ways you can improve ppl, don’t go too far.

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Apply Christian virtues/sins. Virtues: hope, charity, love, justice, prudence, temperance, courage. Sins: pride, lust, sloth, greed, gluttony, anger, envy. Natural law (Aquinas) Divine command (see above quotes) Situation ethics – agapé Conscience – voice of God – if we feel guilty doing something, it’s probably wrong.

And it causes unfair advantage to those who have been modified – or maybe disadvantage, as they don’t have as much opportunity to strive to obtain virtues?

‘improving’ an

individual by manipulating their genes. E.g. parent wants kid to be athletic.

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Eugenics –

‘improvement’ of a

whole nation or race. E.g. compulsory sterilisation of ‘mentally unfit’. Also – Nazi Germany – culminating in deaths of gypsies, homosexuals, Jews.

Animal experimentation – cosmetics, detergents and other nonmedical goods – powerful lobby against such uses nowadays – e.g. success of shops such as the Body Shop. 1998 British govt ban use of animals for cosmetic testing – continues elsewhere though. Second, medical experiments – in 1997 over 2.5 mil experiments carried out on animals for cancer research, prevention of disease and biological research; many medical advancements have been achieved as a result of experiments e.g. development of anaesthetics, vaccines for whooping cough and polio, kidney transplant, psychiatric drugs.

Aristotelian virtues, as listed in Nicomachean Ethics: Courage, temperance, liberality, magnificence, magnanimity, proper ambition/pride, patience/good temper, truthfulness, wittiness, friendliness, modesty, righteous indignation. Practices (MacIntyre) – skills (internal goods) – are you doing the experimenting for the internal goods or for the external gains (e.g. moneymaking)

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Trad Christian view: inferiority of animals; hierarchy Augustine - said animals were of lesser worth - inability to rationalise.

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Aquinas -animals were made to serve human wants; are avoid of rights due to inability to reason; ‘it matters not how humans act towards animals because God has subjected all things to man's power.’ Bible – humans created first – given ‘dominion’ or ‘stewardship’ – If we are causing them to suffer are we going against our roles as stewards? “"A righteous man cares for the needs of his animals, but even the kindest acts of the wicked can be cruel” – Proverbs 11:18 Jesus said: if your sheep fell into a ditch on the Sabbath day you should still help it out – shows animals are important to the extent where you can strenuously pull them out of ditches on the day of rest. Andrew Linsey – Christian theologian – by mistreating animals, we are inadvertently disrespecting God and his creation.

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Hard Determinism • • • • • • •

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Free will is illusory Principle of universal causality No moral responsibility Genes and environment determine us. Psychological – conditioning Pavlov’s dogs John Locke – sleeping man Freud and Dawkins both examples of hard determinist standpoint to some extent – Freud says we’re a slave to psychological urges/desires, Dawkins thinks we are a slave to our genetics. Calvin – predestination – good is omniscient and atemporal – knows the future – therefore it must be determined

Soft Determinism • • •

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Compatibilism Both determined and free External causes (restrict freedom), internal causes (freedom) – e.g. read a book voluntarily is internal causes, read a book cos you need to for an exam is external causes So actions are only free if there are no external causes – which is rare Augustine – God know to whom he would grant belief – so who is granted salvation and who is damned – ultimately not free but our means of getting there is free to some extent? Original sin – we are born sinful but we can choose to follow God and be absolved eventually – partially free. Hume – Hume’s fork – free will is in between determinism and randomness/chaos – either way – both equal a lack of freedom – free will is the happy medium. Hobbes – “we are free in the only way we can be” – we are free within the determined nature of things

Mankind made in God’s image – animals were not. "A man is worth many sparrows, but not one sparrow dies unnoticed in God's world." Church view - “The fact that animals may be used in scientific procedures for the benefit of people shows that we believe that human beings have more value than animals. But the fact that we minimise the pain, suffering, distress or lasting harm that animals may have to undergo shows that we regard them as having intrinsic value.” Apply Christian virtues/sins. Virtues: hope, charity, love, justice, prudence, temperance, courage. Sins: pride, lust, sloth, greed, gluttony, anger, envy. Natural law (Aquinas) Divine command (see above quotes) Situation ethics – agapé Conscience – voice of God – if we feel guilty doing something, it’s probably wrong.

Libertarianism • •

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We are free Sartre – “we are condemned to be free” – societies impose rules and regulations cos the extent of our freedom is otherwise overwhelming – easier to deny that we are free, though truly we are. Spirit/soul = free... we might be physically determined but what counts is that we are spiritually free. Kant – nouminal world (mind, ideas) vs phenomenal world - we are nouminally free but phenomenally constrained (Critique of Pure Reason) Personality vs moral self – personality makes us predisposed to something, moral self can subdue those inclinations e.g. pyro. Pelagius – said we are completely free – then got burnt for being a heretic cos predetestination/Calvinism used to be the main religious view – pelagianism said we could achieve salvation through our own means, bit harsh on God when he’s meant to be the one that does that.

So what is virtue ethics? Summary: •

Oldest western moral philosophy – rooted in ancient Greece

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Believes we should ask the question “what sort of person should I be?” not “what should I do?”

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Concentrates on moral character, not rules or duties or consequences

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Aristotle – Nicomachean Ethics - we need to flourish – achieve eudaimonia – ‘happiness’ – develop as a virtuous person, with eudaimon life as final goal, as it is the ultimate good – whereas other goods are acquired because of further goods they lead to e.g. do A levels to get a good job to get money etc., eudaimonia is intrinsically good. Phronesis (practical wisdom) – using experiences to act virtuously and determine the best end. Golden mean between two vices e.g. courage – foolhardiness and cowardice. List of virtues:

Courage,

temperance, liberality, magnificence, magnanimity, proper ambition/pride, patience/good temper, truthfulness, wittiness, friendliness, modesty, righteous indignation.

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Alasdair MacIntyre – ‘practices’, ‘search for the good life’ – through the practices we can attain the good life – individual skills benefit everyone – internal goods more important than external goods (e.g. making money from the skill) - happiness by-product of striving for excellence in practices – meaningful participation in practices requires virtues e.g. learning requires commitment – good life is what allows individuals to flourish – characteristics of flourishing peson include ability to evaluate judgements, imagine alternative futures to make rational choices, see requirements for attaining goods. We got to be practical reasoners – we have this capacity, animals don’t.