Rice And Us.docx

Link of this Material: http://www.fao.org/rice2004/en/rice-us.htm RICE AND US Rice is life for thousands of millions of people. It is deeply embedded in the cultural heritage of their societies. It is the staple food for more than half of the world population. In Asia alone, more than 2,000 million people obtain 60 to 70 percent of their calories from rice and its products. It is the most rapidly growing source of food in Africa, and is of significant importance to food security in an increasing number of low-income food-deficit countries.

Rice-based production systems and their associated post-harvest operations employ nearly 1,000 million people in rural areas of developing countries. About 80% of the world's rice is grown by small-scale farmers in low-income and developing countries. It follows that efficient and productive rice-based production systems are essential for economic development and for improved quality of life of much of the world's population. Improving the productivity of rice systems would contribute to hunger eradication, poverty alleviation, national food security and economic development. According to FAO estimates, there are about 840 million undernourished people, including more than 200 million children, in developing countries. Undernourishment greatly limits development. However, rice production is facing serious constraints including a declining rate of growth in yields, depletion of natural resources, labour shortages, gender-based conflicts, institutional limitations and environmental pollution. Overcoming hunger, poverty and malnutrition - while protecting the environment - requires collective action by all stakeholders. The diversity of the regions, peoples, and resources connected within the world's rice-based systems, requires a diverse approach for global rice-based development that includes participation from the local to the international level.

Rice and culture Thousands of years ago, people from East to South Asia settled throughout river deltas and domesticated wild rice. The productivity of wetland rice crops led to population growth and to the development of society and civilization. Both in ancient times and today, the intense labour needed for rice cultivation - to reclaim land, to build and maintain terrace systems, to synchronize cropping patterns against soil erosion, The relationship between rice and people has inspired songs, landslides and flooding - has paintings, stories and other modes of communication required villages to work together. The unifying effect of rice on people is particularly evident in the vast Mekong River Delta, where villages with distinct cultures joined to tame the land and cultivate their staple crop. Furthermore, the need for standing water in rice-based systems has widely shaped the landscapes of rural areas and villages. In these ways, the struggle to cultivate and harvest rice has moulded community structures and a corresponding culture of rice. The relationship between rice and people has inspired songs, paintings, stories and other modes of communication. Festivals have been dedicated to rice and rice cultivation - for example, the Land Opening Festival in China, which marks the beginning of the rice season. Rice was considered divine by many Asian emperors and kings in ancient times. The Japanese, even today, refer to rice as their "mother" and regard rice farmers as the guardian of their culture and the countryside. Over the centuries, rice has shaped the cultures and dietary habits of its cultivators and consumers. Thanks to its numerous varieties, rice provides a wide range of flavours, even when simply boiled or steamed. Depending on the region, rice is traditionally coupled with fish or meat, or with legumes such as beans, lentils and chickpeas. The combination of rice and fish in Asian countries has generated the term "rice-fish societies", and the strong relationship between wet rice production and fisheries is reflected in many proverbs from the ancient Tai and Angkor Wat civilizations ("in the fields there is rice and in its water there is fish"). The combination of rice and legumes characterizes cuisines from Cajun to Mexican to Middle Eastern to Southern European. In Columbia, "rice and beans" is acclaimed as the national food. This basic dish continues to be the sustenance of the poor in many countries. It is significant that almost every culture has its own way of eating rice and that these different recipes are part of the world's cultural heritage. The importance of rice to villagers in Senegal is evident in that special guests are honoured with a rice meal. From a relatively unknown crop a hundred years ago, rice today dominates the cultural - and even political landscape in Sacramento, California. Cultivation of rice has shaped social habits and landscape across the globe. In the intense summer heat of the Nile Delta, people seek refuge from the heat in the cool air of the rice fields. A panoramic view of flat rice fields in the footlands of the snow-capped European Alps a delight for visitors to northern Italy, home of world-renowned risotto and other rice dishes.

Rice and nutrition Rice is the staple food for 17 countries in Asia and the Pacific, eight countries in Africa, seven countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, and one in the Near East. When all developing countries are considered together, rice provides 27% of dietary energy supply and 20% of dietary protein intake. However, while rice provides a substantial amount of dietary energy, it has an incomplete amino acid profile and contains limited Rice forms an integral part of the culinary traditions of many amounts of essential different cultures. Each has its own particular set of micronutrients. Today, more than preferences regarding the texture, taste, colour and 2,000 million people suffer from stickiness of rice micronutrient malnutrition. Malnutrition reduces adult's productivity and children's ability, and leads to premature death, particularly among women and children. Nutritional considerations, therefore, are essential to the IYR and the concept that Rice is Life. Although there needs to be greater documentation on the nutritional properties of different rice varieties, there is considerable evidence that not all have equal nutritional value. Rice is a crop rich in genetic diversity - the rice species Oryza sativa L. has thousands of varieties belonging to sub-groups of indica, japonica, tropical japonica, glutinous and aromatic. In West Africa, O. glaberrima Steud. adds to the diversity of rice. In the limited number of varieties studied, iron and zinc can range between 1-6 mg and protein between 5-14 g per 100g of rice. If better utilized, these varieties with higher nutritional value could contribute to reducing the global burden of malnutrition. Most commonly, due to tradition and preference, rice is milled, yielding white rice. While this process reduces cooking time and increases storage life, it also removes a large percentage of many nutrients including protein, fibre, fat, iron and B vitamins. People in a number of countries parboil rice grains to preserve the nutrients naturally present in rice. Fortification techniques can be used to add essential vitamins and minerals to the grain. Unfortunately, this practice is not widespread in many rice consuming countries due to limited infrastructure for processing, regulatory control and marketing of fortified foods.

Rice and agro-biodiversity The agro-biodiversity within the rice-based system presents great opportunities for improved nutrition within rural communities, increased farmer income through crop diversification, and the protection of a wealth of genetic resources for future generations. Due to the continued presence of fresh water, wetland rice fields are habitat for a wide variety of terrestrial and aquatic organisms. Farmers use livestock for transportation and land The potential to diversify food preparation, and livestock waste can be recycled into sources within these rice-based organic fertilizer ecosystem is, therefore, quite high. For thousands of years, rural people have relied heavily on the existing biodiversity within rice-based ecosystems. Often, they enhance this biodiversity with cultivated plants, domesticated animals and aquaculture to secure their daily food supply and income. They use fish, frogs, snails, insects, and other aquatic organisms derived from these ecosystems as their main source of animal protein and essential fatty acids. Aquatic organisms in rice paddies can either be natural components of biodiversity that are trapped in the paddies, or they can be introduced intentionally (e.g. tilapia, barb and carp species). Fisheries are particularly important for poor people - especially the landless - who may also earn modest incomes from marketing fresh or processed aquatic food and medicinal products. Various kinds of livestock are supported by rice-based systems. Ducks feed on small fish, other aquatic organisms and weeds within the paddy fields, while buffaloes, cattle, sheep and goats graze on rice straw as their main food source in rice-producing areas. Rice bran (a by-product of rice milling) and low-quality and surplus rice grains also provide feed supplements for livestock. In turn, farmers use livestock for transportation and land preparation, and livestock waste can be recycled into organic fertilizer. Rice fields also host many natural enemies or predators, which provide a mechanism to control harmful insects and pests, thus reducing the need for pesticides. Similarly, fish feed on weeds and assist in weed control. Other plant species have established a symbiotic relationship with rice. For example, Azolla, a nitrogen-fixing aquatic fern, can be grown in paddy fields to improve nutrient availability, to reduce weeds and to facilitate fish-livestock integration. Plant varieties are used by farmers for food and medicine and as feed for fish and livestock.

Rice and environment Water management is the key to creating sustainable ricebased production systems, particularly because rice is the only major cereal that can withstand water submergence. For thousands of years, natural selection pressures such as drought, submergence, flooding, nutrient stresses, biotic stresses and human intervention have contributed to the great diversity in rice varieties and rice ecosystems. Based on their The continuous flooding of rice fields without an adequate diversity, rice agronomists and drying period has negative effects on other chemical and ecologists have proposed several biological processes within the soil classification systems, of which the most widely used distinguishes five water related categories: rain-fed lowland, deep water, tidal wetlands, upland and irrigated rice. During the 1990s, only about 11% of the world's rice harvested areas were upland; the remaining harvest came from water-flooded systems. The topography of the local landscape within which rice is cultivated has led to the development of specific water management and cultivation practices that produce specific beneficial outcomes. The terrace system in mountainous areas is a typical product of the ponding technique which has allowed cultivation even on steep slopes. This technique is instrumental in preventing soil erosion and landslides. Another advantage of this technique is its capacity for flood control: the field bunds have a high water storage capacity which reduces peak flows under heavy rains. The layer of water due to ponding in rice cultivation minimizes weed growth and thus also the need for herbicides and manual weed control. The permanent presence of water on the field also generates percolation of water and groundwater recharge, which is often beneficial for other types of water use. The complexity of the relationship between rice and water is well exemplified in rice-based systems with soil submersion. Submerged conditions enable organic matter to accumulate in soils, which contribute to carbon sequestration. In submerged systems, soil organic matter serves as a nutrient reservoir and provides rich sources of mineral elements for plants. However, the continuous flooding of rice fields without an adequate drying period has negative effects on other chemical and biological processes within the soil, such as a retarded rate of humus decomposition, a decreased rate of soil nitrogen mineralization, salinity build up and water logging. In addition, wetland soils are known for methane emission, a greenhouse gas. Finally, the continuous presence of water encourages the occurrence of disease, such as malaria, while this very same water presence supports natural predators for mosquitoes (the malaria carriers) and allows farmers to supplement their livelihoods from the rice-based systems' agro-biodiversity. The seemingly contradictory advantages and disadvantages that submerged rice systems have on people and the environment can be better resolved through good agriculture practices. Rice-based systems have been designed to use freshwater resources for multiple purposes and to support the biodiversity that originally relied upon the natural aquaecosystem while also enabling intensive rice cultivation systems that include fisheries, livestock, and plant species.

Rice, income and employment The importance of managing rice-based ecosystems in a sustainable way is underscored by the strong relationship between rice production and local livelihoods. Rice is often the main source of employment, income and nutrition in many poor, food insecure regions of the world. In South Asia, where 530 million people live on less than US $1 a day, calories supplied by rice account for about 60-70 % of total food intake. Rice Rice cultivation is the principal activity and source of income cultivation is the principal activity for about 100 million households in Asia and Africa and source of income for about 100 million households in Asia and Africa. Post-harvest and transformation activities generated by rice production also employ a large share of the total labour force in Southeast Asia. Several countries are also highly dependent on rice as a source of foreign exchange earnings and government revenue. Although global per capita demand for rice is declining, rice demand as a whole will continue to expand due to population growth and increasing consumption patterns in different regions, including Africa. In the past two decades, international rice prices have followed a marked declining trend, both historically and in relation to other cereals. This tendency has been fostered by technical improvements, which have resulted in a lower production cost per unit and sizeable gains in global production through the late 1990s. For many small farmers, the plunge in rice prices has been one of the major causes of poverty and hardship and has seriously undermined their household food security, encouraging migration from rural to urban areas. Rice farmers are also exposed to high degrees of risk due to the vagaries of weather and price fluctuations. For these reasons, rice is central to many government development and food security programmes. Given the direct relationship between the rice market and rural livelihoods, many governments intervene and play an active role in domestic rice price stabilization.

Rice and post-harvest production The term, "post-harvest activities" refers to the suite of processes "from the floor to the fork" - threshing, milling, processing, market transport and cooking. Although much progress has been made in the prevention of postharvest losses in rice, in developing countries rice losses average between 15 and 16 percent. These rice losses are significant during critical operations such as drying, storage Post-harvest rice activities support the livelihoods of more and milling. The major reasons for people than those who are involved in rice cultivation itself these losses are poverty, insufficient or scarce access to technical information and lack of access to appropriate technologies. Rice is Life not only because of the food provided by its grains, but also because of the contribution of various parts of the rice plant to human life. For example, rice straw has been used as roofing material. A participatory assessment of farmers' needs, therefore, is essential for an efficient post-harvest system because each stage of the process includes specific trade-offs. The contribution of post-harvest operations to economic development is often underestimated. The production, servicing and maintenance of tools, implements and equipment for harvest and post-harvest operations have created additional sources of employment for rural populations, while the trading of rice tools has supported the development of many manufacturing industries.

Gender in rice farming systems Women and smallholder farmers play an important role in both rice production and post-harvest activities, yet they often do not receive proportionate social and economic benefits when improvements in rice cultivation are initiated at the field level. The introduction of high-yielding rice in Asia during the Green Revolution increased the need for cash incomes in rural households to cover the cost of improved rice seed and other inputs, which resulted in "urban Women and men often develop different expertise and flight" where men moved to cities to knowledge in rice farming systems earn cash. This increased the need for female labour for farming tasks, thus increasing women's already high labour burden. In order to enhance the productivity of ricebased production systems, especially for smallholder farmers, a careful assessment of gender and labour roles is essential. Studies show that women often encounter more limitations than men regarding access to critical productive resources and services. They face greater difficulties when trying to access credit, farm inputs, marketing facilities, extension services and information. Furthermore, members of smallholder farming households, in particular women, children, the elderly, and people afflicted by illness such as HIV/AIDS, may have different information needs. They often employ cultivation practices that help them to obtain livelihood benefits: they select crop varieties that maximise returns on scarce labour instead of focusing on increasing yield per unit of land. National laws may give men and women equal rights to land but in practice this is not always the case. It is frequently observed (i.e. in Gambia) that the introduction of new rice-farming techniques, especially irrigation, have negatively affected women's rights to use certain rice fields. As soon as the new technologies resulted in increased income, men gained control of the women's fields in order to capitalize on increased economic revenues. Real strides in poverty alleviation and improved livelihoods cannot be achieved if the female portion of the population is left behind. For this reason, there is a need to increase awareness on women's work in rice fields and a corresponding increase in information access for women on improved crop production techniques. Finally, there is an urgent need for equitable land and resource policies at the national level, with corresponding enforcement, to ensure that women can benefit from improvements in rice-based systems.

Rice science Rice science has made great advances. During past decades increasing demand for rice has been met mainly through yieldenhancing measures of the "Green Revolution" in the 1970s, which introduced improved rice varieties and improved production technologies. In recent years, effective application of research advances has been slow, especially in areas of physical stresses, such as Hybrid rice has particularly good potential to improve the drought, flooding, salinity and food security of poor countries where arable land is scarce, acidity. During the same period, populations are expanding and labour is cheap the rice-consuming population has continued to grow, while land and water resources for rice production are diminishing. Science provides the basis for improving the productivity and efficiency of rice-based systems. Improved technologies enable farmers to grow more rice on limited land with less water, labour and pesticides, thus reducing damage to the environment. In addition, improved plant breeding, weed and pest control, water management, and nutrient-use efficiency increase productivity, reduce the cost, and improve the quality of the products of rice-based production systems. New rice varieties are under development that exhibit enhanced nutritional value, minimize post harvest losses and have increased resistance to drought and pests. Recent advances in hybrid rice and the new rice for Africa (NERICA) are just two examples of the contributions of science to the development of rice. Furthermore, public and private research institutions have worked together to determine the nucleic acid sequence of the entire rice genome. The resulting DNA database will assist in the creation of a new generation of rice varieties, including – in the not distant future – varieties with improved nutritional qualities. Partnerships between CGIAR centres, National Agricultural Research Systems and the private sector, especially in the area of modern biotechnology, should be strengthened to improve rice quality, productivity and efficiency in rice production.

Economy policy issues With few exceptions, major rice producing countries are also large rice consumers. Governments are often, therefore, confronted with the classic policy dilemma of keeping prices low for poor consumers, while keeping them attractive to producers. Traditionally, the need to resolve these conflicting interests has led to a large degree of government intervention in the sector, making rice one of the most heavily World trade in rice is expanding strongly, with a growing protected agricultural commodities, number of countries relying on imports to meet their subject to price stabilization domestic needs, especially in Africa measures and high tariff and nontariff barriers. This high level of protection has contributed to the low levels of international trade in rice, which currently accounts for only 4-6 percent of global production, compared with about 12 percent for maize and 18 percent for wheat. However, this situation began to change in the 1980s, with the implementation of structural adjustment programmes and, in 1994, with the WTO Agreement on Agriculture, which provided the basis for reduced government intervention and trade liberalization. Under the new international trade environment, world trade in rice is expanding strongly, with a growing number of countries relying on imports to meet their domestic needs, especially in Africa. While the benefits of the opening to trade have accrued mainly for urban consumers by enabling them to buy rice at lower prices, most of the brunt has been borne by the small, poor farmers in the developing countries, who lack the safety nets and income assistance programmes available to their counterparts in the developed countries. Developing countries are now confronted with the challenge of keeping abreast of the trade liberalization momentum to reap the benefits associated with a more efficient allocation of resources, while also providing some alleviation to the plight of small producers, especially those who will find it difficult to move to other sectors of the economy during the transition. Some developed countries, however, will face the dilemma of opening their borders to rice from low-cost producers, while at the same time preserving the cultural heritage and environmental benefits associated with rice production systems.

RICE AROUND THE WORLD Rice is a central part of many cultures and some countries even credit rice cultivation with the development of their civilization. It is remarkable that almost every culture has its own way of harvesting, processing and eating rice and these different traditions are, in fact, part of the world's cultural heritage. Rice cultivation is the principal activity and source of income for millions of households around the globe, and several countries of Asia and Africa are highly dependent on rice as a source of foreign exchange earnings and government revenue. Rice has shaped the cultures and dietary habits of its cultivators and consumers. The combination of rice and fish in Asian countries has generated the term "ricefish societies". The combination of rice and legumes characterizes cuisines from Cajun to Mexican to Middle Eastern to Southern European. In Columbia, "rice and beans" is acclaimed as the national food. This basic dish continues to be the sustenance of the poor in many countries. Observing the International Year of Rice in 2004 allowed us all to work together to contribute to the fight against hunger and poverty, to sustain our environment and provide a better life for millions of women, men and children.

Australia

China

India

Japan

Philippines

Viet Nam

Cambodia

Indonesia

Rep. of Korea

Thailand

Madagascar

Senegal

Sierra Leone

Egypt

France

Iran

Italy

Brazil

Colombia

Uruguay

Australia

Rice around the world

With annual average output of 1.35 million tons, Australia is not a major rice producer. But it is an important rice exporter: about 85% of the harvest is exported and up to 40 million people across the globe eat Australian rice every day. Australians themselves consume just 10 kg per head a year. The rice industry is vertically integrated, with farmers engaged in production, processing and marketing activities, and generates more than $500 million from value-added exports annually. Rice is grown on some 145,000 ha of land, mainly in the irrigated areas of south-eastern Australia. Eighty per cent of rice produced in Australia is of medium-grain Japonica varieties, which are well suited to high summer temperatures without the humidity of tropical climates. Direct seeding is the main method of crop establishment. Production is highly advanced and mechanized, and rice is often planted in rotation with pasture crops. The main planting season in eastern Australia is October, with harvesting in March-April. Thanks to the use of improved varieties and better farm-level management, rice yields have increased from 5-7 tonnes/ha in the early 1970s to more than 10.2 tonnes/ha in 2003, with maximum yields of 14 tonnes. Australian rice growers are considered among the most efficient and productive in the world. Asian immigration has introduced many new rice dishes to the national cuisine. But a traditional favourite remains the classic Australian rice pudding.  For more information about Australian rice, visit the Ricegrowers' Association of Australia website www.rga.org.au

China

Rice around the world

China is one of the original centres of rice cultivation. It is the world's largest rice producer, and is the pioneer of hybrid rice. In the North China plains, the rice season is from May/June to August/September. In the Yangtze River Valley, rice is planted from April to June and harvested from August to October. In south-eastern China, the early (March to July) and late (June to November) rice crops are bountiful. In most parts of Yunan, the rice season is generally long, from March to September. Indica rice (Hsien) is dominant in the south, while japonica rice (Keng) is widely planted in the north. Also, aromatic, glutinous and other special types of rice are widely planted. The commercial cultivation of hybrid rice has allowed about two million hectares of ricelands to be diversified to other uses, which helps increase farmers' incomes. Rice production, postharvest activities and the processing of rice into other products provide the main source of employment and income for at least 50 million families. Rice is the staple food of the Chinese. In the past, people greeted each other by saying "Have you had your rice today?" China has a rich collection of rice dishes, and fried rice is very popular. The variations of fried rice are endless, depending on the type and amount of added ingredients. Today, this tasty and versatile dish is popular not only in China, but around the world.

India

Rice around the world

The god Shiva called rice Vrihi, in Sanskrit. India is one of the original centres of rice cultivation. The rice harvesting area in India is the world's largest. Indian rice cultivation is found in all states, but West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Bihar are the major producing states. The early Kharif growing season lasts from March-May to JuneOctober; the mid-Kharif season from June-October to NovemberFebruary, and the Rabiseason from November-February to March-June. About 600 improved varieties of indica rice have been released for cultivation since 1965, but Basmati rice is still planted over large areas. Rice-based production systems provide the main income and employment for more than 50 million households. Rice is the staple food for 65% of the total population in India. The Indian population was about 1 billion people in 2000 and is still growing at a high rate (1.7% per year). Although the country exports several varieties of rice, many scientists have expressed concern that current Indian rice production techniques cannot sustain the growing domestic population. India has a large number of rice dishes and many of them are very simple to prepare. Indian pilaf rice is very flavourful and fluffy when cooked with Basmati rice.

Japan

Rice around the world

Japan has a long tradition of rice production and consumption. Japan is the ninth largest rice producer in the world, despite the fact that rice production in the country is presently stagnant and consumption is declining. The main rice season in northern Japan lasts from May-June to September-October. In central Japan, it is from April-May to August-October. In southern Japan the rice season is from April-May to August-September. About 85% of the 2.3 million farms in Japan plant rice yearly. The average rice field acreage of a Japanese farmer is small (about 0.8 hectares) and rice production is highly mechanized. Due to the small farm sizes, rice production is considered a part-time occupation by most farmers. The relative value of the rice industry in the national economy has also declined. However, many Japanese see the importance of rice production in conserving their cultural heritage. Improved varieties of japonica rice are grown in almost all prefectures in the country. The most widely planted variety is Koshihikari -- the variety is popular for its taste. During the cool weather of the late spring and early autumn, Yaki-onigiri, or toasted rice balls, are particularly popular.

Philippines

Rice around the world

The Banawe rice terraces in the Philippines are one of the world's wonders and have been declared by UNESCO as a world cultural heritage site. Golden rice fields and seemingly endless rice terraces add beauty to the landscape. Rice is also the country's staple food. Though rice is produced throughout the country, the Central Luzon and Cagayan Valley are the major rice growing regions. The wet-season rice crop in the north lasts from June to November and the dryseason crop from January to MayJune. In the south it is the reverse: wet-season crops last from OctoberNovember to March-April and dry-season crops from May-June to November. Several high-yielding varieties of indica rice have been released for cultivation, but Milagrosa - a traditional variety - is still popular in many areas. Recently, hybrid rice varieties were released for cultivation and enjoy increasing popularity. For the whole country, rice accounts for 41% of total caloric intake and 31% of total protein intake. However, local rice production cannot meet current demand, making the Philippines a major importer of rice. In the Philippines, a dish of lugaw (plain rice) is usually given to those recovering from illness. But lugaw is a versatile dish - when glutinous rice is mixed with chocolate, sugar and milk, the result is tsamporado, a breakfast delight for children. When water is replaced by chicken stock and meat, the lugaw is called arroz caldo. If beef stock is used and beef and tripe added, it is called goto. The arroz caldo and goto are usually served during breakfast or as a snack.

Viet Nam

Rice around the world

Viet Nam is one of the original centres of rice cultivation, but surplus rice production was achieved only after the taming of the vast Mekong River Delta about 300 years ago. A popular Vietnamese proverb says "In normal times, the scholars rank first, the farmers second. But during a famine, farmers are first, scholars second." The Mua rice season lasts from MayAugust to SeptemberDecember, He-Thu is from AprilJune to August-September; and Dong-Xuan takes place from December-February to April-June. Improved varieties of indica rice have been released for cultivation in Viet Nam, but special varieties such as Nep Mot, Tam Thom and Nang Huong are still popular. Commercial hybrid rice cultivation takes place mostly under irrigated conditions in the northern and central areas. Viet Nam has been the world's second largest rice exporter since the mid-1990s, but rice farmers are still poor due to low rice prices. Diversification of the intensive rice system has been promoted to improve farmers' livelihoods. The Vietnamese are among the world's top five rice consumers. Banh Chung - or glutinous rice cake - is a popular dish during the celebration of the Lunar New Year (Tet). According to legend, 3 000 years ago the sixth King of the Hung dynasty nominated as his heir the person who offered Banh Chung to him during Tet. Over the years, Banh Chung has evolved into many forms and shapes. Since cooking one Banh Chung takes as much time as 10 Banh Chung, people usually prepare them in abundance.

Cambodia

Rice around the world

In Cambodia, rice cultivation occupies some 2 million ha - or 90% of the total agricultural area - and is the major source of farm income. In 2003, rice production was estimated at 4.3 million tonnes, with yields averaging slightly more than 2 tonnes/ha. In 1995, the government reported self-sufficiency in rice production and exported small amounts. Rice ecosystems in Cambodia are divided into four major types: rainfed lowlands (including areas with supplementary irrigation), rainfed uplands, areas of deepwater/floating cultivation, and dry season irrigated land. About 58 percent of the harvested rice comes from rainfed lowland ecologies, and 32 percent from deepwater ecologies. As part of a strategy to reduce risks and to distribute labour, many farmers still plant several rice varieties in the same field in separate small plots. About 70 to 80 percent of the dry season cultivated areas are under high yielding varieties. Government research and development efforts supported by IRRI and other organizations aim at increasing productivity through the development of improved varieties, more efficient use of fertilizer, and better cropping systems, water use and pest control. The rice banana cake has been baked in Cambodia for centuries. Cambodians use this cake as a dessert for serving at wedding ceremonies and on other special occasions.

Indonesia

Rice around the world

Indonesia is one of the world's leading rice producers, with paddy production in 2003 of more than 50 million tonnes and a cultivated area of more than 11.5 million ha. Since 1980, Indonesia's national rice yield has been the highest in tropical Asia. Indonesians are also big consumers of rice, averaging more than 200 kg per head each year. Rice is grown at varying altitudes, with about 75 per cent of plantings in irrigated areas and less than 10 percent on rainfed lowlands. Most rice production takes place on the island of Java under irrigation. Lowland varieties belong mainly to the indica sub-species and about 85% of them are high-yielding. About 7,000 rice varieties or lines that are suitable for uplands, lowlands or tidal swamps have been identified and conserved. The Bulu rice type (also known as named "tropical japonica") was first identified in upland areas of Indonesia. The area planted to rice increased by 33% between 1969 and 1990. Since then, however, the conversion of many ricelands in Java to non-agricultural uses has contributed to a fall in total output. Sustainable rice production requires the development and deployment of new rice varieties and crop management technologies and approaches. During the last decade, Indonesia has developed a highly skilled cadre of researchers - more than 500 Indonesian researchers have trained at IRRI over the past 20 years. Perhaps the best-known Indonesian rice dish is Nasi goreng, which means simply "fried rice". It is actually a breakfast dish, often made from the boiled rice left over from the previous night's meal.

Iran

Rice around the world

Ancient records indicate that rice has been cultivated in Iran since the first century BC. Today, Iran is a mid-sized rice producer, with 3.3 million tonnes of irrigated paddy being harvested in 2003 from an area of some 560,000 ha. Iran is the land of fragrant, aromatic Sadri varieties, which are unique to that part of the world and in high demand among Iranian consumers, who give top priority to the quality of their cooked rice. Some 80% of the cultivated rice area lies in two major Northern provinces, Guilan and Mazandran, near the Caspian Sea. The crop is sown immediately after the Nouroz New Year celebrations in March and harvested in September using both manual labour and combine harvesters.. Rice production is steadily increasing, mainly due to widespread adoption of improved high-yielding and disease-resistant varieties. Several new high yielding rice varieties - such as Khazar, Nemat, Neda, Fajr, Azar, Kadous, Dorfak and Shafagh - have been released with blast resistance and improved cooking quality. Key research areas for Iranian rice scientists include hybrid rice technology, molecular breeding and site-specific nutrient management. An integral part of Iranian culture, rice dishes play an important role in marriage ceremonies and parties (Zereshk Polow), funerals (Kishmish Polow) and New Year celebrations (Sabzi Polow, with fried fish). Mouth-watering traditional dishes include Nan Berenji shortbread and Koofteh Berenji, made with ground meat and walnuts.

Republic of Korea

Rice around the world

Extreme winter temperatures in the Republic of Korea mean that rice can be planted only once a year. However, high summer rainfall permits average annual production of more than 5 million tonnes. As well as being the country's most important agricultural commodity, rice is also the main source of carbohydrate in people's diets, with annual consumption of around 90 kg per head. Most rice varieties planted belong to modern japonica sub-species. It is estimated that 79 percent of the harvested rice area is under irrigation, while 20 percent is rainfed lowlands. Except for the south-western part of the country, most rice fields lie in valleys between mountains with steep slopes. The planting season is in May-June, and harvesting takes place in OctoberNovember. Mechanical transplanting is the main method of crop establishment. Rice culture in the Republic of Korea is distinct from that of other countries. Land ownership limitations means that agriculture is structured around small-scale farmers, who earn almost half of their income from rice. The country now produces a rice surplus, and per capita consumption has fallen from 128 kg in 1985 to 83 kg in 2003. Farmers are concentrating on quality to maintain the domestic consumption level and do not rely on export markets. One of the important fermentation products made from rice in Korea is Makkulli, or rice wine. It is made using Nuruk, a powdered fermentation mix derived from barley, and contains less than 8% alcohol.

Thailand

Rice around the world

Thailand is one of the world's biggest rice producers, with paddy output of 27 million tonnes in 2003. Thailand is also the world's biggest rice exporter: annual shipments are worth more than $2,000 million and reached 7.5 million tonnes in 2003. Its main export markets are Indonesia, Nigeria, Iran, the United States and Singapore. Thailand's success in the international rice trade is due to its high quality, long-grain white rice, which has a substantial price advantage over lower grades. This emphasis on grain quality is also the main reason for Thai farmers' limited adoption of modern, high-yielding rice varieties. Rice is grown on some 10 million ha of land and in all provinces of the country. More than half of the total rice area is in the northeast, although the Central Plains is known as the nation's "rice bowl". About 25% of rice lands are irrigated, while the rest is still rainfed. Rice farmers are generally subsistence farmers, selling only their excess production. The main surplus is produced in the central region. Transplanting is the dominant method of crop establishment for rainfed lowland and irrigated rice in the northern and north-eastern regions. In the central region, the seeding of pre-germinated seed in wet soils has increasingly replaced transplanting in irrigated rice production in order to cut costs. Thai cuisine is considered among the world's most delicious, with a unique blend of hot, sour and sweet tastes. The country's famously fragrant rice is always an essential accompaniment.

Madagascar

Rice around the world

Outside Asia, Madagascar has the longest history of rice production. Wetland rice production systems are well developed and rice terraces are frequently found along the roads between Antananarivo and Antsirabe. Rice cultivation is found in almost all districts of the country. The main rice season in the high plateau region is from October to May. In Hosy, on the eastern coast of Madagascar, the irrigated rice crop season is from June to November, while on the western coast the rice crop is from April to October. The Vatomandry and Asara crops last from October to May, while the lowland and medium-flooded Atriary crop lasts from January to July. Improved indica, japonica and tropical japonica varieties have recently been released for cultivation. However, rice yield has remained stagnant over the last 20 years due to the limited use of fertilizer. Rice is the staple food of people in Madagascar. Per capita rice consumption in the year 2000 was 140 kg of brown rice. Many families eat rice three times a day, and most of it is homegrown. In some areas, Ranonapango - a drink made from toasted rice - is reserved for special occasions.

Senegal

Rice around the world

Although the African rice species, Oryza glaberrima Steud. is a native of West Africa, significant rice production began in Senegal only after the introduction of Asian rice (O. sativa L.), probably in the 16th Century. People living along the banks of the Casamance River in the south are remarkable for their expertise in growing mangrove rice. In the northern Senegal River Valley, rice is grown only under irrigated conditions. The main rice season in the country is from June-July to October-December. The off-season, found mainly in the Valley, lasts from February-March to June-July. Improved indica varieties have been released for cultivation throughout the region. Rice is the staple food of the Senegalese. Per capita rice consumption in the year 2000 was 115 kg of brown rice, which provided 750 calories and 21 g protein per person per day. In spite of the substantial increase in local rice production in the recent past, Senegal must import large quantities of rice to meet demand. A number of rice dishes are prepared in Senegal, but the Cebbu Jen - or rice-fish - is the most popular. This dish is also very much appreciated in other West African countries. A line in a popular song dedicated to Cebbu Jen says, "You have to put a lot of spice in the fish to have a succulent taste in your rice and fish."

Sierra Leone

Rice around the world

Rice is very well established in the agriculture and diets of Sierra Leone. People there consume an estimated 530,000 tonnes of rice annually, or more than 200 kg per capita. Ricelands cover some 180,000 ha and annual production is about 200,000 tonnes. Most rice is produced in upland systems, which account for 64% of total national rice area. Inland valley swamp systems are the second major ecosystem, covering another 26%. Only a small portion, less than 5%, of the inland valley swamp rice area has been developed, permitting partial water control. The main planting season is April-July, with harvesting between September and January. Upland rice is directly seeded in association with other crops in slash-and-burn shifting cultivation. In other ecologies, transplanting is used. Land preparation is usually done manually with hand hoes, and modern production inputs are rarely applied. As a result, the average yield is a low 1.3 tonnes/ha. Domestic rice production has stagnated, and Sierra Leone now meets only 70% of its total requirements. As the country recovers from civil strife, sustainable rice production will depend on greater support for input supply and output marketing, and development of lowland rice production. Jollof rice is a national dish served in nearly all ceremonies across the country - at weddings, funerals and social gatherings. It is a common dish on restaurant menus.

Egypt

Rice around the world

Egypt is the largest rice producer in the Near East region. Rice production was probably introduced into Egypt in the 7th Century. Today, rice production takes place only in the Lower Valley of the Nile River. Due to the intrusion of seawater, about 25 to 30% of the land in the lower Nile Valley is affected by different degrees of salinity. In these areas, rice production helps to leach the salt from upper soil layers and thus reclaim the land for agricultural activities. Most of the planted rice varieties are japonica. The high solar radiation, the long days and the cool nights between May and September are favourable to a high rice yield. In fact, the Egyptian rice yield is one of the highest in the world (9.1 tonnes per hectare in 2001). Because of limited water resources, the government of Egypt has tried to limit rice cultivation. But cultivation has continued to expand due to rice production's high profits, and Egypt is today a major rice exporter. Per capita rice consumption in 2000 was 58.6 kg of brown rice and provided about 410 calories and 7.9 grams protein per person per day. Many rice dishes have been perfected by the Egyptians. The Ruzz mu'ammar bi-I-tuyur, or baked rice with milk and pigeon, is regularly served in restaurants in major cities such as Alexandria.

France

Rice around the world

Successful rice production began in the 18th Century in the Camargue region, thanks to its abundant solar radiation. Up until the 1930s, the main objective of rice production was to control the salinity that menaced the Camargue and threatened it with desertification. Today, japonica rice varieties are planted under irrigated conditions, from April-May to SeptemberOctober, on large and highly mechanized farms. France is not a major rice producer, even within Europe, but it is a major contributor to sustainable rice production at the global level. Through its Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD), France has provided support to various national rice programmes around the world. French people do not eat much rice (about 7 kg/person/year). Despite this limited consumption, France must import rice yearly to meet local demand. Rice yield in the Camargue region has stagnated over the past decade. Taking advantage of the rich French cuisine, farmers in Camargue turned to producing high quality rice for special dishes. The roulé de feuilles de riz au thon, or "rolled rice with tuna fish", is an example of Camargue's specialty cuisine.

Italy

Rice around the world

Italy is the largest rice producer in Europe, and the Lombardy and Piedmont regions are Italy's rice bowl. Rice production in Italy started around the middle of the 15th Century. Today, japonica rice varieties are planted under irrigated conditions in large and highly mechanized farms. Rice is grown from April to October. Leonardo da Vinci is known for his contribution to the building of channels to drain the marshlands of the Po river plains. Camillo Cavour championed the construction in the late 19th Century of a canal that brought water from the Po River and Lake Maggiore to support the production of rice and other crops in Vercelli-Alessandria, Pavia and Novara. The canal is now called Cavour Canal. The Italians do not eat much rice (about 8.5 kg/person in 2000), but Italy is famous for its risotto and a number of rice varieties have been developed for this purpose, especially Arborio and Carnaroli. The Italians have a saying "Rice is born in water but dies in wine". The artist Giovanni Pascoli composed a poem about a rice dish, and he also wrote an aria about rice in his famous opera Tancredi. The most famous Italian yellow rice dish is Risotto alla Milanese. According to tradition, the dish was concocted during the construction of the famous Milan cathedral at the beginning of 16th Century. Saffron was introduced to colour the stained glass windows of the cathedral, and was added to a risotto dish only as a joke.

Brazil

Rice around the world

Rice production may have started in Brazil only a few hundred years ago, but today the country is the world's 10th largest rice producer. In Latin America and the Caribbean, Brazil is the largest producer of rice. Nevertheless, Brazil is also a major rice importer. The State of Rio Grande do Sul is the main centre of rice production. There, rice farming is practiced under a sub-tropical climate on large and completely mechanized farms averaging 200 ha in size. In the nearby state of Santa Catarina, the average farm size is only 10 ha and the use of family manual labour is common. Rice is grown in all Brazilian states with tropical climates. Initially, japonica varieties were introduced, but after 1980 locally bred indica varieties of the IR8-type became dominant. In the early years of the opening of the Cerrado - or savannah - areas, upland rice was the pioneer crop and occupied most of the total rice area. The area planted with upland rice reached its peak (about 4.5 million ha) in 1988, then steadily declined. In the year 2000, per capita rice consumption was about 58 kg of brown rice. Rice supplies about 14% of the calories and 10% of the protein in the diet. There are many rice dishes in the country, but Arroz com Feijão ("rice with beans") is one of the most popular.

Colombia

Rice around the world

In Colombia, rice occupies first place in terms of economic value among short-cycle crops. Colombia is the second largest rice producer in Latin America and the Caribbean. Colombia is also the host country of the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and the Latin American Fund for Irrigated Rice (FLAR). The country has two distinct production systems: mechanized and traditional (or manual). Mechanized rice represents 95 percent of the rice area and 98 percent of production, most of it on the central and the eastern plains. The remaining rice areas - the traditional upland rice systems - employ almost the same number of people as the mechanized systems. Mechanized rice farms are large and have good production facilities, while traditional upland rice is planted in association with perennial and annual crops. The main rice seasons are from March-April to July-August, and the second season from August-October to January-February. Improved varieties of indica rice have been released for production. Rice is the primary source of calories and protein for the low income group; which accounts for about 20% of the country’s population. The national average per capita rice consumption in 2000 was 45.3 kg of brown rice. In addition to local production, Colombia has to import additional rice to meet demand. There are many rice dishes in the country, and the empanada de tofu y arroz is one of the most popular appetizers.

Uruguay

Rice around the world

With its humid sub-tropical climate, year-round rainfall, ample natural pastures and numerous water reservoirs, Uruguay has emerged as a medium-size rice producer and Latin America’s major rice exporter. The country produced some 1.25 million tonnes of paddy rice in 2003, almost all of it under flooding using pumps or gravity irrigation. At present, about 90% of production is destined for international markets, with exports totalling 650,000 tonnes in 2002. Uruguay is now among the world’s top 10 rice exporters. Rice overtook wheat as Uruguay’s most important cereal crop in the 1980s. Since then, the rice harvested area has increased from 55,000 ha to almost 200,000 ha. Production is very homogeneous, with more than 90% of plantings composed of two varieties of long grain rice. The preferred rice farming system is closely linked to livestock raising - after two years of rice production, the land is sown as pasture for four to six years in order to renew the fields and provide grazing for cattle. This production system is highly sustainable, with only minimal requirements for herbicide, insecticide and fertilizer. Another peculiar characteristic of rice-farming in Uruguay is the strong role of the national Rice Growers Association, which represents all rice farmers and negotiates prices directly with the country’s Union of Rice Mills.