Revised Major Development Challenges In Eastern Africa

CENTRE FOR DEVELOPMENT SUPPORT University of the Free State PO Box 339 Bloemfontein 9300 [MAJOR DEVELOPMENT CHALLENGES IN THE EASTERN ARICA REGION] This Essay is intended for partial fulfillment of the requirements for the application process towards admission for the course of study on Masters in Development Studies Programme (MDS). It is submitted to the Centre for Development Support, Faculty of Economic and Management Sciences at the University of Free State, Bloemfontein Republic of South Africa. The Essay presents highlights on major development challenges only faced by the Eastern Africa region comprising, Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda, Sudan, Kenya, Ethiopia, Djibouti, Eritrea, Somaliland, Somalia, and Tanzania. In the preamble, a background is provided. The essay doe not purport to present a comparative study of the issues it raises at this stage. In the introduction, the major challenges to development are shared in summary. The essay then systematically gives a profile of some factors and how they implicate development under each major challenge. At the end, a summary is drawn. The essay concludes that, despite the major challenges to development, the Eastern Africa Region is at the glimmer of a new dawn. A dawn that is expected to bring new opportunities, options and a new hope when the peoples of Eastern Africa are about to rise up and work; creating a new and prosperous Region in Africa.

Kisuke Ndiku: Major Challenges to Development in the Eastern Africa Region; September 2009

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Kisuke Ndiku: Major Challenges to Development in the Eastern Africa Region; September 2009

1.0

PREAMBLE

1.1

Introduction

Geographic Scope of the Region The region in focus comprises Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, Somalia, Somaliland, Sudan, Djibouti, Eritrea and Ethiopia. Together these countries occupy a land area of 6,204,352km2 and have an approximate population of 257,831,0001. This region is the source of the Nile one of the longest rivers in the world. The region is home to the Lake Victoria the second largest fresh water lake in the world. Mount Kilimanjaro and Mt Kenya the highest Mountains in Africa including the Ruwenzori range, home of the world famous gorilla. In the region is also the Mara reserve; the scenery for the spectacular seasonal wildlife movements of the wildebeest and zebra. The Olduvai Gorge and other archaeological sites of importance are also to be found in Tanzania, Kenya and Ethiopia. Inclination towards Integration These countries are bound by a range of common issues, for instance, some have membership to IGAD, and others have an identity as Greater Horn of Africa States. Some are in the East Africa Cooperation, while others are in the Great Lakes network. Historically its peoples, though diverse, share close historical origins; some from the Arabian stock, Nilotic stock; while others are of Cushitic stock then the Bantu stock. In the region English has become increasingly the official language of governance, trade and exchange. Kiswahili is also gaining better ground in the region with Southern Sudan having entered the media market and some of its leaders and citizens using Kiswahili. However, in Djibouti, Eretria, Ethiopia, Somaliland and Somalia, Kiswahili has not yet broken ground in the public sphere. In Sudan, Arabic is spoken alongside local languages depended on the region. In other countries, local languages are used in the public sphere alongside some English. In Burundi and Rwanda, Kirundi, Kinyarwanda and French are commonly spoken. English has been introduced. In Ethiopia Amharic and English are spoken. In Eritrea Tigrinya and Arabic are spoken. In Somaliland, Somali and English are spoken while in Somalia and Djibouti, Somali and Afar are spoken. This is a challenge to development in the realm of integration of communities. Overview of Issues The political landscape is widely varied even within any two the countries of the Eastern Africa region. It is recognized in the outset that, each country is at its own stage and level in terms of political leadership and governance. This notwithstanding, there are a number of common factors that within each country and across its borders that affect development. There some positive as well as negative elements influencing development in this region. In addition there are internal and external factors affecting development processes. In some of the countries, political and economic context, increased stature of civil society and local community institutions and to some degree functioning international relations attracting investments and development partners has been positive. On the other hand, increased poverty gap, poor political leadership and governance, conflict, deteriorated service delivery, corruption, and imbalanced resource sharing internally are negative. Among external factors are such issues as trade relations, balance of payments, climate change, world economic crunch and the rise of Asia into a formidable economic power. This essay will profile issues from this context and illustrate how they affect development in the Eastern Africa Region.

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Source: UNDP Country Profiles & DFTD Country Profiles

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Kisuke Ndiku: Major Challenges to Development in the Eastern Africa Region; September 2009

2.0

MAJOR CHALLENGES TO DEVELOPMENT

2.1.

Introduction

A number of factors act together in an interlocking manner to foment serious development challenges. In the Eastern Africa Region, challenges to development could be summarized thus; political perspectives, inadequate delivery in social services, inadequate sharing and distribution of economic the benefits, increased stature of civil society, inadequate human development, increased pressure on land, conflict context, corruption, climate change, natural disasters and environmental management, militarization, proliferation of small arms and porous borders, the challenge of interregional cooperation, the impact of world economy and international political trends. It is to be noted that these factors infuse one another in a dynamic manner to challenge development. As a result, some of the countries of the region are at the top of the poorest countries on earth. Even after debt exemption they still rank very low in the Highly Indebted Poor Countries2 of the world. Political Perspectives and Content Political perspectives have contributed major development challenges. For instance, in Somalia, there has been no government for more than 15 years. Several wars have been fought in Somalia since the fall of Siad Barre and presently the Al Shabaab continue to sustain serious conflict. Moreover, the fact that Somalia is a safe haven for pirates has created a serious threat to the shipping industry in the region. According to the International Crisis Group, the context of Somalia has all indications of a failed state3. From the time of the fall of Siad Barre, Somaliland seceded from Somalia and created a separate government. Somaliland has held at least two democratic elections. Even though Somaliland is not recognized as a sovereign state it has attracted a number of humanitarian agencies 4 and UN agencies5 that work to support development. Djibouti, the smallest of the Countries has been relatively peaceful. Djibouti has also supported the cause for peace in Somalia. Current history in Sudan denotes that governance is under pressure due to conflict in different regions of the Country. In Southern Sudan, the Comprehensive Peace Agreement6 which has been in force since 2006 as a basis peace for the last four years seems to have began to disintegrate7. In Darfur, conflict has erupted again after a period of relative peace. There are also other locations with tension including political dissent internal to the ruling junta in Khartoum. As for Eritrea, it seceded from Ethiopia, resulting to some fragile relations politically. The relations have been fraught with conflict and unresolved border issues8. The government in Eritrea has indicated support to the Al Shabaab in Somalia. Internally Ethiopia is experiencing political tension. Even though it has held elections, the most recent were disputed and resulted in high political tension between the ruling party and the opposition. Draught and poverty have escalated poverty levels in the countryside. In Uganda, the process of democratization has faced constraints from the ruling elite. In addition the Lord’s Resistance Army has continued to wreak havoc in northern Uganda. The Lord’s Resistance Army is also acting as an insurgent group in the north eastern Democratic Republic of Congo; as well as into south western parts of southern Sudan. Uganda has reported some oil finds on its western border and has reached out to Iran for support in exploiting this resource.

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OECD Reports 2006, 2007 & 2008 ICG: Somalia: Countering Terrorism in a Failed State Africa Report #45, 2002 4 CARITAS Swiss CARITAS Luxembourg Reports 5 OCHA Reports 6 UNDP: Comprehensive Peace Agreement; 2006 7 Pax Kristi: CPA Alert-State of Sudan’s Comprehensive Peace Agreement; September 2009 3

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UN: Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission: Decision Regarding Delimitation of the Border,2001

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Kisuke Ndiku: Major Challenges to Development in the Eastern Africa Region; September 2009

In Kenya, issues following politically motivated conflict after the elections in 2007 have not been resolved 9. Progress towards addressing these issues is being sought through the International Criminal Court as well as a local Truth, Justice and Reconciliation Commission. In Tanzania, there has been relative peace even though the relations between the mainland and Zanzibar Island have been strained from time to time. Presently the sharing of natural gas is a thorny issue. In Rwanda, the country has been undergoing transition justice 10, political and economic recovery. It has made strides in information technology as compared to its neighbours. However, the Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo conflict has continued to have confrontational issues. The two Presidents i.e. Kabila and Kagame have ameliorated the tension in recent meetings. The arrest of General Nkunda has generated goodwill between the two countries. As for Burundi, peace has begun to hold after a long period of internal conflict. In 2005, the first democratic elections were conducted after a brokered power sharing arrangement11. Not all is settled yet as violations of Child Rights are reported. This notwithstanding, in July 2009, Rwanda and Burundi joined the East African Community Customs Union. This is envisaged to foster economic integration in the region. 2.2

Inadequate Delivery in Social Services

Inadequate delivery in social services has marginalized and created disadvantage for large cohorts of populations. Poor policies have contributed partially to create inadequately institutional capacity for development of needed infrastructure in pace with demand and priority needs. Social service delivery has been concentrated more in urbanizing centres than in rural community areas. Hence, in health, education, road networks, energy supply, commerce and industry, gaps exist that undermine development. Change is taking place at varying degrees, but in a context of discordant policy and institutional capacities. As a result the fight against poverty, HIV & AIDS, low levels of land and human productivity, high dependency ratio, poor land and environmental management have been weakened. 2.3

Inadequate Sharing and Distribution of Economic the Benefits

For the majority of countries in Eastern Africa, there was no review of the fiscal structures inherited from colonial governments. The structures set up at the turn of the 19th Century were intent to collect and transfer resources and wealth to the colonial governor who would account to the Queen or King how much wealth they had garnered for the master. Trade orientation was also bent to provide sources of raw materials in Africa for the industrial markets in the west. When African governments took over they retained the same fiscal and governance systems. The only deference was that the Central Government was responsible to run the affairs of state and those governing needed to have access to resources as a sign of authority and government power. Such a paradigm meant that the local communities were the ones generating resources while those in government were the users. Moreover, those employed were the ones who were taxable while those who were not were “exempt” until the era of indirect taxation. As a result, resources were accumulated and used in centres of government administrative influence. It could therefore be said that for close to 50 years in these countries, wealth sharing and distribution mechanisms have tended to be urban-focused. Even with such a situation, in the urban settings, resource and wealth sharing has focused on elite sections of the urban areas. This has led to a situation where effects of poverty are far greater in informal urban human settlements followed by poverty in the rural communities. The informal urban settings have been indicated to have a higher prevalence of poverty. This is attributed to limited coping mechanisms as communities are more heterogeneous than is the case in rural settings. From a gender

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ICG: Kenya in Crisis; Africa Report #137; 2008

ICG: The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: Time for Pragmatism; Africa Report #69 2003

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ICG: Restarting Political Dialogue; Africa Briefing #53 2008

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Kisuke Ndiku: Major Challenges to Development in the Eastern Africa Region; September 2009

dimensions perspective, poverty has been noted to exist more among women12 and girl-child headed households than in any other cohort of society across the Eastern Africa Region. This state of affairs led to a situation where resources find their way back to urbanizing centres which are the seats of government power. Resources tend to benefit localities other than where they are generated. Even in localities where industry and large scale farming or mining take place; the resources generated do not directly benefit the local areas where they are generated commensurately. Those who do the most work have been gradually disenfranchised to lower and lower levels of lack and poverty. 2.4

Inadequate Human Development

Low levels of job creation, high levels of under-employment and joblessness among economically active persons especially among the youth is rampant. With increased cohorts of communities falling under the underserved in education, health and other social services; the human development indices in Eastern Africa has almost stagnated and in some localities retrogressed. Included in this is the element of mass brain drain either due to conflict, under-employment and lack of livelihood options and opportunities. In conflict situations or political upheavals as is the case of Sudan, Somalia, Uganda, Kenya and Ethiopia many well trained and educated persons male and female have left to other more peaceful countries. The impact of this has been seen as represented by rural-urban migration. This factor has led to low human and land productivity affecting food security and a dwindling economic sector. Gender dimensions in relation to gender parity and equity indicate that women folk are more disadvantaged and marginalized than their male counterparts at all levels in education, training; low levels of access to social services, low representation in decision-making forums in the social, political and economic arena. 2.5

Increased Pressure on Land

In the quest for livelihoods whether in rural or urban settings, pressure on land has increasingly become a challenge to development. Governments have tended to invest more in urban and localities with viable arable land. In this case, these localities have tended to sustain higher population densities as is in the case of Rwanda, Kenya, Ethiopia and Tanzania etc. As a result populations have tended to shift to marginal land adjacent to the more arable land and near urban areas due to the desire to benefit from the resources, services and opportunities available. The phenomenon could be attributed to the growth of peri-urban centres. As a result, informal human settlements have been mushrooming in close proximity to urban areas and alongside arable land areas. This has created unplanned concentrations of human settlements where over the years; service delivery has become even more complex and difficult to provide as it had not been systematically planned for. This has become a challenge to development in the sector of urban human settlements. Factors related to low investments in rural and arid lands13, coupled with re-allotment of land for public use where public utilities like roads, dams and other infrastructure, as well as industry have often been given more priority; thus disenfranchising the poor. In essence this creates pressure on land in a different dimension causing the poor to move either to urban areas or to more marginal land with lower levels of livelihood amenities. On comparing statutory versus community rights of access to land, and depended on land tenure, the poor seem not to have well articulated land rights. In some instances land laws seem to inhibit development. Pressure on land has affected the minorities and pastoral communities who tend to occupy the more arid rangelands14. The shift in weather partners has also affected minorities and pastoralists in a context where the governments have not developed policy on the strategic development of these communities15. The minorities and pastoral communities have lost land, access to natural resources and other livelihood capitals in the past due to some factor or another. Some have lost land to wildlife parks or protected land areas, while others lost land to construction of industry, large scale farming, public utilities or mining etc. All these factors combined create a development challenge for these two categories of communities in the Eastern Africa region. 12

ACTIONAID: Report on Women and Food Crises, 2008 Humanitarian Policy Group: Pastoralism and Climate Change Enabling Adaptive Capacity, IIED; 2009 14 UN-OCHA: Pastoral Voices, Volume 1 , Issue 12 13

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Humanitarian Policy Group & Oxfam GB: Getting it right; Understanding livelihoods to reduce the vulnerability of Pastoral Communities, 2009

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Kisuke Ndiku: Major Challenges to Development in the Eastern Africa Region; September 2009

2.6

Conflict Context

Conflict manifests itself in old ways as well as in new or specific ways. Social stress, unrest and instability, crime if not resolved might lead to larger scale conflict. On the other hand there is also political and sectarian motivated conflict. Conflicts hinder development in two ways. One it makes forward planning of any kind difficult. Secondly it destroys any development achievements realized from the past. Its varied implications cause movement of human populations thus brain drain and erosion of qualified workforce. Underlying conflict are poor ratings in human rights including violations of fundamental rights, child and women’s rights; low levels of transparency and accountability also present challenges to development. Other related causes include corruption and infringement of economic rights of women and youth, pastoralists, minorities and communities in informal human settlements in urban settings. In this regard, weak fiscal policy and legal capacities present challenges to development. A number of factors underpinning conflict in Eastern Africa have emerged; such as limitations in democratic space, inter-country contentions over borders, increased access to small arms and munitions, dominance by political elitist class, dominance by an econo-political class seeking control over resources such as oil and other mineral wealth, effects of decentralized devolution of both central governance and political party systems, intercommunity conflicts related more to pastoral communities, piracy targeting economic and humanitarian activities; as well as internal wrangles within a ruling class. In most of the countries in this region, urban conflict revolves around access to space, opportunities for livelihoods and social crime. In urban localities, issues of rights of access to land, and sources of livelihoods are fomented by lack of forward looking development in legislation, policies, modalities and recognition of the poor who live in informal settlements. They are seen as temporary settlers, hence carry labels such as squatters, hawkers etc. By definition these labels define illegality. These aspects create polarities for conflict. 2.7

Corruption as a Socio-Economic Vice

Corruption hinders development in that it makes development expensive. for effective and efficient implementation. Cost refers to cash, time and human effort required for all levels. Lack of effective legislation, policies and deterring mechanisms in dealing with corruption across the Eastern Africa Region has made corruption a major socio-economic vice. Corruption as a vice has pervaded echelons of governance, leadership and institutional fabric. It has permeated social circles such that the giver and receiver have acquired certain expectations in the process. These expectations influence decision making in how development would be managed and executed. None of the countries in this region has managed to develop strategies and studies in best practice on how to address and eradicate corruption. This notwithstanding, most countries have instituted measures, or agencies focusing the fight against corruption. Investigations and litigation has been slow in addressing corruption. 2.8

Climate Change, Natural Disasters and Environmental Management

Climate change has begun to take its toll on development in the Eastern Africa Region. Changed rainfall patterns are notable in each of the countries. The communities, governments or any other communities had not been prepared for these effects. The effects of climate change are direct on food production, levels of natural water sources such as river flows, water masses, wetlands and wildlife. With reduction in water in some rivers and reservoirs, production of hydro power, availability of water for urban population and industry as well as agriculture is affected negatively. Flooding, landslides, and draught have resulted in areas this had not been experienced before. There are indications that climate change challenging livelihoods and lifestyles and development. It is recognised that the effects of climate change are worse on minorities and pastoral communities. To the minorities and pastoral communities, climate change has brought with it loss of livelihoods, livelihood capitals and cultural lifestyles. Pastoral communities have been gradually forced to change lifestyles. Many who are directly affected have had few options to cope. This has relegated them deeper into disadvantage, poverty and

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Kisuke Ndiku: Major Challenges to Development in the Eastern Africa Region; September 2009

many are marginalized from levels where they had access to livelihoods and livelihood capitals to almost nothing. Natural flora and fauna has been endangered by human activity in many localities within the region. Unusual high rates of deforestation and over-extraction of natural resources have led to effects of poor management practices on the environment. Wild life has been endangered through hunting or destruction of their natural habitat. Some animals e.g. elephants, and birds e.g. flamingo have been put under such pressure that some have died, while others have migrated to find alternative habitat. The environmental impact of large scale economic developments in industrial, agricultural, timber felling, drilling and mining, uncontrolled fishing practices continues to undermine posterity in many localities. Unregulated and poor waste management such as uncontrolled chemical, gaseous, liquid and solid waste especially in urban localities has presented environmental challenges. Wildlife in some localities is threatened by increased human activity. These elements combine to present development challenges in Eastern Africa. The implications of Climate Change, Natural Disasters and Environmental Management are not monitored adequately as to inform policy and decision making at all levels. Random action on the breach of responsible use of land, forest cover, water resources etc. is often taken but since it is not consistently coordinated, it had not provided lasting results and change. As a result of climate change, increased human activity and urbanization, the changed environment and shift in rainfall patterns, natural disasters such as floods, drought and increased temperatures have challenged development. 2.9

Militarization, Proliferation of Small Arms and Porous Borders

Militarization as an offshoot of conflict has also brought challenges. Increased access to small arms, unexploded ordinances such as landmines and other devices has been on the increase. The proliferation of small arms and resultant trade in the region has combined to bring in new challenges. This challenge is strengthened by the very porous borders that these countries share. The extent of the borders clearly outstrips the capacities and resources the countries can muster for effective border management. To compound it further, large parts of the borders are also inhabited by nomadic pastoral communities. It is evident that pastoral communities no longer use cultural weapons, such as spears, bows and arrows. Instead, they possess modern fire arms which have taken over from traditional weaponry. Small arms have therefore become part of the local tools and are sold among the pastoral communities. As a result, armed crime such as road banditry, carjacking, armed robberies, cattle rustling and similar crimes thrive where such trade exists. This factor challenges development from the perspective of safety and security. 2.10

Impact of World Economy and International Political Trends

Since the 90’s development initiatives fronted by the World Bank generated development schemes that have later come to haunt governments in the Eastern Africa Region. Major components in this comprised development loans, structural adjustment schemes; downsizing of government structures and associated reform programmes in the fiscal and human resource arena. At another level, deregulation of price controls and devolution of government from participation in commerce and industry, as well as free trade systems have together combined with a backlash. Due to a range of factors including the war in Iran and piracy activities on the costal fringes of Somalia, cost of shipping and fuel prices have shot up and remained high in the Eastern Africa region. This has triggered food and commodity prices to spiral. The cost of living as well as increased inflationary trends has adversely affected local economies and communities. Governments have installed better regimes for collection of taxes. Some countries have reduced dependency on external borrowing and managed by use of rising public debt quotient. Even then, most of the countries are not able to meet the demands placed on their own budgets. The forces of globalization and neo-liberalism, combined with the bid to reorganize world trade have generated serious development challenges to local production, trade and export market. Gains on value adding and industrialization have been put under pressure by cheaper goods, products and services from Asia, Eastern Europe, and other African Countries like Egypt and South Africa. Political trends associated with globalization and neo-liberalism paradigms have also influenced modalities of development aid.

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Kisuke Ndiku: Major Challenges to Development in the Eastern Africa Region; September 2009

A notable trend in this is the advent of the emerging place and role of the Asian Community in the Eastern Africa Region. Due to the emerging wealth in the Asian block, foreign aid sources have become more competitive even lucrative to countries in the Eastern African Region. For China, India, Korea and Japan, this region presents a formidable source of crude oil, and other natural resources as well as a big market. Moreover, it is no hidden fact that the Asian community has become a favourable trade and foreign policy destination; with China spearheading a new alternative to what Europe and the USA offer this region. The economic, political and foreign policy repositioning in this regard has been evident. A case in point is the action of Japan championing with renewed vigour its initiatives for development in Africa as depicted by the, Fourth International Conference on African Development (TICAD IV), in April 200816. Even though this was a follow up to its earlier initiatives, it seemed to be a response to China’s elaborate Beijing Summit and Declaration of November 200617. World trends are also affected and enforced by the foreign relations between nations, such that how the Eastern Africa States relate is directly or indirectly influenced by the ranking each state has been assigned by the USA. The case of Sudan and Somalia in relation to USA, or European Union is an important example.

2.11

Positive Aspects that Challenges to Development

But all the foregoing factors notwithstanding, Eastern Africa is not challenged by the negative elements only. Some positive achievements it has attained on a number of spheres also challenge its development. In summary these could be summarized in terms of multiple and diverse approaches, reduction in the infection rates of HIV and AIDS (as in Uganda). The reduction in the infection rates of HIV and AIDS in Uganda, has led to experienced health workers in this sector falling into high demand in other parts of Africa and the developing world to share and give advice to other countries leaving the health service systems with gaps of human resources. Approaches to conflict and peace building such as Gachacha justice system as in Rwanda have had success but also challenges. The Gachacha Justice process and return of community members who had been away for decades prior to the genocide in Rwanda has led into new social dynamics at community level. Leadership, interactions and relations have shifted somehow and communal cohesiveness in some localities is different even though nothing like the genocide has resulted again. The Comprehensive Peace Agreements (Sudan, Somalia and Burundi), cessation of hostilities has been achieved but there remains more ground to cover for peace to be achieved. The negotiated peace for Sudan and Somalia has created new types of internal conflicts with Somalia turning into sectarian dimensions while Sudan enters new levels of internal conflict at the inter-ethnic and intra-ethnic levels. Negotiated democracy and truth and justice commission (efforts in Kenya) has led to reduced turmoil but challenges in finding democratic process to address the issues raised during elections and conflict need to be developed. Multi-party politics viewed as vehicles or channels of democracy were achieved in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, but this seemed to destabilize local polities thrusting communities in unprecedented forms of conflict never seen in these countries in the recent past. Political development therefore faces challenges. Recognition that corruption undermines development and setting up agencies to address it (e.g. Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya, Southern Sudan etc.), and increased awareness on human and fundamental rights for all has been achieved successfully but the challenge to develop legal infrastructure and institutions of society with power to deal conclusively with corruption, violations and abuse of human rights is under serious challenge. Across these countries the role of civil society in developed has emerged to be a significant contributor to advocacy work and development in key sectors. Some sectors to benefit from this include socio-economic development, humanitarian disaster response, the development of formidable human resource cadre capable of mobilizing and galvanizing grassroots support to issues, strategies, mobilization of resources and action plans on local priorities. This challenges governments and in some countries, civil society is either mollified or regulated by governments. Civil society is regulated where it is perceived to operate in ways or manner that jeopardizes particular political interests and cleavages. For instance, where civil society has been seen to empower communities to demand for 16

Japan Min. Foreign Affairs: Development and Africa” in Hokkaido Toyako Summit; 2008 Min. of Foreign Affairs PRC: Beijing Summit & Third Ministerial Conference Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (see also China Africa Policy 2006) 17

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Kisuke Ndiku: Major Challenges to Development in the Eastern Africa Region; September 2009

their rights; or to expose elements of poor governance and similar aspects as is the case in Ethiopia and Somalia then regulation has been used. In other cases, as was the case in Southern Sudan, Uganda and Kenya, civil society activists were absorbed into new government regimes in the wake of increased democratization and peace leaving a vacuum. At another level, the presence of a large number of diverse civil society organizations; presence of international humanitarian agencies and the UN bodies, growth of local community-based organizations, and active faithbased entities. Among these, approaches to development range from disaster response to participatory development and all that is in-between in development approaches. This creates a sense of dependency in communities where they work as well as a degree of confusion where multiple approaches are used in the same community by one or several of these actors. The increased number of African development practitioners, emergent credible local development entities at the community level, faith-based and civil society complimenting the international agencies with technical support systems shared from around the world is a positive factor influencing development. Many of among the practitioners have experience and practical lessons attained elsewhere in Africa as is the case of the village savings and loan associations designed and pre-tested in Kenya in 1989 but developed and nurtured in Mali and Niger, then scaled up in Zimbabwe, South Africa then rolled out in Tanzania, Sudan Rwanda, Kenya and other parts of Eastern Africa. This is challenging development in that the paradigm of local experts and agencies had not been highly regarded as having a role in development. There is hope and a light is shining in the tunnel indicating that challenges to development will gradually give way to transformation, change and development. New challenges that might emerge will be faced with renewed courage. 3.0 CONCLUSION Low rates in access to a significantly declining quality of social services such as health and universal primary education; low rates in job creation and access to work, as well as inadequate capacities to respond and ameliorate decline, creates a fundamental challenge to human development. Poor performance in human development has led to low land and human productivity. This has in turn led to food insecurity, poverty disadvantage and marginalization of communities especially minority and pastoralist communities and severe implications in gender. Other challenging factors revolve around leadership and governance. This state of affairs has undermined institutional and organizational structures whether political parties, government departments and institutions, as well as, civil society, faith-based organizations and community organizations. As a result, leadership is weak undermining institutional growth and development. The Eastern Africa Region is not isolated from global factors and forces of change. Other effects arise from the forces of globalization, neo-liberalism, the scramble for dominance and alliances related to the G8 or G20 phenomenon. The dollarization of economies and deregulation of trade, world trade organization, the cost of oil and its ripple effects have also made a contribution to challenge development. Factors and forces related to the emergence of the Asian political, cultural and economic power in the developing world have become new alternative in the choice of development and trade partners. The process of integration remains a challenge to the development of the region. Predominantly each country trades with its own currency, but some transact in each other’s currency and one or more of the international currencies such as the dollar, sterling pound, or euro. Telephony, ICT connectivity and transport routes by air and land access routes are now becoming more integrated even though links are not fully functional. Sudan which only two or three years ago was difficult to reach by phone and road is more accessible from Ethiopia, Uganda and Kenya even on TV and radio channels. In terms of language, English and Kiswahili are increasing becoming central medium of business and local trade in each of the Countries in Eastern Africa Region including Sudan which had been predominated by Arabic for most part. Despite the stated challenges to development, the Eastern Africa Region is at the threshold of change and development. Never before in the history of the region were there so many options in development that did not owe it to external initiatives and resources. The region is experiencing such a diverse array of exposure and learning opportunities for change, transformation and development socially and politically at the grassroots. Moreover, communities are more politically aware and empowered on issues of human rights, good governance

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Kisuke Ndiku: Major Challenges to Development in the Eastern Africa Region; September 2009

and fight against corruption and demand for justice and basic rights. In addition, the governments are more responsive to the voices of the people even though in some of the countries, few localities still lag behind in this. Democratic space has increased tremendously over the last five years although at varied degrees in the context of each of the countries.

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