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Running head: RACIAL FATIGUE
1
Racial Fatigue: African American Women Faculty at Predominately White Institutions Aiyana Hamilton Northern Illinois University
RACIAL FATIGUE
2 Table of Contents
Introductory Section Title Page………………………………………………………………………………….1 Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………….…2 Purpose of Study………………………………………………….………………….……3 Research Question and Descriptive Study………………………………………………...3 Definition of Key Terms and Brief Overview of Study………………………………...…3 Background of Literature Review………………………………………………………....4 Description of Research Design and Methodology……………………………………….6 Instrument and Sample Description………………………………………………………6 Ethics and Human Relations: Subject Characteristics Threat……………………………………...…………….7 Mortality Threat………………………………………………………………….7 Attitudinal Threat……….…………………………………………………….….8 Location Threat…………………………………………………………………..8 Data Collector Timeline………………………………………………………………………….8 References ………………………………………………………………………………10
RACIAL FATIGUE
3 Purpose of Study
Contemporary models of prioritizing diversity on college campuses, focuses on the integration of diversity goals. With these efforts, higher education instititutions overall educational mission should maximize the benefits of diversity for all. Higher education institutions have hired African American Women Faculty (AAWF) to procedurally and symbolically centralize diversity initiatives. However, there is a huge disproportion with the number of AAWF that are on staff. Moreover, the number is smaller with tenured AAWF. Predominately White Institutions (PWIs) must recognize the particular complexities faced by women of color faculty and appropriately support these faculty members in order to create more inclusive environments and institutions. Research Question and Descriptive Study It is important to examine the research question, how racial fatigue or racial battle fatigue impacts AAWF at PWIs because AAWF represent a small percentage at higher edcuation instutitutions. Further knowledge about AAWF experiences will yield insights in AAWF own words, describing their goals, day-to-day realitieis, strategic decisions, concessions and challenges. Definition of Key Terms and Brief Overview of Study The term racial battle fatigue was coined by University of Utah researcher Dr. William A. Smith in early 2000s while studying how racialized microagressions affected black students at PWIs (https://attheu.utah.edu/facultystaff/microaggression-and-racial-battle-fatigue/). Dr. Smith defined racial battle fatigue as the psychological symptoms: from high blood pressure to anxiety, frustration, shock, anger and depression that people of color/marginalized people may experience living in and navigating historically white spaces
RACIAL FATIGUE
4
(https://attheu.utah.edu/facultystaff/microaggression-and-racial-battle-fatigue/). Therefore, this racial battle fatigue affects AAWF who are navigating higher education institutions/academy, which was historically designed to benefit white people, especially white men. AAWF at all PWIs in the United States are underrepresented. Therefore, this may cause tokenism within a department and/or institution. New research, however, goes deeper by examining the toll that daily microaggressions take on African American’s psyche (Smith, 2009). While such acts may or may not be intentional, often those who engage in these behaviors are unaware of their stereotypical and hurtful nature. Because a microagression may be unconscious, it can be more difficult to identify and address than overt forms of discrimination. Perpetrators of microaggressions may or may not realize the impact of their actions. Background of Reviewed Literture For decades diversity and higher education have been linked in the minds of the public, policymakers and those on college campuses (Smith, 2009). In order to take full advantage of the potential benefits of diversity, colleges and universities are putting into place structures that embed diversity both symbolically and procedurally in the organization through faculty and executive leadership positions (i.e. Chief Diversity Officers). Research supports the link between diversity experiences and a wide range of individual, institutional and societal benefits, including critical thinking, intellectual engagement, interactional diversity, vocational preparation, and civic engagement (Bowen,& Bok, 1998; Chang, 2005; Gurin, Dey, Hurtado, & Gurin, 2002; Hu & Kuh, 2003; Roper, 2004). AAWF representation is beyond compliance. Recruitment, retention, support, tenure promotion and other factors impact campus climate, research, policy-making and should be a
RACIAL FATIGUE
5
reflection of the student population they serve. Having AAWF is necessary to improve inclusion, integrate diversity more fully, and help change the pedagogy in the classroom that may affect equity amongst students and leadership. Standards of professional practice from the National Association of Black Faculty in Higher Education outline the broad range of skills, areas of influence and partners in these evolving campus leadership roles (Worthington et al., 2014). Ideally, AAWF should function as part of a cohesive team of leaders on academic excellence (Worthington et al., 2014). In reality, however, AAWF working at PWIs can be isolating, which may affect their coalition building to foster relationships, pursue collaborative research/publication opportunities, mentorship, sponsorship, tenured promotion and overall support. Racial battle fatigue may lead to tokenism, feeling more pressure to conform or make fewer mistakes. On the vast majority of PWIs, AAWF, especially tenured faculty, are likely to face extreme tokenism (Turner et.al., 2011, p. 9) as both racial and gender minorities, thus balancing the centralization of their function with marginalization in terms of identity. These tensions can affect the capacity in which may affect transformational diversity change in their institutions. Given the potential of AAWF to encounter racial battle fatigue at PWIs this descriptive study required a conceptual lens that incorporated an understanding of race, gender, power, and marginalization. Critical Race Theory (CRT) emerged in the mid 1970’s as legal scholars and activists sought to develop new theories and strategies to combat subtle forms of racism that were gaining traction following the heights of the Civil Rights Movement (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001). AAWF have experienced forms of racism, such as: becoming socially invisible, not to stand out; finding it harder to gain credibility; being more isolated and peripheral; being more
RACIAL FATIGUE
6
likely to be excluded from informal peer networks, having limited sources of power through alliances; having fewer opportunities to be sponsored; being stereotyped; and facing more personal stress (Turner, 2002, p. 76). CRT examines the relationship among race, racism and power and it is an important theoretical foundation for this study, because it centers social justice and marginalized voices in the academy. Description of Research Design and Methodology The methodology conducted for this research is survey assessment. Upon Institutional Review Board’s (IRB) approval, a survey will be administered to all PWIs to create a sample size for the researcher to analyze and retrieve data. Since this is a descriptive study, this is an appropriate methodology because it will create simple random sampling, which allows the researcher to choose individuals to be sampled who will be representative of the intended population (Creswell, 2015). Instrument and Sample Description The researcher will conduct simple random sampling of 300-650 African American Women Faculty. The survey research will include demographics modules of the intended sample. The sample specific population the researcher is seeking is: (a) age range: 30-65 (b) identified gender distribution: Female (c) ethnic breakdown: African American (d) Location: Predominately White Institutions in the United States of America. The researcher will obtain data by: (a) creating an instrument/survey that will ask relevant questions pertaining to racial fatigue and examine participants’ experiences as faculty of color in PWI environments (b) contact and submit a proposal to IRB for approval at all institutions the researcher plan to administer this survey; (c) submit a marketing campaign (i.e. marketing material (hard copies and digital flyers), social media campaign, scripts for mobile
RACIAL FATIGUE
7
stations, etc.) to IRB in order to inform African American Women Faculty of the survey; (d) provide incentives to participants who complete survey; (e) create an instrument that is 1015minutes long and concise; (f) ensure survey is convenient with technology and mobility. Participants must have access to view and complete survey on their cell phone, tablets, laptops and other digital devices. Ethics and Human Relations Subject Characteristics Threat Subject characteristics pose a threat to threat to internal validity because various ages that are represented in targeted population and sample size may affect participants’ experiences, perspective and other factors. In addition, this may result in participants differing from one another in unintended ways or referred to as selection bias. Strategies for controlling this threat in the study include obtaining and using more information on the subjects of the study. Mortality Threat The second threat to internal validity is mortality because the researcher may lose participants throughout survey. Strategies for controlling this threat in the study includes choosing an appropriate design will enable the researcher to provide convenience through mobile (digital) accessibility and other factors in order to create a user-friendly experience. Research has shown that people have short attention spans, therefore, it is important to design a research survey by creating the most important modules/questions at the beginning of the instrument. The researcher is aware there will be incomplete surveys throughout study, however the goal is to decrease that number.
RACIAL FATIGUE
8
Attitudinal Threat This threat may cause participants to have an attitudinal reaction, either negative or positive, based on their treatment during the interview/testing/research process. Strategies for controlling this threat includes The Hawthorne Effect. This effect can have a major impact on participants when participants are giving increased treatment and recognition based on their participation and this may sway their responses. Location Threat Lastly, location may pose a threat to internal validity to this study because there may have variances in where the survey will be taken. Location should be the same for all participants. Strategies for controlling this threat in the study include standardizing the conditions under which the study occurs. Timeline Confidentiality, trustworthiness and designing quantitative questions for the survey were important considerations in the design and implementation of this research. The researcher created a timeline to create, collect and analyze data, market survey and publish data. 2018 African American Women Faculty Experience Survey Timeline ACTIVITY Finalize survey administration procedures Submit all information and administration procedures to Institutional Review Board (IRB) for approval. IRB Committee meets and review proposal for survey research Receive approval from IRB to conduct survey Begin communications about the survey
DATE January 31, 2018 February 1, 2018 February 15, 2018 February 28, 2018 April 1, 2018
RACIAL FATIGUE Send the invitation e-mail with link to the survey Send first e-mail reminder to complete survey Send second e-mail reminder Send third e-mail reminder Send fourth e-mail reminder Send final reminder e-mail Close survey Analyze data Presentation of survey results
9 March 1, 2018 March 7, 2018 March 13, 2018 March 21, 2018 March 26, 2018 April 5, 2018 April 8, 2018 April 9, 2018-May 31, 2018 June 2018
RACIAL FATIGUE
10 References
Bowen, W. G., & Bok, D. (1998). The shape of the river: Long-term consequences of considering race in college and university admissions. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Unviersity Press. Chang, M. J. (2005). Reconsidering the diversity rationale. Liberal Education: The Future of Diversity, 91, 6-8. Retrieved from hhtp://wwww.aacu.org/liberaleducation/le-wi05/lewi05feature1.cfm Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2001). Critical race theory: an introduction. New York, NY: New York University Press. Eagan, M. K., Jr. , & Garvey, J. C. (2015). Stressing out: connecting race, gender, and stress with faculty productivity. Project muse, 86(6), 923-954. Retrieved Nov. & dec., 2015, from muse.jhu.edu/journals/jhe/summary/v086/86.6eagan.html. Gurin, P., Dey, E., Hurtado, S., & Gurin, G. (2002). Diversity and higher education: Theory and impact on educational outcomes. Harvard Educational Review, 72, 330-367. http://dx.doi.org/10.17763/haer.72.3.01151786u134n051 Harley, D. A. (2008). Maids of Academe: African American Women Faculty at Predominately White Institutions. Journal of African American Studies, 12(1), 19-36. doi:10.10007/s12111-007-9030-5 Hu, S., & Kuh, G. D. (2003). Diversity experiences and college student learning and personal development. Journal of College Student Development, 44, 320-334. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/csd.2003.0026 Roper, L. D. (2004, November/December). Do students support diversity programs? Change, 36, 48-51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00091380409604244
RACIAL FATIGUE
11
Smith, D. G. (2009). Diversity’s promise for higher education: Making it work. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. Tillman, L. C. (2012). Inventing Ourselves: An Informed Essay for Black Female Scholars in Educational Leadership. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education (QSE). 25(1), 119-126 Turner, C. S. V., Gonzalez, J. C., & Wong (Lau), K. (2011). Faculty women of color: the critical nexus of race and gender. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 4, 199-211. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0024630 Viernes turner, C. S. (2002). Women of color in academe: living with multiple marginality. The journal of Higher education, 73(1), 74-93. Retrieved February 22, 2018, from jstor.org/stable/1558448. Worthington, R. L., Stanley, C. A., & Lewis, W. T., Sr. (2014). National Association of Diversity Officers in Higher Education: Standards of professional practice for chief diversity officers. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 7, 227-234. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a--38391
1
Racial Fatigue: African American Women Faculty at Predominately White Institutions Aiyana Hamilton Northern Illinois University
RACIAL FATIGUE
2 Table of Contents
Introductory Section Title Page………………………………………………………………………………….1 Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………….…2 Purpose of Study………………………………………………….………………….……3 Research Question and Descriptive Study………………………………………………...3 Definition of Key Terms and Brief Overview of Study………………………………...…3 Background of Literature Review………………………………………………………....4 Description of Research Design and Methodology……………………………………….6 Instrument and Sample Description………………………………………………………6 Ethics and Human Relations: Subject Characteristics Threat……………………………………...…………….7 Mortality Threat………………………………………………………………….7 Attitudinal Threat……….…………………………………………………….….8 Location Threat…………………………………………………………………..8 Data Collector Timeline………………………………………………………………………….8 References ………………………………………………………………………………10
RACIAL FATIGUE
3 Purpose of Study
Contemporary models of prioritizing diversity on college campuses, focuses on the integration of diversity goals. With these efforts, higher education instititutions overall educational mission should maximize the benefits of diversity for all. Higher education institutions have hired African American Women Faculty (AAWF) to procedurally and symbolically centralize diversity initiatives. However, there is a huge disproportion with the number of AAWF that are on staff. Moreover, the number is smaller with tenured AAWF. Predominately White Institutions (PWIs) must recognize the particular complexities faced by women of color faculty and appropriately support these faculty members in order to create more inclusive environments and institutions. Research Question and Descriptive Study It is important to examine the research question, how racial fatigue or racial battle fatigue impacts AAWF at PWIs because AAWF represent a small percentage at higher edcuation instutitutions. Further knowledge about AAWF experiences will yield insights in AAWF own words, describing their goals, day-to-day realitieis, strategic decisions, concessions and challenges. Definition of Key Terms and Brief Overview of Study The term racial battle fatigue was coined by University of Utah researcher Dr. William A. Smith in early 2000s while studying how racialized microagressions affected black students at PWIs (https://attheu.utah.edu/facultystaff/microaggression-and-racial-battle-fatigue/). Dr. Smith defined racial battle fatigue as the psychological symptoms: from high blood pressure to anxiety, frustration, shock, anger and depression that people of color/marginalized people may experience living in and navigating historically white spaces
RACIAL FATIGUE
4
(https://attheu.utah.edu/facultystaff/microaggression-and-racial-battle-fatigue/). Therefore, this racial battle fatigue affects AAWF who are navigating higher education institutions/academy, which was historically designed to benefit white people, especially white men. AAWF at all PWIs in the United States are underrepresented. Therefore, this may cause tokenism within a department and/or institution. New research, however, goes deeper by examining the toll that daily microaggressions take on African American’s psyche (Smith, 2009). While such acts may or may not be intentional, often those who engage in these behaviors are unaware of their stereotypical and hurtful nature. Because a microagression may be unconscious, it can be more difficult to identify and address than overt forms of discrimination. Perpetrators of microaggressions may or may not realize the impact of their actions. Background of Reviewed Literture For decades diversity and higher education have been linked in the minds of the public, policymakers and those on college campuses (Smith, 2009). In order to take full advantage of the potential benefits of diversity, colleges and universities are putting into place structures that embed diversity both symbolically and procedurally in the organization through faculty and executive leadership positions (i.e. Chief Diversity Officers). Research supports the link between diversity experiences and a wide range of individual, institutional and societal benefits, including critical thinking, intellectual engagement, interactional diversity, vocational preparation, and civic engagement (Bowen,& Bok, 1998; Chang, 2005; Gurin, Dey, Hurtado, & Gurin, 2002; Hu & Kuh, 2003; Roper, 2004). AAWF representation is beyond compliance. Recruitment, retention, support, tenure promotion and other factors impact campus climate, research, policy-making and should be a
RACIAL FATIGUE
5
reflection of the student population they serve. Having AAWF is necessary to improve inclusion, integrate diversity more fully, and help change the pedagogy in the classroom that may affect equity amongst students and leadership. Standards of professional practice from the National Association of Black Faculty in Higher Education outline the broad range of skills, areas of influence and partners in these evolving campus leadership roles (Worthington et al., 2014). Ideally, AAWF should function as part of a cohesive team of leaders on academic excellence (Worthington et al., 2014). In reality, however, AAWF working at PWIs can be isolating, which may affect their coalition building to foster relationships, pursue collaborative research/publication opportunities, mentorship, sponsorship, tenured promotion and overall support. Racial battle fatigue may lead to tokenism, feeling more pressure to conform or make fewer mistakes. On the vast majority of PWIs, AAWF, especially tenured faculty, are likely to face extreme tokenism (Turner et.al., 2011, p. 9) as both racial and gender minorities, thus balancing the centralization of their function with marginalization in terms of identity. These tensions can affect the capacity in which may affect transformational diversity change in their institutions. Given the potential of AAWF to encounter racial battle fatigue at PWIs this descriptive study required a conceptual lens that incorporated an understanding of race, gender, power, and marginalization. Critical Race Theory (CRT) emerged in the mid 1970’s as legal scholars and activists sought to develop new theories and strategies to combat subtle forms of racism that were gaining traction following the heights of the Civil Rights Movement (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001). AAWF have experienced forms of racism, such as: becoming socially invisible, not to stand out; finding it harder to gain credibility; being more isolated and peripheral; being more
RACIAL FATIGUE
6
likely to be excluded from informal peer networks, having limited sources of power through alliances; having fewer opportunities to be sponsored; being stereotyped; and facing more personal stress (Turner, 2002, p. 76). CRT examines the relationship among race, racism and power and it is an important theoretical foundation for this study, because it centers social justice and marginalized voices in the academy. Description of Research Design and Methodology The methodology conducted for this research is survey assessment. Upon Institutional Review Board’s (IRB) approval, a survey will be administered to all PWIs to create a sample size for the researcher to analyze and retrieve data. Since this is a descriptive study, this is an appropriate methodology because it will create simple random sampling, which allows the researcher to choose individuals to be sampled who will be representative of the intended population (Creswell, 2015). Instrument and Sample Description The researcher will conduct simple random sampling of 300-650 African American Women Faculty. The survey research will include demographics modules of the intended sample. The sample specific population the researcher is seeking is: (a) age range: 30-65 (b) identified gender distribution: Female (c) ethnic breakdown: African American (d) Location: Predominately White Institutions in the United States of America. The researcher will obtain data by: (a) creating an instrument/survey that will ask relevant questions pertaining to racial fatigue and examine participants’ experiences as faculty of color in PWI environments (b) contact and submit a proposal to IRB for approval at all institutions the researcher plan to administer this survey; (c) submit a marketing campaign (i.e. marketing material (hard copies and digital flyers), social media campaign, scripts for mobile
RACIAL FATIGUE
7
stations, etc.) to IRB in order to inform African American Women Faculty of the survey; (d) provide incentives to participants who complete survey; (e) create an instrument that is 1015minutes long and concise; (f) ensure survey is convenient with technology and mobility. Participants must have access to view and complete survey on their cell phone, tablets, laptops and other digital devices. Ethics and Human Relations Subject Characteristics Threat Subject characteristics pose a threat to threat to internal validity because various ages that are represented in targeted population and sample size may affect participants’ experiences, perspective and other factors. In addition, this may result in participants differing from one another in unintended ways or referred to as selection bias. Strategies for controlling this threat in the study include obtaining and using more information on the subjects of the study. Mortality Threat The second threat to internal validity is mortality because the researcher may lose participants throughout survey. Strategies for controlling this threat in the study includes choosing an appropriate design will enable the researcher to provide convenience through mobile (digital) accessibility and other factors in order to create a user-friendly experience. Research has shown that people have short attention spans, therefore, it is important to design a research survey by creating the most important modules/questions at the beginning of the instrument. The researcher is aware there will be incomplete surveys throughout study, however the goal is to decrease that number.
RACIAL FATIGUE
8
Attitudinal Threat This threat may cause participants to have an attitudinal reaction, either negative or positive, based on their treatment during the interview/testing/research process. Strategies for controlling this threat includes The Hawthorne Effect. This effect can have a major impact on participants when participants are giving increased treatment and recognition based on their participation and this may sway their responses. Location Threat Lastly, location may pose a threat to internal validity to this study because there may have variances in where the survey will be taken. Location should be the same for all participants. Strategies for controlling this threat in the study include standardizing the conditions under which the study occurs. Timeline Confidentiality, trustworthiness and designing quantitative questions for the survey were important considerations in the design and implementation of this research. The researcher created a timeline to create, collect and analyze data, market survey and publish data. 2018 African American Women Faculty Experience Survey Timeline ACTIVITY Finalize survey administration procedures Submit all information and administration procedures to Institutional Review Board (IRB) for approval. IRB Committee meets and review proposal for survey research Receive approval from IRB to conduct survey Begin communications about the survey
DATE January 31, 2018 February 1, 2018 February 15, 2018 February 28, 2018 April 1, 2018
RACIAL FATIGUE Send the invitation e-mail with link to the survey Send first e-mail reminder to complete survey Send second e-mail reminder Send third e-mail reminder Send fourth e-mail reminder Send final reminder e-mail Close survey Analyze data Presentation of survey results
9 March 1, 2018 March 7, 2018 March 13, 2018 March 21, 2018 March 26, 2018 April 5, 2018 April 8, 2018 April 9, 2018-May 31, 2018 June 2018
RACIAL FATIGUE
10 References
Bowen, W. G., & Bok, D. (1998). The shape of the river: Long-term consequences of considering race in college and university admissions. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Unviersity Press. Chang, M. J. (2005). Reconsidering the diversity rationale. Liberal Education: The Future of Diversity, 91, 6-8. Retrieved from hhtp://wwww.aacu.org/liberaleducation/le-wi05/lewi05feature1.cfm Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2001). Critical race theory: an introduction. New York, NY: New York University Press. Eagan, M. K., Jr. , & Garvey, J. C. (2015). Stressing out: connecting race, gender, and stress with faculty productivity. Project muse, 86(6), 923-954. Retrieved Nov. & dec., 2015, from muse.jhu.edu/journals/jhe/summary/v086/86.6eagan.html. Gurin, P., Dey, E., Hurtado, S., & Gurin, G. (2002). Diversity and higher education: Theory and impact on educational outcomes. Harvard Educational Review, 72, 330-367. http://dx.doi.org/10.17763/haer.72.3.01151786u134n051 Harley, D. A. (2008). Maids of Academe: African American Women Faculty at Predominately White Institutions. Journal of African American Studies, 12(1), 19-36. doi:10.10007/s12111-007-9030-5 Hu, S., & Kuh, G. D. (2003). Diversity experiences and college student learning and personal development. Journal of College Student Development, 44, 320-334. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/csd.2003.0026 Roper, L. D. (2004, November/December). Do students support diversity programs? Change, 36, 48-51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00091380409604244
RACIAL FATIGUE
11
Smith, D. G. (2009). Diversity’s promise for higher education: Making it work. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. Tillman, L. C. (2012). Inventing Ourselves: An Informed Essay for Black Female Scholars in Educational Leadership. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education (QSE). 25(1), 119-126 Turner, C. S. V., Gonzalez, J. C., & Wong (Lau), K. (2011). Faculty women of color: the critical nexus of race and gender. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 4, 199-211. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0024630 Viernes turner, C. S. (2002). Women of color in academe: living with multiple marginality. The journal of Higher education, 73(1), 74-93. Retrieved February 22, 2018, from jstor.org/stable/1558448. Worthington, R. L., Stanley, C. A., & Lewis, W. T., Sr. (2014). National Association of Diversity Officers in Higher Education: Standards of professional practice for chief diversity officers. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 7, 227-234. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a--38391
