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REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 HISTORY OF KNITTING

Knitting can be defined as the combining a piece of thread with two needles into a piece of fabric. Its origins lie in the basic human need for clothing for protection against the elements (Alenka, 2000). It is difficult to define precisely the origin of knitting. Hand knitting was the early invention. But how this art evolved and in which country it originated is still a mystery. However, some believed that this art originated in Persia, while others claim Israel, Jordan and Syria. The origin of true knitting is unknown. It is believed that knitting was spread by Arabian sailors and merchants who traveled throughout the Mediterranean. True knitting is a relatively recent craft. Crafts similar to true knitting, such as cross-knitting and nalebinding, however, have a past history, dating back to before the birth of Christ. The art was practiced by many from Japan to Egypt to Peru. Knitting satisfied a need in people's making of garments which is still continuing and growing Baš (2004). The history of knitting can be studied over the different centuries. A knitted pair of socks was found in Egyptian tombs, dating back to 4th century BC. Nalebinding was found to exist which created fabric from thread by making multiple knots or loops, and it was done with a needle made of wood or

bone. the oldest form of knitting is crossed knitting, also known as singleneedle knitting and pseudo knitting. In crossed knitting, the stitches are rotated a half turn instead of aligning vertically. This knitting method was highly developed by the Nazca culture in Peru (100 B.C.-A.D. 700) in the fringes of their woven cloths. Frequent color changes in these fringes were used to create intricate human and animal figures (Brackenbury 1992).

The art of knitting seems advanced in Western Europe in the 14th century. Hand knitting was an important industry that evolved into a craft and advanced by the 16th century. Hand knitting spread rapidly across Europe,

in

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generations.

In 1589, William Lee, a priest invented the first knitting machine that could knit 8 stitches per 1 cm in width. This was in the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. He worked nine years to develop a machine that could knit 20 stitches per inch for silk stockings. This machine was remarkable as this was the first machine, which had focused on increasing productivity process. After the invention of the first knitting machine, knitting art gradually took over guild organized cottage industry in the 17th and 18 century. The Industrial Revolution that began in the late 18th century in Britain and spread throughout the world, played a key role in the spread of spinning wool and cloth production in factories. Full-fashioned knitting machine was invented in 1864 by William Cotton of Leicestershire, England. This

machine was part of the original Lee model. Also known as Lace Market, Nottingham City, dominated by the production of machine-knitted lace during the Industrial Revolution and the coming decades. Baš (2004) reported that during the Pearl Habour attack of World War II, more and more Americans picked up their needles to knit socks, mufflers, and sweaters to keep American soldiers warm. Thus for them Knitting was a natural and immediate response to war. Knitting provided warmth and comfort for the soldiers and therapeutic distraction for the knitter. After the war years, knitting started to flourish with the emergence of greater colors and styles of yarn. In the 19th century, it was possible to use a knitting machine, and then circular knitting machines appeared on the scene. Seamless hosiery were knitted on circular machines. England became famous for his socks. Initially, cotton, wool, silk and rayon yarn later were used for the manufacture of socks. Then came nylon in 1940, when women preferred nylon hose. The use of nylon stockings increased as it gave a better fit because of its stretchable properties. Knitwear was mainly associated with women's fashion, but later, knitted sweaters, cardigans, shirts, men's underwear, sportswear, and swimwear and also became popular. Developments in the 20th century led to an increase in production speed of knitting machines, and offered a wider choice of knitwear pattern. Many

thousands of patterns fed a market hungry for fashionable designs in bright colors. But the popularity of knitting showed a sharp decline during this period in the Western world. Sales of patterns and yarns slumped, as the craft was increasingly seen as old-fashioned and children were rarely taught to knit in school. The increased availability and low cost of machine knitted items meant that consumers could have a sweater at the same cost of purchasing the wool and pattern themselves, or often for far less (Bogataj 1989). The 21st century has seen a resurgence of knitting. Natural fibers from animals, such as alpaca, angora, and merino, and plant fibers, chiefly cotton, have become easier and less costly to collect and process, and therefore more widely available. Exotic fibers, such as silk, bamboo, and qiviut, are growing in popularity as well. The yarn industry has started to make novelty yarns which produce stunning results without years of knitting experience. Designers have begun to create patterns which work up quickly on large needles, a phenomenon known as instant-gratification knitting. As time and technology change, so does the art of knitting. The Internet allows knitters to connect, share interests and learn from each other, whether across the street or across the globe. Among the first Internet knitting phenomena was the popular Knit List with thousands of members. In 1998, the first online knitting magazine, Knit Net, began publishing. Blogging later added fuel the development of an international knitting

community.

Uden (2017) opined that traditional textile techniques like knitting and crocheting have an valuable significance both in history and in modern times. Like other textile techniques, knitting has developed into a multi diverse industrial sector, comprising the production of knitted fabrics, knitwear, hosiery and fashion accessories. At the same time, contemporary knitting and crocheting became hobbies as well as arts-and-crafts activities, extending to various areas of work and leisure. Historical and traditional knitting and crocheting patterns keep inspiring designers’ collections and also other industrial products.

2.2 Knitting a feminine activity Very lately, knitting was viewed as an ordinary indoor activity and, in its domestic history, it was the preserve of older women making products of dainty work and taste were its sole producers.

Ihatsu (2005) was of the view that women have traditionally been responsible for the household and clothing. Female textile crafts became an extension of that everyday work. Hand Craft products like domestic textiles such as bedding, towels and clothes are human-sized and they are in close

contact with the skin. Traditional handicraft products are used and touched, but not necessarily paid particular attention to.

Simpanen (2003) mentioned in his article that learning handicraft skills had traditionally been part of Finnish school education. Another important learning environment for these skills has been the home, where skills have been passed on from the mother to the daughter and from the father to the son, from the older generation to the younger ones. This informal “home learning” has ensured the continuity of tradition and the constancy of folk aesthetics. Parker & Pollock (1987) in the Western culture, males have traditionally dominated the art world. By contrast, the crafts culture is markedly feminine. It is associated with women so self-evidently that it is often left unquestioned.

2.2 TYPES OF KNITS Alenka (2000) More recently, knitting has become less a necessary skill and more a hobby. Knitting has changed a lot through history. Even today, there are different methods and styles in different parts of the world. The kind of knitting that we are used to was not practiced till quite recently, however. Purl knitted fabrics

Spencer (1983) if on both sides of a relaxed weft knitted fabric only reverse stitches are visible, then this is defined as a purl knitted fabric. Generally, weft-knitting machines are used to produce these fabrics. Purl fabrics are produced by meshing the stitches in neighboring courses in opposite directions by using special latch needles with two needle hooks. When the fabric is stretched lengthwise, then the face stitches are visible. The fabric shrinks more in the direction of wales, and once it is released, it relaxes to hide the face stitches between the courses. The inter-looping of the stitches of neighboring courses in opposite directions results in the courses of a purl knitted structure closing up. The structure, therefore, has a large longitudinal extensibility which is largely elastic.

Interlock knitted fabrics Spencer (1983) these could be considered as combination of two rib knitted structures. The reverse stitches of one rib knitted structure are covered by the face stitches of the second rib knitted structure. On both sides of the fabric, therefore, only face stitches are visible, and it is difficult to detect the reverse stitches even when the fabric is stretched widthwise. The geometry of the yarn path influences the elastic behavior of the knitted fabrics. The change of direction of the meshing of the stitches in neighboring wales results in the wales of a rib knitted fabric closing upgiving it better elastic properties widthwise over other basic knitted structure. The meshing of the stitches in neighboring courses in opposite

directions results in the courses of a purl knitted fabric closing up. Thus they could be stretched lengthwise more than the other knitted structures. The combination of two rib knitted structures in the interlock structure gives very little or no room at all for the wales or courses to close up, and therefore the interlock fabrics shows very poor elastic properties in both directions. Plain knitted fabrics Miller (1973) if a weft or warp knitted fabric has one side consisting only of face stitches, and the opposite side consisting of backstitches, then it is defined as a plain knitted fabric. It is also very frequently referred to as a single jersey fabric (single fabric). Plain knitted fabrics are produced by using one set of needles. As such all the stitches are meshed in one direction. These fabrics tend to roll at their edges. They roll from their technical back towards the technical front at the top and lower edges. They also roll from their technical front towards the technical back at their selvedges. The structure is extensible in both lateral and longitudinal directions, but the lateral extension is twice that of the longitudinal extension. The yarn loop pulled in the longitudinal direction would extend by half its length, while when pulled in the lateral direction it could extend by the entire length. The degree of recovery from stretch depends on the fibers and the construction of the yarn.

Rib knitted fabrics

Miller (1973) if on both sides of a relaxed weft or warp knitted fabrics only face stitches, i.e. the legs, are visible, then it is referred to as a rib knitted fabric and has been produced by meshing the stitches in neighboring wales in opposite directions. This is achieved by knitting with two needle systems, which are placed opposite to each other. As such these fabrics are also known as double jersey or double face fabrics. When the fabric is stretched widthwise, both sides of the fabric show alternately face and reverse stitches in each course. Once the fabric is released, it shrinks in its width, thus hiding the reverse stitches between the face stitches. These fabrics do not curl at their edges. The simplest rib structure is 1 x 1 rib. The longitudinal extensibility of the rib structure equals that of a plain knitted structure. The geometry of the yarn path influences the elastic behavior of the knitted structures. The change of direction of the interloping of the stitches of neighboring wales (cross-over points) results in the wales of a rib knitted structure closing up. This gives rib structures better elastic properties widthwise than other basic knitted structures. With rib structures in the lateral direction, extensions up to 140% can be achieved. Other construction of rib structures include 2 x 2 ribs, where two wales of face stitches alternate with two wales of reverse stitches. As the number of wales in each rib increases, the elasticity decreases as the number of changeovers from reverse to front reduces.

2.3 Special attributes of Knit

Ultraviolet resistance of knitted fabrics Banerjee (2016) an increase in trend of skin cancer due to prolong exposure of ultraviolet radiation from sunlight is a serious problem that leads the scientists to think to protect skin from over exposure. Though UV rays are necessary for Vitamin D synthesis in human body, their overexposure results in erythema, suntanning, photocarcinogenesis, etc. Hence, it has become necessity to protect human skin from over exposure to UV rays. Textile clothing is capable to shield the human body against the UV rays. However, over shielding through textiles may also reduce the comfort level of the fabric. Hence, a fabric is desired, that can protect human with minimum resisting of physical activity and comfort. Knitted fabric which has a typical porous structure is preferable for active wear, casual wear and summer wear due to its high comfort characteristics. The porous structure assists the air to transmit through it as well as the air pockets provide warmth to the body. Transmission of air through the fabric increases the breath-ability of the fabric. Hence, an open fabric structure is preferable for better comfort. On the contrary, more open fabric results more UV rays penetration through the fabric. So, it is desired to engineer a fabric that may contribute maximum comfort without compromising the protection of human body from UV rays. Researchers have tried to investigate the UV resistance of various textile fabrics. The UV resistance of a textile fabric is expressed by

UPF (ultraviolet protection factor). A higher UPF value indicates safer fabric from UV damage and vice-verse. Researchers have studied the UPF of various textiles and found that the UV resistance of a textile depends on fiber type, fiber blends, fabric thickness, fabric openness and areal density. Sound absorption properties knitted fabric Si Chen (2015) Noise pollution has great adverse effect on the environment, human health and social economy. How to reduce the adverse effect has drawn a lot of attention of scientists and engineers in recent years. The most widely used method to decrease noise is the use of porous materials for sound absorption applications. The mechanism of sound absorption in knitted materials is basically based on the viscous effects due to the internal friction between the material and airflow, thus the heat loss due to the friction. Sound absorption increases with increasing the thickness of the material.

Benefits of Knitting There is increasing evidence that engaging in creative and meaningful occupation can impact positively on health and wellbeing. The results of an online survey among more than 300 knitters showed that there was a significant relationship between knitting frequency and feeling calm and happy. More frequent knitters also reported higher cognitive functioning.

Knitters control the rhythm of their craft and may change it according to their mood. This rhythm is instantaneously calming (Johnson, 2014).

Therapeutic knitting takes the benefits of knitting and enhances them to improve well-being or to treat certain medical conditions. The psychological benefits of knitting alone or within a group range from distraction, refocusing of attention, and enabling feelings of control to providing rewarding occupation and enabling relaxation and contribution. Through knitting, lost emotions associated with anticipation, pride, excitement, and happiness are reawakened. Life circumstances such as illness, retirement, or redundancy can change identity and perception of self. Knitting can enable the knitter to build a new positive identity through, for example, knitting for charity. Knitting complex patterns can also be beneficial for hand joint exercise and memory training.

Johnson (2014) commented that in the last decade, there has been a resurgence of interest in knitting as a form of leisure. From ‘stitch n bitch’ groups and pub knitting circles to fiber festivals and knit meets, new public sites for participating in knitting have emerged as part of a contemporary craft movement. Accompanying this renaissance is a growing presence of “craftsperson” on the web, with blogs, podcasts, social networking sites and folksonomies like Flickr and YouTube connecting a global community of knitters and providing them with a wealth of resources and support.

Knitters photograph and blog about their projects and yarns, chat and plan face-to-face knit festivals via forums, search for podcasts to learn new skills, follow “celebrity” knit bloggers and sell and exchange patterns and yarn via knitting networking sites. The growth of do it yourself (DIY) craft culture, of which knitting is a part, itself has a history that encompasses professional and leisure practices, diverse forms of production and consumption, fine art, performance and fashion with activities spanning public and private spheres.

Parkes C (2013) in 2012, Slovenian group launched the project Connections. Connections were a textile installation in progress. Project offered moments of calm engagement, creative expression, healing remembrance, relaxed socialization to regular people. Visitors were invited to take off shoes, sit down, inspect, touch, and learn simple textile technique, how to make a rug with their fingers. The project connected people by working together on the symbolic textile field – carpet.

Knitting art McIntosh B (2011) because of the nature of the stitch and the use of a continuous thread, knitted fabrics are very strong and can be used to support large structures. Knitting that appears in unexpected environments,

knitting that masquerade, as something it is not, knitting that provokes questions – this is when knitting becomes art. The textile that had arisen as a need since the birth of humankind changed over time and managed to get out of everyday use. The knitting that takes place among the textile arts which are emerging together with the cultural history of mankind has proceeded on its way together with the growing cultures and the age without slowing down and has been used in the field of art. Contemporary artists have revealed new forms of art of knitting by getting out of traditions or by reinterpreting the traditional values. For example, Sandra Backlund is a knitting artist that brings architectural forms to knitwear. Her knitted garments are more pieces of art than wearable clothes.

(Parkins W. 2004) Knitting, along with a number of other lifestyle activities like gardening and cooking, is seen as providing an alternative temporality which allows individuals to create meaning outside of the spheres of domesticity or employment. This nostalgic reclaiming of craft is understood as a response to mass consumerism, globalization and the homogeneity of the high street, reflecting a desire for individualization and a playful and ironic trend for celebrating domesticity in popular culture. On the other hand, it was proved that knitting in a group impacts significantly on perceived happiness, improved social contact and communication with others.