Psychology Test 2 Key Terms

Androgens The class of sex hormones that predominate in males; they are produced by the testes in males and by the adrenal glands in both males and females. anorexia nervosa An eating disorder that involves the relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation. broaden-and-build model A model emphasizing that the key to the adaptiveness of positive emotional states lies in their effects on our attention and our ability to build resources. bulimia nervosa An eating disorder in which the individual consistently follows a binge-and-purge eating pattern. Cannon-Bard theory Theory stating that emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously. Catharsis The release of anger or aggressive energy by directly or vicariously engaging in anger or aggression; the catharsis hypothesis states that behaving angrily or watching others behave angrily reduces subsequent anger. display rules Sociocultural standards that determine when, where, and how emotions should be expressed. Drive An aroused state that occurs because of a physiological need. Emotion Feeling, or affect, that can involve physiological arousal, conscious experience, and behavioral expression. Estrogens The main class of female sex hormones, produced principally by the ovaries. extrinsic motivation Motivation that involves external incentives such as rewards and punishments. facial feedback hypothesis The idea that facial expressions can influence emotions as well as reflect them. hierarchy of needs Maslow's view that individuals' main needs are satisfied in the following sequence: physiological, safety, love and belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization.

Homeostasis The body's tendency to maintain an equilibrium, or steady state. human sexual response pattern Identified by Masters and Johnson, the four phases of physical reactions that occur in humans as a result of sexual stimulation. These phases are excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. Instinct An innate (unlearned), biological pattern of behavior that is assumed to be universal throughout a species. intrinsic motivation Motivation that is based on internal factors such as organismic needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness), as well as curiosity, challenge, and effort. James-Lange theory Theory stating that emotion results from physiological states triggered by stimuli in the environment. Motivation The force that moves people to behave, think, and feel the way they do. Need A deprivation that energizes the drive to eliminate or reduce the deprivation. Polygraph A machine that monitors bodily changes thought to be influenced by emotional states; it is used by examiners to try to determine whether someone is lying. self-actualization The highest and most elusive of Maslow's needs; the motivation to develop one's full potential as a human being. self-determination theory A theory of motivation that proposes that three basic, organismic needs (competence, autonomy, and relatedness) characterize intrinsic motivation. self-regulation The process by which an organism pursues important objectives, centrally involving getting feedback about how we are doing in our goal pursuits. set point The weight maintained when no effort is made to gain or lose weight.

sexual orientation The direction of the person's erotic interests, whether heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual. two-factor theory of emotion Schachter and Singer's theory that emotion is determined by two main factors: physiological arousal and cognitive labeling. Yerkes-Dodson law Principle stating that performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal rather than low or high arousal. acquisition (classical conditioning) The initial learning of the stimulus–response link, which involves a neutral stimulus being associated with an unconditioned stimulus and becoming the conditioned stimulus that elicits the conditioned response. applied behavior analysis (behavior modification) The application of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior. associative learning Learning in which a connection, or an association, is made between two events. behaviorism A theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors, discounting the importance of such mental activity as thinking, wishing, and hoping. classical conditioning Learning by which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response. conditioned response (CR) The learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after the pairing of a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. conditioned stimulus (CS) A previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits the conditioned response after being associated with the unconditioned stimulus. counterconditioning A classical conditioning procedure for weakening a conditioned response by associating the fear-provoking stimulus with a new response that is incompatible with the fear.

discrimination (classical conditioning) The process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not to others. discrimination (operant conditioning) The tendency to respond to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced. extinction (classical conditioning) The weakening of the conditioned response in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus. extinction (operant conditioning) The situation where, because a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced, there is a decreased tendency to perform the behavior. generalization (classical conditioning) The tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response. generalization (operant conditioning) The tendency to give the same response to similar stimuli. insight learning A form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of the problem's solution. instinctive drift The tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning. latent learning (implicit learning) Unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior law of effect Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened, whereas behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened. learned helplessness The phenomenon of learning through experience that outcomes are not controllable. learning A relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience. negative punishment A behavior decreases when a positive stimulus is removed from it.

negative reinforcement Following a behavior with the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus to increase the frequency of the behavior. observational learning Learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates another's behavior; also called imitation or modeling. operant conditioning Also called instrumental conditioning; a form of learning positive punishment A behavior decreases when it is followed by an unpleasant stimulus. positive reinforcement Following a behavior with a rewarding stimulus to increase the frequency of the behavior. preparedness The species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others. primary reinforcement The use of reinforcers that are innately satisfying. punishment A consequence that decreases the likelihood a behavior will occur. reinforcement The process by which a stimulus or an event strengthens or increases the probability of a behavior or an event that it follows. schedules of reinforcement Timetables that determine when a behavior will be reinforced. secondary reinforcement The use of reinforcers that are learned or conditioned. shaping Rewarding approximations of a desired behavior. spontaneous recovery The process in classical conditioning by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay without further conditioning. unconditioned response (UCR) An unlearned response that is automatically elicited by an unconditioned stimulus.

unconditioned stimulus (UCS) A stimulus that produces a response without prior learning. abnormal behavior Behavior that is deviant, maladaptive, or personally distressful over a long period of time. Agoraphobia A cluster of fears centered on public places and on an inability to escape or to find help should one become incapacitated. anxiety disorders Psychological disorders that feature motor tension, hyperactivity, and apprehensive expectations and thoughts. attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Psychological disorder in which the individual shows one or more of the following characteristics over a period of time: inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. bipolar disorder A mood disorder characterized by extreme mood swings that include one or more episodes of mania (an overexcited, unrealistically optimistic state). Catatonia A state of immobility and unresponsiveness. catatonic schizophrenia A type of schizophrenia characterized by bizarre motor behavior that sometimes takes the form of a completely immobile stupor. Delusions False, sometimes even preposterous, beliefs that are not part of the person's culture. depressive disorders Mood disorders in which the individual suffers from depression (an unrelenting lack of pleasure in life). diathesis-stress model A model of schizophrenia that proposes a combination of biogenetic disposition and stress as the cause of the disorder. disorganized schizophrenia A type of schizophrenia in which an individual has delusions and hallucinations that have little or no recognizable meaning. dissociative amnesia A dissociative disorder involving extreme memory loss caused by extensive psychological stress.

dissociative disorders Psychological disorders that involve a sudden loss of memory or change in identity. dissociative fugue A dissociative disorder in which the individual not only develops amnesia but also unexpectedly travels away from home and assumes a new identity. dissociative identity disorder (DID) Formerly called multiple personality disorder, this is the most dramatic but least common dissociative disorder; individuals suffering from this disorder have two or more distinct personalities or selves. DSM-IV Abbreviation for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition; the current version of the APA’s major classification of psychological disorders. dysthymic disorder A depressive disorder that is generally more chronic and has fewer symptoms than major depressive disorder. flat affect A negative symptom in which the person shows little or no emotion, speaks without emotional inflection, and maintains an immobile facial expression. generalized anxiety disorder An anxiety disorder that consists of persistent anxiety for at least 6 months; the individual with this disorder cannot specify the reasons for the anxiety. Hallucinations Sensory experiences in the absence of real stimuli major depressive disorder (MDD) A mood disorder indicated by a major depressive episode and depressed characteristics, such as lethargy and hopelessness, lasting at least 2 weeks. medical model A biological approach that describes psychological disorders as medical diseases with a biological origin. mood disorders Psychological disorders in which there is a primary disturbance in mood (prolonged emotion that colors the individual's entire emotional state). Two main types are the depressive disorders and bipolar disorder. obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) An anxiety disorder in which the individual has anxiety-provoking thoughts that will not go away (obsession)

and/or urges to perform repetitive, ritualistic behaviors to prevent or produce some future situation (compulsion). panic disorder An anxiety disorder marked by recurrent sudden onsets of intense apprehension or terror. paranoid schizophrenia A type of schizophrenia that is characterized by delusions of reference, grandeur, and persecution. personality disorders Chronic, maladaptive cognitive-behavioral patterns that are thoroughly integrated into the individual's personality. phobic disorder Commonly called phobia, an anxiety disorder in which the individual has an irrational, overwhelming, persistent fear of a particular object or situation. post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) An anxiety disorder that develops through exposure to a traumatic event, severely oppressive situations, severe abuse, and natural and unnatural disasters. referential thinking Ascribing personal meaning to completely random events. Schizophrenia A severe psychological disorder that is characterized by highly disordered thought processes. undifferentiated schizophrenia A type of schizophrenia that is characterized by disorganized behavior, hallucinations, delusions, and incoherence.