Psychology

psychology 1653, "study of the soul," probably coined mid-16c. in Germany by Melanchthon as Mod.L. psychologia, from Gk. psykhe- "breath, spirit, soul" (see psyche) + logia "study of." Meaning "study of the mind" first recorded 1748, from G. Wolff's Psychologia empirica (1732); main modern behavioral sense is from 1895.etymonline.com Areas of specialization CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY: Clinical psychologists assess and treat people with psychological problems. They may act as therapists for people experiencing normal psychological crises (e.g., grief) or for individuals suffering from chronic psychiatric disorders. Some clinical psychologists are generalists who work with a wide variety of populations, while others work with specific groups like children, the elderly, or those with specific disorders (e.g., schizophrenia). They are trained in universities or professional schools of psychology. They may be found working in academic settings, hospitals, community health centers, or private practice. COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY: Counseling psychologists do many of the same things that clinical psychologists do. However, counseling psychologists tend to focus more on persons with adjustment problems rather than on persons suffering from severe psychological disorders DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: Developmental psychologists study how we develop intellectually, socially, and emotionally over the lifespan. Some of the areas they are interested in are: Children's peer relations, language comprehension, computational models of cognitive development, parent-infant interactions, social and communicative behavior in infants, and language acquisition across languages and cultures. EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: Educational psychologists conduct research and develop theories about teaching and learning. They attempt to understand the basic aspects of learning and then develop materials and strategies for enhancing the learning process. Their efforts are applied to improve teacher training and help students learn more efficiently. EVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: Evironmental psychologists focus on the relationship between people and the physical environment they live in. As such, they are interested in the effects of the physical environment on a person's behavior and mental processes. For example, they examine how environmental stimuli such as noise, temperature, and weather affect a person's emotions, cognitive processes, performance, and social interactions; the effects of the social environment, crowding, personal space; and the psychological effects of environmental disasters EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: This area includes a diverse group of psychologists who do research in the most basic areas of psychology (e.g., learning, memory, cognition, perception, motivation, and language). Their research may be conducted with animals instead of humans. Most of these psychologists work in academic settings. FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY: Forensic psychologists study of questions and issues relating to law and the legal system. A forensic psychologist offers an expert psychological opinion in a way that it impacts one of the adversarial arenas, typically the courts. Forensic psychologists evaluate various areas, such as expert testimony, jury selection, child testimony, pretrial publicity, repressed memories, the death penalty, battered woman syndrome, domestic violence, drug dependence, and sexual disorders. Although many people think of forensic psychologists as focussing on criminal matters, this is certainly not always the case. HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY: Health psychologists are concerned with psychology's contributions to the promotion and maintenance of good health and the prevention and treatment of illness. They They recognize the importance of life style and behavioral factors that contribute to physical disease, the search for ways to contain health care costs, and potential of health-oriented psychological

interventions. They may design and conduct programs to help individuals stop smoking, lose weight, manage stress, and stay physically fit. They are employed in hospitals, medical schools, rehabilitation centers, public health agencies, academic settings, and private practice. HUMAN FACTORS PSYCHOLOGY: Human Factors psychologists study the human/machine interface. They may help make appliances such as cameras user-friendly, or they may do studies of safety-related issues in the design of machinary, airplane controls and instrument layouts, or they may do basic research on human perceptual and motor abilities as they relate to the operation of machines, computers, and other mechanical devices. INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: Industrial/organizational psychologists are primarily concerned with the relationships between people and their work environments. They may develop new ways to increase productivity or be involved in personnel selection. They are employed in business, government agencies, and academic settings. NEUROPSYCHOLOGY / PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY: These psychologists are concerned with brain/behavior relationships. They may be involved in clinical work, in the assessment of brain-damaged pateints, or in research, such as attempts to relate cognitive activity to brain activity as seen in brain scans. SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY: School psychologists are involved in enhancing the development of children and adults in educational settings. They assess children's psychoeducational abilities and recommend actions to facilitate student learning. They are typically trained in Schools of Education and work in public school systems. They often act as consultants to parents, teachers, and administrators to optimize the learning environments of specific students. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY: Social psychologists study how our beliefs, feelings, and behaviors are affected by other persons. Some topics of interest to social psychologists are attitude formation and change, aggression, prejudice, and interpersonal attraction. Most social psychologists work in academic settings, but some work in federal agencies and businesses doing applied research. SPORT PSYCHOLOGY: Sports psychologists study the psychological factors associated with participation and performance in sport, exercise, and other types of physical activity. Sport psychologists focus primarily on two areas. First, they focus on helping athletes use psychological principles and skills to achieve optimal mental health and to improve performance. Second, they seek further understanding of how an individuals' participation in sport, exercise, and physical activity affects their psychological development, health, and well-being. � chiron.valdosta.edu Psychological research method Laboratory experiment,Field experiment,Quasi experiment,Correlational Observation, can be naturalistic, participant or controlled. Case study Interview, can be structured or unstructured. Statistical survey Prospective study, in which a study samples subjects as the experiment progresses. Cf. Retrospective study. Retrospective study, in which data is collected on subjects' histories at one time. Cf. Prospective study. Longitudinal study, in which subjects are studied over a course of time. Cf. Cross-sectional study. Cross-sectional study, in which a snapshot of the population is assumed to represent individuals as they progress through life. See also Longitudinal study. Meta analysis Content analysis -ask.com Schools of thought Rationalism This school of thought takes on various philosophical positions that rely on the function of reason when searching for truth. It can be contrasted with empiricism, which believes that experience is necessary to acquire knowledge.

For rationalists, ideas are innate. For empiricists, ideas are acquired. Concepts of rationalism can be traced back to early Greece where Plato believed reason was something internal, one of the four faculties of the soul. Structuralism This school of thought was based on the notion that the object of psychology is to analyze consciousness into its basic elements and investigate how these elements are related. Structuralism explores many aspects of the mind, though research is mainly concerned with sensation and perception in vision, hearing and touch. Through the method of introspection, or the systematic observation of one's own conscious experience, subjects were trained and the exposed to different visual stimuli, optical illusions and auditory tones. They were then asked to analyze what they experienced. During the first two or three decades of psychology, structural psychology was the psychology. It provided psychology with a strong scientific identity within the academic community. .Structuralism was the dominant school of psychology in Germany and the U.S. between 1890-1920, and was led by Wundt and Titchener. Functionalism According to functionalism the subject matter of psychology is mental processes or in other words, �functions�. Functionalism was a protest against structuralism. Structuralism was the study of the contents of consciousness. Functionalism was utilitarian and concerned with commonsense issues. Structuralists said that mental functions were not subject to introspective analysis, it was the make up of the mind that could be analyzed. Functionalists disagreed, saying they could study mental function if correct methods were used. There were many men responsible for the development of functionalism Behaviorism According to behaviorism the subject matter of psychology is behavior including how and why is happens. Psychology through a behaviorists eye is an experimental extension of natural science. The goal of behaviorism is the prediction and control of behavior. The behaviorist uses animals responses and compares them to man. The behavior of man is only part of the total investigation of behaviorism. There are also many individuals responsible for the development a behaviorism Psychoanalysis This school of psychology was rejected by many as a true science. It was thought of as a kind of technique in psychotherapy. It is a general psychology of human behavior. There are six assumptions that show the main ideas of psychoanalytic theory. One is that unconscious mental processes exist. The second is all human behavior is motivated and purposeful. Third, past experiences influence current changes and reactions. Forth, personality functioning is very complex and can be understood through the Id, Ego, and Superego. Fifth, thinking processes involve energy, strength and force. Finally human behavior is influenced by interaction with the environment.- ask.com Erik erickson Psychoanalyst Erik Erikson describes the physical, emotional and psychological stages of development and relates specific issues, or developmental work or tasks, to each stage. For example, if an infant's physical and emotional needs are met sufficiently, the infant completes his/her task -- developing the ability to trust others. However, a person who is stymied in an attempt at task mastery may go on to the next state but carries with him or her the remnants of the unfinished task. For instance, if a toddler is not allowed to learn by doing, the toddler develops a sense of doubt in his or her abilities, which may complicate later attempts at independence. Similarly, a preschooler who is made to feel that the activities he or she initiates are bad may develop a sense of guilt that inhibits the person later in life. Infant Trust vs Mistrust-Needs maximum comfort with minimal uncertainty to trust himself/herself, others, and the environment

Toddler Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt-Works to master physical environment while maintaining self-esteem Preschooler Initiative vs Guilt-Begins to initiate, not imitate, activities; develops conscience and sexual identity School-Age Child Industry vs Inferiority-Tries to develop a sense of self-worth by refining skills Adolescent Identity vs Role Confusion-Tries integrating many roles (child, sibling, student, athlete, worker) into a self-image under role model and peer pressure Young Adult Intimacy vs Isolation-Learns to make personal commitment to another as spouse, parent or partner Middle-Age Adult Generativity vs Stagnation-Seeks satisfaction through productivity in career, family, and civic interests Older Adult Integrity vs Despair-Reviews life accomplishments, deals with loss and preparation for death � honolulu.hawaii.edu sigmund freud stages of dvelopment The first stage is the Oral Stage. It runs from birth to age 2. In the oral stage infants and toddler explored the world primarily with their most sensitive area, their mouths. They also learn to use their mouths to communicate. The next stage is the Anal Stage. In the anal stage, children learned to control the elimination of bodily wastes. The Phallic Stage (3-5 years of age) is probably the most controversial. The word phallic means penis-like. In this stage, children discover their sexual differences. The controversy comes from Freud's description of the Oedipus (for males) and Electra (for females) complexes, with their attendant concepts of castration anxiety and penis envy, respectively. Those complexes lead, according to Freudian theory, to normal differentiation of male and female personalities. The defense mechanism of repression was invoked to explain why no one could remember the events of this stage. The phallic stage is followed by a Latency Period in which little new development is observable. In this stage, boys play with boys, and girls with girls, typically. Sexual interest is low or non-existent. The final stage is the Genital Stage. It started around 12 years of age and ends with the climax of puberty. Sexual interests re-awaken at this time (there were sexual interests before, dormant and repressed from the phallic stage). - peace.saumag.edu dreams Freud maintained the notion that the dream fundamentally acts as the guardian of sleep. When we go to bed, the curtains are drawn, the lights are turned off and in effect we are attempting to disconnect from our reality by extinguishing all external stimuli. During the night, the mind protects the sleeper from being disturbed by reacting to further external stimuli (noise, temperature, light, the need to urinate, numb arm/leg, pain, etc) as well as all internal stimuli (emotions, fears, dissatisfaction, desires, previous day's activity) by manufacturing dreams. Freud's work was solely concerned with internal stimuli. Essentially, for a person to continue to sleep undisturbed strong negative emotions, forbidden thoughts and unconscious desires have to be disguised or censored in some form or another. Otherwise, confronted by these, the dreamer would become distressed and they would

eventually wake up. Therefore the dream, if understood correctly, could lead to a greater understanding of the dreamer's subconscious. Freud believed the dream to be composed of two parts. The manifest and the latent content. The manifest content can be thought of as what a person would remember as soon as they wake - what they would consciously describe to someone else when recalling the dream. Freud suggested that the manifest content possessed no meaning whatsoever because it was a disguised representation of the true thought underlying the dream. On the other hand, the latent content holds the true meaning of the dream - the forbidden thoughts and the unconscious desires. These appear in the manifest content but will be disguised and unrecognisable. Although in rare cases the manifest and latent content can be indistinguishable (Freud referred to these as 'Infantile dreams'). The process by which the latent content is transformed into the manifest content is known as the "dream work". The dream work can disguise and distort the latent thoughts in the following four ways: 1: Condensation: Two or more latent thoughts are combined to make up one manifest dream image or situation. 2: Displacement: Instead of directing the emotion or desire toward the intended person or object it is transferred onto a meaningless / unrelated object in the manifest dream. 3: Symbolism: Where complex or vague concepts are converted into a dream image. For this, the mind may use the image of a similar sounding (more recognisable) word instead or use a similar looking less intrusive object. According to Freud, dream symbols are for the most part sexual in meaning thus many dreams (but not all) have a sexual correlation. For example, Freud suggested that objects such as tree-trunks, ties, all weapons, sticks, balloons, rockets and other elongated objects were all symbols for the male organ/an erection. Where boxes, cases, chests, cupboards, ovens, suitcases and other hollow objects represented the female genitalia. A room usually signified a woman but so could the whole house, a door or the whole dream landscape. The simple act of walking up a staircase, steps or ladders could also signify a sexual act. Freud also had a fascination with symbols of castration, which he believed were represented in a dream by baldness, teeth falling out and the cutting of hair. In addition, the genitals could also be represented by another part of the body. For example, the male organ could be represented by a hand, the female organ represented by a mouth or an eye. This could therefore explain the reason why the causes of 'wet dreams' are usually never the result of a normal sexual act within a dream.-www.insomnium.co.uk Id, ego,super-ego The id represents biological forces. It is also a constant in the personality as it is always present. The id is governed by the "pleasure principle", or the notion of hedonism (the seeking of pleasure). Early in the development of his theory Freud saw sexual energy only, or the libido, or the life instinct, as the only source of energy for the id. It was this notion that gave rise to the popular conception that psychoanalysis was all about sex, sex, sex. After the carnage of World War I, however, Freud felt it necessary to add another instinct, or source of energy, to the id. So, he proposed thanatos, the death instinct. Thanatos accounts for the instinctual violent urges of humankind. Obviously, the rest of the personality would have somehow to deal with these two instincts. Notice how Hollywood has capitalized on the id. Box office success is highly correlated with movies that stress either sex, violence, or both. The ego is the surface of the personality, the part you show the world. The ego is governed by the "reality principle ," or a pragmatic approach to the world. For example, a child may want to snitch a cookie from the kitchen, but will not if a parent is present. Id desires are still present, but the ego realizes the consequences of brazen cookie theft. The ego develops with experience, and

accounts for developmental differences in behavior. For example, parents expect 3month infants to cry until fed, but, they also expect 3-year-olds to stop crying when told they will be fed. The superego consists of two parts, the conscience and the ego-ideal. The conscience is the familiar metaphor of angel and devil on each shoulder. The conscience decides what course of action one should take. The ego-ideal is an idealized view of one's self. Comparisons are made between the ego-ideal and one's actual behavior. Both parts of the super-ego develop with experience with others, or via social interactions. According to Freud, a strong super-ego serves to inhibit the biological instincts of the id, while a weak super-ego gives in to the id's urgings. Further, the levels of guilt in the two cases above will be high and low, respectively. The tripartite structure above was thought to be dynamic, changing with age and experience. Also, aspects of adult behavior such as smoking, neatness, and need for sexual behavior were linked to the various stages by fixation. To Freud, fixation is a measure of the effort required to travel through any particular stage, and great efforts in childhood were reflected in adult behavior. Fixation can also be interpreted as the learning of pattens or habits. Part of the criticism of psychoanalysis was that fixation could be interpreted in diametrically opposite fashion. For example, fixation in the anal stage could lead to excessive neatness or sloppiness. As noted earlier, Neil Simon's play, "The Odd Couple", is a celebration of anal fixation, with Oscar and Felix representing the two opposite ends of the fixation continuum (Oscar-sloppy, Felix-neat).peace.saumag.edu libido Libido is the term that the noted founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, used to label the sexual drive or sexual instinct. He noted that the sexual drive is characterized by a gradual buildup to a peak of intensity, followed by a sudden decrease of excitement. As he studied this process in his patients, Freud concluded that various activities like eating and drinking, as well as urination and defecation share this common pattern. Consequently, he regarded these behaviors as sexual or libidinous as well. Freud also became interested in the development of the libido, which he saw as the basic and most powerful human drive. He believed that the development of the libido involved several distinct and identifiable stages. Freud's Theory on How Libido Develops During infancy, he noted, sexual drive is focused on the mouth, primarily manifested in sucking. He labeled this the oral stage of libidinous development. During the second and third years of a child's life, as the child is undergoing toilet training, focus and erotically tinged pleasure shifts to rectal functions. Freud labeled this the anal stage. Later, during puberty, focus shifts again to the sex organs, a period of development he labeled the phallic stage in the maturation of the libido. During the later stage of development, libidinal drives focus at first on the parent of the opposite sex and add an erotic coloring to the child's experience of his/her parents. Parental disapproval of uncontrolled libidinal drive, Freud believed,leads to the development of a human psyche that is made up of three components; the id, the ego and the superego. He concluded that the id, or basic set of instincts and drives (including the libido but also other drives like aggression), provides the psychic energy needed to initiate activities. The ego, an executive function, directs the day-to-day fulfillment of libidinous and other desires in socially acceptable and achievable ways. The superego labels the learned and internalized social standards of behavior, including an awareness of banned or punishable behaviors. During wakeful periods, strong boundaries separate these three arenas, but during sleep and fantasy the boundaries weaken, giving rise to open expression of otherwise controlled libidinous desires. Conscious awareness of these unrestrained desires and

fantasies can cause the person to feel sexual guilt or shame. Freud believed that an individual's personality is established early on in life and is determined by the ways in which basic drives and impulses such as libido are satisfied. Failure to satisfy libidinal and other drives leads to their repression with resulting consequences for the development of an individual's personality and psychological health. - health.discovery.com Filipino psychologist Clarita Carlos is a respected political analyst and academician in the Philippines. She is currently President of the Center for Asia Pacific Studies Inc., and a full-time professor at the University of the Philippines, Diliman. Jose Arabe Fadul is a multi-awarded Filipino science education specialist, educational psychologist, academic, teacher, historian, and author known for his works in psychology and other subjects. Margarita Go-Singco Holmes, popularly known as Dr. Margie Holmes, is a popular psychologist specializing in sex therapy in the Philippines. Jaime T. Licauco, popularly known as Jimmy Licauco, is a renowned parapsychologist, author, and management practitioner in the Philippines. Visitacion Parado, who is better known by her screen name Tetchie Agbayani, is a Filipina movie and television actress, psychology instructor and former beauty queen and Playboy model. - en.wikipedia.org