Psy190 General Psychology

PSY190 General Psychology

Introduction We cannot learn without memory We cannot communicate without memory We cannot live without memory

Basic Memory Processes Encoding: The process of putting information into memory. Acoustic encoding represents information as sequences of sounds. Visual encoding represents information in the form of images. Semantic encoding represents the meaning of information. Storage: Holding information in memory over time. Retrieval: Pulling information out of memory and into

consciousness after it has been stored.

Types of Memory Episodic memory is the memory of a specific event

that happened while you were present. Ex: what you had for dinner yesterday

Semantic memory contains generalized knowledge

of the world that does not involve memory of a specific event. Ex: traffic rules

Procedural memory (skill memory) represents

knowledge of how to perform physical tasks. Ex: swimming

Explicit and Implicit Memory Explicit memory is the process of intentionally

trying to remember something. Ex: recall where did u go last week

Implicit memory is the unintentional influence

of prior experiences. Ex: solve a similar question faster

Explicit memory processes are much more

negatively affected by the passing of time than are implicit memory processes.

Models of Memory Information processing Levels of Processing Transfer-Appropriate Processing Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Multiple Memory Systems

Information-processing model Information need to pass through three

stages, sensory, short-term, and long-term memory, to be embedded in memory. Sensory memory- briefly retains the information from sensory organs Short-term memory-temporarily holds information in consciousness Long-term memory- can retain information for long periods of time Ex: see a phone number- use it- memorize it

Levels-of-processing model The levels-of-processing model suggests that what

and how well we remember are a function of how deeply information is processed or rehearsed and encoded when first experienced. Maintenance rehearsal is simply repeating an item over and over. Elaborative rehearsal is building associations or linkages between new and old information. Ex: associates phone number with date of birth requires a deeper level of processing; hence these

memories are stronger

Transfer-Appropriate Processing model The most important memory determinant is

how well the retrieval process matches the original encoding process. Ex: Studying for a multiple choice test but

taking an essay test

Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) PDP models suggest that new facts change

our knowledge base by altering interconnected networks, facts, and associations. These networks allow us to quickly and efficiently draw inferences and generalizations about new and old information. Ex: burger king- fast food (McD, KFC)-> food, environment, services

Multiple Memory Systems This approach suggests that the brain

contains several separate memory systems, each of which resides in a different area and serves a different purpose. Ex: Damage to hippocampus impairs

performance on test of explicit memory

Storing New Memories Sensory memory Information initially acquired from the environment via the sense organs and placed into a short-lasting memory Short-term memory (STM) receives the information that was

perceived and selectively attended to in sensory memory or retrieved from long-term memory. stores information for a very limited amount of time.

Working memory allows us to mentally work with information

held in short-term memory, making short-term memory a component of working memory.

Short-Term Memory and Working Memory (con’t) Encoding in STM. tend to use acoustic codes Visual codes tend to decay faster than acoustic codes. Storage Capacity of STM. It is usually seven plus or minus two chunks of information. The Power of Chunking. Duration of STM. Brown-Peterson procedure: about eighteen seconds.

Long-Term Memory Encoding in LTM. the result of a deep level of conscious processing and usually involves some form of semantic coding. Visual codes are also used to encode long-term memories. Storage Capacity of LTM. Most theorists believe that there is no limit long-term memories are likely to be distorted. 

Flashbulb memories-vivid collections of personally significant events (can be distorted as well)

Retrieving Memories Retrieval Cues and Encoding Specificity Retrieval cues help retrieve information from longterm memory. Encoding specificity principle: Cues are more efficient when they match some feature of the information originally encoded. Context and State Dependence context dependence: When people remember more material while in a physical location that is similar to the one where the material was originally learned. state dependence: people remember better when their psychological state is the same as it was when the information was encoded.

Retrieving Memories (con’t)

Retrieval from Semantic Memory semantic memories are represented in a dense network of hierarchical associations. Strong associations and/or those at the top of the hierarchy are quickly retrieved. Network theory suggests that information is retrieved through a spreading activation process; 

Ex: Baskin Robin -> ice cream

Retrieving Incomplete Knowledge. Ex: the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon retrieve features and attributes of a concept but cannot access the entire concept.

Constructing Memories

People construct memories from their existing

knowledge to fill in gaps in new information that is being encoded. Post-event memory reconstruction Add new information to a memory that is suggested

to us by others Change the memory when we revisit it in our minds Generate interferences and store them as part of our memory Strip away information that does not seem to make sense 

Ex: how fast were the cars going when they smashed/hit/contacted into each other?

Improving Your Memory Mnemonics. strategies for remembering information. The method of loci associates well-known locations with information to be remembered. Guidelines for More Effective Studying. Organizing information and elaborate the new information and associate it with related knowledge you already possess. Reading a Textbook. understand and remember (PQ4R- preview, question, read, reflect, recite, and review).

Tutorial Question 5 You eyewitnessed a robbery. When you are

asked to recall the robber, you tell the police officers that the robber is a 20s-somehting young man with tattoos and dyed golden yellow hair. In fact, the robber is a 40ssomething-man with black hair and has no tattoos. Explain the reason(s) you distorted the memory.