PSY190 General Psychology
Introduction We cannot learn without memory We cannot communicate without memory We cannot live without memory
Basic Memory Processes Encoding: The process of putting information into memory. Acoustic encoding represents information as sequences of sounds. Visual encoding represents information in the form of images. Semantic encoding represents the meaning of information. Storage: Holding information in memory over time. Retrieval: Pulling information out of memory and into
consciousness after it has been stored.
Types of Memory Episodic memory is the memory of a specific event
that happened while you were present. Ex: what you had for dinner yesterday
Semantic memory contains generalized knowledge
of the world that does not involve memory of a specific event. Ex: traffic rules
Procedural memory (skill memory) represents
knowledge of how to perform physical tasks. Ex: swimming
Explicit and Implicit Memory Explicit memory is the process of intentionally
trying to remember something. Ex: recall where did u go last week
Implicit memory is the unintentional influence
of prior experiences. Ex: solve a similar question faster
Explicit memory processes are much more
negatively affected by the passing of time than are implicit memory processes.
Models of Memory Information processing Levels of Processing Transfer-Appropriate Processing Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Multiple Memory Systems
Information-processing model Information need to pass through three
stages, sensory, short-term, and long-term memory, to be embedded in memory. Sensory memory- briefly retains the information from sensory organs Short-term memory-temporarily holds information in consciousness Long-term memory- can retain information for long periods of time Ex: see a phone number- use it- memorize it
Levels-of-processing model The levels-of-processing model suggests that what
and how well we remember are a function of how deeply information is processed or rehearsed and encoded when first experienced. Maintenance rehearsal is simply repeating an item over and over. Elaborative rehearsal is building associations or linkages between new and old information. Ex: associates phone number with date of birth requires a deeper level of processing; hence these
memories are stronger
Transfer-Appropriate Processing model The most important memory determinant is
how well the retrieval process matches the original encoding process. Ex: Studying for a multiple choice test but
taking an essay test
Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) PDP models suggest that new facts change
our knowledge base by altering interconnected networks, facts, and associations. These networks allow us to quickly and efficiently draw inferences and generalizations about new and old information. Ex: burger king- fast food (McD, KFC)-> food, environment, services
Multiple Memory Systems This approach suggests that the brain
contains several separate memory systems, each of which resides in a different area and serves a different purpose. Ex: Damage to hippocampus impairs
performance on test of explicit memory
Storing New Memories Sensory memory Information initially acquired from the environment via the sense organs and placed into a short-lasting memory Short-term memory (STM) receives the information that was
perceived and selectively attended to in sensory memory or retrieved from long-term memory. stores information for a very limited amount of time.
Working memory allows us to mentally work with information
held in short-term memory, making short-term memory a component of working memory.
Short-Term Memory and Working Memory (con’t) Encoding in STM. tend to use acoustic codes Visual codes tend to decay faster than acoustic codes. Storage Capacity of STM. It is usually seven plus or minus two chunks of information. The Power of Chunking. Duration of STM. Brown-Peterson procedure: about eighteen seconds.
Long-Term Memory Encoding in LTM. the result of a deep level of conscious processing and usually involves some form of semantic coding. Visual codes are also used to encode long-term memories. Storage Capacity of LTM. Most theorists believe that there is no limit long-term memories are likely to be distorted.
Flashbulb memories-vivid collections of personally significant events (can be distorted as well)
Retrieving Memories Retrieval Cues and Encoding Specificity Retrieval cues help retrieve information from longterm memory. Encoding specificity principle: Cues are more efficient when they match some feature of the information originally encoded. Context and State Dependence context dependence: When people remember more material while in a physical location that is similar to the one where the material was originally learned. state dependence: people remember better when their psychological state is the same as it was when the information was encoded.
Retrieving Memories (con’t)
Retrieval from Semantic Memory semantic memories are represented in a dense network of hierarchical associations. Strong associations and/or those at the top of the hierarchy are quickly retrieved. Network theory suggests that information is retrieved through a spreading activation process;
Ex: Baskin Robin -> ice cream
Retrieving Incomplete Knowledge. Ex: the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon retrieve features and attributes of a concept but cannot access the entire concept.
Constructing Memories
People construct memories from their existing
knowledge to fill in gaps in new information that is being encoded. Post-event memory reconstruction Add new information to a memory that is suggested
to us by others Change the memory when we revisit it in our minds Generate interferences and store them as part of our memory Strip away information that does not seem to make sense
Ex: how fast were the cars going when they smashed/hit/contacted into each other?
Improving Your Memory Mnemonics. strategies for remembering information. The method of loci associates well-known locations with information to be remembered. Guidelines for More Effective Studying. Organizing information and elaborate the new information and associate it with related knowledge you already possess. Reading a Textbook. understand and remember (PQ4R- preview, question, read, reflect, recite, and review).
Tutorial Question 5 You eyewitnessed a robbery. When you are
asked to recall the robber, you tell the police officers that the robber is a 20s-somehting young man with tattoos and dyed golden yellow hair. In fact, the robber is a 40ssomething-man with black hair and has no tattoos. Explain the reason(s) you distorted the memory.