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Transculturation is a term coined by Cuban anthropologist Fernando Ortiz in 1947 to describe the phenomenon of merging and converging cultures.

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2 Concepts 2.1 Homogenization versus ethnoconvergence 2.2 Obstacles to ethnoconvergence 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References

Definition

[edit]

The Cuban ethnographer Fernando Ortiz first coined the term transculturation in 1940 in his influential study of Cuban culture, Contrapunteo cubano del tabaco y del azúcar. Ortiz explains the use of his neologism as follows: I am of the opinion that the word transculturation better expresses the different phases of the process of transition from one culture to another because this does not consist merely in acquiring another culture, which is what the English word acculturation really implies, but the process also necessarily involves the loss or uprooting of a previous culture, which could be defined as a deculturation. In addition it carries the idea of the consequent creation of new cultural phenomena, which could be called neoculturation.[1]

Ortiz also referred to the devastating impact of Spanish colonialism on Cuba's indigenous peoples as a "failed transculturation." In simple terms, transculturation reflects the natural tendency of people (in general) to resolve conflicts over time, rather than exacerbating them. In the modern context, both conflicts and resolutions are amplified by communication and transportation technology —the ancient tendency of cultures drifting or remaining apart has been replaced by stronger forces for bringing societies together. Where tranculturation impacts ethnicity and ethnic issues the term "ethnoconvergence" is sometimes used. In one general sense, transculturation covers war, ethnic conflict, racism, multiculturalism, crossculturalism, interracial marriage, and any other of a number of contexts that deal with more than one culture. In the other general sense, transculturation is one aspect of global phenomena and human events. The general processes of transculturation are extremely complex—steered by powerful forces at the macrosocial level, yet ultimately resolved at the interpersonal level. The driving force for conflict is simple proximity -- boundaries, once separating people (providing for a measure of isolation) become the issue

of a conflict when societies encroach upon one another territorially. If a means to co-exist cannot be immediately found, then conflicts can be hostile, leading to a process by which contact between individuals leads to some resolution. Often, history shows us, the processes of co-existence begins with hostilities, and with the natural passing of polarist individuals, comes the passing of their polarist sentiments, and soon some resolution is achieved. Degrees of hostile conflict vary from outright genocidal conquest, to lukewarm infighting between differing political views within the same ethnic community.[citation needed]

Concepts

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Where attempts are made to keep a cultural identity "pure," the realities of social change, via natural and artificial means, dictate that cultures do not remain "pure" and never were "pure" in the first place, but are destined to change. It is the perception of individuals within cultures that their cultures do not in fact change fundamentally over time. Human mortality and reproduction provides for social regeneration as well, and by this process of regeneration, which naturally includes sexual union, other cultures are often integrated. The inability of societies to maintain divisions over generations, despite attempts to engrain divisive elements, is reflective of this. As parents die, their children have the opportunity to reflect upon the nature and validity of established non-convergent precepts, and change them if they like. These changes often represent differences between homeland pons, and their diasporic communities abroad. Nevertheless, obstacles to ethnoconvergence are not great. The primary issue; language, (hence, communication and education) can, be overcome within a single generation - as is evident in the easy acclimation of children of foreign parents. English, for example, is spoken by more non-AngloAmerican people than Anglo-Americans, making it the current lingua-franca, the worldwide de facto standard international language.

Homogenization versus ethnoconvergence

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It has been observed that even in monolingual, industrial societies like urban North America, some individuals do cling to a "modernized" primordial identity, apart from others. Some intellectuals, such as Michael Ignatieff, argue that convergence of a general culture does not directly entail a similar convergence in ethnic identities. This can become evident in social situations, where people divide into separate groups, despite being of an identical "super-ethnicity", such as nationality. Within each smaller ethnicity, individuals may tend to see it perfectly justified to assimilate with other cultures, and some others view assimilation as wrong and incorrect for their culture. This common theme, representing dualist opinions of ethnoconvergence itself, within a single ethnic group is often manifested in issues of sexual partners and matrimony, employment preferences, etc. These varied opinions of ethnoconvergence represent themselves in a spectrum; assimilation, homogenization, acculturation, and cultural compromise are commonly used terms for ethnoconvegence which flavor the issues to a bias. Often it's in a secular, multi-ethnic environment that cultural concerns are both minimalised and exaccerbated; Ethnic prides are boasted, hierarchy is created ("center" culture versus "periphery") but on the other hand, they will still share a common "culture", and common language and behaviours. Often the elderly, more conservative-in-association of a clan, tend to reject cross-cultural associations, and participate in ethnically similar community-oriented activities. Xenophobes tend to think of cross-cultural contact as a component of assimilation, and see this as harmful.

Obstacles to ethnoconvergence

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The obstacle to ethnoconvergence is ethnocentrism, which is the view that one's culture is of greater importance than another's.' Ethnocentrism often takes different forms, as it is a highly personal bias, and manifests itself in countless aspects of culture. Religion, or belief, is the prime ethnocentric divider. Second is custom, which may overlap religion. With the adherence to each distinct component, comes the repulsion of the other. In most regions, ethnic divides are binary, meaning only two distinct cultures

are present, each seeing the other as foreign. Many, however make the point that the binary example is the exception, and the norm is far more dynamic. We can divide ethnicity into two distinct areas, as they relate to ethnoconvergence: Utilitarian traits, and traditional customs. Religion, on the other hand, is a highly personal and attached part of culture. However, religion does not neatly correspond with ethnic identity. In many cosmopolitan societies, religion is everything - social, utilitarian, intellectual, political; from the point of view of people of immersed cultures; The very concept of ethnicity and its distinctions is incongruous to their immersed concepts. In many societies, such as in those in Europe, languages are considered a significant component of ethnic values. This does not mean that most Europeans reject learning other languages. Quite the contrary, Europeans are often polyglots, and may label other individuals by their ethnicities; practical means of distinguishing cultures may resemble tendencies similar to ethnocentrism. However, the political and cultural significance of regional or national languages are retained due to the fact that these polyglots conform to the linguistic norms of the place they visit - doing "as the Romans do". Thus, conforming to the "ethnic integrity" of the region. It has even become a cliché that "to learn a new language is to adopt a new soul". There are many other examples of the essential significance of language. In pre-Russian Siberia, Tatar-Mongol colonists in the Taiga often recognized indigenous speakers of Turkic languages as their "own people" and non-Turkic groups as "foreigners", despite these indigenous groups having a similar level of material culture, and sharing much of a primitive culture with tribes foreign to the Muslim-Buddhist Tatar-Mongols.

See also

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Acculturation Enculturation Cross-cultural Intercultural relations Intercultural competence Multiculturalism Ángel Rama

Notes 1.

[edit]

^ Ortiz 1995, p. 102-103

References

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Allatson, Paul (2007), Key Terms in Latino/a Cultural And Literary Studies, Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell, ISBN 1405102500. Duno-Gottberg, Luis. (2003). Solventando las diferencias: La ideología del mestizaje en Cuba, Iberoamericana – Frankfurt am Main, Vervuert, Madrid. Ortiz, Fernando (1995), Cuban Counterpoint: Tobacco and Sugar, Durham, NC: Duke University Press, ISBN 0-8223-1616-1. Trans. Harriet de Onís. Categories: Culture terms | Human migration | Cultural geography | Multiculturalism | Cultural studies

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It may require general cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Tagged since July 2008. Acculturation is the exchange of cultural features that results when groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous first hand contact; the original cultural

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patterns of either or both groups may be altered, but the groups remain distinct.[1] (Kottak 2007) However, anthropologist Franz Boas (1888, pp. 631-632) argued that all people acculturate, not only "savages" and minorities: "It is not too much to say that there is no people whose customs have developed uninfluenced by foreign culture, that has not borrowed arts and ideas which it has developed in its own way", giving the example that "the steel harpoon used by American and Scotch whalers is a slightly modified imitation of the Eskimo harpoon".

Subsequently, anthropologists Redfield, Linton and Herskovits (1936, p. 149) developed the oft quoted definition: "Acculturation comprehends those phenomena which result when groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact, with subsequent changes in the original culture patterns of either or both groups".

Despite definitions and evidence that acculturation entails two-way processes of change, research and theory have continued with a focus on the adjustments and changes experienced by minorities in response to their contact with the dominant majority.

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Thus, acculturation can be conceived to be the processes of cultural learning imposed upon minorities by the fact of being minorities. If enculturation is first-culture learning, then acculturation is second-culture learning. This has often been conceived to be a unidimensional, zero-sum cultural conflict in which the minority's culture is displaced by the dominant group's culture in a process of assimilation. The traditional definition sometimes differentiates between acculturation by an individual (transculturation) and that by a group usually very large (acculturation). Additionally, "acculturation" has been used by Matusevich as a term describing the paradigm shift public schools must undergo in order to successfully integrate emerging technologies in a meaningful way into classrooms (Matusevich, 1995). The old and the new additional definitions have a boundary that blurs in modern multicultural societies, where a child of an immigrant family might be encouraged to acculturate both the dominant also well as the ancestral culture, either of which may be considered the child's development.

Portrait of Native Americans from the Cherokee, Cheyenne, Choctaw, Comanche, Iroquois, and Muscogee tribes in American attire. Photos dates from 1868 to 1924.

"foreign", but in fact, they are both integral parts of

Beginning perhaps with Child (1943) and Lewin (1948), acculturation began to be conceived as the strategic reaction of the minority to continuous contact with the dominant group. See Rudmin's 2003 tabulation of acculturation theories.[1] Thus, there are several options the minority can choose, each with different motivations and different consequences. These options include assimilation to the majority culture, a defensive assertion of the minority culture, a bicultural blending of the two cultures, a bicultural alternation between cultures depending on contexts, or a diminishment of both cultures. Following Berry's (1980; 2003) terminology, four major options or strategies are now commonly called assimilation, separation, integration, and marginalization. Acculturative stress refers to the psychological, somatic, and social difficulties that may accompany acculturation processes.This was first noted by Redfield, Linton and Herskovits (1936, p. 152), calling it "psychic conflict" that may arise from conflicting cultural norms. Born (1970) and Berry (1980) have theorized that acculturative stress is a fundamental psychological force in acculturative processes. Ausbel (1960) first measured "acculturative stress", and many have since claimed that it is a significant problem for many minority people (e.g., Berry, Kim, Minde & Mok, 1983 [2] ; Burnam, Hough, Karno, Escobar & Telles, 1987; Hovey, 2000). However, many studies have found no evidence that acculturation is distressful (e.g., Inkeles, 1969[3] ; Rudmin, 2006[4] ). In fact, in a study of 55 samples in 13 nations, Sam, Vedder, Ward and Horenczyk (2006, pp. 127-130) found that immigrant adolescents had better mental health than their non-immigrant classmates. Contents 1 Group foreign-origin acculturation 2 Transculturation 3 Native-origin acculturation 4 History of acculturation 5 Cultural appropriation 6 Cultural imperialism

7 Interactive acculturation 8 See also 9 References 10 External links

Group foreign-origin acculturation

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Massive intake of another culture's traits is the most classical and narrow definition of "acculturation". Such acculturation may be adequately adapted into another's, modernizing and advancing it through the inflow of technology or the enrichment of literature. For example, The Chinese written language (Hanzi) was taken, with various degrees of modification by places that previously have no written records: Japan (as Kanji), Korea (as Hanja), and Vietnam (as Chữ-nôm). In addition, Chinese vocabulary had also been taken throughout the history. They have therefore developed a linguistic affinity in several, though not nearly all, aspects—called the CJKV language family in computer science. But sometimes, the acculturation has irreversible impact of damaging the recipient culture, as in the cases of: Many indigenous peoples, such as First Nations of Canada, Native Americans of the USA, Taiwanese aborigines, and Australian Aborigines -- have mostly lost their traditional culture (most evidently language) and replaced by that of the dominant new culture. The term has most often described as Westernization, Natives having adopted Western cultures. The founders of Liberia were the descendants, just a few generations removed, of African ancestors who had a completely African culture; yet they have fully taken up the white-dominated cultural values of the early 19th Century United States (specifically, of the then dominant Whig Party), to the extent that their settlement in Africa and rule over the native population there were clearly in the manner of foreign colonizers rather than of "Africans returning home". Pidgin is a mixed language that has developed to help communication between members of different cultures in contact. This usually occurs in situations of trade or colonialism. Pidgin English is a simplified form of English. It blends English grammar with that of a native language. This was first used in Chinese ports and similar have developed in Papua New Guinea and West Africa. In situations of continuous contact, cultures have exchanged and blended foods, recipes, music, dances, clothing, tools, and technologies.

Transculturation

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Main article: Transculturation Transculturation, or individual foreign-origin acculturation, is on a smaller scale with less visible impact. This most often occurs to first-generation immigrants, for whom transculturation is most difficult, due to the lack of precedents in the family. The speed of transculturation varies, depending on the recipient's interest and the presence of a motivation. Another common, but less lasting, acculturation effects occur after a traveler spent a while in a foreign place. S/he may pick up some regional vocabulary, especially if the languages are in the same family.

Native-origin acculturation

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A child may learn one or more traditions(multicultural family of immigrants) from birth, usually from the family (blood or adopted), in particularly the parents. Inevitably, with each generation, the dominant culture becomes more and more the dominantly accultured one for the immigrants' descendants. A good example of native origin acculturation would be the Inuit, these people started to share their traditions when the Canadian Government went to the Arctic.

History of acculturation

[edit]

Early written codes of law, for example, the Old Testament law of Moses, or the Babylonian law of Hammurabi, acted to stabilize cultural practices and reduce acculturative changes. Probably the first academic account of acculturation appears in Plato's, Laws [5] written in the 4th century BC, in which he argued that humans have a tendency to imitate strangers and a tendency to like to travel, both of which introduce new cultural practices. Plato argued that this should be minimized to the degree possible. J.W. Powell is credited with coining the word "acculturation," first using it in an 1880 report by the US Bureau of American Ethnography. In 1883, Powell defined "acculturation" to be the psychological changes induced by cross-cultural imitation. The first psychological study of acculturation was probably Thomas and Znaniecki's 1918 study of The Polish Peasant in Europe and America. [6] Since then, scholars in different disciplines have developed more than 100 different theories of acculturation. [7] Paul Campisi, in 1947, was the first to make a "A Scale for the Measurement of Acculturation". Histories of acculturation theory have been written (in chronological order) by Sarah Simons (1901), Isaac Berkson (1920), W. D. Borrie (1959), Guido Baglioni (1964),[8] Harold Abramson (1980), and Floyd Rudmin (2003a; b; 2006).[9]

Cultural appropriation

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Main article: Cultural appropriation Cultural appropriation is the adoption of some specific elements of one culture by a different cultural group. It can include the introduction of forms of dress or personal adornment, music and art, religion, language, or behavior. These elements are typically imported into the existing culture, and may have wildly different meanings or lack the subtleties of their original cultural context. Because of this, cultural appropriation is sometimes viewed negatively, and has been called "cultural theft."

Cultural imperialism

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Main article: Cultural imperialism Cultural imperialism is the practice of promoting the culture or language of one nation in another. It is usually the case that the former is a large, economically or militarily powerful nation and the latter is a smaller, less affluent one. Cultural imperialism can take the form of an active, formal policy or a general attitude.

Interactive acculturation

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Main article: Interactive acculturation Interactive acculturation is an amalgam of theories that attempt to explain the acculturation process within a framework of state policies and the dynamic interplay of host community and immigrant acculturation orientations. In the late 1990s a team composed of Richard Y. Bourhis, Lena Celine Moise, Stephane Perreault, and Sacha Senecal first postulated a theory in a journal of psychology article entitled "Towards an Interactive Acculturation Model: A Social Psychological Approach". The premise of the model expounds on some of the earlier work by academics like Young, Padilla and Graves but emphasizes a new angle of interest: the structural host nation policies and subsequent sociopsychological effect as well as the dynamics between immigrant populations and the host culture they move into.

See also

[edit] The length of this "see also" section may adversely affect

readability. Please ensure that the "see also" links are not mentioned elsewhere in the article, are not red links, are as few in number and as relevant as possible. (July 2009) Acculturation Psychology Colonialism Colorism Creolization Cultural assimilation Cultural identity Colonial mentality Cultural Alienation Cultural cringe Enculturation Ethnocide Globalization Intercultural competence Language shift Melting pot Passing (racial identity) Paper Bag Party Race Racialism Racism Social interpretations of race Syncretism Westernization

References

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Abramson, H. (1980). Assimilation and pluralism. In S. Thernstrom (Ed.), Harvard encyclopedia of American ethnic groups (pp. 150-160). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Baglioni, G. (1964). Trends in the studies on the socio-cultural integration of immigrants. International Migration Digest, 1, 125-128. Berkson, I. B. (1969). Theories of acculturation: A critical study. New York: Arno Press. (Original work published in 1920.) Berry, J. W. (1980). Social and cultural change. In H. C. Triandis, & R. W. Brislin (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Social psychology (vol. 5, pp. 211-279). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Berry, J. W. (2003). Conceptual approaches to acculturation. In K. M. Chun, P. B. Organista, & G. Marín (Eds.), Acculturation: Advances in theory, measurement and applied research (pp. 17-37). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Assoc. Berry, J. W., Kim, U., Minde, T., & Mok, D. (1987). Comparative studies of acculturative stress. International Migration Review, 21, 491-511. Boas, F. (1940). The aims of ethnology. Reprinted in F. Boas, Race, language, and culture (pp. 626638). New York: Macmillan. (Originally published in 1888.) Born, D. O. (1970). Psychological adaptation and development under acculturative stress. Social Science and Medicine, 3, 529-547. Borrie, W. D. (1959). The cultural integration of immigrants: A survey based upon the papers and proceedings of the UNESCO Conference held in Havana, April 1956. New York: Columbia University Press. Burnham, M. A., Hough, R. L., Karno, M., Escobar, J. I., & Telles, C. A. (1987). Acculturation and lifetime prevalence of psychiatric disorders among Mexican Americans in Los Angeles. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 28, 89-102.

Child, I .L. (1970). Italian or American? The second generation in conflict. New York: Russell & Russell. (Original work published 1943.) Hovey, J. D. (2000). Psychosocial predictors of depression among Central American immigrants. Psychological Reports, 86, 1237-1240. Inkeles, A. (1969). Making men modern: On the causes and consequences of individual change in sex developing countries. American Journal of Sociology, 75, 208-225. Kottak, Conrad Phillip (2005) Windows on Humanity, pages 209, 423. McGraw Hill, New York. Lewin, K. (1948). Resolving social conflicts. New York: Harper & Row. Metusevich, Meliss. "School Reform: What Role can Technology Play in a Constructivist Setting?." May 1995 1-8. July 18 2006 http://pixel.cs.vt.edu/edu/fis/techcons.html Redfield R., Linton R., Herskovits M.J. (1936) Memorandum for the Study of Acculturation. American Anthropologist, Vol. 38, No. 1, 149-152. Rudmin, F. W. (2003a). Critical history of the acculturation psychology of assimilation, separation, integration, and marginalization. Review of General Psychology, 7, 3-37. Rudmin, F. W. (2003b). Field notes from the quest for the first use of "acculturation". Cross-Cultural Psychology Bulletin, 37 (4), 24-31. Rudmin, F. W. (2006) Debate in science: The case of acculturation. In AnthroGlobe Journal. Retrieved March 17, 2007 from http://malinowski.kent.ac.uk/docs/rudminf_acculturation_061204.pdf Sam, D. L., Vedder, P., Ward, C., & Hoarenczyk, G. (2006). Psychological and sociocultural adaptation of immigrant youth. In J. W. Berry, J. S. Phinney, D. L. Sam, & P. Vedder. (Eds.), Immigrant youth in cultural transition: Acculturation, identity and adaptation across national contexts ( pp. 117-141). London: Lawrence Erlbaum. Simons, S. (1901). Social assimilation. Parts I, II, III, IV & V. American Journal of Sociology, 6, 790822; 7, 53-79, 234-248, 386-404, 539-556. 1.

^ Redfield, R., Linto, R., & Herkovits, M.J. (1936). Memorandum on the study of acculturation. American Anthropologist, 56, 973-1002

External links

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Examples of traditional definition : Palomar Community College Part II Catalog of acculturation theories From Paris to Cairo: Resistance of the Unacculturated

by Adel Iskandar and Hakem Rustom

Categories: Cultural studies | Social psychology

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Enculturation is the process by which a person learns the requirements of the culture by which he or she is surrounded, and acquires values and behaviours that are appropriate or necessary in that culture. [1]

As part of this process, the influences which limit, direct, or shape the individual (whether deliberately or not) include parents, other adults, and peers.[1] If successful, enculturation results in competence in the language, values and rituals of the culture.[1] The process of enculturation is related to socialization. In some academic fields, socialization refers to the deliberate shaping of the individual, in others, the word may be used to cover both deliberate and informal enculturation.[1] Conrad Phillip Kottak (in Window on Humanity ) writes: Enculturation is the process where the culture that is currently established teaches an individual the accepted norms and values of the culture or society in which the individual lives. The individual can become an accepted member and fulfill the needed functions and roles of the group. Most importantly the individual knows and establishes a context of boundaries and accepted behavior that dictates what is acceptable and not acceptable within the framework of that society. It teaches the individual their role within society as well as what is accepted behavior within that society and lifestyle" Enculturation can be conscious or unconscious, therefore can support both the Marxist and the hegemonic arguments. There are three ways a person learns a culture. Direct teaching of a culture is done, this is what happens when you don't pay attention, mostly by the parents , when a person is told to do something because it is right and to not do something because it is bad. For example, when children ask for something, they are constantly asked "What do you say?" and the child is expected to remember to say "please." The second conscious way a person learns a culture is to watch others around them and to emulate their behavior. An example would be using different slang with different cliques in school. Enculturation also happens unconsciously, through events and behaviors that prevail in their culture. All three kinds of culturation happen simultaneously and all the time. Enculturation helps mold a person into an acceptable member of society. Culture influences everything that a person does, whether they are aware of it or not. Enculturation is a lifelong process that helps unify people. Even as a culture changes, core beliefs, values, worldviews, and child-rearing practices stay the same. How many times has a parent said "If all your friends jumped off a bridge, would you?" when their child wanted to fit in with the crowd? Both are playing roles in the enculturation. The child wants to be included in the subculture of their peers, and the parent wants to instill individualism in the child, through direct teaching. Not only does one become encultured, but also makes someone else encultured.

Enculturation is sometimes referred to as acculturation, a word which recently has been used to more distinctively refer only to exchanges of cultural features with foreign cultures. Note that this is a recent development, as acculturation in some literatures has the same meaning as enculturation. Acclimation is adaption to the physical environment, such as to the local climate. When used less strictly, these terms are nearly synonymous: acclimation, acculturation, and enculturation. Socialization in the study of animal and human behavior is the process by which human beings or animals learn to adopt the behavior patterns of the community in which they live.

Education is a social science that encompasses teaching and learning specific knowledge, beliefs, and skills. Formal education may play a role in enculturation, even though there may be multi-cultural goals.

See also

[edit]

Acculturation

Norm (philosophy)

Civil society

Norm (sociology)

Dual inheritance theory

Peer pressure

Intercultural competence

Socialization

Mores

Transculturation

Notes 1.

[edit]

^ a b c d Grusec, Joan E.; Hastings, Paul D. "Handbook of Socialization: Theory and Research", 2007, Guilford Press; ISBN 1593853327, 9781593853327; at page 547.

Grace, Lindsay. "Handbook of Research on Computational Arts and Creative Informatics: The Challenge of Enculturation in the Arts, 2009, IGI Global Press; ISBN 9781605663524; 312-324.

External links

[edit]

Enculturation and Acculturation Community empowerment Concepts of moral character, historical and contemporary

(Stanford Encyc. of Philosophy)

Categories: Cultural studies | Sociology

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Intercultural competence is the ability of successful communication with people of other cultures. A person who is interculturally competent captures and understands, in interaction with people from foreign cultures, their specific concepts in perception, thinking, feeling and acting. Earlier experiences are considered, free from prejudices; there is an interest and motivation to continue learning.

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1 Cross-cultural Competence 2 Basics 3 Typical examples of cultural differences 4 Requirements 5 Cultural differences 6 Assessment 6.1 Assessment Instruments 7 Criticisms 8 References 9 See also

Cross-cultural Competence

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Cross-cultural competence (3C), another term for inter-cultural competence, has generated its own share of contradictory and confusing definitions, due to the wide variety of academic approaches and professional fields attempting to achieve it for their own ends. One author identified no fewer than eleven different terms with some equivalence to 3C: cultural savvy, astuteness, appreciation, literacy or fluency, adaptability, terrain, expertise, competency, awareness, intelligence, and understanding[1]. Organizations from fields as diverse as business, health care, government security and developmental aid agencies, academia, and non-governmental organizations have all sought to leverage 3C in one guise or another, often with poor results due to a lack of rigorous study of the phenomenon and reliance on “common sense” approaches based on the culture developing the 3C models in the first place [1]. The U.S. Army Research Institute, which is currently engaged in a study of the phenomenon, defines 3C as: “A set of cognitive, behavioral, and affective/motivational components that enable individuals to adapt effectively in intercultural environments” [2]. Cross-cultural competence does not operate in a vacuum, however. One theoretical construct posits that 3C, language proficiency, and regional knowledge are distinct skills that are inextricably linked, but to varying degrees depending on the context in which they are employed. In educational settings, Bloom’s affective and cognitive taxonomies [3][4] serve as an effective framework to describe the overlap area between the three disciplines: at the receiving and knowledge levels 3C can operate with near independence from language proficiency or regional knowledge, but as one approaches the internalizing and evaluation levels the required overlap area approaches totality.

Basics

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Cultures can be different not only between continents or nations, but also within the same company or even family. (geographical, ethnical, moral, ethical, religious, political, historical) resp. cultural affiliation or cultural identity.

Typical examples of cultural differences The perception is different and often selective [1]

[edit]

:

Behavior and gestures are interpreted differently: Showing the thumb held upwards in certain parts of the world means "everything's ok", while it is understood in some Islamic countries (as well as Sardinia) as a rude sexual sign. Additionally, the thumb is held up to signify "one" in France and certain other European countries, where the index finger is used to signify "one" in other cultures.[5][6] "Everything ok" is shown in western European countries, especially between pilots and divers, with the sign of the thumb and forefinger forming an "O". This sign, especially when fingers are curled, means in Korea and Japan "now we may talk about money"[citation needed], in southern France the contrary ("nothing, without any value"), in Greece and Turkey however it is an indecent sexual sign implying the anus of the person signalled to. In Brazil, it is considered rude, especially if performed with the three extended figures shown horizontally to the floor while the other two fingers form an O. In the Americas as well as in Arabic countries the pauses between words are usually not too long, while in India and Japan pauses can give a contradictory sense to the spoken words. Enduring silence is perceived as comfortable in India and Japan, while in Europe, North America and Australia it may cause insecurity and embarrassment. Scandinavians, by the standards of other Western cultures, are more tolerant of silent breaks during conversations. If invited to dinner, in some Asian countries it is well-mannered to leave right after the dinner: the ones who don’t leave may indicate they have not eaten enough. In the Indian sub-continent, Europe, Australia, South America, and North American countries this is considered rude, indicating that the guest only wanted to eat but wouldn’t enjoy the company with the hosts.[citation needed] In Mediterranean European countries, Latin America, and Sub-Saharan Africa, it is normal, or at least widely tolerated, to arrive half an hour late for a dinner invitation, whereas in Germany and in the United States this would be considered very rude.[citation needed] In Africa, Arab cultures, and certain countries in South America[citation needed] (not in Brazil), saying to a female friend one has not seen for a while that she has put on weight means she is physically healthier than before, whereas this would be considered an insult in India, Europe, North America, Australia, and Brazil. In Africa and Asian countries, avoiding eye contact or looking at the ground when talking to one's parents, an elder, or someone of higher social status is a sign of respect. In contrast, these same actions are signals of deception or shame (on the part of the doer) in North America, Australia and most of Europe. In Persian and Pakistani culture, if a person offers an item (i.e a drink), it is customary to not instantly accept it. A sort of role play forms with the person offering being refused several times out of politeness before their offering is

accepted. This tradition is known as 'tarof' (or taarof) or 'takaluf' which in Persian literally means 'offer'. A similar exchange happens in many countries, such as India.[7] In many other cultures, it would be considered polite for the person offering to only ask once, so as to respect the other person's wish when the offer is declined. In African, South American and Mediterranean cultures, talking and laughing loudly in the streets and public places is widely accepted, whereas in some Asian cultures it is considered rude and may be seen as a mark of selfcenteredness or attention-seeking.

Requirements

[edit]

Basic needs are sensitivity and self-consciousness: the understanding of other behaviors and ways of thinking as well as the ability to express one’s own point of view in a transparent way with the aim to be understood and respected by staying flexible where this is possible, and being clear where this is necessary. It is a balance, situatively adapted, between three parts: 1. knowledge (about other cultures, people, nations, behaviors…), 2. empathy (understanding feelings and needs of other people), and 3. self-confidence (knowing what I want, my strengths and weaknesses, emotional stability).

Cultural differences

[edit]

Cultural characteristics can be differentiated between several dimensions and aspects (the ability to perceive them and to cope with them is one of the bases of intercultural competence), such as: Collectivist and individualist cultures; Masculine and feminine cultures; Uncertainty avoidance; Power distance; Chronemics: Monochrone (time-fixed, "one after the other") and polychrone (many things at the same time, "multitasking"); Structural characteristics: e. g. basic personality, value orientation, experience of time and space, selective perception, nonverbal communication, patterns of behavior.

Assessment

[edit]

For assessment of intercultural competence as an existing ability and / or the potential to develop it (with conditions and timeframe), the following characteristics are tested and observed: ambiguity tolerance, openness to contacts, flexibility in behavior, emotional stability, motivation to perform, empathy, metacommunicative competence, polycentrism.

Assessment Instruments

[edit]

Assessment of cross-cultural competence (3C) is another field rife with controversy. One survey identified eighty-six assessment instruments for 3C [8]. The Army Research Institute study narrowed the list down to ten quantitative instruments for further exploration into their reliability and validity [2]. Three examples of quantitative instruments include the Inter-cultural Development Inventory, the Cultural Intelligence Scale, and the Multi-cultural Personality Questionnaire [2]

. Qualitative assessment instruments such as scenario-based assessments are also useful tools to gain insight into inter-cultural competence. These have proven valuable in poorly defined areas such as 3C [9][10][11][12]. Research in the area of 3C assessment, while thin, also underscores the value of qualitative instruments in concert with quantitative ones [13][14][15]

.

Criticisms

[edit]

It is important that intercultural competence training and skills not break down into application of stereotypes of a group of individuals. Although the goal is to promote understanding between groups of individuals that, as a whole, think somewhat differently, it may fail to recognize the specific differences between individuals of any given group. These differences can often be larger than the differences between groups, especially with heterogeneous populations and value systems.

References

[edit]

1.

^ a b Selmeski, B. R. (2007). Military cross-cultural competence: Core concepts and individual development. Kingston: Royal Military College of Canada Centre for Security, Armed Forces, & Society.

2.

^ a b c Abbe, A., Gulick, L.M.V., & Herman, J.L. (2007). Cross-cultural competence in Army leaders: A conceptual and empirical foundation. Washington, DC: U.S. Army Research Institute.

3.

^ Bloom, B.S. (Ed.). (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay.

4.

^ Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. (1973). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, the Classification of Educational Goals. Handbook II: Affective Domain. New York: McKay Co., Inc.

5.

^ Desmond Morris, Peter Collett, Peter Marsh and Marie O'Shaughnessy, 1979 Gestures: Their Origin and Meanings The Thumb Up Webified by Bernd Wechner

6. 7.

^ Un, deux, trois - Gestes français - French Gestures ^ The Game of Tarof: An extensive look into the custom from an Iranian's perspective

8.

^ Fantini, A.E. (2006). 87 Assessment tools of intercultural competence [Electronic version]. Brattleboro, VT: School for International Training. Retrieved June 20, 2007 from http://www.sit.edu/publications/docs/feil_appendix_f.pdf

9.

^ Davis, B. (1993). Tools for teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

10.

^ Doll, W. (1993). A post-modern perspective on curriculum. New York: Teacher’s College Press.

11.

^ English, F. & Larson, R. (1996). Curriculum management for educational and social service organizations. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publishers.

12. 13.

^ Palomba, A. & Banta, T. (1999). Assessment essentials. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ^ Kitsantas, A. (2004). Studying abroad: the role of college students’ goals on the development of cross-cultural skills and global understanding. College Student Journal, 38(3). Retrieved July 9, 2007 from ERIC database. ^ Lessard-Clouston, M. (1997). Towards an understanding of culture in L2/FL education. Ronko: K.G. studies in English, 25, 131-150.

14. 15.

^ Lievens, F., Harris, M., Van Keer, E. & Bisqueret, C. (2003). Predicting cross-cultural training performance: The validity of personality, cognitive ability, and dimensions measured by an assessment center and a behavior description interview. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(3), 476-489.

See also

[edit]

Allophilia

Faux pas

Bennett scale

Interaction

Convention (norm)

Intercultural communication principles

Cross-cultural communication

Interculturalism

Cultural assimilation

Intercultural cities

Cultural competence

Intercultural relations

Cultural diversity

Interpersonal communication

Cultural pluralism

Montreal-Philippines cutlery controversy

Etiquette in Africa

Moral syncretism

Etiquette in Asia

Multiculturalism

Etiquette in Australia and New Zealand

Norm (sociology)

Etiquette in Canada and the United States

Proxemics

Etiquette in Europe

Social identity

Etiquette in Latin America

Transculturation

Etiquette in the Middle East

Worldwide etiquette Xenocentrism

Categories: Cultural anthropology | Cultural geography | Cultural studies | Etiquette | Human communication | Social sciences | Sociology

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Westernisation or occidentalisation (from occident, see wiktionary) is a process whereby societies come under or adopt the Western culture in such matters as industry, technology, law, politics, economics, lifestyle, diet, language, alphabet, religion, philosophy, valuesindustry, technology, law, politics, economics, lifestyle, diet, language, alphabet, religion, philosophy, values. Westernisation has been a pervasive and accelerating influence across the world in the last few centuries. It is usually a two-sided process, in which western influences and interests themselves are joined by a wish of at least parts of the affected society to change towards a more westernised society, in the hope of attaining western life or some aspects of it. Westernisation can also be related to the process of acculturation and/or enculturation. Acculturation refers to the changes that occur within a society or culture when two different groups come into direct continuous contact. After the contact, changes in cultural patterns within either or both cultures are evident. In popular speech, Westernisation can also refer to the effects of Western expansion and colonialism on native societies.

An example of Westernisation: Meiji era, Japan, Prince Yorihito Higashifushimi in typical Western naval dress uniform with white gloves, medals and hat

For example, natives who have adopted European languages and characteristic Western customs are called acculturated or Westernised. Westernisation may be forced or voluntary depending on the situation of the contact. Different degrees of domination, destruction, resistance, survival, adaptation, and modification of the native culture may follow interethnic contact. In a situation where the native culture experiences destruction as a result of a more powerful outsider, a "shock phase" often is a result from the encounter. This shock phase is especially characteristic during interactions involving expansionist or colonialist eras. During the shock phase, civil repression using Similarity with US General John military force may lead to a cultural collapse, or ethnocide, which is C. Bates's uniform. a culture’s physical extinction. According to Conrad Phillip, the westerners "will attempt to remake the native culture within their own image, ignoring the fact that the models of culture that they have created are inappropriate for settings outside of western civilisation" (Phillip, Conrad. (2005). Window on Humanity. New York: McGraw-Hill). Contents 1 Definition of the West 1.1 Territorial 1.2 Personal 1.3 Differences

2 Process of Westernisation 2.1 Colonisation (1492–1960s) 2.1.1 Europeanisation 2.1.2 Reactions 2.1.2.1 Asia 2.2 Globalisation (1960s-now) 3 Consequences 3.1 Negative 3.2 Positive 4 See also 4.1 The West 4.2 Cultural influence 4.2.1 Europe and USA 4.2.2 Other 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links

Definition of the West

[edit]

Main article: Western world

Territorial

[edit]

The West was originally defined as Western Europe. Ancient Romans distinguished between Oriental (Eastern) cultures that inhabited present day Egypt and Turkey and Occidental Cultures that lived in the West. A thousand years later, the East-West Schism separated the Catholic Church from the Eastern Orthodox Church. The definition of Western changed as the West was influenced by and spread to other nations. Islamic and Byzantine scholars added to the Western canon when their stores of Greek and Roman literature jump started the Renaissance. The West expanded to include Russia when Peter the Great brought back ideas from France. Today, most modern uses of the term refer to the societies of Western and Central Europe and their close genealogical, linguistic, and philosophical descendants, typically included are those countries whose ethnic identity and dominant culture are derived from European culture. The Western civilisation can be defined as at least North America, West and Central Europe, Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Mexico, Uruguay, Venezuela and New Zealand. North America includes the U.S.A., Canada and Greenland (as part of Denmark). Widening this definition however invites controversy. This widened definition can include these countries, or a combination of these countries: Latin-America. Many countries in Latin America are sometimes regarded as Western countries, largely because most of its peoples are racially descended from Europeans (Spanish and Portuguese settlers mainly) and Natives. And thus their society operates in a highly Westernised way. Indeed, most countries in Latin America use their official language, either in Spanish or Portuguese. According to the CIA -The World Factbook-, there has also been considerable immigration to Latin America from European nations other than Spain and Portugal, (For example, from Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, etc. See Immigration to Brazil or Immigration to Argentina.). [1]. There are also many indigenous cultures with their own languages in Latin America. Turkey. Although geographically only 6% of Turkey lies in Europe, Turkey has a similar economic system, has a customs union with the European Union in addition to being an official candidate for membership, and is a member of typical Western organisations such as OECD, Council of Europe, and NATO. It is usually a member of European organisations for sports and cultural events such as UEFA and the Eurovision Song Contest. South Africa. South Africa is most of the time considered Western because of its languages

(Afrikaans, English) and because of its religion (Christianity). It also has a similar economic system. Furthermore, about 12% of the South African population are of European origin (White). Central, Eastern Europe, The Balkans - Due to their membership to the European Union and European Neighbourhood Policy, these countries are included to the definition of the West, as they more or less share a common European identity with Western Europeans. This view has increasingly gained support, especially since the disintegration of communism (through money) and the current European integration process that is a direct result of that disintegration. Others, however, like the American political scientist Samuel P. Huntington, consider the majority-Orthodox Christian part of Europe as very different from the West. Most who support Huntington's view, believe that Eastern Europe, from Central Europe to the Balkans, European Russia and the Caucasus, did not experience the renaissance or the full strength of the industrial revolution to be considered as part of "The West". Equally they HIH Japanese Princess maintain that Eastern European culture is not shaped by western Kaneko Higashi-fushimi in western clothing Christian traditions of Catholicism or Protestantism, but rather by Eastern Orthodoxy or Islam. From a different angle, this part of the world does not fulfil the economic and standard of living criteria one would associate with the "West". Japan. Japan is sometimes considered Western, as this country supported the West during the Cold War, has a similar economic system and welfare, is a stable democracy, protects human rights, etc. Also, Japan is a member of typical Western organisations like the OECD, and together with Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States, Japan constitutes the Group of Eight (G8). The Philippines is sometimes considered Western because of the Spanish-influenced languages and because most of the people are Roman Catholic. The Filipinos' culture has been influenced by Spain and the United States. Furthermore, about 3.6% of the Filipino population are of European origin. Oceania (excluding Australia and New Zealand). With American statehood of Hawaii, French control of French Polynesia, the colonial influence of Britain, and the current political influence of both Australia and New Zealand, Oceania is gradually, but inevitably, becoming more and more "westernised".

Personal

[edit]

A different view on the Western world is not defining it by its territory, but by its people, as these tend to differ in an increasingly globalised world. This view highlights the non-Western population in countries with a Western majority, or vice versa. The Boers for instance can be regarded as Western inhabitants of South Africa.

Differences

[edit]

It would be incorrect to regard the Western world as a monolithic bloc, as there exist many cultural, linguistic, religious, political, and economical differences between Western countries and populations. The western world itself is changing over time as it has in the past.

Process of Westernisation

[edit]

Colonisation (1492–1960s)

[edit]

Main article: Colonialism

Europeanisation

[edit]

From 1492 onward, Europeanisation and colonialism spread gradually over much of the world, colonising

major portions of the globe. The two World Wars weakened the European powers to such extent that many colonies strove for independence, often inspired by nationalistic movements. A period of decolonisation started. At the end of the 1960s, most colonies were autonomous. Those new states often adopted some aspects of Western politics such as the adoption of a constitution, while frequently reacting against western culture.

Reactions

[edit]

Asia

[edit]

A reaction to Westernisation can include fundamentalism, protectionism or embrace to varying degrees. Countries such as North Korea and China tried to adopt isolationism, but they have been unable to resist the adoption of many aspects of Western culture. In Japan, the Netherlands continued to play a key role in transmitting Western know-how to the Japanese from the 17th century to the mid-19th century, as the Japanese had opened their doors only to Dutch Merchants before US Navy Captain, Commodore Perry’s visit in 1852. After Commodore Perry's visit, Japan began to deliberately accept Western culture to the point of hiring Westerners to teach Western customs and traditions to the Japanese starting in the Meiji era. Many Japanese politicians have since also encouraged the westernisation of Japan using the term, Datsu-A Ron, which means the argument for "leaving Asia" or "Good-bye Asia". In Datsu-A Ron, "westernisation" was described as an "unavoidable" but "fruitful" change.

Globalisation (1960s-now)

[edit]

Westernisation is often regarded as a part of the ongoing process of globalisation. This theory proposes that western thought has led to globalisation, and that globalisation propagates western culture, leading to a cycle of westernisation. On top of largely Western government systems such as democracy and constitution, many Western technologies and customs like music, clothing and cars have been introduced across various parts of the world and copied and created in traditionally non-Western countries like Japan, China, India, etc. The main characteristics are economic liberalisation (free trade) and democratisation, combined with the spread of an individualised culture. Often it was also regarded of the opposite of the worldwide influence of communism. After the break-up of the USSR in 1991, many of its component states and allies nevertheless underwent westernisation, including privatisation of hitherto state-controlled industry. Westernisation as globalisation is seen by many as progress, as democracy and free trade spread gradually throughout the world. Others view westernisation as a disadvantage. Some have protested that Asian cultures who have traditionally existed on a primarily plant-based diet might lose this healthy lifestyle as more people in Asia switch to a Western-style diet that is rich in animal-based foods. (Cornell Times, 2001[1] )

Consequences

[edit]

Negative

[edit]

Due to the colonisation of the Americas and Oceania by Europeans, the cultural, ethnic and linguistic make-up of the Americas and Oceania has been irreversibly changed. This is most visible in settler colonies such as the United States of America, Australia, Canada, Argentina, New Zealand and Uruguay, where the traditional indigenous population has been overtaken demographically by nonindigenous settlers. This demographic takeover in settler countries has often resulted in the linguistic, social, and cultural marginalisation of indigenous peoples. However, even in countries where large populations of indigenous peoples remain or the indigenous peoples have mixed considerably with European settlers, such as Bolivia, Guatemala, Mexico, Peru and Ecuador, marginalisation still exists. Due to colonisation, the prevalent languages in the Americas, Australia and New Zealand are now: Portuguese (Brazil), Spanish (the rest of Latin America), French (Quebec in Canada, French Guiana), and English (USA, Canada, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand). Many indigenous languages are on the verge of becoming extinct. However, some settler countries have gone to great lengths to preserve

and expand indigenous languages, for example, in New Zealand the Māori language is official, some however, would argue that this is a token gesture.

Positive

[edit]

Not all aspects of Westernisation are considered bad by all people. Western medicine, science, and technology have led to longer life expectancy. Everyday conveniences of living, means of travel such as trains, cars, and aeroplanes, and media enabling enhanced entertainment and interactivity such as Internet and Hollywood movies are used and enjoyed by many people around the world. Although opinions concerning damage to traditional values and customs are sometimes expressed, positive aspects of Western culture are not ignored either.

See also

[edit]

The West

[edit]

American culture European culture Western culture OECD

Cultural influence

[edit]

Europe and USA

[edit]

Americanisation is the term used for the influence the United States of America has on other cultures. Anglicisation is the process of making something English. Europeanisation can either mean the process of transforming a society into a more European society or the process of growth towards a European identity in Europe.

Korenisation or Korenizatsiya was the early Soviet ethnicity policy. Magyarisation or Magyarization refers to spreading the Hungarian language and culture in general. Polonisation is the assumption or assimilation of the Polish language or another Polish attribute.

Francisation is the process of giving a French character to something or someone.

Russification is an adoption of the Russian language or some other Russian attribute by non-Russian communities.

Germanisation is defined as either the spread of the German language and culture, or the adaptation of a word to the German language.

de-Russification is a process in the postSoviet countries to overcome the consequences of the Russification.

Hellenisation, the spread of Greek culture and language.

Slovakisation refers to the policies of Czechoslovakia then Slovakia against the ethnic Hungarians there.

Latinisation is a system for representing a word or language with the Latin alphabet, or the traditions of the Latin Rite into Eastern Catholic Church Liturgies and practices. Romanisation, the spread of Roman culture and language.

Turkification is a term used to describe a cultural change in which something or someone who is not a Turk becomes one, voluntarily or by force. Ukrainisation was the policy conducted by the Bolshevik party and the Government of the Ukrainian SSR during 1920s and 1930s to increase the presence of Ukraine.

Other Acculturation Anti-globalisation

[edit] Africanisation refers to the modification of names to better reflect an African identity.

Anti-Americanism represents a hostility towards the government, culture, or people of the U.S.A.

Colonisation Colonialism

Arabisation transforms an area into one that speaks Arabic and is part of the Arab culture.

Colourism Creolisation Cultural assimilation Cultural identity Cultural genocide Colonial mentality Cultural Alienation Cultural cringe

Democratic peace theory is a theory which holds that democracies (almost) never go to war with one another. Diseases of affluence are diseases thought to be a result of increasing wealth. Islamisation describes the process of a society's conversion to Islam. Japanisation is the process in which Japanese culture dominates, assimilates, or influences other cultures.

Datsu-A Ron Democratisation

Non-westernised concepts of male sexuality as opposed to westernised concept of sexual orientations

Enculturation Ethnocide Globalisation/Mundialisation Intercultural competence Language shift Melting pot Passing (racial identity)

North-South divide is the socio-economic division which exists between the wealthy developed "North" and the poorer developing "South" Sinicisation is the process in which Chinese culture dominates or influences other cultures.

Paper Bag Party Race Racialism Racism Social interpretations of race Syncretism

References 1.

[edit]

^ "CIA - The World Factbook -- Field Listing - Ethnic groups

". Retrieved 2008-02-20.

The Idea of the West (2004), written by Alastair Bonnett (Palgrave) The Decline of the West (1918), written by Oswald Spengler. The End of History and the Last Man (1992), written by Francis Fukuyama. The Clash of Civilizations (1996), written by Samuel P. Huntington. The Triumph of the West (1985) written by Oxford University historian J.M. Roberts.

Further reading

[edit]

Ankerl, Guy. Global communication without universal civilization. INU societal research. Vol.1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations : Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU Press. ISBN 2-88155-004-5.

External links Global Culture

[edit] Essays on globalisation and its impact on global culture

Categories: Globalization | Cultural assimilation | Cultural geography | Western culture

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Intercultural competence From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Intercultural competence is the ability of successful communication with people of other cultures. A person who is interculturally competent captures and understands, in interaction with people from foreign cultures, their specific concepts in perception, thinking, feeling and acting. Earlier experiences are considered, free from prejudices; there is an interest and motivation to continue learning.

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1 Cross-cultural Competence 2 Basics 3 Typical examples of cultural differences 4 Requirements 5 Cultural differences 6 Assessment 6.1 Assessment Instruments 7 Criticisms 8 References 9 See also

Cross-cultural Competence

[edit]

Cross-cultural competence (3C), another term for inter-cultural competence, has generated its own share of contradictory and confusing definitions, due to the wide variety of academic approaches and professional fields attempting to achieve it for their own ends. One author identified no fewer than eleven different terms with some equivalence to 3C: cultural savvy, astuteness, appreciation, literacy or fluency, adaptability, terrain, expertise, competency, awareness, intelligence, and understanding[1]. Organizations from fields as diverse as business, health care, government security and developmental aid agencies, academia, and non-governmental organizations have all sought to leverage 3C in one guise or another, often with poor results due to a lack of rigorous study of the phenomenon and reliance on “common sense” approaches based on the culture developing the 3C models in the first place [1]. The U.S. Army Research Institute, which is currently engaged in a study of the phenomenon, defines 3C as: “A set of cognitive, behavioral, and affective/motivational components that enable individuals to adapt effectively in intercultural environments” [2]. Cross-cultural competence does not operate in a vacuum, however. One theoretical construct posits that 3C, language proficiency, and regional knowledge are distinct skills that are inextricably linked, but to varying degrees depending on the context in which they are employed. In educational settings, Bloom’s affective and cognitive taxonomies [3][4] serve as an effective framework to describe the overlap area between the three disciplines: at the receiving and knowledge levels 3C can operate with near independence from language proficiency or regional knowledge, but as one approaches the internalizing and evaluation levels the required overlap area approaches totality.

Basics

[edit]

Cultures can be different not only between continents or nations, but also within the same company or even family. (geographical, ethnical, moral, ethical, religious, political, historical) resp. cultural affiliation or cultural identity.

Typical examples of cultural differences The perception is different and often selective [1]

[edit]

:

Behavior and gestures are interpreted differently: Showing the thumb held upwards in certain parts of the world means "everything's ok", while it is understood in some Islamic countries (as well as Sardinia) as a rude sexual sign. Additionally, the thumb is held up to signify "one" in France and certain other European countries, where the index finger is used to signify "one" in other cultures.[5][6] "Everything ok" is shown in western European countries, especially between pilots and divers, with the sign of the thumb and forefinger forming an "O". This sign, especially when fingers are curled, means in Korea and Japan "now we may talk about money"[citation needed], in southern France the contrary ("nothing, without any value"), in Greece and Turkey however it is an indecent sexual sign implying the anus of the person signalled to. In Brazil, it is considered rude, especially if performed with the three extended figures shown horizontally to the floor while the other two fingers form an O. In the Americas as well as in Arabic countries the pauses between words are usually not too long, while in India and Japan pauses can give a contradictory sense to the spoken words. Enduring silence is perceived as comfortable in India and Japan, while in Europe, North America and Australia it may cause insecurity and embarrassment. Scandinavians, by the standards of other Western cultures, are more tolerant of silent breaks during conversations. If invited to dinner, in some Asian countries it is well-mannered to leave right after the dinner: the ones who don’t leave may indicate they have not eaten enough. In the Indian sub-continent, Europe, Australia, South America, and North American countries this is considered rude, indicating that the guest only wanted to eat but wouldn’t enjoy the company with the hosts.[citation needed] In Mediterranean European countries, Latin America, and Sub-Saharan Africa, it is normal, or at least widely tolerated, to arrive half an hour late for a dinner invitation, whereas in Germany and in the United States this would be considered very rude.[citation needed] In Africa, Arab cultures, and certain countries in South America[citation needed] (not in Brazil), saying to a female friend one has not seen for a while that she has put on weight means she is physically healthier than before, whereas this would be considered an insult in India, Europe, North America, Australia, and Brazil. In Africa and Asian countries, avoiding eye contact or looking at the ground when talking to one's parents, an elder, or someone of higher social status is a sign of respect. In contrast, these same actions are signals of deception or shame (on the part of the doer) in North America, Australia and most of Europe. In Persian and Pakistani culture, if a person offers an item (i.e a drink), it is customary to not instantly accept it. A sort of role play forms with the person offering being refused several times out of politeness before their offering is

accepted. This tradition is known as 'tarof' (or taarof) or 'takaluf' which in Persian literally means 'offer'. A similar exchange happens in many countries, such as India.[7] In many other cultures, it would be considered polite for the person offering to only ask once, so as to respect the other person's wish when the offer is declined. In African, South American and Mediterranean cultures, talking and laughing loudly in the streets and public places is widely accepted, whereas in some Asian cultures it is considered rude and may be seen as a mark of selfcenteredness or attention-seeking.

Requirements

[edit]

Basic needs are sensitivity and self-consciousness: the understanding of other behaviors and ways of thinking as well as the ability to express one’s own point of view in a transparent way with the aim to be understood and respected by staying flexible where this is possible, and being clear where this is necessary. It is a balance, situatively adapted, between three parts: 1. knowledge (about other cultures, people, nations, behaviors…), 2. empathy (understanding feelings and needs of other people), and 3. self-confidence (knowing what I want, my strengths and weaknesses, emotional stability).

Cultural differences

[edit]

Cultural characteristics can be differentiated between several dimensions and aspects (the ability to perceive them and to cope with them is one of the bases of intercultural competence), such as: Collectivist and individualist cultures; Masculine and feminine cultures; Uncertainty avoidance; Power distance; Chronemics: Monochrone (time-fixed, "one after the other") and polychrone (many things at the same time, "multitasking"); Structural characteristics: e. g. basic personality, value orientation, experience of time and space, selective perception, nonverbal communication, patterns of behavior.

Assessment

[edit]

For assessment of intercultural competence as an existing ability and / or the potential to develop it (with conditions and timeframe), the following characteristics are tested and observed: ambiguity tolerance, openness to contacts, flexibility in behavior, emotional stability, motivation to perform, empathy, metacommunicative competence, polycentrism.

Assessment Instruments

[edit]

Assessment of cross-cultural competence (3C) is another field rife with controversy. One survey identified eighty-six assessment instruments for 3C [8]. The Army Research Institute study narrowed the list down to ten quantitative instruments for further exploration into their reliability and validity [2]. Three examples of quantitative instruments include the Inter-cultural Development Inventory, the Cultural Intelligence Scale, and the Multi-cultural Personality Questionnaire [2]

. Qualitative assessment instruments such as scenario-based assessments are also useful tools to gain insight into inter-cultural competence. These have proven valuable in poorly defined areas such as 3C [9][10][11][12]. Research in the area of 3C assessment, while thin, also underscores the value of qualitative instruments in concert with quantitative ones [13][14][15]

.

Criticisms

[edit]

It is important that intercultural competence training and skills not break down into application of stereotypes of a group of individuals. Although the goal is to promote understanding between groups of individuals that, as a whole, think somewhat differently, it may fail to recognize the specific differences between individuals of any given group. These differences can often be larger than the differences between groups, especially with heterogeneous populations and value systems.

References

[edit]

1.

^ a b Selmeski, B. R. (2007). Military cross-cultural competence: Core concepts and individual development. Kingston: Royal Military College of Canada Centre for Security, Armed Forces, & Society.

2.

^ a b c Abbe, A., Gulick, L.M.V., & Herman, J.L. (2007). Cross-cultural competence in Army leaders: A conceptual and empirical foundation. Washington, DC: U.S. Army Research Institute.

3.

^ Bloom, B.S. (Ed.). (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay.

4.

^ Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. (1973). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, the Classification of Educational Goals. Handbook II: Affective Domain. New York: McKay Co., Inc.

5.

^ Desmond Morris, Peter Collett, Peter Marsh and Marie O'Shaughnessy, 1979 Gestures: Their Origin and Meanings The Thumb Up Webified by Bernd Wechner

6. 7.

^ Un, deux, trois - Gestes français - French Gestures ^ The Game of Tarof: An extensive look into the custom from an Iranian's perspective

8.

^ Fantini, A.E. (2006). 87 Assessment tools of intercultural competence [Electronic version]. Brattleboro, VT: School for International Training. Retrieved June 20, 2007 from http://www.sit.edu/publications/docs/feil_appendix_f.pdf

9.

^ Davis, B. (1993). Tools for teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

10.

^ Doll, W. (1993). A post-modern perspective on curriculum. New York: Teacher’s College Press.

11.

^ English, F. & Larson, R. (1996). Curriculum management for educational and social service organizations. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publishers.

12. 13.

^ Palomba, A. & Banta, T. (1999). Assessment essentials. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ^ Kitsantas, A. (2004). Studying abroad: the role of college students’ goals on the development of cross-cultural skills and global understanding. College Student Journal, 38(3). Retrieved July 9, 2007 from ERIC database. ^ Lessard-Clouston, M. (1997). Towards an understanding of culture in L2/FL education. Ronko: K.G. studies in English, 25, 131-150.

14. 15.

^ Lievens, F., Harris, M., Van Keer, E. & Bisqueret, C. (2003). Predicting cross-cultural training performance: The validity of personality, cognitive ability, and dimensions measured by an assessment center and a behavior description interview. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(3), 476-489.

See also

[edit]

Allophilia

Faux pas

Bennett scale

Interaction

Convention (norm)

Intercultural communication principles

Cross-cultural communication

Interculturalism

Cultural assimilation

Intercultural cities

Cultural competence

Intercultural relations

Cultural diversity

Interpersonal communication

Cultural pluralism

Montreal-Philippines cutlery controversy

Etiquette in Africa

Moral syncretism

Etiquette in Asia

Multiculturalism

Etiquette in Australia and New Zealand

Norm (sociology)

Etiquette in Canada and the United States

Proxemics

Etiquette in Europe

Social identity

Etiquette in Latin America

Transculturation

Etiquette in the Middle East

Worldwide etiquette Xenocentrism

Categories: Cultural anthropology | Cultural geography | Cultural studies | Etiquette | Human communication | Social sciences | Sociology

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Americanization From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the the process by which immigrants to the United States became American, see United States naturalization. navigation

For other uses, see Americanization (disambiguation).

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The neutrality of this article is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. (June 2008) Americanization (or Americanisation) (verb form Americanize, əˈmɛrɨkənаɪz (help·info)) is the term used for the influence the United States of America has on the culture of other countries on such matters like technology, culture, lifestyle, etc. When encountered unwillingly or willingly, it can have a negative connotation; when sought voluntarily, it sometimes has a positive connotation.[citation needed] Before the mid-twentieth century, however, Americanization referred to the process by which immigrants to the United States became American.[1]

A can of U.S. Cola in the West Bank in the Middle East.

Contents 1 Overview 2 Politics 3 Media 4 American business and brands 5 Fast food 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Further reading

Overview

[edit]

Since the United States is the sole superpower, the influence of the USA can have a large impact around the world in one way or the other. For instance, American television channels and programs like the MTV, CNN, MSNBC and others are broadcasted throughout the world using domestic carriers. Those channels broadcast the American way of life like the dance, music, people, singers, artists, viewpoint and discussions. The television commercials that some of these broadcast mediums carry portray the American brands like Nike, McDonald's, Coca-Cola, GAP, Levi's around the world, which give basically the American way of life and understanding to these populations. For example one dominant medium is the Hollywood or the American movie industry. Since American movie industry spends a lot of money and make the most essentially exciting, explosive and grander scale movies like Star Wars, Titanic, The Matrix, Schindler's List, Saving Private Ryan people in other countries with televisions will tend to watch it and some of them admire American ingeniuty and big thinking and may get inspired by it. It is not uncommon for people in other countries wanting to first taste American Coke or to eat McDonald's burgers because of their exposure to the American elements[citation needed]. Also some people might feel like wearing jeans because "America," as it is known throughout the world, might seem exciting and with potential[citation needed]. Especially the younger people in other countries exposed to the "exciting" aspect of American culture are more receptive to Americanization like playing video games, watching Hollywood, wearing jeans, listening to music American artists, etc.[citation needed]

On the other hand some cultures and countries might not have positive reception of American cultural influence and policies like the wars America has been involved with in its past and some parts of the American history like colonialism, slavery and imperialism. Therefore Americanization goes both ways, but the term "Americanization" mostly deals with the popular culture and economy of the present-day USA instead of the American history like how it is founded and its economic and political history [citation needed]

.

Politics

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Many governments established by the United States after war or decolonization were modeled after the American system including: Japan, Germany, the Philippines, the Marshall Islands, Cuba (until 1959), South Vietnam (until 1975), South Korea, Afghanistan, Iraq, Grenada and several South American countries. In some cases leading to some accusations of being puppet states and suspicions of being un-authentically independent countries.

Media

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The spread of American media including TV, film and American music artists has been the main component of Americanization of other countries. American TV shows are broadcast around the world. Many of the shows are broadcast through American broadcasters and their subsidiaries such as HBO Asia, CNBC Europe, Fox Channel and CNN International. All of what is known as the "big four" American broadcasters have international distributors, and HBO broadcasts to over 20 countries.[2] Many of these distributors broadcast mainly American programming on their TV channels. According to a recent survey by Radio Times The Simpsons, Lost and Desperate Housewives are among the most watched shows, with CSI being the most watched show among the surveyed 20 countries.[3] American films are also extremely popular globally. All of the top 20 grossing films ever are American made or have an American influence, either through publishers, cast or financiers.[4] Titanic is currently the biggest grossing film worldwide without adjusting for inflation, it currently holds the top grossing film title in various countries including Germany, France, Spain among others.[5] Adjusting for inflation, the highest grossing film of all time is Gone with the Wind. Often part of the negotiating in free trade agreements between the America and other nations involve screen quotas. One such case is Mexico, after abolishing their screen quotas after the establishment of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) with the US.[6] Recently Korea has agreed to reduce its quota under pressure from America as part of a free trade deal.[7] Many American artists are known throughout the world, artists such as Frank Sinatra, Michael Jackson and Elvis Presley are recognised worldwide and have sold over 500 million albums each.[8][9][10] Michael Jackson's album Thriller, at 100 million sales, is the biggest selling album of all time.[11]

American business and brands

[edit]

Of the top ten global brands seven are based in the United States.[12] Coca Cola, which holds the top spot, is often viewed as a symbol of Americanization. Coca Cola has vending machines in over 200 countries worldwide.[13] Of the 25 biggest companies, thirteen are based in the United States.[14] Many of these companies can be viewed as selling Americanized products. Many of the world's biggest computer companies are also American, such as Microsoft, Apple Inc., Dell, and IBM. Much of the software used world wide is created by American based companies. The two largest personal computer companies, Dell and Hewlett Packard, which maintain over 30% of the market, are American based.[15]

Fast food

[edit]

Fast food, along with Coca-Cola, are often viewed as being symbols of American dominance and influence. Companies such as Starbucks, McDonald's, Burger King, KFC, Domino's Pizza, among others have numerous outlets around the world.

See also

[edit]

A kosher McDonald's in Ashqelon, Israel.

Cocacolonization Westernization American culture in the arts and literature.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Americanization

American Empire Neo-colonialism Cultural hegemony Cultural imperialism McDonaldization

Notes 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

[edit]

^ http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9006140/Americanization ^ "Time Warner: HBO. Home Box Office ". Time Warner. 2007-05-18. Retrieved 2007-08-24. ^ "CSI show 'most popular show in the world' ". BBC. 2006-07-31. Retrieved 2007-08-24. ^ "All-Time International Box Office ". Box Office Mojo. 2006-05-01. Retrieved 2007-08-24. ^ "International All Time Box Office ". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 2007-08-24. ^ "Dual forces fuel Mexican film industry ". Adelante. Retrieved 2007-08-29. ^ "South Korea cuts local film quotas to meet US FTA demand ". M&C. Retrieved 2007-08-29. ^ "Frequently Asked Questions ". Elvis.com. Retrieved 2007-08-30. ^ "Michael Jackson Biography ". Virgin Radio. Retrieved 2007-08-30. ^ "Frank Sinatra (German) ". tele.at. Retrieved 2007-08-30. ^ "Jackos Back ". MTV. Retrieved 2007-08-30. ^ "The Global Brands Scorecard 2006 ". BusinessWeek. 2006-08-02. Retrieved 2007-08-24. ^ "The Coca-Cola Company ". NYSE Euronext. Retrieved 2007-08-24. ^ "The Forbes 2000 ". Forbes. 2006-03-30. Retrieved 2007-08-24. ^ "Gartner Says Hewlett-Packard Takes Clear Lead in Fourth Quarter Worldwide PC Shipments and Creates a Virtual Tie with Dell for 2006 Year-End Results ". Gartner. 2007-01-17. Retrieved 2007-0824.

Further reading

[edit]

Karen DeBres: A Cultural Geography of McDonald's UK; Journal of Cultural Geography, 2005 Gerald K Haines: The Americanization of Brazil: A Study of U.S.Cold War Diplomacy in the Third World, 1945-54, Scholarly Resources, 1993 Lawrence Martin, Pledge of Allegiance: The Americanization of Canada in the Mulroney Years, Mcclelland & Stewart Ltd, 1993, ISBN 077105663X Robert W. Rydell, Rob Kroes: Buffalo Bill in Bologna. The Americanization of the World, 1869-1922, University of Chicago Press, 2005, ISBN 0226732428

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Categories: Cultural assimilation | American culture | Types of words | Word coinage | Transliteration | Western culture

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Europeanisation From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Europeanisation (or Europeanization) refers to a number of related phenomena and patterns of change. navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article search

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Outside of the social sciences, it commonly refers to the growth of a European continental identity or polity over and above national identities and polities on the continent. Europeanisation may also refer to the process through which EU political and economic dynamics become part of the organisational logic of national politics and policy-making. The process in which a subject (be it a culture, a language, a city or a nation) adopts a number of European features Europeanisation in political science has been referred to very generally as 'becoming more European like'. More specifically than this, it has been defined in a number of ways. One of the earliest conceptualisations of the term is by Ladrech (1994, 69) who defines Europeanisation simply as ‘an incremental process of re-orienting the direction and shape of politics to the extent that EC political and economic dynamics become part of the organisational logic of national politics and policy making.’ This emphasises what is known as the 'top-down approach' to Europeanisation with change emanating from the impact of the Union onto the national policy. The state is viewed as re-active towards changes in the union. From a 'bottom-up' approach Europeanisation occurs when states begin to affect the policy of the European union in a given area.

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A more nuanced analysis posits that the institutional interaction of policy actors at the various levels of European governance leads to the re-definition of national, regional and other identities within a European context, where the multiple levels of governance in Europe are not seen as necessarily in opposition to one another [1]. An elected representative can, for example, see his loyalties and responsibilities as lying with Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain and Europe. Some scholars, including Samuel Huntington[2], argue that citizens of European states increasingly identify themselves as such, rather than British, French, German, etc. An obvious area of change is in the institutions of Europe; the enlargement of the European Union and the gradual acquisition of authority over the national member governments in numerous areas is creating a centralised European polity. The Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union would be an example of this; in this case, the nations using the euro have passed control of their monetary policy to the European Central Bank. Whether Europeanisation is a continuing process that will eventually lead to a full European government or whether centralisation will be unable to overcome persisting national identities and/or increasing interest in localism is a matter of some debate.

See also

[edit]

European integration Pan-European identity Globalisation

References ^ Robert Harmsen & Thomas M. Wilson (ed.s), Europeanization: Institution, Identities and Citizenship, (Atlanta: Rodopi, 2000) ISBN 90-420-1423-7.

[edit]

^ Samuel Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations, Foreign Affairs, 1993. Johan Olsen, The Many Faces of Europeanization , ARENA Working Papers, 2002. Cernat, L. (2006) Europeanization, Varieties of Capitalism and Economic Performance in Central and Eastern Europe , New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Borzel, T and Risse (2003) Conceptualizing the Domestic Impact of Europe: In K. Featherstone and C Radaelli (eds), The Politics of Europeanization, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 57-80

External links

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Europeanisation Papers

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Categories: Europe | Political science terms | Western culture | Cultural assimilation

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Cultural appropriation is the adoption of some specific elements of one culture by a different cultural group. It denotes acculturation or assimilation, but often connotes a negative view towards acculturation from a minority culture by a dominant culture.[1] [2] It can include the introduction of forms of dress or personal adornment, music and art, religion, language, or social behavior. These elements, once removed from their indigenous cultural contexts, may take on meanings that are significantly divergent from, or merely less nuanced than, those they originally held. Contents 1 Overview 2 Support 3 Examples 4 See also 5 Notes and references 6 External links

Overview

[edit]

The term cultural appropriation can have a negative connotation. It generally is applied when the subject culture is a minority culture or somehow subordinate in social, political, economic, or military status to the appropriating culture; or, when there are other issues involved, such as a history of ethnic or racial conflict between the two groups. To many, the term implies that culture can actually be "stolen" through cultural diffusion. Cultural and racial theorist, George Lipsitz, outlined this concept of cultural appropriation in his seminal term "strategic anti-essentialism." Strategic anti-essentialism is defined as the calculated use of a cultural form, outside of your own, to define yourself or your group. Strategic anti-essentialism can be seen both in minority cultures and majority cultures, and are not confined to only the appropriation of the other. For example, the American band Redbone, composed of founding members of Mexican heritage, essentialized their group as belonging to the Native American tradition, and are known for their famous songs in support of the American Indian Movement "We Were All Wounded at Wounded Knee" and "Custer Had It Coming." However, as Lipsitz argues, when the majority culture attempts to strategically anti-essentialize themselves by appropriating a minority culture, they must take great care to recognize the specific socio-historical circumstances and significance of these cultural forms so as not the perpetuate the already existing, majority vs. minority, unequal power relations. Cultural appropriation may be defined differently in different cultures. While academics in a country such as the United States, where racial dynamics had been a cause of cultural segmentation, may see many instances of intercultural communication as cultural appropriation, other countries may identify such communication as a melting pot effect. Cultural appropriation has also been seen as a site of resistance to dominant society when members of a marginalized group take and alter aspects of dominant culture to assert their agency and resistance. This is exemplified in the novel Crick Crack, Monkey by Merle Hodge when those who are colonized appropriate the culture of the colonizers. Another historical example were the Mods in the UK in the

1960s, working class youth who appropriated and exaggerated the highly tailored clothing of the upper middle class. Objections have been raised to such political cultural appropriation, citing class warfare and identity politics.

Support

[edit]

Justin Britt-Gibson's article for the Washington Post looked at the appropriation of Jamaican culture by Italians and of other cultures by African-Americans as a sign of progress: Throngs of dreadlocked Italians were smoking joints, drinking beer, grooving to the rhythms of Bob Marley, Steel Pulse and other reggae icons. Most striking was how comfortable these Italians seemed in their appropriated shoes, adopting a foreign culture and somehow making it theirs. The scene reinforced my sense of how far we've come since the days when people dressed, talked and celebrated only that which sprang from their own background. For the first time in my life, I was fully aware of the spiritual concept that we're all simply one. That sense hasn't left me. Everywhere I look, I see young people -- such as my two younger brothers, a Japanese-anime-obsessed 11-year-old and a pastelPolo-sporting 21-year-old -- adopting styles, hobbies and attitudes from outside the culture in which they were raised. Last month in a Los Angeles barbershop, I was waiting to get my trademark Afro cut when I noticed a brother in his late teens sitting, eyes closed, as the barber clipped his hair into a "'frohawk", the punk-inspired African American adaptation of the mohawk. Asked why he chose the look, the guy, without looking up, shrugged, "Something different." Immediately, I understood. Minutes later, his "different" cut became my new look.[1]

Examples

[edit]

A common sort of cultural appropriation is the adoption of the iconography of another culture. Obvious examples include tattoos of Hindu gods, Polynesian tribal iconography, Chinese characters, or Celtic bands worn by people who have no interest in, or understanding of, their original cultural significance. When these artifacts are regarded as objects that merely "look cool", or when they are mass produced cheaply as consumer kitsch, people who venerate and wish to preserve their indigenous cultural traditions may be offended. In Australia, Aboriginal artists have discussed an 'authenticity brand' to ensure consumers are aware of artworks claiming false Aboriginal significance [3] . The movement for such a measure has gained momentum after the 1999 conviction of John O'Loughlin for fraud, for the sale of works described as Aboriginal but painted by non-indigenous artists [4] . In history, some of the most hotly debated cases of cultural appropriation occur in places where cultural exchange is the highest, such as along the trade routes in southwestern Asia and southeastern Europe. For instance, some scholars of the Ottoman empire and ancient Egypt argue that Ottoman and Egyptian architectural traditions have long been falsely claimed and praised as Persian or Arab, [5] and GrecoRoman, innovations, respectively[citation needed]. A more subtle example is brass band music (trubaci). While this kind of music is almost exclusively performed by Romani people, who may not consider themselves Serbs, many people of Serbian origin will consider this to be their own style.[citation needed] On the other hand, when the middle-class Slovenian band Pankrti adopted the style of London punk music rooted in unemployment and other issues specific to the UK, it was seen in Yugoslavia as the spread of British culture and its adaptation to the local setting. African American culture historically has been the subject of a good deal of cultural appropriation, especially elements of its music, dance, slang, dress, and demeanor. (See blackface and cool.) For example, artists such as Eminem, a white American who adopted a traditionally African American music and style, may be perceived this way. Another prominent example of cultural appropriation is the use of real or imaginary elements of Native American culture by North American summer camps, by organizations such as the Boy Scouts of America, or by New age spiritual leaders (see Plastic shamans). Many summer camps, and many agesegregated groups of campers within summer camps, are named after real Native American tribes

(Mohawk, Seminole, etc.); tipis are common at summer camps (even at an enormous distance from the Great Plains); and rituals often evoke Native American culture, using phrases like "the Great Spirit", for example. The Boy Scout honor society is called the Order of the Arrow. In some cases, a culture usually viewed as the target of cultural appropriation can become the agent of appropriation. For example, the government of Ghana has been accused of cultural appropriation in adopting the Caribbean holiday of Emancipation Day and marketing it to African American tourists as an "African festival".[2]. A bindi dot when worn as a decorative item by a non-Hindu woman could be considered cultural appropriation,[3] along with the use of henna in mehndi as a decoration outside traditional ceremonies. The metrosexual fashion is often seen as[who?] a form of cultural appropriation of gay culture by straight men. This view is parodied in the South Park episode "South Park is Gay!" Controversy has arisen concerning the usage of the leprechaun mascot by the Boston Celtics basketball club and the University of Notre Dame Fighting Irish football team. Some people of Irish ancestry see the usage as an example of cultural appropriation and even racism. Leprechauns appear in many Celtic mythological motifs, and the reduction of this mythological figure to a set of stereotypes and clichés may be perceived as offensive. [6] [7] A common term amongst the Irish for someone who appropriates or misrepresents Irish culture is Plastic Paddy.[4]

See also

[edit]

Acculturation

New Age Frauds and Plastic Shamans

Blackface

Plastic Paddy

Christianization

Plastic shaman

Cultural assimilation

Recuperation (sociology)

Cultural appropriation in western music

Wannabe

Cleveland Indians

Wapanese

Cultural diversity

Westernisation

Cultural imperialism

Wigger

Islamization

Xenocentrism

Noble savage

Notes and references 1. 2.

3. 4.

[edit]

^ Race Isn't a Factor When My Generation Chooses Friends. ^ Jennifer Hasty, "Rites of Passage, Routes of Redemption: Emancipation Tourism and the Wealth of Culture", Africa Today, Volume 49, Number 3, Fall 2002, pp. 47-76. Indiana University Press. PDF available on subscription site muse.jhu.edu. ^ Salil Tripathi, Hindus and Kubrick , The New Statesman, 20 September 1999. Accessed online 23 November 2006. ^ Arrowsmith, Aidan (April 1, 2000). "Plastic Paddy: Negotiating Identity in Second-generation 'IrishEnglish' Writing". Irish Studies Review (Routledge) 8 (1): 35–43. doi:10.1080/09670880050005093 .

Reckless Borrowing or Appropriate Cultural Sharing? by Jaqui James

External links

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Review of Borrowed Power: Essays on Cultural Appropriation from the 'University of Toronto Quarterly' Model Minority: Chinese Tattoos / Year of the Dragon / Commodifying Buddhism Intellectual Property in the Dreamtime Declaration Of War Against Exploiters Of Lakota Spirituality v

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Anglophilia · Armenophile · Austrophile · Estophilia · Europhile · Francophile · Germanophile · Hellenophile (Philhellenism) · Hibernophile · Hispanophile · Indophilie · Italophile · Japanophile · Judeophilia · Laconophilia · Lusophilia · Persophilia · Russophilia · Scandophile · Scotophile · Sinophile · Slavophile

Categories: Cultural appropriation | Culture terms | Anthropology | Subcultures

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Forced assimilation is a process of forced cultural assimilation of religious or ethnic minority groups, into an established and generally larger community. This presumes a loss of many characteristics which make the minority different.

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Contents 1 Ethnic assimilation 2 Religious assimilation 3 Massive immigration and colonization 4 See also

Ethnic assimilation

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If a state or a government puts extreme emphasis on a homogeneous national identity, it may resort, especially in the case of minorities originating from historical foes, to harsh, even extreme measures to 'exterminate' the minority culture, sometimes to the point of considering the only alternative its physical elimination (expulsion or even genocide). In Europe during the time of Nationalism. Europeans states, mostly based on the idea of nation, perceived the presence of ethnic or linguistic minorities as a danger for their own territorial integrity. In fact minorities could claim their own independence, or to be rejoined with their own motherland. For this reason, in the 19th and 20th century, most European states conducted politics of forced assimilation against their ethnic and linguistic minorities.[citation needed] The consequence was the weakening or disappearing of several ethnic minorities. Forced migrations took place after each of the two world wars. The latter half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century saw the rise of nationalism in Europe. Previously, a country consisted largely of whatever peoples lived on the land that was under the dominion of a particular ruler. Thus, as principalities and kingdoms grew through conquest and marriage, a ruler could wind up with peoples of many different ethnicities under his dominion. This also reflected the long history of migrations of different tribes and peoples through Europe. The concept of nationalism was based on the idea of a "people" who shared a common bond through race, religion, language and culture. Furthermore, nationalism asserted that each "people" had a right to its own nation. Thus, much of European history in the latter half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century can be understood as efforts to realign national boundaries with this concept of "one people, one nation". Much conflict would arise when one nation asserted territorial rights to land outside its borders on the basis of a common bond with the people living on that land. (Example?) Another source of conflict arose when a group of people who constituted a minority in one nation would seek to secede from the nation either to form an independent nation or join another nation with whom they felt stronger ties. Yet another source of conflict was the desire of some nations to expel people from territory within its borders on the ground that those people did not share a common bond with the majority of people living in that nation.

(Specifics?)[citation needed] It is useful to contrast the mass migrations and forced expulsion of ethnic Germans out of Eastern Europe with other massive transfers of populations, such as exchange of populations between Greece and Turkey, and population exchanges that occurred after the Partition of India. In all cases those expelled suffered greatly.[citation needed] See also Assimilation (linguistics).

Religious assimilation

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Assimilation also includes the (often forced) conversion or secularization of religious members of a minority group, such as Judaism. Throughout the Middle Ages and until the mid-19th century, most Jews in Europe were forced to live in small towns (shtetls) and were restricted from entering universities or high-level professions. Main article: Jewish Assimilation

Massive immigration and colonization

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When new immigrants enter a country, there is a tension as they adapt to new people and surroundings to fit in, while holding on to their original culture. Some rules and expectations they have to follow. Sooner or later the majority culture will no longer view the immigrants (or perhaps their children) as immigrants; they will seem to be similar to everyone else because of assimilation. Sometimes the immigrants instead assimilate the original inhabitants, depending on numbers involved. This can occur during a colonisation process.

See also Acculturation Americanization (of Native Americans) Cultural imperialism Cultural appropriation Diaspora politics Ethnic interest group Ethnocide Forced assimilation Forced conversion Hegemony Intercultural competence Language shift Linguicide Mexicans in Omaha, Nebraska "More Irish than the Irish themselves" Nationalism Patriotism Political correctness Integration segregation Stolen generation White American Categories: Cultural assimilation

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