Political Economy Of Softwares

tkm^vävshbdnsâ cmjv{Sob km¼-¯n-Ii - mkv{Xw [ Baburaj.B.S([email protected]) ]

tkm^vävshbdpw Nc¡pw

apX-em-fn¯w Hcp hyhØ F¶ \ne-bn Hcp Nc-¡p-ev]m-Z\ hyh-Ø-bm-Wv. Dev]m-Zn-¸n¡p¶ Hcp Dev]¶w Nc-¡mbn amdp-¶Xv \nÝn-X-N-cn-{X-km-l-N-cy-¯n-em-Wv. kaq-l-¯nse Dev]m-Z-\iànIfp-tSbpw Dev]m-Z\ D]-I-c-W-§-fp-tSbpw hnImkw, KXm-K-X-kw-hn-[m-\-§-fn-ep--mb ]ptcmKXn XpS-§nb \nc-h[n LS-I-§Ä Dev]-¶-§sf Nc-¡p-I-fmbn cq]m-´-c-s¸-Sp-¯p¶ {]{In-b-bn ]¦p-h-ln-¡p-¶p. ioXo-I-cW kwhn-[m-\-§-fp-tSbpw KXm-K-X-ku-I-cy-§-fp-tSbpw hnIm-ks¯ XpSÀ¶m-bn-cp-¶tÃm Ffp¸w \in-¨p-t]m-Ip¶ hkvXp-¡Ä Nc-¡p-I-fmbn cq]m-´-c-s¸-«-Xv. tkm^vävshbÀ Hcp-N-c-¡m-Wv. FÃm Nc-¡p-Ifpw {]mY-an-I-ambn \ap¡p _mly-ambn \n¡p¶ hkvXp-¡-fm-Wv. AXv kz´w KpWwsIm-v GsX-¦nepw Hcp a\p-jym-h-iys¯ Xr]vXns¸-Sp-¯p-¶p. C¯-ca - m-hi - y-§f - psS kz`mhw Ah DÛ-hn-¡p-¶Xv hni-¸nÂ\n-¶m-bmepw `mh-\b - nÂ\n1 ¶m-bmepw Hcp hyXym-khpw hcp-¯p-¶n-à . AtX-k-abw Ah ssIamäw sN¿m³th-n Dev]m-Zn-¸n¡p-¶X - p-am-Wv. F¶m tkm^vävshbÀ F¶ Nc-¡n-s\bpw AXnsâ Ncn-{X-]c - a - mb hnIm-ks - ¯bpw ]cn-tim-[n-¡p-t¼mÄ AXv Hcp Dev]m-Z\ D]-I-c-W-sa¶ \ne-bn-emtWm AtXm D]-t`m-K-¯n-\p-th-n-bmtWm Dev]m-Zn-¸n-¡-s¸-Sp-¶Xv F¶ hkvXpX \mw ]cn-K-Wn-¡p-¶n-Ã. adn¨v AXv \s½ kw_Ôn-¨n-S-t¯mfw Hcp Nc¡v am{X-am-Wv. \mev]-Xp-IÄ apX Bcw-`n¨v hÀ¯-am-\-Imew hsc hym]n-¨p-In-S-¡p¶, Ac-i-Xm-_vZ-¯n IqSp-X \o-p-In-S-¡p¶ Hcp Ime-¯n-\p-Ån-emWv tkm^vävshb-dp-IÄ Hcp Nc-¡mbn cq]m-´-cs¸-«-Xv. I¼yq-«-dnsâ LS-\-bn-ep--mb hyXym-k-§Ä, Ah-bpsS \nb-{´-tWm-]m-[n-bmbn cq]w-sImI¼yq-«À `mj-I-fpsS I-p-]n-Sp-¯w, I¼yq-«À `mjm-L-S-\-bn D-mb hyXn-bm-\-§Ä, I¼yq-«À hyh-km-b¯ - nsâ hnIm-khpw thÀ]n-cn-be - pw, I¼yq-«d- n sNep-¯p¶ A[zm\iàn-bpsS kz`mhw F¶n-§s\ \nc-h[n LS-I-§Ä Cu {]{In-b-bn ]¦p-h-ln-¨n-«p--v. AXp-sIm--p-Xs¶ tkm^vävshbdp-I-sf-¡p-dn-¨pÅ \½psS hni-I-e\w I¼yq-«-dp-I-fpsS Ncn-{X-]-c-amb hnIm-k-¯nsâ ]T-\-§fnÂ\n¶pw Bcw-`n-t¡-- Xm-bn-«mWv Ccn-¡p-¶-Xv. Dev]m-Z-\-¯nsâ coXn-I-fm-WtÃm aäp hyh-Ø-I-fnÂ\n¶v apX-em-fn-¯s¯ thÀXn-cn¨p \nÀ¯p-¶X - v. AXn\p ap³]pÅ aäp hyh-Øb - nÂ\n¶pw hyXy-kvXa - mbn apX-em-fn-¯¯ - n A²zm\w kmaq-ly-h-Xv¡-cn-¡p-¶p--v. kmaq-ly-h-Xv¡-cn-¡-s¸« A²zm-\hpw kzIm-cy-h-Xv¡-cn-¡-s¸« A²zm\-^-e-hpw- Hcp sshcp-²y-ambn apX-em-fn¯¯n A´Àeo-\-am-bn-«p--v. B[p-\n-I-hy-h-km-b-¯n-se¯p-t¼mÄ a\p-jysâ ]Wn-bm-bp-[-§fpw Ahsâ sshZ-Kv[yhpw b{´-§Ä Gsä-Sp-¡p-¶p. (A§ns\ amÊv s{]mU-£³2 apX-em-fn¯ hyh-Ø-bpsS kp{]-[m\ e£-W-§-fn-sem-¶m-hp-Ibpw sN¿p-¶p.) F¶m A²zm-\s¯ kmaq-ly-h-Xv¡-cn-¡p-¶-Xn\v bt{´m-ev]m-Z\w Hc-\n-hm-cy-L-S-I-amsW¶v CXv sXfn-bn-¡p-¶n-Ã. 1970  ssN\ kµÀin¨ t¢mUv t{_mb Womens Liberation in Mao’s China F¶ Xsâ ]pkvX-I-¯n Fwt{_m-bvU-dn¡p t]cp-tI« kyqt¨mWn sXmgn-emfn kv{XoIÄ Fwt{_m-bvUdn sNbvX-Xn-s\-¡p-dn¨v FgpXn "".... 1950 Ifn Fwt{_m-bvU-dn-sbbpw AXn sNep-¯p¶ A²zm-\s¯bpw kmaq-ly-h-Xv¡-cn-¡pI F¶Xv ssN\okv kv{Xohm-Z-{]-Øm-\-¯n\v hnizm-k-¯nsâ am{Xw {]iv\-am-bn-cp-¶n-Ã. amÀIvkns\ AXn-`u-Xn-I-hm-Z-]-c-ambn hymJym-\n-¡p¶ Nnesc kw_-Ôn-¨n-St¯mfw bm{´n-tIm-ev]m-Z\w IqSmsX A²zm-\s¯ kmaq-ly-h-Xv¡-cn-¡p-I km²y-a-Ã. F¶m C¯cw ZpÀhym-Jym-\-§-sfm-¶pw-Xs¶ ssN\okv kv{XoIsf Atem-k-c-s¸-Sp-¯n-bn-Ã...... BZy-L-«1

¯n Xe-ap-d-bnÂ\n¶v Xe-ap-d-bn-te¡v IpSpw-_-c-l-ky-ambn ssIam-dn-bn-cp¶ Cu hnZy ]n¶oSv aäpÅ-h-cn-te¡v ]I-cp-Ibpw sXmgn hn`-P\w GÀs¸-Sp-¯p-Ibpw AXp-hgn \nÀ½m-W-hn-Zysb hyàn\n-c-t]-£-am-¡p-Ibpw sNbvXp....'' 1950-I-fn ssN\okv Fwt{_m-bvUdn hyh-km-b-¯n Ac-t§dnb A[zm-\-¯nsâ kmaq-ly-h-Xv¡-c-W-{]-{In-b¡p kam-\-amb Cu {]h-W-X-IÄ Xs¶-bmWv tkm^vävshbÀ hyh-km-b-¯nse apJy-Nm-e-I-i-àn-bmbn XoÀ¶-Xv. I¼yq-«À `mj-I-fn-ep--mb ]cnjv¡m-c-§Ä t{]m{Km-an-§n sNep-¯p¶ A[zm-\s¯ kmaq-ly-h-Xv¡-cn-¨p. imkv{X-¯n-sâbpw kmt¦-Xn-I-hn-Zy-bp-sSbpw klm-b-¯m Hcn-¡Â cq]-s¸-Sp¯n FSp¯ Hcp Dev]-¶-¯nsâ ]IÀ¸p-I-fn A²zm\w Iq«n-t¨À¯p-sIm--mWv ]c-¼-cm-KX Nc-¡p-I-fnÂ\n¶v apX-emfn an¨-aqeyw Duän-sb-Sp-¡p-¶-Xv. Dev]-¶-¯nsâ ]IÀ¸p-I-fmWv em`-¯nsâ t{kmX-Êmbn {]hÀ¯n-¡p-¶-Xv. F¶m tkm^vävshbdpIsf kw_-Ôn-¨n-S-t¯mfw Hcn-¡Â D-m-¡n-sb-Sp-¯pI-gn-ªm Ah-bpsS ]IÀ¸p-I-fn Iq«n-t¨À¡-s¸-Sp¶ A²zm\w Ah-bpsS \nÀ½m-W-k-a-b¯v tNÀ¡-s¸-Sp¶ A²zm-\s¯ At]-£n¨v Xptemw Ipd-hm-Wv. ]c-¼-cm-KX Nc-¡p-Isf kw_-Ôn-¨nS- t ¯mfw Ah- b psS I- p - ] n- S p¯ ka- b ¯v IqSnb tXmXn A²zm\w sNep- ¯ - s ¸- S p- ¶ p- s - ¦ nepw, Ah hn]-Wn-bpsS \nb-a-§Ä¡v hnt[-b-am-Ip-¶-tXmsS bYmÀ°-¯n Ah-bpsS ]IÀ¸pIÄ D-m¡nsb-Sp-¡p-¶-Xn\p sNep-t¯--n-h-cp¶ A²zm-\-amWv an¨-aq-eys¯ Dev]m-Zn-¸n-¡p-¶Xv F¶ \nbaw {]m_-ey-¯n hcp-¶p. F¶m tkm^vävshb-dp-I-fn-em-Is« \nÀ½m-W-L-«-¯n Iq«nt¨À¡-s¸-Sp¶ A²zm-\¯ - nÂ\n-¶mWv an¨-aqeyw e`y-am-Ip-¶X - v. Bb-Xn-\m Cu L«-¯n tNÀ¡s¸-Sp¶ A²zm-\s¯ kmaq-ly-h-Xv¡-cn-¨p-sIm--m-Wv AYhm hyàn-\n-c-t]-£-am-¡n-s¡m--mWv Hcp tkm^vävshbÀ Nc-¡mbn amdp-¶-Xv. A²zm-\-¯nsâ Cu kmaq-ly-h¡-c-W-{]-{Inb hyh-kmb-¯n ]pXnb taJe krjvSn-¡p-¶-Xn\v Imc-W-am-Ip-¶p. adp-h-i¯v AXv A²zm-\-¯nsâ hne-bnSn-¡p-Ibpw A²zm-\s¯ Ahn-ZKv[-h¡-cn-¡p-Ibpw sN¿p-¶p.

tkm^vävshb-dnsâ Nc-¡p-h¡-c-W-{]-{In-b þ L«-§-fn-eqsS 1940 apX 1958 hsc cwK-¯p--m-bn-cp¶ hmIzwäyq_p-I-fp-]-tbm-Kn¨v {]hÀ¯n-¨n-cp¶ I¼yq«-dp-I-fpsS Ime¯v t{]m{Km-aÀ b{´-hp-ambn t\cn«p kwh-Zn-¨p. c-mw-tem-I-bp-²-¯n\p ap³]v D-mb H¶mw-X-e-ap-d-bnÂs]« Eniac  t{]m{Kmw sN¿p-¶Xv 6000-Hmfw hb-dp-IÄ Xncn¨pw adn¨pw ¹¤v sNbv X p- s Im- - m - b n- c p- ¶ p. asämcp A¹n- t ¡- j - \ p- t h- n Eniac s\ ho- p w t{]m{Kmw sN¿- W - s a- ¦ n dnh-b-dn§v sN¿-W-am-bn-cp-¶p. t{]m{Km-an§v (I-¼yq-«À `mj) F¶m `uXn-I-N-e\w Xs¶-bm-bncp¶p Chn-sS. Bbn-c¯n F®q-dp-I-fn NmÄkv _mt_Pv bm{´n-I-L-S-I-§-fp-]-tbm-Kn¨v (Mechanical Components) cq]-I-ev]\ sNbvX A\-e-än-¡Â F©nsâ \nc-h[n {]tXy-I-X-I-fp--m-bncp-¶p F\n-bm¡n (Eniac)\v. A§ns\ I¼yq-«À F¶m ]g-b-Im-eb-{´-¯nsâ ]pXnb cq]w am{Xam-sW¶v AXv \s½ t_m[y-s¸-Sp-¯m³ {ian-¡p-I-bm-Wv3. ]n¶oSv `uXn-I-N-e-\s¯ Ce-Iv{Sn-¡Â knáÂsIm-pw sa¡m-\n-¡ÂþC-e-Iv{Sn-¡Â I¼yq-«-dp-Isf Ce-Ivt{Sm-WnIv I¼yq-«-dp-IÄsIm-p ]Icw sh¨p. I¼yq-«-dnsâ b{´-`m-K-§-sfbpw Ah-bpsS {]hÀ¯-\-§-sfbpw Ipdn¨v AKm-[-Úm\-apÅ HcmÄ¡p am{Xta A¡m-e¯v I¼yq-«À {]hÀ¯n-¸n-¡p-hm³ Ign-bp-am-bn-cp-¶p-Åq. Hcp I¼yq-«À {]hÀ¯n-¸n-¡p-¶-bmÄ F¶m Hcp t{]m{Km-adpw lmÀUvshbÀ hnZ-Kv[\pw Hm¸-td-ädpw IqSn-t¨À¶ Hcm-fm-bn-cp-¶p. sajo³ emwtKz-Pn\p ]Icw 1954 t{Kkv lq¸À A-0 F¶ t]cn Hcp Akw»n emwtKzPv (]n-¶oSv Mathmatic) Is¼bveÀ Is--¯n-sb-¦nepw t{]m{Km-an§pw I¼yq-«dnsâ lmÀUvshbdpw X½n-epÅ KmV-_Ôw \ne-\n-¶n-cp-¶p-sh-¶-Xn-\m sXmgn hn`-P-\-¯n\v ASn-b-´n-c-ambn AXv kw`m-h-\-I-sfm¶pwXs¶ \ÂIn-bn-Ã. F¶m ]qPy-§-fp-sSbpw H¶p-I-fpsSbpw A\-´-amb Hcp t{iWnsb GXm\pw Nne NnÓ-§ÄsIm-v ]Icw sh¡m³ km[n-¨-XneqsS `mhn-bnse hnIm-k-¯nsâ Zni \nÀ®-bn-¡p-¶-Xn CXv apJy ]¦p-h-ln-¨p4. t{]m{Km-ap-I-fpsS \nÀ½nXn Hcp lmÀUvshbÀ hnZ-Kv[sâ ssII-fn-eqsS am{Xw IS-¶p-t]mtI--n-bn-cp-¶n-S-t¯mfw Imew t{]m{Km-an§v DbÀ¶ sshZ-Kv[yw Bh-iy-s¸-Sp¶ sXmgn-em-bn-cp¶p. Hmtcm-cp-¯cpw \nÀ½n-¡p¶ tkm^vävshbdp-I-fm-Is« At§-bäw k¦oÀ®hpw sshb-àn-Ihp-am-bn-cp-¶p. BZy-Im-e-t{]m-{Km-aÀamÀ lmÀUvshbÀ hnZ-Kv[cpw KWn-X-Úcpw b{´-hn-Z-Kv[cpw 2

F©n-\o-bÀ - amcpam-bn-cp-¶p. t{Kkv lq¸dpw _mt_Ppw5 amÀ¡v I D- m ¡nb slmhmÀUv Fbv ¡ Wpw Sqdn-§vsa-jo³ cq]-I-ev]\ sNbvX Ae³Sq-dn§pw KWn-X-Ú-cm-bn-cp-¶p. c-mw-X-e-apd I¼yq-«-dp-I-fpsS Ime¯v sslse-h `mj-Ifn (DZm: Fortran ) Nne-sXÃmw Is--¯n-bn-cp-¶p-sh-¦nepw Ah-bpsS BZy-Im-e-§-fn Ah At§-bäw lmÀUvshbÀ B`n-apJyw (tkm^vävshb-dp-IÄ \nÀ½n-¡p-t¼mÄ lmÀUvshb-dp-I-fpsS {]tXy-I-X-IÄ IqSn IW-¡n-se-Sp-t¡AhØ) ]peÀ¯n-bn-cp-¶p. C¡m-e¯v I¼yq-«-dp-IÄ Dev]m-Zn-¸n-¡p¶ I¼-\n-IÄ I¼yq-«-dn-t\msSm¸w tkm^vävshb-dp-Ifpw Dev]m-Zn-¸n¨p \ÂIp-am-bn-cp-¶p. F¶m k¦oÀ®-amb Bh-iy-§Ä¡pth- n tkm^v ä v s hb- d p- I Ä \nÀ½n- t ¡- n h¶- t ¸mÄ AXn- \ p- t h- n D]- t bm- K - s ¸- S p- t ¯- - n - h ¶ tPmen-¡m-cpsS F®-¯nepw h¼n¨ hÀ²-\-hp--m-bn. Cu hÀ²-\hv tkm^vävshbÀ Dev]m-Z-\-¯n\p- t h- n sNe- h - g n- t ¡- - n - h ¶ XpI- b nepw hÀ²- \ - h p- - m - ¡ p- ¶ - X m- b n- c p- ¶ p. Cu {]h- W X I¼yq- « À hyh-km-b-cw-K¯v h¼n¨ amä-§Ä¡v XpS¡w Ipdn-¡p-¶-Xm-bn-cp-¶p. 1955 apX 1990 hsc-bpÅ Ime¯v Hmtcm I¼yq-«-dnepw lmÀUvshb-dn\pw tkm^vävshb-dn\pw th-n Nne-h-gn-t¡--n-h¶ XpI-bpsS Afhv iX-am-\-I-W-¡n Xmsg \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p¶p hÀjw

HW (%)

SW(%)

1960

80

20

1980

20

80

1990

10

90

tS_nÄ1 I¼yq-«À hne-bn tkm^vävshbÀ LS-Imw-i-¯n-\p--mb Cu hÀ²-\hv Hcp L«-¯n ]nSn¨p \nÀ¯m³ t]mepw Ign-bm-¯-h®w F¯p-Ibpw sNbvXp. F¶m h³In-S-I-¼-\n-IÄ Ahkm\w hsc-bpw, I¼yq-«-dp-IÄ¡v tkm^vävshb-dp-I-fpsS klm-b-an-Ãm-sX-Xs¶ {]hÀ¯n-¡m-\mIpw F¶p {]Xo-£n-¨n-cp-¶p. temI-¯n Gähpw IqSp-XÂImew tkm^vävshbÀ I¼\nIfn ta[m-hnbmbn tPmen sNbvX ap³ sF.-_n.-Fw. amt\-PÀ tXmakv Fw. ss\kv (kn-³tImw)6 C§s\ FgpXn "" sF.-_n.-F-½ns\ kw_-Ôn-¨n-S-t¯mfw A¡m-e¯v tkm^väv shbÀ Hcp km[y-X-bm-bà adn¨v Atem-k-c-am-bmWv A\p-`-h-s¸-«-Xv.'' AtX-k-abw sslse-h `mj-I-fpsS I-p-]n-Sp-¯-s¯bpw hnIm-k-s¯bpw \ncp-Õm-ls¸-Sp-¯p¶ c-v {]h-W-X-IÄ A¡m-e¯v kPo-h-am-bn-«p--m-bn-cp-¶p. H¶m-a-Xmbn, I¼yq-«À hnZKv[À sslse-h `mj-I-fpsS hnIm-k-¯n-s\-Xn-cm-bn-cp-¶p. C¯cw `mj-I-fpsS hnImkw t{]m{Kman§ns\ Unþ-kvIn sN¿p-sa¶pw A§s\ t{]m{Km-an§v taJ-e-bn-te¡v km[m-c-W-¡mÀ F¯nt¨-cp-sa¶pw AhÀ `b-¶n-cp-¶p. Adn-hnsâ taJe "Ipeo\'ambn \nÀ¯m³ AhÀ B{K-ln-¨p. c- m - a - X mbn, t{]m{Kmw Dev ] m- Z - \ - ¯ n- \ p- t h- n tPmen- s b- S p- t ¡- - n - h ¶ KWn- X - Ú Àt¡m I¼yq- « À hnZ-Kv[Àt¡m sImSp-t¡--n-hcp¶ i¼fw I¼yq-«-dnsâ hnesb At]-£n¨v \nÊm-c-hp-am-bn-cp-¶p. sslse- h  `mj- I - f psS I- p - ] n- S p- ¯ - t ¯msS t{]m{Km- a n- § ns\ lmÀUv s hb- d nÂ\n¶v thÀs]-Sp-¯m³ Ign-bp-am-bn-cp-¶p-sh-¦nepw BZy-Ime sslse-h `mj-I-fpsS lmÀUvshbÀ B`nap-Jyhpw lmÀUvshb-dp-I-fp-sS-Xs¶ {]tXy-I-X-Ifpw CXn-s\-Xn-cm-bn-cp-¶p. F¦nepw lmÀUvshbÀ hnZ-Kv[s\ t{]m{Km-aÀam-cnÂ\n¶v thÀs]-Sp-¯p¶ Cu {]{In-b¡v CXv XpS¡w Ipdn-¨p. A{X-t¯mfw tkm^vävshb-dnsâ Nc-¡p-ev]m-Z\ {]{In-b¡v AXv \nÀ®m-b-I-am-bn-cp-¶p. Hcp hnj-b-sa¶ \nebn C³^Àta-j³ kb³kv bqWn-thgvknän-I-fn ]T-\-hn-j-b-am-¡p-¶Xpw Cu Ime-b-f-hn-emWv. F¶m BZy-Ime tkm^vävshb-dp-I-fpsS Cu lmÀUvshbÀ B`n-apJyw I¼-\n-I-sfbpw Câ-kv{Snsb sam¯-¯nepw Ahn-`à-ambn (lmÀUvshbÀ/tkm^vävshbÀ) \nÀ¯p-Itbm A¯cw Xcw-Xn-cnhv km[y-am-bn-S-§-fn tkm^vävshbÀ hyh-km-bs¯ kÀÆokv Câ-kv{Sn-bmbn \nÀ¯p3

Itbm sNbvXp. C¯cw I¼-\n-IÄ A¡m-e¯v ""s{]m^-j-W kÀÆokv Øm]-\-§Ä'' BbmWv AÃmsX tkm^vävshbÀ Øm]-\-§-fm-bà Adn-b-s¸-«n-cp-¶-Xv. 70-IÄ¡p ap³]p-Xs¶ \nc-h[n `mj-Ifpw t{]m{Km-an§v ssien-Ifpw (Programming Paradigms) cwK-s¯-¯n-bn-cp-¶p. Ignª Ime¯v sajo³emw-tKz-Pn-sâbpw Akw-»n emwtKz-Pn-sâbpw (Hcp ]cn-[n-hsc BZy-Ime sslse-h `mj-I-fp-sS-bpw) {][m\ t]mcmbva t{]m{Km-an-§n-epÅ Ah-bpsS sshb-àn-I-X-bm-bn-cp-¶p. sXmgnepw AXnsâ Dev]-¶hpw (t{]m-{Kmw) At§-bäw IÀXr\n-jvT-am-bn-cp-¶p. ssa¡v sPbnwkv Fgp-Xp¶p ""..... A¡m-e¯v t{]m{Km-ap-IÄ AXnsâ \nÀ½m-Xmhns\ am{Xw A\p-k-cn-¡p¶ `oI-c-P-´p-¡-fm-bn-cp-¶p. Ch t{]m{Km-a-dpsS Alw-t_m-[s¯ Xr]vXns¸-Sp-¯p-sa-¦nepw Hcp hym]mc Dev]¶ - ¯ - n\v tbmPn-¨X - à - ...'' IqSmsX At±lw ]d-bp¶p, lmÀUvshbdn-s\-¡p-dn¨v t_m[y-ap-Åhsc I¼\n tPmen-s¡-Sp¯v Ah-sc-s¡m-v t{]m{Kmw sN¿n-¡p-¶p. ]t£ AbmÄ CXn-s\-¡mÄ em`-I-c-amb asämcp tPmen-¡p-th-n CXp-t]-£n-¡p-t¼mÄ Abm-fp--m-¡nb t{]m{Km-anse henb iX-am-\-t¯mfw D]-tbm-K-iq-\y-am-Ip-¶p. ImcWw Ah AbmÄ¡p am{Xta a\-Ên-em-hp-Ib - p-Åq. A§ns\ ]gb \nÀ½m-Ws - ¯m-gn-ense IÀXr-\n-jvTX Ncn-{X-¯n Hcn-¡Â¡qSn BhÀ¯n-¡p-I-bm-Wv. sslse-h `mj-I-fpsS I-p-]n-Sp-¯-t¯msS lmÀUvshbÀ hnZ-Kv[sâ sshZKv[yw t{]m{Kman-te¡v Ib-dn-¡q-Sp-I-bm-sW¶v ]d-bmw. F¶m lmÀUvshbÀ B`n-ap-Jy-apÅ sslseh `mjbpsS Ime-t¯mfw Ch ]qÀ®-amb ^e-§-sfm¶pw Dev]m-Zn-¸n-¨n-Ã. ]n¶o-SpÅ I¼yq-«À`m-j-IfpsS Ncn-{Xw-Xs¶ C¯cw \nb-{´-W-§-fnÂ\n¶pw kzX-{´-am-Ip-¶-Xn-\pÅ {ia-¯n-sâ-IqSn Ncn{X-am-Wv. AXp-]s£ XpS-¡-¯n ImW-s¸-«-Xp-t]mse hfsc efn-X-amb H¶m-bn-cp-¶n-Ã, adn-¨v lmÀUvshb-dnÂ\n¶v kzX-{´-am-Ip-¶-Xn-\pÅ {ia-§Ä Hm¸-td-än§v knÌ-¯nÂ\n¶pw hyXykvX D]-Ic - W - § - f - nÂ\n¶pt]mepw kzX-{´-am-Ip-¶X - n-\pÅ {ia-§f - psS apt¶mSn am{X-am-bn-cp-s¶¶v ]n¶oSp- - m b hnIm- k - § Ä sXfn- b n- ¡ p- I - b p- - m - b n. Lisp, Cobol, Algol, Simula, Pascal, Smalltalk, C, Prolog, Modula, Ada, C++, Java, C#... XpS-§nb \qdp-I-W-¡n\v `mj-Ifpw Ah-bpsS hnIm-k-N-cn{Xhpw CXp-X-s¶-bmWv shfn-s¸-Sp-¯p-¶-Xv. 1964 s_Âem_n \S¶ Nne ]T-\-§Ä sslse-h `mj-I-fpsS LS\ ]pXp¡ns¡m-v t{]m{Km-ad- psS Dev]m-Z\ - £ - a - X hÀ²n-¸n-¡m³ aqe-[\ - s¯ t{]cn-¸n-¨p. B ]T-\{- ]-Imcw Hcp t{]m{KmaÀ Xsâ ka-b-¯nsâ shdpw 13 iX-am\w kabw am{X-amWv bYmÀ°-¯n t{]m{Km-an-§n-\p-]tbm-Kn-¡p-¶-Xv. 16% kabw am\z-ep-IÄ hmbn-¡m\pw 32% kl-{]-hÀ¯-I-cp-ambn Imcy§Ä NÀ¨ sN¿m\pw 39% sabn-ep-IÄ Ab-¡m\pw s{Sbn-\n-§n\pw aäp hyàn-]-c-amb Bh-iy-§Ä¡p th-nbpw D]-tbm-Kn-¡p-¶p. aqe-[\w FÃm-bvt¸mgpw A²zm-\-¯nsâ Dev]m-Z-\-£-aX hÀ²n-¸n¨v em`w Iq«m³ {ian-¡p-a-tÃm. sslse-h `mj-I-fpsS hnIm-k-¯n\p t{]cn-¸n¨ Hcp LS-I-am-bn-cp¶n-Xv. sslse-h `mj-I-fpsS Is--¯-tem-Sp-IqSn t{]m{Km-an-§nsâ sshb-àn-I-L-S\ XIÀ¡s¸-Sp-¶n-Ã. AXn\v `mj-bpsS LS-\b - n¯s¶ Nne Xncp-¯e - p-IÄ Bh-iy-am-bn-cp-¶p. Cu Bhiyw ap¶n-te¡v h¶-Xm-Is« hym]-I-amb Hcp tkm^vävshbÀ {]Xn-k-Ôn-bpsS AI-¼-Sn-tbm-sS-bpw.

70-I-fnse tkm^vävshbÀ {]Xn-kÔnbpw ]pXnb `mjm-ssi-enIfpsS Is--¯-epw. 1970  bp.-F-kv. Un^³kv tkm^vävshbÀ t{]mP-Ivän \S¶ Hcp ]T\w am{Xw aXn Cu {]Xn-k-Ôn-I-fpsS Bgw hyà-am-Im³. A¡m-e¯v Gsä-Sp¯ t{]mP-Iväp-I-fpsS 50%hpw Hcn-¡epw \nÀ½n¨v D]-t`m-àm-hn F¯p-I-bp--m-bn-Ã. 30% t{]mP-Iväp-IÄ \nÀ½n¨p \ÂIn-sb-¦nepw D]tbm-Kn-¡m³ Ign-ªn-Ã. amä-§-sfm-¶p-an-ÃmsX 2% t{]mP-Iväp-IÄ am{X-amWv D]-tbm-Kn-¡m-\m-bXv ! aney¬ IW-¡n\v tUmf-dmWv Cu {]Xn-k-Ôn-bn Hgp-In-t¸mbXv. 1970\v ap³]v t{]m{Km-an-§n \nc-h[n amXr-I-IÄ D]-tbm-Kn-¨n-cp-¶p. AXn {][m\s¸« H¶m-bn-cp-¶p kv{SIvN-d t{]m{Km-an-§v. C¯cw amXr-I-IÄ cq]-s¸-«-tXmsS t{]m{Km-an-§n\v Nne Ìmtâ-ssU-tk-j-\p-IÄ km[y-am-bn. kzoIz³kn-§v, ske-£³, eq¸n§v F¶o ASn-Øm\ {InbI-fpsS D]-tbm-K-t¯msS GXp t{]m{Kmapw D-m-¡m³ Ign-bp-am-bn-cp-¶p. Nn«-tbmsSbpÅ Cu 4

amXr-I-bpsS sa¨w AXv t{]m{Km-an hn\n-tbm-Kn-¡p¶ A[zm-\s¯ efn-X-am-¡p-¶p-sh-¶-Xm-Wv. F¶m 70 se {]Xn-kÔn `mj-bpsS LS-\s - b-¯s¶ hnaÀi-\h - n-t[-ba- m-¡n. t{]m{Km-an tImUpI-fpsS F®w 25000 apX 1 e£w hsc-bm-Ip-t¼m-tg¡pw t{]m{Kmw sam¯-¯n \nb-{´-Wc - l - n-Xa - mIp¶p F¶v Is--¯n-b-Xns\ XpSÀ¶mWv Hm_vPIväv Hmdn-bâUv t{]m{Km-an§v hnI-kn-¸n-¡-s¸-«-Xv.7 ]g-b-Im-e-t{]m-{Km-an-§n Gähpw {][m\ LSIw Ah-bpsS LS-\-bm-Wv. sam¯w LS\ D]-L-S-\-Isf \nb-{´n-¡p-¶p. Cu \nb-{´Ww t{iWo-_-²-ambn (Hirarchial order) \ne-\n¡p¶p. sabv³ t{]m{Kmw \nXm-´-amb km¶n-²y-am-W-hn-sS. C{]-Imcw t{iWo-_-²-amb \nb-{´-W§fpw A[n-Im-c-¯nsâ Hgp-¡p-amWv ChnsS \mw I-p-ap-«p-¶-Xv. apX-em-fn¯ kaq-l-¯nsâ A[nIm-c-¯nsâ Hgp-¡n\v ka-amb t{iWo-_²LS-\-bmWv tkm^vävshb-dp-I-fnepw F¶Xv IuXp-I-I-cam-Wv. F¶m k¦oÀ®X hÀ²n-¡p-Ibpw t{]m{Kmw hep-Xm-Ip-Ibpw sN¿p-¶-tXmsS t{iWo-_-²\n-b-{´-W-§-Ä Akm-[y-am-Ip-¶p. A§s\ sam¯w LS-\sb ASn-Øm-\-s¸-Sp-¯nb \nb-{´-W§Ä¡v ]Icw D]-L-S-\-bpsS kzmX-{´y-¯n-eq-¶nb `mjm-co-Xn-bmWv H_vPIväv Hmdn-bâUv `mjmssi-en-bnÂ. Hmtcm D]-L-S-\-IÄ¡pw CXv X\-Xmb kzmX{´yw kw`mh\ sN¿p-¶p. H_vPIväv Hmdn-bâUv t{]m{Km-an§v GÀs¸-Sp-¯p-¶-tXmsS Hmtcm {]m{Km-an-\p-Ånepw Bhiy-apÅ tkmgvkv tImUv ]p\-cp-]-tbm-Kn-¡m\pw (reuse) Bh-iy-amb aäp t{]m{Km-ap-I-fn Bh-iy¯n-\-\p-k-cn¨v Iq«n-t¨À¡m-\p-apÅ Ah-k-c-ap--m-¡p-I-bm-Wv. CXn-\À°w Xmsg Xe-¯n t{]m{Kman§v F¶p ]d-ªm Hcn-¡Â asäm-cm-h-iy-¯n-\p-th-n D-m-¡nb Hcp Iq«w tkmgvkv tImUpIsf \½psS Bh-iy-¯n-\p-th-n DNnX-amb CS-§-fn D]-tbm-K-s¸-Sp-¯pI F¶p IqSn-bm-Wv. A§ns\ t{]m{Km-aÀ Akw_vÄ sN¿p-¶- Hcm-fmbn amdp-¶p. 4þmw Xe-apd I¼yq-«À `mj-I-fn a\pjy-`m-j-bpsS LS-\-sb-¯-s¶-bmWv t{]m{Kmapw X¿m-dm-¡p-¶-Xv. 4þmw Xe-apd I¼yq-«À `mj-I-fn D]-tbm-Kn-¡p¶ \nÀt±-i-¯n\v Hcp DZm-l-cWw sImSp-¡p-¶p. EXTRACT ALL CUSTOMERS WERE “PREVIOUS PURCHASES” TOTAL MORE THAN $ 100. t{]m{Km-an§v F¶Xv Hcp teJ\-sa-gp-¯mbn amdp¶p F¶p-X-s¶-bmWv AXn-\À°w. AXp-sIm--mWv Hcp ]cn-ioen-¸n-¡-s¸« Ipc§-\p-IqSn sN¿m-hp-¶X - c - ¯ - n t{]m{Km-an§v Ahn-ZK - v[h - ¡-cn-¡s - ¸-Sp-Ib - m-sW¶v ssa¡v sPbnwkv A`n-{]m-b-s¸-«-Xv. t{]m{Km-an-§nsâ Cu Ahn-ZvKv[-h¡-cWw t{]m{Km-an-§nÂXs¶ Hcp hn-`-P-\¯n\p Imc-W-am-hp-¶p-vþkm[m-cW t{]m{Km-aÀamcpw, hnZKv[ tPmen-¡mcmb A\-en-Ìp-Ifpw. sXmgnens\ UnþkvIn sN¿p-Ibpw HcmÄ¡p ]Icw asäm-cmsf Bh-iym-\p-k-cWw tPmen-¡p-sh-¡m³ Ign-bpIbpw sN¿p-¶t- XmsS t{]m{Km-an§v hyàn-\n-ct- ]-£a - mb Hcp A²zm-\a - mbn amdp-¶p. IqSmsX Zn\w-{]Xn ]m¸-cm-¡-s¸-Sp¶ hnZym-k-¼-¶-cmb s]än-_qÀjzm hn`m-K-§Ä CXn-\m-h-iy-amb sXmgnÂiàn kw`m- h \ sN¿p- I bpw sN¿p- ¶ p. C{]- I mcw \nÀ½n- ¡ m- \ - h - k cw D- m - b - X p- s Im- v Xs¶-bmWv tkm^vävshbdpIÄ¡v Nc-¡p-I-fpsS KpW-hn-ti-j-§Ä t\Sm-\m-b-Xv. 1970-I-fpsS Bcw-`-¯n hsc tkm^vävshbÀ I¼-\n-IÄ kÀÆokv I¼-\n-I-fm-bn-cp-¶p-htÃm. AXn-\À°w Hmtcm Dev]m-Z-\-I\pw Hmtcm D]-t`m-àm-hn-s\bpw Häsbmäbmbn ]cn-K-Wn-¡Wsa-¶m-Wv. I¨-hSw Hcp "t]gvkW -  skÃn§v' Bbn-cp-¶p. C¡m-e¯ - mWv Umäm t_bvkvUv t{]m{Kmap- I Ä¡v Du¶Â e`n- ¡ p- ¶ - X v . tkm^v ä v s hbÀ Dev ] m- Z - I À D]- t `m- à m- ¡ - f p- a mbn kÀÆokv tIm¬{SmIväpI-fn GÀs¸Sp-¶p. I¼-\n-bpsS tkm^vävshbÀ \nÀ½mWw \S-¯p¶ t{]m{Km-aÀ Xs¶-bmWv D]-t`m-àm-hn\v tkh-\hpw \ÂIp-¶-Xv. Cu c-p-sXm-gn-ep-IÄ X½n thÀXn-cn-¡-s¸«n-cp-¶n-Ã. Fhn-sS-sb-¦nepw B XcwXncn-hp--m-bn-«p-s- ¦n A§s\ A[zm-\n-¡p-¶-h-cpsS A[zm\-¯n\v ]d-b-¯¡ sshPm-Xy-ap--m-bn-cp-¶p-an-Ã. 1970-If - n-emWv tkm^vävshbdnsâ Nc-¡p-h¡-cW {]{In-bb - psS Hcp \nÀ®m-bI - L - «w Bcw`n- ¡ p- ¶ - X v . XoÀ¨- b mbpw 70- I Ä¡p ap³]p- X s¶ \nc- h [n tkm^v ä v s hbÀ I¼- \ n- I Ä tkm^vävshbdpIÄ Dev]m-Zn-¸n-¨n-cp-¶p. F¶m AhÀ Dev]m-Zn-¸n-¨n-cp¶ tkm^vävshbdpIÄ¡v lmÀUvshb-dnÂ\n¶v thdn-s«mcp AkvXnXzw CÃm-bn-cp-¶p. Hmtcm tkm^vävshbdpw GsX-¦nepw lmÀUp- s h- b - d ns\ ap¶nÂI- p - s Im- v \nÀ½n- ¨ - h - b m- b n- c p- ¶ p. 70\v ap³]p- h sc H¶p- I n tkm^vävshbdpIÄ lmÀUvshb-dp-IÄs¡m¸w hnän-cp-¶p. AsÃ-¦n GsX-¦nepw Hscmä Dev]m-Z5

I- \ p- t h- n \nÀ½n- ¡ - s ¸- « n- c p- ¶ p. (Custom made or tailor made production) F¶m 70-I-fpsS ]Ip-Xn-bm-b-tXmsS I¼-\n-IÄ ]mt¡PvUv tkm^vävshbdpIÄ \nÀ½n¡m-\m-cw-`n-¨p.8 `mj-bn-ep--mb ]cn-jv¡m-c-§Ä CXn\p Imc-W-ambn `hn-¨p. C¡m-e-s¯-¡p-dn¨v kn.-C.-H. Bbn-cp¶ tXmakv Fw. ss\ ]d-bp¶p "" Fsâ I¼-\n-bnse tkm^vävshbÀ t{]m{KmaÀamÀ D-m-¡nb tkm^vävshbdpIÄ Ah-cpsS klm-b-an-ÃmsX F\n¡v hn¡m³ Ign-b-Ww. R§Ä hnäp-sIm--n-cn-¡p-t¼mÄ t{]m{Km-aÀamÀ ]pXnb tkm^vävshbÀ Dev]m-Zn-¸n-¡-Ww.'' A§s\ I¼-\nsb kw_-Ôn-¨n-S-t¯mfw tkm^vävshbÀ \nÀ½mWw am{X-amWv I¼-\n-bpsS t{]m{Km-aÀ sNt¿- - s X¶v h¶p. D]- t `m- à m- ¡ Ä¡pth- n I¼- \ n¡p ]pd¯v tPmen sNt¿- - X nÂ\n¶v t{]m{Km-aÀamsc Hgn-hm-¡p-¶-Xn\v Imc-W-am-b-Xm-Is« tkm^vävshbdns\ tkh\w F¶XnÂ\n¶v Packaged software B¡p¶ {]{In-bbpw. tkh-\hpw Dev]m-Z-\hpw amä-an-ÃmsX c-p Bi-b-§-fm-bmWv s]mXp-hn ho£n-¡-s¸-Sp¶-Xv. F¶m \nÝnX Ncn-{X-km-l-N-cy-§Ä¡p-Ån tkh-\-§Ä¡v Dev]-¶-§Ä BIm³ Ignbpw. C¯-c-samcp Ncn-{X-km-l-N-cy-¯n-emWv 70-I-fn tkm^vävshbdpIÄ tkh-\-cq-]-¯nÂ\n¶v Dev]-¶-cq-]-¯n-te¡v amdp-¶-Xv, AXp-hgn tkm^vävshbdpIÄ Nc-¡p-I-fmbn amdp-¶-Xv. Cu amäw kmt¦-Xn-I-cw-K-¯p--mb lmÀUvshbÀ B`n-ap-Jy-an-ÃmsX tkm^vävshb-dp-IÄ \nÀ½n-¡p¶ {]{Inb-bpsS IqsS AI-¼-Sn-tbm-sS-bmWv kw`-hn-¨-Xv. `mj-bpsS {]tXy-I-X-IÄ, F{X tImUp-Ifpw FgpXn-t¨À¡m-hp¶tXm {]hÀ¯n-¡m-hp-¶tXm Bb Xc-¯n ssat{Im-t{]m-kk - d- nsâ {]hÀ¯\thKX-bn-ep--mb hÀ²-\hpw, Ah-bpsS hym]m-cm-Sn-Øm-\-¯n-epÅ Dev]m-Z-\hpw (1970), e`y-X-bpw, I¼yq«-dnsâ hne-bn tkm^väv shbÀ LS-Imw-i-¯n-ep--mb h¼n¨ hÀ²\bpw9 F¶o LS-I-§Ä CXn\p hgn-sbm-cp-¡n. A§ns\ lmÀUvshb-dnÂ\n¶v tkm^vävshbÀ ]nfÀ¶p amdp-Ibpw I¼yq«À Câ-kv{Sn-sb¶pw tkm^vävshbÀ Câ-kv{Sn-sb¶pw c-p hyXykvX hyh-km-b-ta-J-ebv¡v cq]w sImSp- ¡ p- I bpw sNbv X p. lmÀUv s hbÀ I¼- \ n- I Ä AhÀhnev ¡ p¶ I¼yq- « - d p- I Äs¡m¸w AhÀXs¶ hnI-kn-¸n-s¨-Sp-¯n-cp¶ tkm^vävshbdp-IÄ \ÂIp-Ib - n-söp Xocp-am-\n-¨p. 1969 sF._n.-Fw. lmÀUvshbÀ /tkm^vävshbÀ hn`-P\w (unbundling) {]Jym-]n-¨Xv CXn\v DZm-l-c-W-am-Wv. Hscmä hyh- k m- b s¯ c- m bn amänb Cu L«- ¯ n \nc- h [n I¼- \ n- I Ä ]pXp- X mbn cq]w- s Im- - p . 70- \S¶ Cu lmÀUvshbÀ tkm^vävshbÀ Dev]-¶-§-fpsS hn`-P-\hpw Ah hyXykvX I¼-\n-I-fn-em-bpÅ Dev]m-Z-\hpw Hcp ]pXnb {]iv\-¯n\v XpS¡w Ipdn-¨p. "t]mÀ«-_n-enän' F¶mWv AXv Adn-b-s¸-Sp-¶-Xv.

t]mÀ«-_n-enän hyXykvX Npäp-]m-Sp-I-fn d¬ sN¿m-\pÅ Hcp t{]m{Kmansâ Ign-hn-s\-bmWv t]mÀ«-_nenän F¶v ]d-bp-¶-Xv. Npäp-]m-Sp-IÄ F¶p ]d-bp-t¼mÄ AXv hyXykvX Hm¸-td-än§v knÌtam I¼yq-«-dp-Itfm D]-I-c-W-§tfm Xs¶-bm-hmw. I¼yq-«À hnZKv[ t]mÀ«-_n-en-änsb kmt¦-Xn-ImÀ°¯n-emWv s]mXp-hn hnh-cn-¡p-¶-Xv. AXn-\m ]e-t¸mgpw efn-X-amb Cu {]iv\w ]e sXän-²m-cW-IÄ¡pw CS hcp-¯p-¶p. BZy-Im-e¯v Hcp-Xcw I¼yq-«-dn-\p-th-n Fgp-Xnb Hcp t{]m{Kmw aäp I¼-\n-I-fpsS I¼yq-«dp-I-fntem AtX I¼-\n-bp-sS-Xs¶ aäp tamU-ep-I-fntem t]mepw d¬ sN¿p-am-bn-cp-¶n-Ã. AXn\m Hmtcm {_mâpw X§Ä¡p-th-n kz´w Ìmtâ-Un-epÅ `mj (Basic, Fortran XpS-§nbhbv¡v) t`Z-§Ä X¿m-dm-¡n-bn-cp-¶p. tkm^vävshbÀ, lmÀUvshb-dnsâ A\n-tj-[y-amb `mK-am-bn-cn-¡p-Ibpw Hcp hyh-km-b-taJe F¶ \ne-bn kzbw AXnsâ AkvXnXzw Øm]n-¡-s¸-SmXn-cn-¡p-Ibpw sN¿p-¶n-S-t¯mfw Imew \S¶ Kth-j-W-§-sfm-¶pw-Xs¶ t]mÀ«-_n-enän F¶ {]iv\s¯ IW-¡n-se-Sp-¯n-cp-¶n-Ã. Fhn-sS-bmtWm tkm^vävshbÀ lmÀUvshbÀ hn`-P\w \S-t¡-n h¶n-cp-¶Xv Ahn-sS-bmWv AXv BZyw A`n-ap-Jo-I-cn¨Xv. X§-fpsS FÃm {_mâp-I-fnepw Hcp-t]mse {]hÀ¯n-¡p¶ Hcp Hm¸-td6

än§v knÌamb sF.-_n.-Fw. System/360 Is- - t ¯- - n - h - ¶ - t ¸mÄ AsÃ- ¦ n AXn- \ - \ p- k - c n¨v X§fpsS I¼yq-«À tamU-ep-IÄ {Iao-I-cn-t¡--n-h-¶-t¸mÄ sF.-_n.-Fw. Cu {]iv\s¯ AXnsâ {]mYanI cq]-¯n t\cn-Sp-I-bp--m-bn. BPCL, B XpS-§nb `mj-If - n 60-IÄ¡-hk - m\w sI tXmwk¬ s_ em_n Kth-jWw XpS-§n-b-t¸mÄ (C-XmWv ]n¶oSv C bpsS I- p - ] n- S p- ¯ - ¯ n\v Imc- W - a mb-Xv) Cu {]iv\w A`n-ap-Jo-I-cn-t¡-- Xnsâ sNdnb kqN-\-t]mepw D-m-bn-cp-¶n-Ã. Fgp-]-Xp-Ifn D- m b tkm^v ä v s hbÀ/lmÀUv s hbÀ hn`- P - \ - a mWv CXns\ ap¶n- t e¡v XÅn- s ¡m- - p - h - ¶ - X v . A§ns\ 1972 C hnI-kn-¸n-¨-t¸mÄ Kth-j-I³ Ahsb BZy-am-bn-¯s¶ t_m[-]qÀÆw A`n-apJo-I-cn-¨p. sajo³ kvs]kn-^n-¡mb C³]p«v/Hu«v]p«v Iamâp-Isf ÌmtâssUkv sNbvXp-sIm- m - b n - c p ¶ p C CXns\ t\cn-«Xv. A§n\ ASp-¯p-\n¶p ]cn-tim-[n-¡p-t¼mÄ t]mÀ«-_n-enän Hcp km¼-¯nI kwhÀ¤-am-bmWv ImW-s¸-Sp-¶-Xv. tkm^vävshbdpIsf Nc-¡p-I-fm¡n amäp-¶-Xn CXv kp{]-[m\ ]¦p-h-ln-¡p-I-bp-m-bn. tkm^vävshbdpIfpw lmÀUvshb-dp-Ifpw hyXykvX I¼-\n-IÄ \nÀ½n-¡p¶p F¶Xv Xs¶bmWv 70-I-fn CXns\ kp{]-[m-\-am-¡n-b-Xv. F¶m apX-em-fn¯w Hcp Nc-¡p-ev]m-Z\ hyh-Ø-bm-sW-¦nepw AsXmcp kzX{´ Nc-¡pev]m-Z\ hyh-Ø-bmbn-cp-¶n-«n-Ã. em`w Dd-¸p-h-cp-¯p-¶n-S-§-fn am{X-amWv AXv kzmX-{´ys¯ AwKo-Ic - n-¡p-¶X - v. kzmX-{´y-¯n\pw kzX{´ hym]m-c¯ - n\pw apX-em-fn¡pw P\-§Ä¡pw hyXykvX AÀ°-am-Wp-Å-Xv. tkm^vävshb-dns\ Nc-¡m¡n amäp-¶-Xn apJy ]¦p-h-ln¨ t]mÀ«-_n-enän F¶ Bi-bs¯bpw AbmÄ X\n-¡n-jvS-ap-Ån-S-t¯mfw am{X-amWv D]-tbm-Kn-¡p-¶-Xv. 1980-h-scbpw tkmgvkv tImUp-IÄ ]c-kv]cw ssIam-dm-hp-¶-h-bm-bn-cp-¶p. (C-§s\ ssIam-dp-¶Xv Hcp Ipä-Ir-Xy-am-hp-ambn-cp-¶n-Ã. AhÀ lm¡ÀamÀ F¶mWv Adn-b-s¸-«-Xv. ]n¶oSv Cu hm¡v Hcp Ipä-Ir-Xy-ambn _Ôn¸n¨v tkmgvkv tImUv tamjvSmhv F¶m-¡n. km{am-PyXzw `mj-I-sf-t¸mepw AS¡n `cn-¡p-¶-Xnsâ ]pXnb DZm-l-c-Ww!) F¶m 80-I-fn UnPn-ä FIzn-]vsaâ v tImÀ¸-td-j³ X§fpsS ]n.-Un.-]n. 10 (PDP-10) kocokv I¼yq-«-dp-Isf lm¡À I½yq-Wn-än-bpsS tkm^vävshb-dp-IÄ d¬ sN¿m¯ Xc-¯n ]pXp¡n-s¡m-v t]mÀ«-_n-enänsb A«n-a-dn-¨p. AXm-bn-cp¶p ]n¶oSv {^o tkm^vävshbÀ {]Øm-\-¯n\v cq]w-sIm-Sp-¡p-¶-Xn\v \nZm-\-ambn `hn-¨-Xv. 1997 asämcp A«n-a-dn-IqSn \S-¡p-I-bp--m-bn. DbÀ¶ t]mÀ«-_n-enän {]I-Sn-¸n-¡p¶ Pmh GXp Hm¸-td-än§v knÌ-¯nepw {]hÀ¯n-¡p-am-bn-cp-¶p. 1997 ssat{Im-tkm^väv Hcp Pmh shÀNz sajo³ (JVM) ]pd-¯n-d¡n. aäp I¼-\n-I-fpsS sP.-hn.-F½pambn H¯p-t]m-Im¯ H¶m-bn-cp¶p AXv. A§ns\ ^e-¯n DbÀ¶ t]mÀ«-_n-enän hmKvZm\w sNbvXn-cp¶ Pmh ssat{Im-tkm-^vänsâ ssI¿n A{]-Im-c-a-Ãm-Xmbn amdn. CXn-s\-Xnsc D-mb tIkn Atacn-¡³ s^U-d tImSXn 1998 \h-¼-dn ssat{Im-tkm-^vän-t\mSv X§-fpsS Pmh shÀj³ ]n³h-en-¡m³ Bh-iy-s¸-«p. A§ns\ hnh- c - § Ä kzX- { ´- a mbn ssIam- d n- s ¡m- v FÃm- h À¡pw e`y- a m- ¡ n- s ¡m- p w kwLÀjc-ln-X-amb Im¸n-ä-enkw D-m-Ip-sa¶v {]h-Nn¨ _n sKbvävknsâ Pmh-bpsS t]mÀ«-_n-en-änsb XIÀ¡m-\pÅ {ia-§sf XSp-¡m³ tImS-Xn-¡v ssat{Imtkm^väp-ambn kwLÀj-¯n-teÀs¸-tS--nh-¶p!

BtKm-f-h¡-c-W-Im-es¯ tkm^vävshbÀ Dev]m-Z-\hpw amÊv amÀ¡-än§pw tZiob k¼-ZvL-S-\-Isf hne-Ip-dª A[zm-\-i-àn-bp-tSbpw {]Ir-Xn-hn-`-h-§-fp-tSbpw Ieh-d-bmbn ]cn-hÀ¯n-¸n-s¨-Sp-¡p-I-bmWv BtKm-f-h-Xv¡-c-W-¯n-eqsS km{am-PyXzw sNbvXp-sIm--ncn-¡p-¶-Xv. Dev]m-Z-\-{]-{In-bsb ]e LS-I-§-fmbn hn`-Pn-¡p-Ibpw hne-Ip-dª A²zm-\-tijn D]tbm-K-s¸-Sp-¯p-¶-Xn-\p-th-n temI-¯nsâ hnhn[ `mK-§-fn Dev]m-Zn-¸n-s¨-Sp-¡p¶ {]h-WX iàns¸-«p-sIm--n-cn-¡p-¶p. Cu {]h-WX Ct¸mÄ tkm^vävshbdpI-fnepw hym]-I-am-bn-«p--v. Hmtcm t{]mP-Iväp-IÄ hnhn[ {]tZ-i-§-fn-embn Xcw Xncn-¡p¶ coXn t\cs¯ \ne-hn-ep--v. F¶m Hä t{]mP-Iväns\ ]e-Xmbn Xncn-¨v Hmtcm `mK-§fpw hnhn[ {]tZ-i-§-fn Dev]m-Zn-¸n-s¨-Sp-¡p¶ coXn 7

]pXn-b-XmWv. 1995 Pmh Is--¯n-b-Xn\p-ti-j-amWv AXv km[y-am-b-Xv. hnhn[ Hm¸-td-än§v kņ-fn-epw sajo-\p-I-fnepw D]-I-c-W-§-fnÂt]mepw kpK-a-ambn {]hÀ¯n-¡m³ Ign-bp¶ Cu `mjbpsS LS-\m-]-c-amb khn-ti-j-X-sIm--mWv (distributed character )CXv km[y-am-bX - v. am{X-aà Pmh, t{]m{Kmw`mK-§-fpsS ]p\-cp-]-tbm-K-¯n\p (reuse) tbmPn-¨-Xm-b-Xp-sIm-v CXv t{]m{Km-an§v sNehp-Isf A©n-sem-¶mbn Npcp-¡p-Ibpw Dev]m-Z-\-£-aX 5 Cc-«n-bmbn hÀ²n-¸n-¡p-Ibpw Dev]m-Z-\k-abw Npcp-¡p-Ibpw sNbvXn-cn-¡p-¶p. 1990-\p-tijw tkm^vävshbÀ taJ-e-bn-ep--mb C¯cw hnIm-k-§Ä tkm^vävshbdpIsf amkv amÀ¡-än-§n-\v hnt[-b-am-¡n-s¡m--n-cn-¡p-¶p. Hcp ]cn-[n-hsc tkm^vävshbÀ taJe I¬kyqaÀ Dev]m-Z-\-hp-ambn ebn-¡m³ XpS-§n-bn-cn-¡p-¶p. BZy-Im-e-§-fn tkm^vävshbÀ I¼-\n-I-fn kn.-C.-H.amcmbn tNÀ¶n-cp-¶Xv tkm^vävshbÀ hnZ-Kv[-cm-bn-cp-¶p-sh-¦n Ct¸mÄ Cu taJ-e-bpambn bmsXmcp _Ô-hp-an-Ãm-¯-h-cmWv DbÀ¶ DtZym-K-Ø-·m-cmbn \nb-an-¡-s¸-Sp-¶-Xv. 1995 ssat{Im-tkm-^vän No^v Hm¸-td-än§v Hm^o-kÀ Bbn \nb-an-¡-s¸-«Xv I¬kyq-aÀ I¼-\n-bm-bncp-¶p. ]n & Pnbnse Cu taJ-e-bp-ambn _Ô-an-Ãm¯ tdm_À«v slÀs_À«v Bbn-cp¶p. B¸nfnte¡v s]]vkn-bpsS tPm¬ kvsIen§v h¶Xpw asämcp DZm-l-c-W-am-bn-cp-¶p. At¸mÄ Hcp Ime¯v lmÀUvshb-dp-I-fpsS A\n-tj[y `mK-am-bn-cp¶ tkm^vävshbdpIÄ Ct¸mÄ amÊv-þ-amÀ¡-än-§n-\pÅ Dev]-¶-ambn amdn-bn-cn-¡p-¶p. Cu ka-b-¯n-\n-S-bn AXv hnhn[ cq]-§-fn-eqsS IS¶p t]mhp-Ibpw k¦oÀ®X hÀ²n-¸n-¡p-¶-Xn-\-\p-k-cn¨v A[zm-\-i-ànsb AhnZ-Kv[a - m-¡p-Ibpw sNbvXp. C¯-c¯ - n-emWv sXmgn-ensâ Ahn-ZK - v[h - ¡-cWhpw AXphgn sXmgnÂhn`-P\ - hpw \S-¸m-bX - v. A²zm-\s¯ kmaq-ly-h¡-cn-¨p. A§ns\ tkm^vävshbÀ t{]m{Km-aÀ - amcnse henb Hcp hn`m-Ks¯ CXv Iqen-th-e-¡m-cmbn amänbn-cn-¡p-¶p. BZy-¯n I¼yq-«À lmÀUvshbÀ/ t{]m{Km-aÀ/ Hm¸-td-äÀ F¶n-hÀ Hscmä Bfn tI{µoI-cn-¨n-cp-¶p. ]n¶oSv CXnÂ\n¶v t{]m{Km-asd thÀXn-cn-s¨-Sp-¡p-Ibpw t{]m{Km-a-dnÂ\n¶v Hm¸-tdäsd Is--Sp-¡p-Ibpw sNbvXp. AXn-\n-S-bn sshb-ànI Ign-hp-Isf ASn-Øm-\-s¸-Sp-¯nb t{]m{Kmw amXr- I - I sf Hgn- h m- ¡ n- s ¡m- v ]pXnb t{]m{Km- a n§v `mj- I Ä cwK- ¯ p- h - ¶ p. CXv tkm^vävshbÀ Dev]m-Z-\-¯nÂXs¶ sXmgn hn`-P\w D-m-¡p-Ibpw tkm^vävshb-dnsâ ]p\-cp]-tbm-Kw, AXp-hgn t{]m{Km-ap-IÄ Iq«n-t¨À¯v ]pXnb t{]m{Km-ap-IÄ D-m-¡m-\pÅ km[yX F¶nh-bn-eqsS tkm^vävshb-dn amkv s{]mU-£-\p-th- kml-N-cy-§Ä kÖo-I-cn-¡pIbpw sNbvXp.

s]än-_qÀjzm-knbpw Iqen-th-ebpw t{]m{Km-aÀamsc Iqen-th-e¡ - m-cm-¡p¶ apI-fn hnh-cn¨ {]h-WX - I - Ä tkm^väp-sh-bd- p-Isf kw_-Ôn-¨n-S-t¯mfw hfsc kp{]-[m-\-am-Wv. t{]m{Km-aÀam-cn henb iX-am-\-t¯m-fhpw s]än_qÀjzm hn`m-K-§-fnÂ\n-¶m-Wv F¯n-t¨-cp-¶-sX¶v ]e ]T-\-§-fpw sXfn-bn-¨n-«p--v. C´y-bn \S¶ Hcp ]T-\-{]-Imcw (what does it take to become a software professional? A\n-cp²vIrjvW & hnPbv {_Ò-tZiw EPW Pqembv 29, 2006) t{]m{Km-aÀam-cn 32% t]cpw kwØm-\-X-e-Øm-\-§fnse ss{]häv kvIqfp-I-fnÂ\n¶v hnZym-`ymkw e`n-¨-h-cm-Wv. 23% t]cpw PnÃm BØm-\-§-fnse kzIm-cy-hn-Zym-`ymk Øm]-\-§-fnÂ\n¶v hnZym-`ymkw t\Sn. Ch-cnse 46% t]cp-sSbpw ]nXm-¡Ä _ncp-Z[ - m-cn-If - m-Wv. 31% t]cp-sSbpw ]nXm-¡Ä amÌÀ _ncp-Za - p-Åh - c - m-Wv. kvIqfn t]mepw t]mIm¯ Hcm-fpsS aIt\m aItfm tkm^vävshbÀ t{]m{Km-an§v taJ-e-bn F¯n-t¨À¶n-«n-Ã. t{]m{Km-aÀamcn 52% t]cp-sSbpw A½-amÀ _ncp-Z[ - m-cn-If - m-Wv. 80% t]cp-sSbpw A½-amÀ Npcp-§n-bXv sslkvIqÄ hnZym-`ymkw e`n-¨-h-cm-Wv. tZio-b-X-e-¯n 2% t]cpsS amXm-]n-Xm-¡Ä¡p am{X-amWv _m¨veÀ _ncp-Z-ap-Å-sX¶ \mj-W km¼nÄ kÀtÆ-bpsS IW-¡p-IÄ Iq«n-hm-bn-¡p-t¼mÄ t{]m{Km-aÀamcpsS IpSpw-_-]-Ým-¯-e-s¯-¡p-dn¨v GI-tZ-i-[m-cW e`n-¡pw. km¼-¯n-I-ambn hfsc ]nt¶m¡w \n¡p¶ IpSpw-_-§-fnÂ\n¶pw 14.70% t]À am{X-amWv Cu taJ-eb - n F¯n-bX - v. 66.6% t]À a²y-hÀ¤-¯nÂ\n¶pw 18.6%t]À DbÀ¶ a²y-hÀ¤-¯nÂ\n¶pw F¯n-t¨À¶p. _mw¥q-cnse tkm^vävshbÀ Dev]m-Z-\-ta-J-e-bn \S¶ ]T-\-^-e-amWv apI-fn 8

kqNn-¸n-¨-Xv. aän-S-§-fn- \S¶ ]T-\-§fnepw CtX {]h-WX \ne-\n¡p-¶-Xmbn CtX kÀtÆ dnt¸mÀ«n tcJ- s ¸- S p- ¯ n- b n- « p- - v . At¸mÄ t{]m{Km-aÀam-cn henbhn`m-Ks¯ Iqen-th-e-¡m-cmbn amäp¶ Cu {]{Inb adp-`mK¯v s]än_qÀjzm-knsb Iqen-th-e-¡m-cm-¡p¶ {]{In-b-bp-am-Wv.10 Cu hn`m-Ks¯ sXmgn-em-fnhÀ¤-¯n-te¡v IS-¯n-hn-Sp¶ Cu {]h-WX ^e-¯n sXmgn-em-fn-hÀ¤w Ct¶mfw t\Sn-sb-Sp¯ apX- e m- f n- ¯ - ¯ n- s \- X n- s c- b pÅ {]Xn- t cm- [ s¯ Hs«m¶v tZmj- I - c - a mbn _m[n- ¡ p- ¶ p- - v . 11 tkm^vävshbÀ taJ-e-bnse sXmgn-em-fn-IÄ sXmgn-em-fn-bq-Wn-b-\p-IÄ D-m-¡p-¶-Xn hnap-J-cp-amWv. t{]m{Km-an§v taJ-e-bnepw AXnsâ asäm-c-\p-_-Ô-ta-J-e-bmb _n.-]n.-H./sF.-Sn.-C.-Fkv taJ-ebnepw e`n-¡p¶ DbÀ¶ thX\w Xs¶-bm-Wv CXn\v Imc-Ww. Cu DbÀ¶-th-X-\-am-Is« Dul-¡¨-h-S-¯nepw ^n\m³kv aqe-[-\-¯nepw Du¶n-s¡m--pÅ tkm^vävshb-dp-I-fpsS AkvXn-Xz-¯nsâ ^e-hpw. AtXm-sSm¸w hnI-kzc cmPy-§sf kw_-Ôn-¨n-S-t¯mfw X§-fpsS cmPys¯ Xmgv¶ A²zm\ taJ-e-(cheap labour economy) bm-¡p¶ A´m-cmjv{S sXmgn hn`-P-\hpw CXn ]¦p-hln-¡p-¶p--v. AXp-sIm-p IqSn-bmWv aq¶mw-temI t{]m{Km-aÀamÀ¡v DbÀ¶-th-X\w sImSp-¡m³ tkm^vävshbÀ taJ-ebv¡v km[n-¡p-¶-Xv. Ata-cn-¡bn Hcp t{]m{Km-aÀ¡v hÀj-¯n $ 60000 sImSp-¡p-t¼mÄ C´y-bn-eXv $ 6000 BWv. CXn-epÅ hyXymkw {it²-ba - m-Wv. AtX-ka - bw sXmgn Zn\-¯nsâ ssZÀLy-¯nsâ Imcy-¯n tkm^vävshbÀ taJe ]g-b-Ime ASn-a-¯s¯ Ih-¨psh-¨n-cn-¡p-¶p. _n.-]n.-H. taJ-eb - n-epÅ tPmen-¡msc ssk_ÀIq-en-IÄ F¶mWv hnti-jn-¸n-¡p-¶X - v. t{]m{Km-aÀamÀ¡v DbÀ¶ thX\w \ÂIm³ hyh-km-bs¯ {]m]vX-am-¡p-¶-Xn aäp-Nne LS-I-§ÄIqSn ]¦p-h-ln-¨n-«p--v. 70-I-fn-emWv tkm^vävshb-dp-I-fpsS Nc-¡p-h¡-c-W-{]-{In-b¡v XpS¡w Ipdn-¨-sX¶v \mw a\-Ên-em-¡p-I-bp--m-bn. F¶m bYmÀ°-¯n AXv kzb-tah D-mb Hcp {]Xn-`m-k-a-Ã. adn¨v Nne \nb-{´-W-§fpw \nb-a-§fpw tkm^vävshb-dp-IÄ¡v apI-fn \S-¸m¡n-s¡m--m-WnXv km[y-am-¡n-b-Xv. ssek³kn§v k{¼-Zmbw CXn henb ]¦p-h-ln-¨p. F.-Sn. & Sn. F¶ Ata-cn-¡³ I¼-\n-bmWv 70-If - n X§-fpsS Dev]¶ - § - Ä¡v BZy-ambn ssek³kv GÀs¸Sp-¯n-bXv. Hmtcm ssek³kpw D]-t`m-àm-hnsâ kzmX-{´ys¯ ]cn-an-X-s¸-Sp-¯p-¶p. Ah-bpsS tkmgvkvtImUp-Isf ad-¨p-sh-¨p-sIm-v XpSÀhn-Im-k-§sf I¼\n Ip¯-I-bm-¡n-sh-¡p-¶p. ]n.Un.]n 10 kocokv I¼yq-«-dp-IÄ \nÀ½n-¨p-sIm--v UnPn-ä FIzn-]vsaâ v tImÀ¸-td-j³ lm¡ÀamcpsS tkm^vävshb-dp-If - psS D]-tbm-Ki - q-\y-am-¡nb coXn t\cs¯ \mw I-p. C§s\ Ip¯I GÀs¸Sp-¯n-s¡m-p IqSn-bmWv tkm^vävshb-dp-IÄ Nc-¡p-cq]w {]m]n-¨-Xv. Cu Ip¯-I-hn-e-I-fmWv Cu taJ-eb - nse [\m-[n-Iy-¯n\v Imc-Wa - m-bXpw t{]m{K-aÀamÀ¡v A[n-It- h-X\w Dd-¸p-\ÂIn-bXpw.

Hm¸-td-än§v knÌw A[zm-\-¯nsâ Xo{ho-I-c-W-¯n-\pÅ D]m[n F¶ \ne-bn I¼yq-«À D]-tbm-Kn-¡p-¶b - mÄ¡pw I¼yq-«d- n-\p-an-Sb - n-epÅ Hcp LS-Is - a¶ \ne-bn-emWv Hm¸td-än§v knÌw hnh-cn-¡-s¸-Sp-¶-Xv. kzbw \nb-{´-W-ti-jn-bn-Ãm¯ Hcp-]äw `uXn-I-h-kvXp-¡-fpsS kwLm-X-amb Hcp b{´-¯nsâ ]Ým-¯-e-¯n CXv kzbw hyà-am-sW¶v tXm¶n-t¸m-Ip-¶p. F¶m Hm¸-td-än§v knÌw F¶ H¶n-Ãm-sX-X-s¶-bmWv I¼yq-«À Ah-bpsS ssii-h-Imew ]n¶n«-Xv. Hm¸-td-än§v knÌw F¶ Hcp-]äw \nÀt±-i-§Ä¡v ]Icw a\p-jy³ Xs¶-bm-bn-cp¶p B tPmenIÄ \nÀÆ-ln-¨n-cp-¶-Xv. Ah³ I¼yq-«-dp-ambn ]©v ImÀUp-Ifpw tSmKnÄ kzn¨p-Ifpw {]nâ-dp-Ifpw Unkvs¹ sseäp-I-fpw hgn t\cn«v kwh-Zn-¨p. sXmgn-ensâ Ahn-Z-Kv[-h¡-c-W-¯n-eq-sSbpw sXmgnÂhn`-P\ - ¯ - n-eq-sSbpw am{Xta hyh-km-b§ - f - psS Bh-iy-§Ä \nÀÆ-ln-¡s - ¸-Sp-Ib - pÅq F¶ L«-¯n-emWv Hm¸-td-än§v knÌw cq]w-sIm-- Xv. AXp cq]w-sIm-- Xp-ap-X AXv Hm¸-td-äÀam-cp-sSXmb Hcp Ahn-ZKv²sXm-gn-emfn hÀ¤-¯nsâ cq]o-I-c-W-¯n\v hgn-sbm-cp-¡n. H¸w AXv A²zm-\¯nsâ Xo{ho-I-c-W-¯n-\pÅ D]m-[n-bmbn Xocp-Ibpw sNbvXp.

t{]m{Km-aÀ V/s Hm¸-td-äÀ 1940 Ifnepw 1950IfpsS ]IpXn hscbpw t{]m{Km-aÀ t\cn«v I¼yq-«À lmÀUp-sh-b-dp-I-fp9

ambn kwh-Zn-¡p-I-bm-bn-cp-¶p. t{]m{Km-aÀ sajo³tImUv D]-tbm-Kn¨v FgpXn C³]p«v/ Hu«v]p«v D]-I-c-W-§Ä hgn (ImÀUv doU-dp-IÄ) I¼yq-«-dn ^oUv sN¿p-¶p. CXn-se-s´-¦nepw sXäp kw`hn-¨m a\-Ên-em-¡m-\pÅ Cân-t¡-ä-dp-IÄ D]-I-c-W-¯n LSn-¸n-¨n-cn-¡pw. 1945 hscbpw Hmtcm XhW I¼yq-«À {]hÀ¯n-¡-W-sa-¦nepw t{]m{Kmw I¼yq-«-dn-te¡v ^oUv sN¿-W-am-bn-cp-¶p. 1945emWv thm¬ \yqam³ (Von Newmann) I¼yq-«-dn t{]m{Km-ap-IÄ tÌmÀ sNbvXv sh¡msa¶v \nÀt±-in-¨-Xv. ssIIÄ D]-tbm-Kn-¨p-sIm-v t]m{Kmw sN¿p-¶-Xn\p ]Icw k¦oÀ®-amb \nÀt±-i§Ä hgn I¼yq-«-dns\ \nb-{´n-¡mw. 1949 \nÀ½n¨ FUvkmIv (edsac)  t{]m{Kmw Hcp XhW am{Xw ^oUv sNbvXp tÌmÀ sN¿m-am-bn-cp-¶p. A§ns\ t{]m{Kmw sN¿p¶ BfnÂ\n¶pw hyXykvX-ambn Xmc-X-tay\ Ahn-Z-Kv[-\mb Hcm-sf-s¡m--v, AXpw t{]m{Km-a-d-Ãm¯ Hcmsf D]-tbm-Kn¨v XXz-¯n I¼yq-«À {]hÀ¯n-¡m-sa-¶p-h¶ - p. I¼yq-«À Hmtcm XhW D]-tbm-Kn-¡p-t¼mgpw t{]m{Kmw ^oUv sNt¿-- Xp-v F¶Xv Hcp henb sshj-ay-am-bn-cp-¶p. AXpw I¼yq-«À {]hÀ¯n-¸n-¡pI F¶Xv henb sshZ-Kv[y-am-h-iy-s¸-Sp¶ Hcp {]hr-¯n-bm-bn-cn-¡p-t¼mÄ. F¶m t{]m{Km-ap-IÄ k¦oÀ® \nÀt±-i`- m-jI - Ä tÌmÀ sNbvXp-]t- bm-Kn-¡m-sa-¶m-bt- ¸mÄ I¼yq-«À {]hÀ¯n-¡m³ C¯c-samcp hnZ-Kv[³ Bh-iy-a-Ãm-Xm-bn. t{]m{Km-adpw I¼yq-«À Hm¸-td-ädpw X½n thÀXn-cn-bp¶ Hcp Ncn-{X-km-lN - cyw IqsS-bm-bn-cp-¶n-Xv. F¶m XXz-¯n C§-s\-bm-bn-cn-¡p-t¼mgpw {]tbm-K¯ - n CXv \S-¸m-hm³ hyXykvX I¼yq-«-dp-I-fn Hcp-t]mse {]hÀ¯n-¡p¶ Hm¸-td-än§v knÌw Is-¯p- ¶ - X p- h sc Im¯n- c n- t ¡- - n - h - ¶ p.

Hm¸- t d- ä n§v knÌw I- p - ] n- S n- t ¡- - n - h ¶ kml- N - c y- § Ä 1950- BZy-¯n-emWv sF.-_n.-Fw.701 \pth-n P\-d tamt«mgvkv Hcp Hm¸-td-än§v knÌw Is- - ¯ p- ¶ - X v . sF.- _ n.- F w.701 sâ hne Hcp-e£w tUmf-dm-bn-cp-¶p. AXn\p ap³]p--m-bn-cp¶ I¼yq-«-dp-I-f-DsS hnebpw CXp-t]mse A[n-I-am-bn-cp-¶p. C{X-tbsd hne-Iq-Snb Hcp D]-I-c-W-sa¶ \ne-bn e`y-amb ka-b-¯n-\p-Ån¯s¶ apS-¡n-b-XpI ]c-am-h[n Xncn-s¨-Sp-¡pI F¶Xv Hcp \nÀ®m-bI {]iv\-am-bn-cp-¶p. AXv F{Xbpw thKw Xncn-s¨-Sp-¡-W-sa-¦n b{´w XpSÀ¨-bmbn {]hÀ¯n-¡-W-a-tÃm. ]g-b-Ime I¼yq-«-dp-I-fn Hm¸-td-äÀ Hcp sjUyq-fp--m-¡p-Ibpw B sjUyq-fn ka-b-¡W-¡n\v D]-t`m-àm-¡Ä¡v hmS-I¡v sImSp-¡p-Ibpw sN¿pw. Hcp aWn-¡qÀ kabw HcmÄ hmS-Is¡-Sp-¡p-I-bm-sW-¦n Nne-t¸mÄ tPm_v (Job) \mev ] - ¯ ©v an\n«p- s Im- v Ignªp F¶p- h - c mw. aäp Nne-t¸mÄ Hcp aWn-¡q-dp-sIm-v Xotc- {]hÀ¯n ka-b-¯n\v Ign-ªnà F¶p-h-cmw. BZyt¯-Xn 15 an\n«v Hm¸-td-ädpw tajo\pw shdpsX (Idle) Ccn- ¡ p- ¶ p. c- m - a - t ¯- X n kabw Bhiy-¯n\p XnI-bp-¶p-an-Ã. A¡m-e¯v Hcp tPm_v F¶m I¼-bveÀ temUp-sN-¿pI, tkmgvkv t{]m{Kmw I¼yq-«-dn ^oUv sN¿pI t{]m{Km-ans\ Umä-bp-ambn _Ôn-¸n-¡pI XpS-§nb \nc-h[n {]hÀ¯-\-§-fpsS XpSÀ¨-bm-bn-cp-¶p. Hmtcm {]mh-iyhpw ^e-¯n hmc-¡-W-¡n\v \of-apÅ tS¸p-IÄ sajo-\n Dd-¸n-¡p-Itbm FSp¯p amäp-I-tbm, ]©v ImÀUp-IÄ Hcp-¡n-sh-¡p-Itbm Hs¡ sN¿-W-am-bn-cp¶p. {]hÀ¯n-bn Fs´-¦nepw sXäp-h-¶m sNbvX ]Wn ho-pw XpS-§-Ww. CXn\v kabw thW-atÃm. CXns\ skävA]v ssSw (Set up time) F¶v ]d-bp-¶p. C{]Imcw sjUyq-fn§v sIm-m-bmepw skävA]vssSw (Setup time) sIm- m - b mepw hne- I qSnb b{´w {]hÀ¯-\-c-ln-X-am-bn-cn-¡p-¶-Xm-bmWv A\p-`-h-s¸-Sp-¶-Xv. sajo-\ns\ XpSÀ¨-bmbn {]hÀ¯n-¨p-sIm--ÃmsX apS-¡p-ap-X Xncn-¨p-In-«p-I-bp-an-Ã. A¡m-e¯v \S¶ Nne ]T-\-§Ä b{´¯nsâ C³]p«v Hu«v]p«v LS-I-¯n\pw t{]mk-k-dn\pw X½n thK-X-bn 96% A[nIw thK-Xmhy- X ym- k - a p- s - ¶ v Is- - ¯ p- I - b p- - m - b n. Cu thK- X m- h y- X ymkw ]cn- l - c n¨v sajo³ shdp- s X- b n- c n¡p¶ kabw Ipd-¡m-sa¶v Is--¯p-Ibpw sNbvXp. C§s\ C³]p«v Hu«v]p«v LS-I-§sf hn]peo-I-cn¨v I¼yq-«-dn-s\-s¡m-v hyXy-kvX-tPm-en-IÄ Htc-k-abw (multi tasking) sN¿n- ¨ p- s Im- v sajo³ sFUn kabw Ipd-¡m-\pÅ Hcp kwhn-[m-\-am-bmWv BZy Hm¸-td-än§v knÌ-amb _m¨v Hm¸- t d- ä n§v knÌw Is- - ¯ n- b - X v . 10

I¼yq-«À tkm^vävshbÀ Ncn-{X-Im-c-·msc kw_-Ôn-¨n-S-t¯mfw Cu {]hr¯n-IÄ sajo\nse LS-I`- m-K§ - f - psS {]hÀ¯-\t- h-KX {Iao-Ic - n¨v sajo³ sFUn kabw Ipd-¡m-\pÅ D]m[n am{X-am-Wv. F¶m bYmÀ°-¯n AXv F´m-sW¶v hyà-am-I-W-sa-¦n D]-I-c-W-§-fpsS `mK¯p-\n-¶-ÃmsX b{´s¯ {]hÀ¯n-¸n-¡p¶ sXmgn-em-fn-bpsS ]£-¯p-\n¶pw t\mt¡--n-bn-cn-¡p¶p. I¼yq-«À {]hÀ¯n-¸n-¡p¶ sXmgn-em-fnsb kw_-Ôn-¨n-S-t¯mfw Hm¸-td-än§v knÌw c-v [À½§Ä \nÀÆ-ln-¡p-¶p. 1. I¼yq-«-dnsâ b{´-`m-K-§sf sXmgn-em-fn-bnÂ\n¶pw ad-¨p-sh-¡p-¶p. 2. sXmgn-em-fn-bpsS A[zm-\s¯ Xo{h-am-¡p-¶p. I¼yq-«-dnsâ b{´-`m-Ks¯ Hm¸-td-ä-dnÂ\n¶v ad¨p sh¡p-t¼mÄ sXmgn-em-fn-bn Bh-iys¸-Sp¶ sshZKv[yw b{´-¯n-te¡v ]I-cp-¶p. AXp-hgn C\n-ap-X I¼yq-«d- ns\ kw_-Ôn-¨n-St- ¯mfw a\p-jy³ Hc-\p_Ôw am{X-am-Ip-¶p. F¶m tkm^vävshbÀ hyh-km-b-¯nsâ LS-\-bpsS {]tXyI-X-IÄsIm--p-Xs¶ Hmtcm Xcw I¼yq-«dpw Hmtcm t{]m{Kmw Bh-iy-s¸-«n-cp-¶p. sF.-_n.-Fw.702 (1952) koco-kn sF.-_n.-Fw. AXnsâ BZys¯ "Ce-Ivt{Sm-WnIv tÌmÀUv t{]m{Km-an§v I¼yq«À' Dev]m-Zn-¸n-¨-t¸mÄ t{]m{Kmw sN¿p¶ BÄXs¶ Hcp ]cn-[nhsc Hm¸-tdäv sN¿p-Ibpw th-nh-¶p. ]n¶o-Sp-h¶ ]e I¼yq-«À tamU-ep-I-fnepw Hmtcm Hm¸-td-än§v knÌw Bh-iy-am-bn-cp-¶p. F¶m 1965 ]pd-¯n-d-¡nb sF.-_n.-Fw. knÌw /360 kocokv I¼yq-«-dp-I-fpsS BÀ¡n-s«-IvNÀ A\p-k-cn¨v Hmtcm tamU I¼yq-«-dp-IÄ¡pw Hmtcm Hm¸-tdän§vknÌw/I¼yq-«À A¹n-t¡-j³ tkm^vävshbÀ Bh-iy-an-Ãm-bn-cp-¶p. lmÀUvshbÀ A]vt{KUv sN¿m-\m-{K-ln-¡p¶ apX-em-fnsb kw_-Ôn-¨n-S-t¯mfw ]gb sXmgn-em-fnsb-Xs¶ I¼yq-«À Hm¸-td-ä-dmbn \nb-an-¡m-sa-¶-Xm-bn-cp¶p CXnsâ sa¨w. sXmgn-em-fn¡v AXn-\p-th--n {]tXyI ]cn-io-e\w sImSp-t¡-- Xn-Ã. A§s\ t{]m{KmaÀ F¶pw I¼yq-«À Hm¸-td-äÀ F¶pw hyà-amb Xcw-Xn-cn-hn\v ]änb kmt¦-Xn-I-A-Sn-Øm\w hyhkmbw {]I-Sn-¸n-¡m³ XpS-§n. C¯cw ]cn-jvImcw sF.-_n.-Fw.\v amÀ¡äv sjb-dnsâ 60-þ70% hsc t\Sn-s¡m-Sp-¯p. tkm^vävshb-dnsâ \nÀ½m-W-Zni Xocp-am-\n-¡p-¶-Xn CXp hfsc ]¦p-h-ln-¨psh¶v \mw t\cs¯ I- - X m- W v . c-m-a-Xmbn, Hm¸-td-än§v knÌw sXmgn-em-fn-bpsS A²zm-\s¯ Xo{ham-¡p-¶p. b{´-¯n Hm¸-td-än§v knÌw GÀs¸-Sp-¯p-t¼mÄ ^e-¯n b{´-¯nsâ {]hÀ¯-\-th-KX hÀ²n-¡p-I-bmWv. aÄ«n SmkvIn-§v, sjUyq-fn§v XpS-§n-b-h-sIm-v Hm¸-td-än§v knÌw, I¼yq-«-dn A²zm\w sNep-¯p¶ Hm¸-td-ä-dpsS thK-Xbpw AXn-\-\p-k-cn¨v hÀ²n-¸n¡p-¶p. t{]mk-kn-sâbpw C³]p«v/ Hu«v]p«v D]-I-c-W-§-fp-tSbpw thK-Xm-hy-Xym-k-§sf kao-I-cn¨v I¼yq-«À hn{i-a-k-abw (idle) Hgnhm-¡m-\pÅ {ia-§sf A§ns\ ^e-¯n sXmgn-em-fn-bpsS A²zm-\¯ - nsâ Xo{hX hÀ²n-¸n-¡m\pw AXp-hgn A[n-I-cn¨ an¨-aqeyw Dev]m-Zn-¸n-s¨-Sp-¡m-\papÅ D]m-[n-bmbn {]hÀ¯n-¡p-¶p. I¼yq-«dp-I-fpsS lmÀUvshbÀ sNe-hp-IÄ DbÀ¶n-cp¶ ka-b¯v Hm¸-td-än§v knÌw \nÀ½mWw b{´hp-ambn _Ô-s¸« {]iv\-am-bmWv ImW-s¸-«-Xv. ImcWw b{´-¯n-\p-th--n-h-cp¶ sNehpw sXmgnem-fn-bpsS Iqenbpw X½n henb A´-c-ap-mbn-cp-¶p. F¶m lmÀUvshbÀ sNehv Ipd-ªt¸mgpw t]gvk-W I¼yq-«À hym]-I-am-b-t¸mgpw Hm¸-td-än§v knÌw A²zm-\s¯ Xo{ho-I-cn-¡p-Ibm-sW¶ {]iv\w IqSp-X hyà-Xt- bm-sS-]p-d¯ - p-hcp¶p. bYmÀ°-¯n Hm¸-td-än§v knÌ-¯nsâ sa\p-_m-dn It®m-Sn-¡p-t¼mÄ AXv \t½mSv Nne {]hÀ¯n-IÄ sN¿m-\mhiy-s¸-SpI-bm-sW¶pw IamâpIÄ b{´-t¯m-SpÅXn\p-ap-]cn a\p-jy-t\m-Sm-sW¶pw tXm¶n-t¸m-Ip-¶p.

A\n-Ýn-X-Xz-¯nsâ Cc-«n¸v 70-I-fn tkm^vävshbÀ \nÀ½m-W-¯n cq]w-sIm- {]Xn-k-Ônbpw Ah-bpsS kz`m-hs¯-¡p-dn¨pw t\cs¯ \mw ]cn-tim-[n-¨n-cp-¶p. t{]m{Km-an§v `mj-I-fpsS LS-\-bn-ep--m-bn-cp¶ Nne A]-cym-]vX-X-I-fmWv cq]w-sIm- tkm^vävshbdpIÄ D]-tbm-K-iq-\y-ambnt¸mIm³ Imc-Wsa¶mWv AhnsS \mw hne-bn-cp-¯n-b-Xv. AXv `mKn-I-ambn icn-bp-am-bn-cp-¶p. F¶m Hm_vPIväv Hmdn-bâUv t{]m{Km-an§v coXn-b-\p-k-cn¨v `mj-I-fn¯s¶ LS-\m-]-c-amb amä-ap--m-¡n-b-Xn-\pti-jhpw Cu {]Xn-k-Ôn-bpsS kz`m-h-¯n henb amä-ap--m-bn-«n-sÃ-¶-XmWv hmkvX-hw. 1995 (Pmh t]mepÅ H_vPIväv Hmdn-bâUv t{]m{Km-ans\ ASn-Øm-\-s¸-Sp-¯n-sIm-v cq]w11

sIm- `mj-I-fpsS I-p-]n-Sp-¯-¯n\v tijw) Ata-cn-¡-bn tkm^vävshbdpI-sf-¡p-dn¨v Nne ]T- \ - § Ä \S- ¡ p- I - b p- - m - b n. Itbmkv ÌUn (Chaos Study) F¶mWv AXv Adn-b-s¸-Sp-¶-Xv. Atacn-¡-bn 175000 t{]mP-Iväp-I-fn-embn Hmtcm hÀjhpw 250 _ney¬ tUmfÀ sNe-h-gn-¡p-¶p. henb I¼-\n-bn Hcp t{]mPIväv \nÀ½n-¡m³ icm-icn 2, 322,000 tUmf-dpw, Hcp aoUnbw I¼-\n-bn 1331000 tUmfdpw sNdnb I¼-\n-bn 434000 tUmfdpw sNe-h-gn-¡p-¶p. AXn henb iX-am-\t¯mfw ]cm-P-b-s¸-Sp-¶p. Ata-cn-¡³ Ìm³Unjv dnkÀ¨v {Kq¸v \S-¯nb ]T-\-{]-Imcw 31.1% t{]mPIväp-IÄ ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡m-sX-¯s¶ Dt]-£n-¡p-¶p. 52.7% t{]mP-Iväp-IÄ¡pw Ah-bpsS FÌn-taäv XpI-tb-¡mÄ 189.% IqSp-X sNe-h-gn¨p am{X-amWv ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡m³ Ign-bp-¶-Xv. 1995 Ata-cn¡³ I¼-\n-Ifpw kÀ¡mcpw 81 _ney¬ tUmf-dmWv Dt]-£n-¡-s¸«- tkm^vävshbÀ t{]mP-IväpIfn apS-¡n-bncp¶-Xv. ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡m³I-gnªhbn-em-Is« 59 _ney¬ A[n-I-ambn apS-t¡--nbpw h-¶p. Xocp-am-\n¨ ka-b-¯nepw _P-änepw ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡m³ Ignª t{]mP-Iväp-IÄ 16.2% am{Xta hcq. henb I¼-\n-I-fpsS Imcy-¯n Cu Afhv CXn\pw Xmsg-bm-Wv (9%). sNdnb I¼-\nI-fnepw sNdnb t{]mP-Iväp-I-fnepw hnP-b-i-X-am\w Ipd-¨p-IqsS sa¨-s¸-«-Xm-Wv. F¶m Cu {]XnkÔn Ata-cn-¡-bn am{Xw HXp§n \n¡p-¶-X-Ã. It\-Un-b³ kÀ¡mÀ tXm¡v ssIhiw sh¨h-cpsS IW¡p cPn-ÌÀ sNbvXv kq£n-¡m³th--n-bp--m-¡nb (K¬ cPn-kv{Sn) tkm^vävshbdn\v 2 _ney¬ tUmf-dm-bn-cp¶p sNe-h-gn-t¡-n h¶-Xv. CXn-sâ-sbms¡ ^e-am-Is« henb km¼¯nI \jvS-§-fpw. D]-tbm-K-iq-\y-amb tkm^vävshbdpIÄ \¶m-¡n-sb-Sp-¡m³ am{Xw Ata-cn-¡³ kÀ¡mÀ \nIp-Xn-Zm-b-I-cpsS 100 aney¬ tUmfÀ A[n-I-ambn sNe-h-gn-t¡--n-h-cp-sa¶v Hcn¡Â Ata-cn-¡³ F^v.-_n.-sF. A[n-Ir-XÀ IW-¡p-Iq-«p-I-bp--m-bn. sU³hÀ FbÀt]mÀ«n _mtKPp-IÄ ssIImcyw sN¿p¶ tkm^vävshbdnep--mb {]iv\-§Ä A[n-Ir-XÀ¡v Znh-khpw 1.1 aney¬ tUmfÀ A[n- I - s ¨- e - h p- - m - ¡ p- ¶ p. 1986 BÂ{^Uv kvs]IvSÀ F¶ {Sm³kmÀIv tImÀ¸-td-jsâ {]kn-Uâ v ]mew ]Wnsbbpw tkm^vävshbÀ Uh-e-¸vsaân-s\bpw Xmc-Xayw sNbvXp-sIm-v ck-I-c-ambn ]d-ªp. "]me§Ä ]dªka-b¯pw ]dª XpI-bnepw ]Wn XoÀ¡p-¶p. AXp-sIm-v XIÀ¶p-ho-gp-¶p-an-Ã. F¶m tkm^vävshbdpIÄ ]d-ª-k-a-b¯pw XpI-bnepw ]Wn Xocp-¶p-anà AXp-sIm-v XIÀ¶pho-gp-Ibpw sN¿p-¶p.' apI- f n Nq- n - ¡ m- « nb IW- ¡ p- I Ä 1995teXm- s W- ¦ nepw 2000- ¯ n- \ p- t i- j - a p- - m b IW- ¡ pIÄ CtX {]h-WX ImWn-¡p-¶X - m-bn-«mWv ]T-\§ - Ä sXfn-bn-¡p-¶X - v. {]Xn-kÔn hym]-Ia - m-sW¶pw A]-I-S-I-c-am-sW¶pw CXnÂ\n¶pw hyà-am-W-tÃm. `mj-bpsS LS-\-I-fn¯-s¶-bp--m-bn-cp¶ Xncp-¯-ep-IÄ¡p-ti-jhpw \ne-\n-¶p-h-cp¶ Cu {]Xn-k-Ôn-bpsS Imc-W-sa-´m-bn-cn¡pw? ]g-b-Ime hyh-km-b-§-fnÂ\n¶pw hyXy-kvX-ambn sF.-Sn. taJ-e-bn Dev]m-Zn-¸n-¡p¶ Nc¡p-IÄ Ime-¸-g-¡w-sIm-v D]-tbm-K-iq-\y-am-Ip-¶n-Ã. F¶m tkm^vävshbÀ Nc-¡nsâ khn-tij-X-IÄ aqew CXn apS-¡p¶ A²zm-\w-Xs¶ hrYm-hn-em-hp-¶-Xm-bmWv apI-fn-epÅ IW-¡p-IÄ ]d-bp-¶-Xv. ]g-b-Ime hyh-km-b-¯n tI«p-tIÄhn-bn-Ãm¯ H¶m-bn-cp¶p CXv. apS-¡p¶ XpIbn `qcn-`m-Khpw hrYm-hn-em-¡p¶ Cu {]{In-b-bm-Is« apX-em-fn-¯-¯nsâ LS-\-bn¯s¶ A´À`-hn-¨n-«pÅ B ]gb LS-\m-]-c-amb sshcp-²y-¯nsâ A\-´-c-^-e-am-Wv. tkm^v ä v s hbÀ hyh- k m- b - ¯ n- e p- - m b hnIm- k hpw `mj- I - f n- e p- - m b apt¶- ä hpw t{]m{Kman-§ns\ (sXm-gn-en-s\) Ahn-Z-Kv[-h¡cn¨p. tkm^vävshbÀ taJ-e-bp-sS-¯s¶ hnIm-k-¯n-\p-Xs¶ hgn-sbm-cp-¡nb Cu {]h-WX I¼yq-«À t{]m{Kmapw AXn A²zm\w sNep-¯p¶ t{]m{Kmadpw X½n-epÅ _Ôs¯ Xs¶ ]p\À\nÀ®-bn-¡p-¶-Xm-bn-cp-¶p. t{]m{Km-asd t{]m{Km-ansâ A\p_-Ô-am¡n amän F¶-Xm-bn-cp¶p AXnsâ ASn-b-´n-c-^-ew. AhÀ sNbvXp-sIm--n-cn-¡p¶ t{]m{Kmansâ ssh]p-ey-s¯-¡p-dnt¨m k¦oÀ®-X-sb-¡p-dnt¨m Ct¸mÄ t{]m{Km-aÀ bYmÀ°-¯n AÚ\m-Wv. X§-fpsS A²zm-\-¯nsâ Cu ^ew {]mtbm-Kn-I-am-bn {]hÀ¯n-¡ptam F¶p-t]mepw AbmÄ¡-dn-bn-Ã. t{]m{Km-ansâ Hcp \nÝn-X-`mKw sN¿p¶ Hcmsf kw_-Ôn-¨n-S-t¯mfw c-m-asâ {]hÀ¯n AÚm-Xhpw Zpcq-l-hp-am-Wv. \nÝn-X-k-a-b-¯n\pw XpI-¡pap-Ån t{]mPIväv \nÀ½n-¨p12

XoÀt¡- _m[y- X - ¡ p- Å nÂ\n- ¶ p- s Im- v {]hÀ¯n- t ¡- n hcp¶ t{]m{Km- a À \nc- ´ cw tNmZyw sN¿p¶ A[n-Im-c-i-àn-¡p-Ån-emWv {]hÀ¯n-t¡-n hcp-¶-Xv. C{]-Imcw Unkv¡n-Ãn-sâbpw AtXk-abw hÀ²n-¨p-h-cp¶ k¦oÀ®-X-bp-tSbpw ^e-ambn sXmgn-em-fnsb Ah³ \nÀ½n-¡p¶ Nc-¡pI-fnÂ\n¶pw A\y-h¡-cn-¡p¶ B ]gb {]h-W-X-bmWv, tkm^vävshbÀ ]cm-P-b-§-fpsS apJy Imc-W-ambn hÀ¯n-¡p-¶-Xv. Cu A\y-h¡-cW {]{In-b-bm-Is« AXnsâ DS-a-Øm-h-Im-i¯nÂ\n¶pw am{X-a-Ã, B Dev]-¶-¯nsâ kz`m-h-¯nÂ\n¶pw IqSn-bmWv DÛ-hn-¡p-¶-Xv. ap³Ime]mc-¼c - y-hy-hk - m-b§ - f - n Dev]m-Zn-¸n-¡s - ¸« Nc-¡p-IÄ tNmZ-\¯ - nsâ (P-\§ - f - psS {Ib-ti-jn-bp-sS) A`m-h-¯n hn]-Wn-bn sI«n-¡n-S-¡p-¶p. A{]-Imcw B Nc-¡p-I-Ä Aan-tXmev]m-Z-\-¯n\p hnt[-b-am-Ip-¶p. A§ns\ B Nc-¡p-I-fn apS-¡-p¶ A[zm\w hrYm-hn-em-hp-¶p. Dev]m-Z-\-¯n-\p-tijw hn]-Wn-bn-te-¡-b-¡-s¸« Htc km[-\-¯nsâ \nc-h[n ]Xn-¸p-I-fn F{X Afhv Bh-iy-ap-s-¶Xv hn]-Wn-bn-se-¯n-b-Xn-\p-tijw am{X-amWv bYmÀ°-¯n Xocp-am-\n-¡s¸Sp¶Xv. A§ns\ Bh-iy-¯n IqSp-Xembn Dev]m-Zn-¸n-¡-s¸« Nc-¡pw A²zm-\hpw sI«n-¡nS-¡p¶p. hn]-Wn-bn {]Xy-£-s¸-Sp¶ Cu A\n-Ýn-X-Xz-amWv ]g-b-Ime hyh-km-b-¯nsâ khn-tijX. F¶m tkm^vävshbdpIsf kw_-Ôn-¨n-S-t¯mfw Hcp Nc-¡nsâ hnhn[ ]Xn-¸p-I-fp--m¡pI F¶Xv Ah-bpsS Dev]m-Z-\-¯n X{´-]-c-amb {]m[m\yw DÅ H¶-Ã. tkm^vävshbÀ Dev]mZ-\-¯n-\p-th-nhcp¶ sam¯w sNehpw tIm¸n-IÄ \nÀ½n-¡p-¶-Xn\p th-n-h-cp¶ sNehpw X½n s]mcp-¯-sam-¶p-an-Ã. Ah A{]-Im-c-am-bn-cn-¡p-¶-Xp-sIm--p-Xs¶ Aan-tXm-ev]m-Z-sa¶ hym[n tkm^vävshb-dp-I-fn hyXy-kvX-cq-]-¯n-emWv \ne-\n¡p-¶-Xv. apX-em-fn¯w LS-\m-]c - a - m-bn-¯s¶ sshcp-²y-§Ä¡p-ÅnÂ, AXpw A]-cn-lm-ca - mb sshcp²y-§Ä¡p-Ån-emWv, {]hÀ¯n-¡p-¶-Xv. AXnsâ LS-\-bn¯s¶ AXv BteJ\w sNbvXn-cn-¡p¶p. ]g-b-Ime Nc-¡p-I-fn Cu sshcp-²y-§Ä {]I-S-am-hp-¶Xv hn]-Wn-bn F¯p-t¼m-gm-sW¦n tkm^vävshbdnsâ Imcy-¯n Dev]m-Z-\-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯n Xs¶- Cu sshcp²yw Øm\w ]nSn-¨n-«p-v. hn]-Wn-bpsS A\n-Ýn-XXzw Dev]-¶-¯n-te-¡p-Xs¶ Ib-dn-¡q-Sn-bn-cn-¡p¶p CXns\ A²zm-\-¯nsâ `mK-¯p-\n¶pw ho£n-¡p-I-bm-sW-¦n A²zm-\-¯nsâ Ahn-Z-Kv²-h¡-c-Whpw Dev]-¶-¯nsâ k¦oÀ®-Xbpw X½n-epÅ XoÀ¯m Xocm¯ kwL-«-\-¯n-\n-S-bn A²zm-\-{]{Inb Xs¶ A\n-Ýn-X-Xz-am-Ip-¶p. Cu A\n-Ýn-X-Xz-amWv Dev]m-Z-\-{]-{In-b-bn-te¡v Ib-dn-¡qSn Ignª-Ime tkm^vävshbÀ {]Xn-k-Ôn¡v Imc-W-am-b-Xv. Cu A\n-Ýn-X-Xz-am-Is« apX-em-fn-¯-¯nsâ LS-\m-]-c-amb khn-ti-j-X-bn \n¶p-apÂ`-hn-¡p-¶-Xp-am-Wv. tkm^vävshbÀ Hcp Nc-¡mWv F¶-Xp-sIm--p-Xs¶ ]g-b-Xp-t]mse Ah an¨-aqeyw Dev]mZn- ¸ n- ¡ p- ¶ - X n- \ p- t h- n hn]- W n- b n- t e¡v sIm- p - h - t c- - X p- - v . tIm¸n- I Ä D- m - ¡ p- ¶ - X n- \ p- t h- n hcp\v sNehv X{´-]-c-ambn {][m-\-aà F¶Xv hn]-Wnsb A`n-ap-Jo-I-cn-¡p-¶-XnÂ\n¶pw AXns\ Hgn-hm¡p-¶n-Ã. Cu L«¯n ]g-b-Im-e¯v Dev]m-Zn-¸n-¡-s¸-«n-cp¶ ]c-¼-cm-KX Nc-¡p-I-fnÂ\n¶pw Cu Nc¡v Hcp-Xc - ¯ - nepw hyXy-kvXh - p-aà - . ]n¶oSv At§m«v AXv hn]-Wn-bpsS FÃm Bt´m-f§ - Ä¡pw hnt[-b-am-Ip-¶p. hn]-Wn-bn-eqsS hnä-gn-¡p¶ Nc-¡p-I-fpsS Af-hp-I-fnÂ\n-¶p-X-s¶-bmWv an¨-aqeyhpw e`y-am-Ip-¶-Xv. bYmÀ°-¯n At¸mÄ am{X-amWv tkm^vävshbÀ Hcp Nc¡v F¶ \nebn AXnsâ aqeyw kzbw Is--¯p-¶-Xv. ]c-¼-cm-KX Nc-¡p-I-fn Hmtcm ]IÀ¸p-I-fnepw an¨aqeyw AS-§n-bn-cn-¡p-t¼mÄ tkm^vävshbdn AXv BZy t{]m{Km-an¯-s¶-bmWv AS-§n-bn-cn¡p-¶-Xv. F¶m Ah-bpsS ]Xn-¸p-IÄ hnä-gn-¨p-sIm--mWv ]gb Nc-¡p-I-sf-t¸mse CXpw an¨aqeyw ssIh-i-s¸-Sp-¯p-¶-Xv. hn]-Wn-bpsS FÃm Nbm-]-N-b-§fpw an¨-aq-ey-¯nse e`y-Xsb _m[n-¡p-¶p. hn]-Wn-bn-Snbp-t¼mÄ Dev]-¶-¯n sNep-¯nb A²zm\w hrYm-hn-em-hp-Ibpw Dev]¶w sI«n-¡n-S-¡p-Ibpw sN¿p-¶p. AXm-bXv hn]-Wn-bpsS A\n-Ýn-XXzw Aan-tXm-ev]m-Z-\-¯n\v Imc-W-am-Ip-¶p. F¶m Cu Aan-tXm-ev]m-Z-\-am-Is« Ah-bpsS ]Xn-¸p-I-fn-eà adn¨v BZy-t{]m-{Km-ansâ \nÀ½n-Xn-bnÂXs¶ AS-§n-bn-cn-¡p-¶p. A§s\ tkm^vävshb-dp-I-fn A\n-Ýn-XXzw ^e-¯n ]gb Nc-¡p-Isf At]-£n¨v Cc-«n-¨-Xm-bn-«mWv ImW-s¸-Sp-¶-Xv. H¶m-a-Xmbn, A²zm-\-¯nsâ Ahn-Z-Kv²-h¡-c-W13

¯n-sâbpw t{]m{Km-a-dpsS k¦oÀ®-X-bp-sSbpw ^e-ambn c-m-a-Xmbn, hn]-Wn-bpsS A\n-Ýn-X-Xz¯nÂ\n¶pw Aan-tXm-ev]m-Z-\-¯nsâ cq]-¯nÂ. Hcp Nc¡v F¶ \ne-bn GXm\pw Nne {]tXy-I-X-IÄ Hgn¨p \nÀ¯p-t¼mÄ tkm^vävshbdp-IÄ aäp ]c-¼c - m-KX Nc-¡p-If - p-ambn henb amä-sam-¶pan-Ã. Ah-bpsS LS-\b - n¯s¶ A´Àeo\- a mb \nc- h [n {]tXy- I - X - I sf apX- e m- f n¯ Xmev ] - c y- § Ä¡p- t h- n A\ym- b - ] qÀÆw ssIbS¡ns¡m-mWv bYmÀ°-¯n tkm^vävshb-dp-IÄ ka-Im-eo\ Nc-¡p-cq]w t\SnsbSp-¯-Xv. ssat{Im-tkm-^vänsâ Ncn{Xw am{Xw aXn CXn\p sXfn-hm-bn. F¶m Ahsb Nc-¡m-¡p-¶-Xn-\pth-n hn\n-tbm-Kn¨ AtX {]tXy-I-X-IÄ Xs¶ Ah-bpsS \ne-\n-ev]ns\ tNmZyw sN¿p-¶p-ap--v. F¶m kzX-{´-amb hnIm-k-s¯bpw kzmX-{´y-s¯bpw kzb-tah DÅS§nbn-«p-Å Ah-bpsS AtX {]tXy-I-X-I-fpsS A\n-hm-cy-amb hnIm-k-amWv ]n¶oSv temIw {^o tkm^vävshbÀ {]Øm\§-fn-te¡v IqSp-X IqSp-X \o§p-¶-Xmbpw s{]mss{]-ädn tkm^vävshb-dnsâ {][m\ hàm¡fmb ssat{Im-tkm-^vän-s\-t¸mepw {^o tkm^väpsh-b-dp-IÄ D]-tbm-Kn-¡m³ \nÀ_-Ôn-¨Xpw ASn-b-´nc `mhn-bn¯s¶ s{]mss{]-ädn tkm^vävshb-dp-Isf {^o tkm^väpsh-b-dp-IÄ ]Icw sh¡p-sa¶v Dd-¸p-\ÂIp-¶Xv kzmX-{´y-¯n-epÅ \½psS hnizm-k¯ - n-ep-]cn apX-em-fn-¯L - S- \ - b - psS em`-¯n-epÅ Du¶-em-Wv. AtXm-sSm¸w ]Xn-¸p-If - psS Ipdª sNe-sh¶ \mw ap³t] hni-Ie - \w sNbvX tkm^vävshbdp-If - psS {]tXy-IX - I - Ä Ah-bv¡p-am{Xw _m[-Ia - mbn«pÅ-XÃ. hfsc k¦oÀ®-amb \nc-h[n ]p¯³ Nc-¡p-If - n Dev]m-Z\ - s - N-eh - n Kth-jW - s - ¨-eh - p-If - mWv hen-bt- Xm-Xn AS-§n-bn-cn-¡p-¶X - v. Ahbn-e-S-§n-bn-cn-¡p¶ `uXn-I-h-kvXp-hnsâ aqeyw Xptemw Ipd-hm-Wv. Hcp {]tXy-I-K-th-j-W-^-e-ambn I-p-]n-Sn-¨n-«pÅ C¯cw Nc-¡nsâ F{X Afhv \nÀ½n-¨mepw ]pXp-Xmbn R & D C\-¯n sNeshm-¶pw-Xs¶ hcp-¶n-Ã. AXm-bXv IqSp-X Af-hn Nc-¡p-IÄ \nÀ½n-¡p-I-bm-sW-¦n Hmtcm Nc-¡n-ep-apÅ R & D bpsS aqey-`mKw Ipd-ªp-h-cp-¶p. ]pXp-Xmbn A[nIw sNe-hp-I-sfm¶pw IqSmsX¯s¶ IqSp-X Afhv Nc¡v \nÀ½n-¡m-\pÅ {]h-WX CXn AS-§n-bn-«p--v. IqSp-X Afhv Nc¡v \nÀ½n-¡m-\pÅ {]h-WX aäpÅ Nc-¡p-IÄ¡pw _m[-I-am-sW-¦nepw ]g-b-Ime Nc¡nsâ Imcy-¯n Afhv IqSp-¶-Xn-\-\p-k-cn¨v Dev]m-Z-t\m]m-[n-I-fn-ep--m-Ip¶ sam¯w -sN-ehv B\p-]m-Xn-I-ambn IqSp-¶p-v. ]pXn-b-Ime Nc-¡n apJyambn AS-§n-bn-«p-ÅXv Kth-j-W-sN-ehnsâ aqeyamb-Xn-\m Ah IqSp-X-embn D-ev]m-Zn-¸n-¡p-¶-Xp-sIm-v henb A[n-I-s¨-e-shm¶pw hcp-¶n-Ã. CXmWv D]-tbm-K-Imew {lkz-am-¡n-s¡m-v D]-tbm-Kn¨v hen-s¨-dn-bm-hp-¶-Xcw Nc-¡pIÄ \nÀ½n-¡-s¸-Sp-¶-Xn\v Imc-Ww. Cu {]h-WX Xs¶-bmWv `qansb Hcp Nh-dp-Iq-\-bm-¡n-b-Xv. A¯cw Nc-¡p-I-fpsS hgn-bn Xs¶-bmWv tkm^vävshb-dp-Ifpw Øm\w ]nSn-¨n-cn-¡p-¶-Xv. XoÀ¨bmbpw Aev]w hyXy-kvX-X-tbm-Sp-Iq-Sn-bm-sW¶p am{Xw.

D]-kw-lmcw tkm^vävshbdns\ Hcp Nc¡v F¶ \ne-bn ]cn-tim-[n-¨-t¸mÄ Ah Dev]m-Zn-¸n-¡-s¸-Sp¶Xv Hcp Dev]m-Z-\-D-]-I-c-W-sa¶ \ne-bn-emtWm AtXm D]t`mK¯n-\p-th--n-bmtWm F¶v \mw ]cn-tim-[n-¡p-I-bp--m-bn-Ã. Nc¡v F¶ \ne-bn ]cn-tim-[n-¡p-t¼mÄ Cu Xcw-Xn-cnhv Ah-iy-LS-I-a-Ãm-¯-Xp-sIm-v am{X-amWv \mw A{]-Imcw sNbvXXv. F¶m Hcp k¼ZvLS-\sb apgp-h³ ]cn-tim-[n-¡p-t¼mÄ Cu {]tXy-I-X-IÄ ap¶n-te¡v hcpw. 1970-\p-tijw tkm^vävshbdpI-fpsS Dev]m-Z\ - ¯ - n BtKm-fX - e - ¯ - nÂXs¶ Nne {]h-WX - I - Ä hyà-am-bn-cp-¶p. 70-IÄ¡p-tijw hnt\mZ-hy-h-km-b-¯n-\p-th--n-bm-bn-cp¶p tkm^vävshbdpI-fpsS henb Hcp `mKw Dev]m-Zn-¸n-¡-s¸-«n-cp¶-Xv. Pohn-tXm-]-tbm-K-¯n\pw BÀ`m-S-§Ä¡pw th-n Nne-h-gn-¡p¶ aqe-[-\hpw Dev]m-Z-\-ta-J-ebn sNe-h-gn-¡p¶ aqe-[-\hpw X½n \ne-\n¡p¶ A\p-]m-X-§Ä¡v aqe-[-\-¯nsâ ]p\-cpev]m-Z-\-¯n X{´-]-c-amb ]¦p-Å-Xp-sIm-v Xs¶ Ah-bn-ep--mb hyXn-bm-\-§Ä apX-em-fn-¯hy-h-Ø-bp-sS-Xs¶ \ne-\n¸ns\ \nÀ®-bn-¡p-¶-Xm-bn-cn-¡pw.

Ipdn-¸p-IÄ 14

1.

AÀ°-im-kv{X-\n-cq-]W - ¯ - n-s\mcp kw`m-h\ þ ImÄ amÀIvkv

2.

amÊv s{]mU-£³ kmt¦-Xn-Ia - mbn Hcp Dev]m-Z\ - c - o-Xn-bm-Wv. CXn Dev]m-Z\ - s¯ {]tXyI SmkvIp-If - mbn Xncn-¡p¶p. Hmtcm¶pw efn-Xa - mb BhÀ¯n-¨pÅ ]mtä-Wp-If - n Bbn-cn-¡pw. Ch Hmtcm¶pw ssIImcyw sN¿m³ kuI-cyapÅ Xc-¯n-ep-am-bn-cn-¡pw. Dev]m-Z\w \S-¯p¶ a\p-jysâ Ne-\-§-fm-Is« kpK-ahpw s]s«¶v ]Tn-¡m³ Ign-bp¶Xpw BhÀ¯\ k - z-`m-ha - pÅXpw Bbn-cn-¡pw. _p²n Gähpw Ipdhv D]-tbm-Ks - ¸-Sp-¯p¶ coXn D]-tbmKn¡p¶p. \nÀ½n-¡p¶ hkvXp-hnsâ Af-hp-Ifpw tSmf-d³kpw aqe-Ihpw FÃmw Ìm³tUÀssUkv sN¿p-¶p. IrXy-Xt- bmsS Bkq-{XWw sN¿p-¶p. `uXn-tIm-ev]m-Z\ - ¯ - n sajo-\p-IÄ D]-tbm-Kn-¡p-¶p.

3.

1920 apX 50 hsc \nÀ½n-¡s - ¸-«n-cp¶ ]e I¼yq-«d- p-Ifpw (Im¡p-te-äd- p-If - pw) sa¡m-\n-¡Âþ Ce-Iv{Sn-¡Â b{´§-fpsS kwbp-à-cq-]-am-bn-cp-¶p. 1932se sa¡m-\n-¡Â I¼yq-«À A\-sse-kÀ 30-I-fn PÀ½-\n-bnse sIm\mÀUv kqkv (Konard Zuse) sâ CeIvt{Sm sa¡m-\n-¡Â I¼yq-«À amÀ¡v I XpS-§n-bh DZm-l-c-W-§-fm-Wv.

4.

thm¬ \yqam³ sajo³ emwtKz-Pn-\p-]-Icw knwt_m-fnIv emwtKzPv Is--¯m³ {ian¨ Xsâ hnZymÀ°nsb \ncpÕm-l-s¸-Sp-¯p-I-t]mepw sNbvXn-cp-¶p. A¯cw Is--¯-ep-IÄ A\m-h-iy-am-sW¶v At±lw hniz-kn-¨p. ]n¶oSv hyh-km-b¯ - nsâ Bh-iy-§Ä _e-s¸-«X - n-\p-ti-ja - mWv Akw»n emwtKz-Pp-Ifpw sslse-h emwtKz-Pp-Ifpw Is-¯p-¶X - v.

5.

_mt_Pv B[p-\nIImes¯ hyh-km-b§ - f - psS Bh-iy-§f - nÂ\n¶v hnI-kn-¨p-h¶ Hm¸-td-j³ dnkÀ¨n-s\-¡p-dn¨v Fgp-Xnb {]Xn-`m-im-en-bm-bn-cp-¶p. bYmÀ°-¯n I¼yq-«d- nsâ D]-tbm-Ks¯ Gähpw AXy-´m-t]-£n-Xa - m-¡p¶ eo\nbÀ t{]m{Km-an-s\-¡p-dn-¨pÅ Nn´-I-fm-bn-cn¡mw A\-e-än-¡Â F©nsâ I-p-]n-Sp-¯-¯n-te¡v \bn-¨-Xv. eo\n-bÀ t{]m{Km-an§v At±lw Is-¯n F¶Ã hnh-£. adn¨v A¯cw {]iv\-§-sf-¡p-dn¨v At±lw t_m[-hm-\m-bn-cp-¶p.

6.

tXmakv Fw. ss\kv sF.-_n.-F-½n \n¶v ]ncn-bp-¶Xv tkm^vävshbdpw lmÀUvshbdpw X½n thÀXn-cn-¡Ww F¶v Bh- i y- s ¸- « p- s Im- - m - b n- c p¶p. sF.- _ n.Fw.\v BZy- L - « - ¯ n \o- Hcp t{]m{Km- a n§v hnZ- K v ² - c psS \nc D- m bn-cp-¶p-sh-¦nepw AhÀ lmÀUvshb-dns\ tkm^vävshbÀ CÃmsX {]hÀ¯n-¸n-¡m³ {ian-¡p-I-bm-bn-cp-¶-Xp-sIm-mWv ]pXnb I¼-\n-IÄ¡v tkm^vävshbÀ taJ-e-bn hf-cm³ Ign-ª-sX-¶mWv _n sKbvävkv ]d-bp-¶Xv.

7.

BZy-Ime H_vPIväv Hmdn-bâUv t_bvkvUv `mjIfn-sem-¶mb kvtamÄtSm¡nsâ \nÀ½m-Xm-hmb Ae³ sI ]g-bIme t{]m{Km-an§v amXr-I-sb-¡p-dn¨v ]d-ªp. ""t{]m{Km-an-§nsâ k¦oÀ®X hÀ²n-¡p-t¼mÄ sam¯w LS\ ASn-Øm-\-L-S-I-§-sf-¯s¶ `cn-¡p-¶p.''

8.

1955 emWv BZy tkm^vävshbÀ I¼\n Computer Usage Corporation (CUC)Øm]n-¡-s¸-«-Xv. Elmer Kubie, John. W. sheldon F¶n-hcmbn-cp¶p Øm]-IÀ.

9.

Cu {]h-W-X-sb-¡p-dn¨v \mw ap³]v hni-e-I\w sN¿p-I-bp--m-bn. tS_nÄ 1 ImWpI

10.

_n.-]n.-H./sF.-Sn.-C.-F-kv. taJ-e-bpsS Hcp sXmgn-emfn {][m-\-ambpw aSp¸n-¡p¶ tPmen-IÄ XpSÀ¨-bmbn sN¿m³ Ign-hp--m-bn-cn-¡p¶ Bfm-bn-cn-¡-W-a-s{X. IqSmsX Xsâ sXmgn-ensâ kz`m-h-¯n-\-\p-k-cn¨v (D-d-¡w, `mj, kwkvImcw....) Xsâ Pohn- X w- X s¶ AbmÄ amän- a - d n- t ¡- - X p- - v .

11.

Dev]m-Z-\-ta-J-e-bn I¼yq-«Àh-Xv¡-cWw \S-¯p-t¼mÄ AXv sXmgn-em-fn-Isf sXmgnÂc-ln-X-cm-¡p-¶p. AXm-bXv Hcp \nÝnX Afhv aqe-[\w tPmen-¡p-sh-bv¡p¶ sXmgn-em-fn-I-fpsS F®-¯n Ipd-hp--m-Ip-¶p. F¶m kaqls¯ sam¯-¯n-se-Sp-¡p-t¼mÄ I¼yq-«À tkm^vävshb-dp-ambn _Ô-s¸« sXmgnÂi-àn-bpsS hn\n-tbm-K-¯neq-sS-bmWv hyh-km-b-im-e-bnÂ\n¶v sXmgn-em-fnsb Øm\-{`-jvS-cm-¡m³ Ign-bp-¶-Xv. At¸mÄ B«n-tbm-Sn-¡-s¸« sXmgn-em-fn-bpsS Øm\¯v t{]m{Km-aÀ Ib-dn-bn-cn-¡p-¶-XmWv \mw ImWp-¶-Xv.

Ah-ew_w 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Software Engineering concept - RICHARD FAIRLEY. aqe-[\w I & II - ImÄ amÀIvkv. Java for Business - THOMAS ANDERSON. Free Software, No sir, No monopoly - RICHARD STALLMAN. Programing Language Design Concepts - DAVID. A. WATT. Philosophy of Programming - MIKE JAMES. The road ahead - BILL GATES. IqSmsX \nc-h[n sh_vssk-äp-I-fpw.

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