Policy Vision Of Crpp

Policy Vision of the Committee Representing Peoples' Parliament (CRPP)

On the Reconstruction of Burma

NATIONAL COALITION GOVERNMENT OF THE UNION OF BURMA

MAY 2007

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Policy Vision of the Committee Representing Peoples' Parliament (CRPP)

On the Reconstruction of Burma

NATIONAL COALITION GOVERNMENT OF THE UNION OF BURMA

MAY 2007

2 Published by: NATIONAL COALITION GOVERNMENT OF THE UNION OF BURMA (NCGUB)

77 South Washington Street, Suite 308 Rockville, Maryland 20850 U.S.A. Tel: 301 424 4810 Fax: 301-424-4812 Email: [email protected] http://www.ncgub.net

The National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma (NCGUB) is the government in exile formed by elected representatives of the 1990 general elections in Burma.

ISBN 978 – 974 – 8349 – 10 - 7 Printed in Bangkok, Thailand May 2007

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╬ WHAT IS CRPP? The Committee Representing the People’s Parliament is a 10-member committee representing the parliament elected in Burma on 27 May 1990. On 1 September, it was announced that the CRPP was to be formed, and it was formally established at its first meeting on 16 September 1998. The CRPP was established due to the junta’s refusal to comply with election results, its refusal to allow parliament to convene for 9 years, and for failing to comply with a demand which requires state authorities to convene parliament. Nine CRPP members are from the NLD, AND THE TENTH REPRESENTS FOUR ETHNIC NATIONAL PARTIES. These parties are the Arakan League for Democracy, the Mon National Democracy Front, the Shan Nationalities League for Democracy and the Zomi National Congress. The parties represented by the CRPP hold 433 (or 89%) out of the total 485 parliamentary seats. The CRPP will continue its activities only until a Parliament is convened in accordance with the 1990 Multi-party Pyithu Hluttaw (People’s Parliament) Election Law. The CRPP undertakes to act on behalf of Parliament in order to carry out the duties to represent their constituencies. Of course, the junta has not taken kindly to the CRPP, and has thus taken action to suppress its activities. The CRPP’s establishment is significant for several reasons. The fact that there is a need for the

4 CRPP shows that the current military regime is not meeting the needs of the Burmese people. In a situation in which Parliament has not been allowed to convene, the CRPP provides people who have been under military rule for almost 40 years with a concrete alternative to the dictatorial ways of the junta. The junta has also reacted strongly against the CRPP, which has a significance of its own. It indicates that the junta sees the CRPP as a serious threat to its power and influence, as the existence of the CRPP is a constant reminder of the junta’s illegitimacy. The fact that the junta has not been able to denounce the CRPP as an illegal organization, but has instead called for its dissolution as a condition for dialogue, also proves the CRPP’s legitimacy, even in the eyes of the junta. ╬ HISTORICAL BACKGROUND The Parliament of Burma should have been convened shortly after the multi-party elections were held on 27 May 1990. The military regime, however, reneged on its promise to transfer power when it was forced to face the fact that the vast majority of the population supported parties not aligned with it. While NLD representatives were elected to 392, or 81% of the seats in Parliament, the military-backed National Unity Party (NUP) was able to claim only 10 seats, equivalent to 2%.

5 Instead of taking steps to transfer power, the junta found an excuse to deny the process by forming a National Convention to draft a new constitution. In statement 1/90 issued 27 July 1990, the position of the SPDC is explained. First, it says that, “it is hardly necessary to clarify the fact that a political party cannot automatically obtain the three aspects of State power – legislative power, executive power and judicial power – just because a Pyithu Hluttaw has come into being.” The fact that a Parliament came into being is certainly not enough to give one political party control of the three aspects of State power. When, however, one party occupies 81% of Parliament after a multiparty election, it is safe to assume that the party will be able to exercise its mandate. As it was the NLD and not the NUP which possessed the 81% duties of the elected representatives were suddenly redefined. They were not to be participants in a democratic system of governance, but “the representative elected by the people are those who have the responsibility to draw up the constitution of the future democratic State.” The statement explains that the State Law and Order Restoration Council is a military government exercising martial law and is thus the only power with the right to exercise the executive, legislative and judicial aspects of government. Not only did this statement show the military’s determination to retain control, it was immediately clear that an independent judiciary would not be a reality in a near future.

6 The junta did state that its control of government by martial law would continue only until a new government was formed in accordance with a new constitution. Upon examining the draft constitution, however, it is evident that the new government will also be controlled by the military, as ¼ of all seats are reserved for military personnel who are recommended by the Chief of Staff of the Defense Forces. Why the important of a new constitution before a power transfer occurred to the junta only after the multi-party election results is clear. It had not expected such a resounding defeat, and using the constitution as an excuse was a way to legitimize its power and postpone demands for it to relinquish control. The demands continued unabated, however, as two days after the SLORC statement was issued, the NLD released its “Gandhi Hall Declaration,” a demand for parliament to be convened by September 1990. In addition to failing to honor the election results and refusing to meet the demands of the Gandhi Hall Declaration, the junta stepped up harassment of pro-democracy groups. The repressive measures taken by the military regime against the NLD has made it extremely difficult for representatives to fully, much less freely, participate in the functions of the party. Not only were political party activities difficult, fulfilling their responsibilities as MPs was impossible. It therefore became necessary

7 for the MPs to find alternative means to carry out their duties. The CRPP became such means. At the NLD Party Congress n 27 May 1998, it was decided once more to call upon the junta to convene parliament. Other ethnic nationality parties and MPs also submitted similar demands to support the NLD’s demand. On 23 July 1998, the NLD communicated to the State Authorities that their demand be met by 21 August. This date passed unheeded by the junta, so the next step was to establish the CRPP on 16 September 1998. In the 20 months since theCRPP was formed, increasing recognition from the international community and democratic opposition inside and outside Burma has strengthened support for its mandate. ╬ Reference : Burma’s Struggles to Convene the People’s Parliament (Page 3 – 5)

- Published by – ALTSEAN-BURMA

8 Members of Committee Representing People's Parliament

(Clockwise) First row: U Lwin, U Aye Tha Aung, U Aung Shwe, U Than Tun, U Tin Oo Second row: U Hla Pe, U Soe Myint, U Lun Tin, U Nyunt Wei, Daw Aung San Suu Kyi

Chairperson of CRPP U Aung Shwe Constituency: Mayangone I, Rangoon Division. Chairperson of the NLD U Aung Shwe graduated in Arts from Rangoon University in 1940. He served in the BIA, BDA and PBF from 1942 to 1945. In 1961 he was forced to retire from the Army while serving as the Commander of the Southern Military Command due to accusations that he was partial towards elections. He was appointed as the ambassador to Australia, Egypt, France, Spain and New Zealand from 1961 to 1975. During the 1990 election, he was the Chairperson of the POOL before the SLORC banned the party. While Daw Aung San Sliu K.yi and U Tin Oo were placed under house arrest he became the Chairperson of the NLD. He was among the NLD representatives who boycotted the National Convention on 28 December 1995. Secretaries of CRPP

9 U Than Tun Constituency: Taungtha 2, Mandalay Division Year of birth: 1921 NLD Central Executive Committee member U Than Tun was a member of the Myingyan Student Union during 1937 to 1941. From 1942 to 1946 he worked for the BIA. He was also the Secretary of Myingyan District AFPFL from 1946 to 1953. He was elected to the Constituent Assembly in 1947 and later became a Member of Parliament and Parliamentary Secretary. From 1953 to 1962, he was Secretary of the Trade Union Confederation of Burma. In 1964, he became a member ofBSPP. U Than Tun was among the NLD representatives who boycotted the National Convention in December 1995. U Aye Thar Aung U Aye Thar Aung represents the Shan National League for Democracy, Arakan League for Democracy, Mon National Democracy Front, and Zomi National Congress. He was born in Myaebon Township, Arakan State. He served as a SergeantMajor and worked in Ka-Pa-Sa, the Heavy (Military) Industry Corporation. He was dismissed and imprisoned in Mandalay jail due to his underground political activities and released under amnesty in 1974. He is a member of Central Executive Committee of ALD. He is also a member of the ALD and UNLD Secretariats. Members of CRPP U Tin Oo (a) General Tin Oo (Retd.) Deputy Chairperson, National League for Democracy U Tin Oo was born in 1927 in Bassein, Irrawaddy Division. He was a general and the Defense Minister from 1974 to 1976. He was highly respected by the soldiers and the people, but was dismissed and imprisoned due to an accusation that he was involved in a coup attempt. He was released under amnesty in 1980 after which he studied and received a law degree. On 2 September 1988, he became the Vice-Chairperson of the NLD and on 20 December, the Chairperson of NLD. From 20 July

10 1989 he was put under house arrest and from 22 December 1989, he was imprisoned for three years. Daw Aung San Suu Kyi General Secretary, National League for Democracy Daw Aung San Suu Kyi was born in Rangoon. She was two when her father, considered the father of Burmese independence, was assassinated. She moved to India when her mother was appointed to be the Ambassador, and later continued her studies in the United Kingdom. After living abroad for many years, she returned to Burma in 1988 and became the figurehead of the Burmese democracy movement. She was one the co-founders of the NLD and became Secretary-General. She was placed under house arrest from 19 July '89 to 10 July '95. She has been awarded numerous prestigious prizes including Nobel Peace Price in 1991. U Lwin (a) Colonel Maung Lwin (Retd.) Treasurer, National League for Democracy Constituency: Thongwa I, Rangoon Division U Lwin was the former Deputy Prime Minister and a member of the BSPP State Council. He served in the BIA, BDA and PBF from 1942 to 1945. He completed military officers' training at the Japanese Royal Military Academy and he studied at the British Royal Military Academy from 1952 to 1954. He also served as the Military Attache to the USA. U Hla Pe Central Executive Committee, National League for Democracy Constituency: Moulmeingyun I, Irrawaddy Division U Hia Pe is a member of the Central Executive Committee of the NLD and is in charge of Irrawaddy Division. During the Parliamentary Democracy period, he was an elected Representative from Mawlamyine Gyunn Township from 1951 to 1961. He was the Secretary of the Township and Divisional AFPFL. In 1967, he worked as an officer at the Ministry of Transportation and Communications and retired in 1986.

11 U Soe Myint (a) Thakhin Soe Myint Central Executive Committee, National League for Democracy Constituency: South Okkalapa Township I, Rangoon Division U Soe Myint is a member of the NLD Central Executive Committee. He was one of the founders of the People's Revolutionary Party (PRP), which was one of the active organizations before Independence. He was the Secretary of Myaungmya Township Dobama Asiayone (We Burma Association) which was also a pro-independence, anti-Japanese organization. He was the Regiment Commander of BDA and the Chairperson of Myaungmya District Socialist Party. U Lun Tin (a) Colonel Lun Tin (Retrd.) Central Executive Committee, National League for Democracy Constituency: Moulmein Township I, Mon State U Lun Tin is a POOL Central Executive Committee member. On 9 October 96, he became a member of the NLD Central Executive Committee and was in charge of Mon State. He served in the BIA, BDA and PBF from 1953 to 1956. He was Regimental Commander of Brigade 7 and the Northwest Military Command. He was dismissed and imprisoned from 1965 to 1967 because of his involvement in the Monks' Strike. He served as Director-General of the Ministry of Industry I from 1978 to 1983. U Nyunt Wei Central Executive Committee, National League for Democracy Constituency: Taungoo Township, Pegu Division U Nyunt Wei graduated from Rangoon Institute of Economics and got a Master of Arts in Administration from Harvard University. Between 1952 and 1986, he worked as the chief manager at the Bank of Industry and the Bank of Agriculture, and as a Supervisor at the Insurance Corporation. On 26 March 1991 following the arrests of Daw Aung San Suu Kyi and U Tin Oo, he was appointed treasurer of the Central Executive Committee

12 of the NLD. U Nyunt Wei was part of the NLD boycott of the National Convention in December 1995. Acronyms: AFPFL = Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League ALD = Arakan League for Democracy BIA = Burma Independence Army BDA = Burma Defense Army BSPP = Burma Socialist Program Party PBF = Patriotic Burmese Force POCL = Patriotic Old Comrades League SNLD = Shan National League for Democracy LTNLD = United Nationalities League for Democracy ZNC = Zomi National Congress

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CRPP Members Name

Post

1

U Aung Shwe

Chairman

2

U Tun

Than

Secretary

NLD, CEC

3

U Aye Thar Aung U Tin Oo

Secretary

ALD, Joint Secretary NLD, Deputy Chairperson

5

Daw Aung San Suu Kyi

Member

NLD, General Secretary

Not MP

6

U Lwin

Member

NLD, Treasurer

7

U Hla Pe

Member

NLD, CEC

8

Thakhin Soe Myint

Member

NLD, CEC

9

U Lun Tin

Member

NLD, CEC

10

U Nyunt Wai

Member

NLD, CEC

11

U Nai Tun Thein

Member

MNDF, Chairman

MP of Thongwa, Rangoon Division MP of Mawlamyine gyun –1, Irrawaddy Division MP of South Okkalapa, Rangoon Division MP of Moulmein-1, Mon State MP of Taungoo-2, Pegu Division MP of Thanbyuzay at-1, Mon State

4

Member

Mother Party and Position NLD, Chairperson

Constituen cy MP of Mayangone1, Rangoon Division MP of Taungtha-2, Mandalay Division Not MP Not MP

Accepted Date (As Member) 16 September 1998

16 September 1998

16 September 1998 16 September 1998 Under House Arrest 16 September 1998 Under House Arrest 16 September 1998

16 September 1998

16 September 1998

16 September 1998 16 September 1998

23 October 2002

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U Fu Cin Shing Thang U Khun Tun Oo

Member

ZNC, Chairman

Member

SNLD, Chairman

14

U Hla Maung

Member

POCL

15

U Soe Win

Member

PND

16

U Thein Pe

Member

Independent

17

U Kyaw Min

Member

NDPHR

18

U Htaung Kho Htan

Member

UNLD

19

U Yankyin Maw

member

SSKDP, chairman

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Dr. U Saw Mra Aung

People's Parliament President

ALD, Chairperson

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MP of Tiddim-2, Chin State MP of Hsipaw-1, Shan State MP of Kya-in Seikkyi-1, Karen State MP of Pegu1, Pegu Division MP of Kantbalu-1, Sagaing Division MP of Buthidaung1, Arakan State MP of Tamu, Sagaing Division MP of Kunlong, Shan State MP of Mrauk-U -2, Arakan State

23 October 2002 23 October 2002 4 December 2002 Deceased 27.11.2003 4 December 2002 8 December 2002

8 December 2002

27 January 2003 13 August 2004 16 September 1998

Acronyms: ALD = Arakan League for Democracy CEC = Central Executive Committee MNDF = Mon National Democratic Front MP = Member of Parliament NDPHR = National Democratic Party for Human Rights NLD = National League for Democracy PND = Party for National Democracy POCL = Patriotic Old Comrades League SNLD = Shan Nationalities League for Democracy SSKDP = Shan State Kokang Democratic Party UNLD = United Nationalities League for Democracy ZNC = Zomi National Congress

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Chapter 1 Report of the Committee for Parliamentary Affairs Proposal submitted to the committee Representing People's Parliament (CRPP) by the Parliamentary Affairs Committee. Although the National League for Democracy (NLD) won the Multiparty Democratic Elections Organized and held by the State Law and Order in 1990 with 82 (eighty two) percent of the seats contested the government which organized the elections have failed to convene the Parliament for more than 9 years after the elections. In a true democracy sovereign power is vested in the people and as such a Parliament must be formed with the Representatives elected by the people in free and fair multiparty elections with the bounden duty to undertake the welfare of the country and its people. The NLD has also repeatedly exhorted the government concerned to convene Parliament in the interest of the country and the people. However the SLORC/ SPDC government merely changed its name and instead of convening Parliament has resorted to various means to destroy the victorious NLD and the party's elected Representatives. NLD attended the National Convention and discussed measures to frame a basic constitution based on genuine democratic principles but the Organizers of the National convention used then handpick delegates who were in the majority to adopt basic

16 principles which are diametrically opposite to democracy. NLD standing on its basic policy to be on the side of the people all the time nevertheless cooperated in certain matters with an open mind for the sake of democracy. In a genuine multiparty democratic system conditions must be created for the formation of political parties and freedom to organize and rally. However, according to conditions prevailing currently, existing legally constitute parties have been destroyed, their right to exist nullified and such acts are tantamount to systematic destruction of multiparty democratic system. Prior notice was given to SPDC on August 21, 1998 to convene Parliament but the government did not comply but instead arrested elected Representatives and members of NLD's HQ. NLD, duty bound in accordance with the authority entrusted by the elected Representative formed the Committee for People's Representatives (CRPP) for the establishment of the people's Parliament in accordance with the law. At this point in time, the country and the people as a whole are facing the worst crises politically, economically, socially and in international relations. NLD can no longer turn a blind eye to the conditions affecting the interests of the country and the people. As the victorious party elected by the people and as one entrusted with the mandate of the elected Representatives, CRPP in order to protect and

17 defend democracy and undertake the responsibility given by the people will have to convene the people's Parliament. CRPP, having the mandate of the elected Representatives, has to invite the attendance of elected Representatives to the first session of People's Parliament at the appropriate time. It is proposed that the aforesaid session of the People's Parliament should conduct its proceedings according to the Parliamentary Affairs Act (Draft) attached haircloth.

People's Parliament Affairs Act (Draft) Preamble Under Section (3) of the People's Parliament Elections Law (Law No---14/89) enactment for the (functioning) of Parliament must be made and accordingly the first session of the Multiparty Democracy People's Parliament has enacted the following Act. Chapter (1)

Designation and Definition 1. This Act shall be named as the "Multiparty Democracy People's Parliament Affairs Act". 2. The following words and phrases included in this Act shall have the meanings given below. (a) " Parliament" denotes "people's Parliament ". (b) "Representative of Parliament" means a person who has been elected to Parliament.

18 Note: Such Representatives of Parliament must not include persons who have infringed the provisions of the Immigration Act. (c) "Parliament Units" means Permanent Committees and Committees and Commissions formed by Parliament for a specified period as situations warrant. Chapter (2) 3. The Parliament is formed with People's Representatives elected under People's Parliament Election Law. 4. The Parliamentary Session is declared a success with the attendance of elected Representatives at the first multiparty democracy session held under special circumstances. 5. The Parliament's term lasts from the date the first session is held to the date the first session of the next elected Parliament. Chapter (3)

Parliamentary Meeting 6. (a) On the first day of the first session of Parliament a Representative shall be elected as temporary chairman. (b) The temporary chairman shall take the oath of office before the entire assembly. 7. The temporary chairman shall supervise Parliamentary meetings until such time as a speaker and Deputy Speaker are duly elected. 8. The duties and authority of the Speaker are (a) To supervise the Parliamentary meeting.

19 (b) To supervise the selection and elections of Committee members. (c) To guide and direct parliamentary meetings so that they conform to the provisions of this Act. (d) When matters requiring decisions to settle issues arise during Parliamentary meetings decisions shall be made after due consultations. (e) When points raised and discussed by Representatives infringe and contradict any law, rules and for regulations the speaker shall bring this up before Parliament in order to take appropriate action. (f) The Speaker must protect and maintain the rights and privileges of the Parliament. (g) The Speaker is the supreme authority and controller of the Parliament. 9. When the speaker is not present, the Deputy shall preside over the Parliamentary session. 10. The duties and authority of the speaker and the Deputy Speaker shall be defined by rules and regulations. 11. The Speaker and the Deputy Speaker shall remain in office until the subsequent Parliament holds its session and elects the Speaker and Deputy Speaker. Chapter (4)

Parliamentary Representatives 12. (a) The Representatives shall take their oath of office before the temporary Chairman. (b) Representatives who have not yet taken their oath of office shall do so in front of the Speaker on the day they attend Parliament. 13. The duties of the Representatives are as under:

20 (a) To frame a basic constitution embracing multiparty democratic principles and take responsibility for its adoption. (b) To present the views of the electorate who elected him/her before the Parliament. (c) To explain to the constituents who elected him/her the laws, regulations, decisions made and personal accomplishments in Parliament. (d) The right freely to debate, oppose and amend bills, motions and proposals presented before Parliament. (e) In discussing the bills, draft regulations, motions and proposal to be mindful of and give weight to the interest of the entire nation. (f) To make strenuous efforts for all citizens to enjoy in full democratic and human rights, individual rights, personal freedom. (g) Regular attendance of Parliament sessions. (h) To perform other tasks entrusted by Parliament. 14. The following are the rights of Representatives. (a) To submit basic constitution and bills. (b) To submit motions with permission from the Speaker. (c) When Parliament is in recess, Representatives can make enquiries by letter. (d) To cast votes when issues before Parliament require to be decided by votes. (e) The right to ask to resign for any committee of Parliament or from membership of Parliament. 15. The privileges and rights of Parliamentary Representatives are as below. (a) Immunity from pro cutis for any discussion or actions at meetings of Parliament or any committee

21 thereof under any law except under the Multiparty Democracy People's Parliamentary Affairs Act and its rules, procedure, regulations. (b) Parliament shall determine the privileges and rights of the Representatives as deemed fit when the occasion arises. 16. Representatives must abide and practice the under need code of conduct. (a) Representatives must not take the oath of allegiance of any country except that of the Union of Burma. (b) Representatives must abide by and maintain the basic constitution, this Act, existing laws and enactments. (c) Representatives must be implacable in their behavior befitting their status. (d) Representatives must not misuse the responsibility entrusted by the people who elected them and must refrain from being self reeking, accepting brides and intimichalion. 17. Membership in Parliament will be terminated for infringement of any one of the following; (a) For carrying out anti multiparty Parliamentary Democracy propaganda organizing and such activities. (b) Loss of Representation under the laws. (c) Resignation in accordance with this Act. (d) Death.

22 Chapter (5)

Parliamentary Committees 18. Parliament shall set up the following permanent committees by electing Representatives for the purpose. (a) National Planning and Finance Committee. (b) National Security and Defense Committee. (c) International Relations Committee. (d) Human Rights Committee. (e) Public Accounts Committee. (f) Scrutiny Committee for guarantees, promises and undertakings given by Administration. (g) Development Schemes for States/Divisions Committee. (h) National cultural Affairs Committee. 19. Parliament shall establish the following committees and commissions with timeframe in accordance with the requirements of projects and schemes. (a) Committee to scrutinize draft bills. (b) Parliamentary Prurleges Committee. (c) Screening Committee for Parliamentary Representatives. (d) Committees and commissions deemed necessary. 20. The Speaker shall select committees and commissions and assign duties after attaining the views of Parliament. 21. Parliament shall enact separately the duties and authority of the permanent committees and commissions. 22. The permanent committees and commissions are fully responsible to Parliament.

23 23. The tenure of permit committees and commissions is the same as that of Parliament. 24. Committees and commissions can be set up either with Representatives or with other suitable citizens along with Representatives. Chapter (6) 25. Regular sessions of Parliament must be convened at least truce yearly without fail. If required, the speaker can convene especial session or an emergency session. 26. If there is a demand by one-third of the total number of Representatives to call a meeting of Parliament, the Speaker must arrange to convene Parliament earliest possible. 27. Rules and regulations relating to holding parliament sessions must enacted. Chapter (7) 28. The Speaker shall establish a Parliamentary Affairs office to undertake the work related to Parliament. The set up of the office, duties, authority and rights must be defined separately with rules and regulation. 29. As the Parliament is one that practices parliamentary democracy the role of the leader of the opposition must also be defined. 30. Parliament sessions must be held in Rangoon. If it is not possible to do so the Speaker shall designate another suitable place to hold the session. 31. Should an occasion arise whereby action has to be taken against a Representative under a change of

24 treason, rules and regulations must be enacted to enable that person to be stripped temporarily of his duties, prevent his attendance of parliament sessions and to obtain the confirmation of such measures from closest Parliament session. 32. Parliament can be disused with the approval of at least 75 (seventy five) Pont of the entire membership. 33. Parliament can publish necessary acts, law, rules, regulations, orders, directives and procedures.

Chapter (2) Report of the Agricultural Affairs Committee of the Committee Representing People Parliament (CRPP) Matters relating to Cultivations’ Right Part (1) 1.

Agricultural economy is the mainstay of Burma since about 80 percent of Burma’s population are agriculturists living in rural areas, that staple food is rice, 40 parent of the state revenue is provided by rice paddy trade and capable of providing employment for the majority of the population.

25 2.

3.

4.

5.

Whether the country’s political, economic, and social welfare are stable or otherwise are invariablely related to the effectives or not concerning the people’s economy and social issues. The prosperity and development of the agricultural economy which provides livelihood for the majority of the population and is the economic mainstay exerts vast influence on Burma’s economic and social stability and progress. However, as things stand at the moment, the economic situation of the majority of the population is in a decline. The entire agricultural economy of the cultivations in particular is facing and experiencing disastrous conditionals. Burma’s political, economic, social, and education situation without any stability is deteriorating. Burma transformed the feudal agricultural system during the colonial era. Farming for self-sufficiency was changed to a system for merchandizing agricultural produce. Laws were enacted with a view to promote the agricultural trading system such as land ownership and the rights of landowners, tenancy, lease of farmland, village grazing grounds, etc. Colonial administrations, however, brought in their colonial subjects for work on Burma’s agricultural land. Taking advantage of the laws these people using unethical methods and tenancy system

26

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

brought about the rise of big landlordism. The farmers lost land they worked on, had their privileges and lives were ruined. The followers of the colonialists became big landowners and prosperous. A new class of people like the chatters from India appeared on Burma’s farmlands. After Burma became independent, laws were enacted and necessary recursions and changes made for the benefit of cultivators during the parliamentary democratic era. The land Nationalization Act (1953) was enacted with the main objective of abolishing the system of big landlordism. For similar reasons, the Tenancy Law (1953) and regulations were enacted. However, doe to repercussions resulting from political turuniol in the country little could be achieved to make it a success. After (1962) during the Revolution Council era Laws relating to agricultural affairs were oriented towards a socialist system. Tenancy Law (1963) and regulations and the Tenancy Law (1965) were promulgated. By the Tenancy Law (1965) tenancy fees were abolished. There laws caused the farmers to lose all the benefits they were entitled to under the land Nationalization Act 1953. The government issued orders regarding the type of crop to the planted and instructions

27

12.

13.

14.

15.

to be followed separately. As a result of these directions the government became the landlord and the farmers turned into tenants. That same year (1963) the Protection of cultivators’ rights law was promulgated but because included in the laws the farmers were in a “given but did not receive” situation. Notification No 4/78 dated September 18, (1978) stated that failure to plant the designated crop according to prescribed rules increase of default toe crop sell the designated quantity of the crop earmarked for sale to the government at the prescribed price during the prescribed period the right to work on the land would be withdrawn. Moreover, authority was granted to subordinate organizations and thus the farmers were losing landownership and working rights. It is said that after state Peace and Development Council took over the reins of power in 1988 it has switched from the socialist economic system to the market economy system. But as far as the living conditions of the cultivations are concerned they are not only not enjoying appropriate opportunities but are facing the loss of farming right. The state Peace and Development Council (SPDC) has continued using laws,

28

16.

17.

18.

regulations and notifications form Parliamentary Democracy and Burma Socialist Program Party eras. Thus, cultivations are still at the stage of having the right to work on the land. What is worse is that the authorities break existing laws and resort to illegal acts such as arrests, detentions, sun faking, withdrawal of landownership, suing and imprisonment. In regard to tenancy system, authorities concerned using arbitrary powers would fix the paddy quota form forth corning harvest at totally unfair rates, also termed paddy for civil servants, goodwill paddy, army rations, etc, and forcibly seize 8 to 12 baskets per acre irrespective of whether the yield was good or poor. The farming population is agonizing under the “compulsory delivery” paddy imposed arbitrarily by the authorities whereby a fixed quantity has to sell to them. The paddy price settled by the authorities for the purchases made by them was also half that of the prevailing price. Refusal to sell would result in the farmers suffering physical and mental anguish, being tortured and losing farming rights. Families have been ruined by losing the right to cultivate their land. The main requirement for a good yield of paddy from paddy planting during summer is an abundant supply of water but their

29

19.

20.

21.

was insufficient water for most of the cultivated areas which were forced to be planted since such forced cultivation was motivated by the need for produce and when the yield was not up to expectations the cultivations had to face losing one’s labor, cattle, and money. When such catastrophes occur the government will not extend any help y forgiving loans or providing financial aid. After harvesting of paddy is completed, supplementary crops such as lentils and beans are planted. It is necessary to have knowledge about the type of fertilizers, compatibility of the land for planting beans and lentils planting costs and experience. However, being forced to do the planting without having any previous experience the farmers had to face losses and suffer the consequences. Failure to do double cropping during the summers and supplementary planting of beans, lentils led to confiscation of land under Notification 4/87 by the authorities concerned in certain regions. The farmers thus lost their only means of livelihood. Cultivations residing in rural areas are forced to provide free labor for various types of works undertaken by governmental organizations. They had to plow and plant on cultivation plots of the armed forces without receiving any

30

22.

23.

payment leaving their own business neglected and in ruins. Virgin lands of the army had to be cleared and made ready without any payment. In some areas people had to vacate their farms, working plots and evicted to other places on the grounds that certain areas were not clear of insurgents. The authorities did not provide for the agricultural industry essential assistance, such imported items as fertilizers, insecticides, seed paddy, water etc., extension lands were also not given to farmers but to their selected private investors. Vacant, virgin lands and lands which were in use and wetlands being worked by farmers, lakes and contiguous plots were confiscated from cultivations private interests ad certain government interests were given the right to work on them. Due to such unjust actions farmers lost their right to cultivate the land they were working on. If the present situation is studied and summarized, the plight of the farming population is the farmers, because of the dictatorial village administrations and misguided economic working methods, are faced with a terrible, oppressive situation with their lifeblood being sucked. The entire agricultural industry is in to total disarray and disintegrating. The

31 agricultural economy sector is lacking in stability.

Part (2) Analysis of Agricultural Legislation Land Nationalization Act 1953 24.

25.

26.

At the Land Nationalization conference the Prime Minister speech (23-7-1957 Sa-7) was quoted as “The Land Nationalization Act 1953 was enacted to uproot big Landlordism which adversely affected the lives of the cultivations whose main livelihood was entirely dependent upon farmlands, and the state expropriate the agricultural land owned by big landlords and not only distribute it to the cultivators but also to establish a rural economic system which will make the farming community enjoy a self sustaining life in line with modern standards. According to this speech the main objective of the land Nationalization Act 1953 was the abolition of big landlordism and make the farmer owner of the land cultivated by him/her. The Land Nationalization Act 1953 was not abrogated after the Tenancy Law 1964 was promulgated. The following decision

32

27.

showed that the Act is still in force and being applied. “We cannot accept the contention that the Tenancy Law in a way a abrogated the Land Nationalization Act---------“ “Expropriation of farmlands under section (5) and remission under section (6) of the Land Nationalization Act are maters still being carried out after notifications are published in the Burma Gazette--------“ “It is evident that the Land Nationalization Act is not inanimate law”----It is correct that the Tenancy Law overrides the Land Nationalization Act but in regard to other matter not concerning tenancy contained in the Land Nationalization Act it does not in one way problem its application.-------was the decision” (Judgment in the civil 2nd Appeal No-53 1962 on May 10, 1968 by the State Supreme Court sitting in Mandalay.) However, the original aim of the Land nationalization 1953 was being destroyed. Since the intention of the Tenancy Law 1963was not to give ownership of the Land to farmers but merely meant giving tenancy rights to them the state took over the role of the big landowners. Accordingly, the cultivations became owners of working rights instead of landowners.

33

Tenancy Law 1963 28.

29.

30.

The aims and object of the law were explained as “The Tenancy Law had to be promulgated because the Revolutionary Government will not permit the respective landlords to grant tenancy rights on all cultivate land within the Union of Burma but will supervise the tenancy matter on its own.”-------(Part 2 of the explanatory note re. the law’s objective and authority by the central Land Committee of the Revolutionary Government) Sa-- 1 The Land Nationalization Act 1953 was to nationalize all cultivable land, abolish big landlordism, and give farmers the right to own the land they work on. The Tenancy Law 1963 on the other hand was like an enactment leading to land nationalization by the state with the stipulation arrangements. It was noticed that cultivations lost the right to own land and could only work as tenants. The right of the farmers to own the land they cultivated were abolished and they were only permitted to be tenants and thus suffered considerable losers. Estimated acreage of land likely to be affected as follows (a) XXXXX

34

31.

(b) XXXX (c) XXXXX (d) After the Land Naturalization was enacted, exemption granted to farmlands, nationalized and distributed acreage – 3,345,984 acres (e) XXXXX (f) XXXXX (g) Area cultivated by farmers and land owned by them (1960-61) -8,990,146 acres (Explanatory Note No 2 page issued by the Central Land committee of the Revolutionary Government of the Union of Burma in relation to tenancy law, regulations and notifications showing a chart of acreage under cultivation) According to this chart 12,336,130 acres are estimated to be the area where the farmers lost ownership. Section (3) of the Tenancy Law 1963 is instrumental for loss of Land ownership. That section states Section 3, The government can by notification proclaim that any paddy land from a specific date mentioned in the notified the landowner ceases to have the right to rent t land and under this order the government assumed the role of a landlord by taking over leasing right of any type of cultivations, however, lost the right to own land and attained the status of tenant farmers.

35

Notification No 4/78 32

33

34

The ministry for Agriculture and Forests issued Notifications No 1/160 (ka) 78. According to them failure to produce full capacity of the prescribed crop according to standard fixed under the Agricultural plan, inability to sell to the state the fixed quantity of the prescribed crop at the nominated price during the time frame given, then the farming right can be with drawn. According to sections 38 and 39 of the Land Nationalization Act 1953 any farmland can be used to plant profitable crops used as prescribed therein. Rules and regulations can be made for the purpose. Instructions can be issued in this regard. Also chapter (6) sections 11 and 12 concern related to farmlands receiving exemption and those distributed over montage, sale and leasing. It was stipulated that failure to bribe by these conditions would result in confiscation of the land under sections 29/30/31/32. Conditions for confiscation of farmlands like those mentioned in notification No 4/78 were not inserted or enacted. Moreover, in section (6) of the Tenancy Law 1963 the government laid down

36

35

36

conditions to be followed by the tenants in the cultivation of land leased to them by the state. It was stipulated that if a tenant failed to cultivate the allotted land without sufficient cause or transferred the lease to another person a prison term of six months or a fine of up to kyat 300/- would be imposed under section 10. It merely indicates the punishment and does not include the order to take away the working right of the farmers like in notification 4/78. It was stated in Notification 4/78 that failure to sell in rule the specified crop at the price fixed during the prescribed them frame the government have the right to revoke the working permission. The farmers working on leased land could experience natural disastrous like floods, insect infestation resulting in destruction of crops chop in yield. In such instances when the farmers could not sell the specified quantity of “obligatory” or “goodwill” rice. They lost the right to cultivate the allocated land. In addition, cultivations, because they were derelict in their duty to sell the specified quantity of “obligatory” rice, had to suffer terrible suffering and face demeaning actions such as abusive language, threats, sun baking, torture, arrests, detentions, etc.

37 37

Moreover, in making the famous do double cropping cultivation paddy during the hot seasons due to shortage of funds and having to sow crops on land which could not be worked, and the farmers were unable to comply with orders they lost their old holdings under Notification No 4/78. These are all due to the evil consequences of Notification No 4/78. This order should be abrogated entirely.

Village Act and Town Act (1907-8) 38.

Residents in towns and rural areas are being made to work as forced laborers. They are compelled to abandon their own business and work without remuneration as forced laborers and porters in building dams, roads bridges departmental cultivation plots and military operations. They had to clear virgin lands for the armed forces without payment. Protection was sought for such acts claiming these were lawful section 8(1) (sa) of the Village Act 190 States that “when wages stipulated by the Town council are received armed forces and police forces stationed within the villlact tractor near it or

38

39.

transiting thereby must the provided with guides porters, rations, carts and drive elephants, horses, mules, asses, water transport such as boats” and Town Act 1907 No 3 (Ta) States that “when wages stipulated by the chairman of the Town council are received armed forces and police units posted within the locality or nearby must be provided with guides porters, rations, vehicles” and in section – 7 (Hta) it is stated that “as much assistance as is possible must be given to government rewards and civil employees” and by making use of these provisions the authorities are action arbitrarily. The abovementioned acts are not consonant with the times besides which they are causing the loss of human rights. The farming community especially is the most affected. As such acts should not exist nor should they be applied and therefore it is absolutely necessary to suspend them immediately.

Cultivations’ Rights Protection Law 1963

39 40.

It is stipulated in section 3 (1) of the Cultivation’ Rights Protection Law (1963) that whatever may be contained in any current law, by a degree or order of a court of law(a) It is prohibited to issue a warrant or confiscate agricultural land, cattle and farming implements, agricultural produce. (b) There must be no proscription to cultivate the land or to enter the farming area. (c) Cattle and farming instrument used for cultivation, tractors must not be prohibited from being moved or sold an used or disposed of. (d) No cultivator must be arrested or detained in connection with sub-section (a), (b) and (c). (2) The provisions under sub-section (1) shall not be applicable for (a) Action taken in connection with money due to the government or (b) Actions pursuant to disputes over legacies or (c) Any action taken by the government security reasons.

40 41.

42.

43.

The provision in this sub-section (2) item (c) stating “any action taken by the government for security reasons” shows the arbitrary control of the cultivators by the authorities. It is necessary to delete such a provision from the law. This law provides financial protection for money lenders who give loans to cultivations. In reality, it is not the kind of law that can safeguard farmers’ rights. What is really essential is legislation that will give farmers protection form laws and orders which deprive them of all there rights and only law which will shield form forms of oppression.

Protection and maintenance of grazing grounds 44. It was stipulated in section -41 (2) of Land Nationalization Act 1953 in relation to protection and maintenance of grazing grounds that “In regard to this matter, apart from any order issued by the President or authority appointed by the President for the purpose, grazing grounds for cattle land village

41 community land must continue to be maintained in good order. Moreover, the central Land Committee of the Union of Burma Revolutionary government in its Letter No 5 ha pa (9) hta – 64(204) directed thatParagraph (1) “In whatever condition it may be it may be, encroachment of a genuine grazing ground for cultivation will not be permitted. If in spite of the prohibition order in paragraph (4) if anyone is found to encroach and cultivate on cattle grazing and in violation of the order, effective legal action will be taken against such persons and it is directed that the agricultural produce form such encroachment must be confiscated without exception” and gave protection to cattle grazing grounds. 45.

However, those in power and the people close to the authorities are encroaching and farming on grazing ground and thus pastures for cattle are disappearing. There is scarcity of fodder for the cattle which are facing diseases death and scrounging for feed. Hence, there is

42 a deterioration I farming capability. Effective legal action must be take in the aforementioned matter with a view to restore the grazing lands to their original state. Allocation of Alluvial Land 46. Alluvial land is the soft cultivate islands which appear when rivers outside. Being land which can be cultivated for only one year or one season complications arise over working rights. 47. According to section to 16 (4) of the regulations of Tenancy Act (1963) relation a to A – leasing of alluvial land the following principles must be followed in the allocation. (a) XXXXXXX There is no reason to expect to cultivate more than one year one season. Accordingly, working rights on alluvial lands will be as determined by the government annually. (b) XXXXXXX subordinate land committee will do the allocation. (c) XXXXXXX excluding those cultivations from designated villages who have land for

43 cultivation, on landless farmers, tenant workers and field laborers must be selected, it was stipulated. 48.

Village and township authorities ignored the tenancy regulations and only close relatives, moneyed people who offered bribes exservicemen and members of these authorities obtained working nights. Some who held rights to several acres sold these rights to others. Therefore, cultivations, tenant workers and field laborers lost their legal working rights.

Part 3 Stabilization of Cultivation Rights and Farming Animal, Husbandry and Rural Development 49.

Basic Principle of agricultural Economy (1) The State is the original owner of all the land. (2) To establish the basic principle that farmers and cultivators who on the basic of having the capability to cultivate

44 one’s agricultural land and in keeping with human dignity to be agricultural to retain the agricultural land in their possession (ownership). (a) To have the tight to cultivate the agricultural land freely. (b) To have the right to retain (own) the agricultural land. (c) To have the right to sell the agricultural land (d) To have the right to pawn the agricultural land (e) To make effective use of the right to transfer, partition the agricultural land. 50.

Program and Methods The Parliament is to form agricultural Problem solution committee and Agriculture, animal

45 Husbandry and Rural Development committee to carry out the under mentioned programs namely, impending program as the first task and secondly long term programs. 51.

First Step Impending Program (1) To amend the regulation in section 3 of the Tenancy 1963 (2) To delete the words “shall not apply to actions taken by the government for security reasons “from section 3 (2) (c) of the Cultivations’ Rights Protection Land 1963. (3) To prevent and abolish illegal actions arising from Notification 4/78 and to cancel this notification 4/78. (4) To cancel section 8 (1) (sha) of the village Act No (60) 1907 and sections (Ta) and (Hta) of the Town Act No (3) of 1907. (5) To confiscate the cattle, grazing grounds and

46

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

communal land from those who enervated and tool possession of them ignoring existing laws and directions and to take action against these transgressors in accordance with the law and directories. To confiscate the agricultural land illegally taken over by government departments and service personnel and grant working rights to the original farmers and cultivations on such land. With a view to develop and advance the state agricultural section to offer attractive incentives to investors. To permit cultivations and farmers to plant crops they are conversant with and suitable for the land they will be cultivating. So as not to let farmers be disadvantaged to search for markets to

47 sell agricultural produce. (10) To explore ways and means to obtain cultivation expenditure for farmers. (11) To study the grievances and difficulties faced by the farmers because of the rules relation to loans form Agricultural Banks and to amend them. (12) To regulate for the right to cultivate transport, mill, store and sell freely. (13) As it is desirous for all levels of the farming community to be involved in discussions and implementation in matters dealing with solving agricultural problems, rights and development projects, the formation of a cultivations organization must be encouraged and to permit formation of such an organization

48 free from partisan politics. (14) Land receiving exemption and land distributed under the land Nationalization Act. (15) To systematically investigate and remedy the wrongs such as losing working permission on agricultural land owned and cultivated by owners as a result of cultivation’ Rights Protection Law 1963 and Ministry of agriculture Notification No 4/78. (16) To utilize as vegetable gardens and other suitable purposes suitable as agricultural land and to systematically control the misuse of agricultural land by other means legislation in keeping with the times must be framed.

49 (17) To take effective steps in prevention and treatment of diseases of draft cattle. (18) To start small scale mechanized farming while there is insufficient draft cattle and lack of large scale mechanized farming. 52.

Second Step Long Term Programs (1) To enact legislation so that all farmers and cultivators have the rights pertaining to land ownership, cultivation, transfer or pawn their land and to prevent the revival of big landownership system. (2) The price of agricultural produce must be based on the open market system. (3) To expand the agricultural banking system to facilitate giving short and long term loans required for

50

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

development and maintenance of agricultural land. To take steps for creation of farmers banks for a free agricultural system and revival development. To give priority to cultivate paddy and agricultural crops whose quality meet with the standard required for sale to foreign markets and then for increased production of such produce. To prepare charts for cultivation of crops appropriate for the agricultural land to be utilized and give guidance to farmers and cultivations in the matter. To arrange for full utilization of state owned agricultural machinery and mechanical facilities. To especially encourage livestock breeding for

51 self sufficiency in draft cattle. (9) Soil conservation plans should be prepared for each locality and carried out accordingly. (10) To encourage and assist in changing the shifting terrace farming to fixed terrace farming. (11) As statistics relation to acreage planted and rate of produce, arable land, virgin land left uncultivated are incurved and available steps must be taken to re-organize and expand the land Records Department and Settlement Department in order to obtain accurate and reliable statistics. (12) Based on the ruling commodity prices the wage rates of the agricultural workers should be adjusted abolished and if

52 necessary, new regulations drafted after a study of the Agricultural Workers Wages Act 1948-49. (13) With a view to have a sufficient number of personnel well versed in modern agricultural sciences efforts must be made to seek ways to reach international standard. (14) To prohibit completely marijuana, opium and narcotic drug plantations and cultivation of such narcotic plants and to cultivate suitable and profitable substitute crops according to locality involved. (15) To take measures to maintain and protect the environment. (16) To promote and encourage rural farming community to take up commercial livestock breeding and

53 supplementary breeding business for additional income. (17) The state to take effective measures in research and development programs relation to the agricultural sector. (18) To place emphasis on measures to provide sufficient water for agriculture inhabitants and cattle. (19) To inspect thoroughly whether existing embankment of dams and canals are strong secure and can distribute irrigation water effectively or not and to take steps so as to obtain optimum benefit form them. (20) When cultivations are unable to handle any undertaking individually and the assistance of a combined workforce to help them out.

54 (21) To encourage and assist in carrying in support of the primary projects to help rural economy. (a) To give guidance in formation of service cooperatives (with the exception of combined ploughing) such service cooperatives cultivation and breeding. Later on they will be expanded and work separately on essential projects. (b) To encourage and give guidance for economic development apart from agricultural sector for rural areas in setting up small scale industries.

55 (c) To arrange supply of electricity for industries and domestic. 53.

Rural Development To arrange the following for the people in the rural development in the social and cultivar fields. (1) To undertake the work for more improvement of basic and middle school level education in rural areas. (2) To expand health programs (3) To encourage and carry out programs relating t hygiene and beautification of villages. (4) To seriously encourage the development of traditional culture of ethnic nationalities (5) To open state reading rooms in regions with good communications to improve the knowledge of rural inhabitants.

56 (6) Special emphasis to be given in undertaking development programs especially in undeveloped rural regions of ethnic nationalities. 54.

The two committees formed to carry on the first step and the second step for long term programs are to investigate the various disadvantages and losses suffered by the farmers and cultivations and submit them to the peoples’ parliament for restoration of rights and privileges, amendment revocation of laws and notifications, and enactment of new legislation.

Report of the Labor Affairs Committee 1.

Report of the Labor Affairs committee regarding steps to be taken relation to matters concerning labor in the Union of Burma as decided by the committee Representation People’s Parliament (CRPP) on the ninth anniversary of the multiparty Parliamentary elections held on May 27, 1990.

57 2.

After Burma attained independence in 1948 and became a full fledged sovereign country and a member of the United Nations Burma also became a member of the International labor Organizational a special organization a special organization under UN. Accordingly Burma acceded to the conventions of ILO and in order to take effective steps in labor issues conforming to standards laid down Burma enacted laws which include labor unionization, wages, working hours and discipline, settlement of issues between management and labor, safeguarding the rights due to injury and sickness, in other words all the rights and privileges of workers. However, the Revolutionary Council which seized power from the parliamentary government in 1962, passed a law in 1964 defining the basic rights and duties of workers and directed that labor laws enacted previously detailed below be treated as regulations.

3.

4.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Labor Laws enacted from 1948 to 1962 Employment and Training Act Restriction of employment Act Apprentice Act Employment of Children Act Regulation of Dockworkers Employment Act

58 6. Emigration Act 7. Dock Workers Act 8. Mincing Act 9. Oil fields Act 10. Oil field workers and Social Welfare Act 11. Factious Act 12. Wages Act 13. Agricultural Workers Minimum 14. Minimum Wages Act 15. Heave and Holidays Act 16. Shops and Business Establishments Act 17. Workmen’s Compensation Act 18. Social Welfare Act 19. Labor Disputes Act 20. Workers Unions Act 21. Auditing of Businesses Act 22. The Railways Act 23. Inland Waters Act 24. Burma Airways Act 25. Burma Merchant Marine Act 26. Seaports Act 27. Rangoon Port Act 28. Outside Ports Act 29. Pilotage Act 30. Burma Lighthouse Act 5.

Accordingly, Workers’ Rights Duties Law 1964 overrode the previous workers rights and privileges by the peoples Workers Councils taking over the leading role. Hence, the Law of 1964 relation to workers rights and responsibilities must be worked

59

6.

7.

8.

9.

and the above acts which were directed to be treated as regulations must be reviewed in their original farm as acts in accordance with democratic principles by enactment. In order to solve the issues relation to this important Labor question a single central body comprising unions in which all workers participate and free from the influence of political parties must be established. Only then will the basic labor unions become strong and united and will be able to focus their attention purely on labor questions. We are endeavoring to make the Union of Burma a parliamentary democratic country as our main objective. There must conformity in every respect with the international community especially as an integral part of the United Nations. We must therefore, not be at odds with ILO when labor issues are concerned as ILO has the power to set standards but cooperate closely with ILO. Only then, Burma will be able to obtain skilled assistance how the United Nations with the help of ILO. With the emergence of a new modern developing and progressive democratic Burma, the worked to improve their status and enjoy their rights by ILO necessary enactments must be made.

60 Chapter 4 Report of the Education Affairs Committee of the Committee Representing Peoples’ Parliament (CRPP) elected at the Multiparty Democracy Elections of 1990 Education is for the purpose of enhancing knowledge and progress on the heels of cultural awareness “Beside the 3 “As”', there are advances made in the art of speech, handiwork and technical knowledge. For the development of a nation it is absolutely imperative for the education of children to move ahead. It is for this reason that article 26 of UN Human Rights declaration stated as under. (1) Every one has the right to receive education. For compulsory education must be provided for elementary and basic standards at least elementary education must be compulsory. Technical and general knowledge classes must generally be open for enrolment. Moreover, higher education based on one’s ability must be available. (2) Education based on development of human

61 instincts and respect for human rights and basic freedoms must be given. Instruction should be based on promoting mutual understanding, tolerance and friendship among nations, organizations and religions groups. And to promote lasting peaces, efforts must be made for successful achievement of UN activities. (3) Parents have to primary right to select the type of education for their children. It was possible to sign the children’s Rights Convention at the UN General Assembly on November 20, 1989. The convention came into effect from July 16, 1991 and Burma became a signatory. Article 28/1, subsarticles (a) and (e) are shown below. Article 28/1 subarticle (a).-Elementary

62 education must he compulsory and free. Article 28/1 sub-article (e) – To encourage regular school attendance and make arrangements to reduce school drop-outs. As a follow up to the Children Rights Convention a meeting was held at fountain, Thailand in 1990 and the world Declaration for All was declared. At that meeting a framework was agreed to on requirements basic instruction. Education for all (EFA) 2000 was set. The goal was for everyone to be educated by the year 2000 which was the high point of the fountain Declaration. There are six areas for action under the EFA of which some are given below. To provide extensive assistance to poor families,

63 disadvantaged people, and young children including those with disabilities. By the year 2000, all the children in the world to have completed education at the basic elementary grade. By the year 2000,to reduce the number of illiterate adults to half that of 1990. To reduce the rate of illiterate women to segregate men and women in instruction. (Part 1) Even if a law is enacted to make free primary education free and compulsory for all, it is necessary to assess what benefit will accrue to the children in Burma. Firstly, the actual situation prevailing in the country needs to be noted.

64 Basic Education in Burma 1997 No. 1.

Subject Area

2. 3. 4. 5.

Population Density Rural population Population increase annually Ethnic groups Languages spoken Under 14 year olds (1) Per capital income (3)

6. 7. 8. 9.

261,228 6,765,777 46.4 66 75 18.4

Square miles Square Kilometers Million 8/kilomiter Percent Percent

135 100 35

Percent

263

Kyat

It is noticed that education programs for elementary, middle and high schools have been placed under the supervision of upper Burma Basic Education Dept, lower Burma Basic Education Dept and Rangoon Division Basic Education Dept. The Academic Year (AY) is fixed from June to March of the following year and the number of school days as 199. It has been able to record the number of elementary, middle and high schools, teachers and students. *Academic Year (1996-97) (1) Labor Department and UNIEF report on working children Women (page 1)

65 (2) Labor Department and UNIEF report on working children Women (page 1) No 1. 2. 3.

Primary Middle High Total

Schools 35,799 2,087 922 38,080

Teachers 154,062 53,959 15,510 223,530

Students 5,153,000 1,571,000 405,000 7,129,000

According to the statistics there were (144) students in each primary school and a teacher for (33.33) pupils during the AY 1996-97. School Teacher 1

Student 144 Students 33.33

In 1997 the population was 46.4 of 15 years were 35% or 16.24 million. The combined total of primary and middle school students according to the above statistics being (6,724,000) it will be seen that (16.24- 6.7) 9.5 millions are unaccounted, preschool children 1 to 5 years old, or the sick, those failing to register for schooling dropouts.

66 Number of primary and middle school students between1992-1997 Grade

199293 Primary 5,919 Middle 11,109

199394 5,896 1,159 19.43%

1994-95

199596 5,531 5,337 1,358 1,475 232.04% 26.48%

199697 5,135 1,571 19.43%

Average promoted from primary to middle schools = 24.59%

*Basic Education in Myanmar September 1997 (page 5) #Department of labor UNICEF Report on working children and women (page 1) +Basic Education in Myanmar, September 1997 (Table 5) According to the above table out of 100 primary students (24.95) or 25 students attended middle schools and it can be roughly estimated that (75.05) or 75 students were unable to continue their education for various reasons or were dropouts. These figures ought to be compared to the numbers shown in the reports by UNICEF, department of labor, and the Report on Working Women and Children. On page 50, the Report stated that on 27% of the children completed primary education 34% dropouts and 39% never registered for study in any school.

67 A joint research was conducted by UNICEF and the Ministry of Labor from October 1994 to September 1995 in south OKalapa Township and Hlaing Thaya Township of Rangoon Division, and Chamyethasi and Pyigyitagun Townships, Mandalay Division including 1163 from 700 families. These children were divided into 2 groups based on age, on being 5-9 year olds and the other 10-14 year olds.

Chart Showing education for children (5-9 years old) ,(10-14) years old in South Okkalapa, Hlaingthaya, Chaunmyathaye, Pyigyi Status

5-9 years

At school

330 79.1% Left 23 School 5.5% Did not 64 register 15.53% Total 417 35.9% •

10-14 years 337 50.5% 333 44.6% 36 4.8% 746 64.1%

Total/Percentage 707 60.8% 356 30.6% 100 8.6% 1163 100%

Department of Labor UNICEF Report on Working children Page 5, Table 19

A study of the above will show that of the 1163 ten year old children form the 4 townships 356 children or 30.6% had to leave school. It will be

68 observed that the Ministry of labor continued to ascertain the reasons why 356 children equal to 30.6% of the 5 to 14 year olds became dropouts.

• Reasons for Leaving School Financial Domestic Childcare Family Business Daily Worker Disable/Sick Staring Business Not Interested in schooling Education Unmake Others Total

Main Causes for Discontinuing Education

5-9 yrs

10-14 yrs

20 87% 1 1

185 11 4.3% 5 4.3% 16 40

1

4.3% 6 4

55.6% 3.3% 1.5% 4.8%

Children

Total Percentage

205 11 6 17

57.6% 3.1% 1.7% 4.8%

12.0% 40

11.1%

1.8% 1.2%

2.o% 1.1%

7 4

56

16.8% 56

15.7%

1

0.3%

0.3%

1

9 .7% 9 333 93.5% 356

2.5 100%

A study of the above table will show that of the 1,165 students under review 356 students or 30.69 had to leave school and that 205 or 57.6% left because

69 of financial problems 23 out of the 356 students were between 5-9 year old group and 20 or 87% were reported to discontinue their studies because inability to meet expenses such as buying text books, exercise books, writing material, PTA fee school building fund according to the report of the ministry of labor and UNICEF experts. The cost of school uniforms and additional tuition fee must also be taken into account. *Department of labor and UNICEF Report o working children and women page 61 Table 28. O the 356 dropouts 56 or 15.7% are reported to have no interest in schooling, it is reported. The above table shows the situation of 356 students out of total of 1,163 the situation concerning 100 students who did not attend school or register in schools will be given in the following table. (The original table shows the number according to townships but this under mentioned table will underline the combined total.) *(5-14) year registering in schools Main Reasons Financial Domestic Reasons Child Care Domestic occupation Daily wage work

olds;

Reasons

for

No 57 1

Percentage 57% 1%

2 1

2% 1%

1

1%

not

70 Disability sickness Starting Business Disinterest Education no useful Others Total

5

5%

9 1

9% 1%

23 100

23% 100%

It will be seen of the 100% 5-14 year olds who did not register 57 or 57% did not register because of financial reasons. It also shows of students or 9% had no interest in schooling and 1% regarded education as irrelevant. Department of Labor and UNICEF Report on working children and women Page 61 Table 28 Whatever the case may be it will be seen more than half (57%) of those dropouts and more than half (57%) of these who did register could not afford to meet expenses. Burma’s population was 46.4 million in 1997 with an annual increase of 1.84% keeping this rate as standard it can be estimated that in 5 years time (1997 to 2002) there will be over 850,000 5year olds ready to attend primary schools. The budget appropriation for1999 were announced on March 31, 1999. The government appropriation for ministries are as under;

71

Expenditure for Ministries and Departments Description

Annual Percentage Capital Percentage Expenditure Expenditure 17,538,204,490 40 14,222,999,900 41.1 6,155,600,000 14.1 2,647,713,000 7.7 -----

Defense Education Other Ministries Total of 43,133,284,200 Ministries and Departments Defense11,382,604,490 Education

100 33,332,321,890

11,575,286,900

*Department of Labor and UNICEF Report on working children and women page 61 Table 28 A study of the above table will show the Defense Ministry used up 40% of the total expenditure for all Ministries and Department and 41% of he capital expenditure for all Ministries and Departments. It is noticed that the Education Ministry used 7.7% of the total expenditure for all Ministries and Departments. It will also be seen that the Defense Ministry used 11.380 million more the Education Ministry.

100

72 (Part 2) It is stipulated that primary must be compulsory and free for everyone. It will, therefore, be necessary to study to what extent the children in Burma are benefiting from this stipulation. There are 199 school days and the Academic Year (AY) is from June to March. Curriculum has to be drawn to conform to the school days. Only then will it be possible to evaluate a student’s progress at year’s end. If schools have to be closed now and again it will be impossible to have 199 school days. Accordingly, the year’s curriculum cannot be completed in there. Students will, therefore, not finish the curriculum drawn up for the year. The schools’ ratio is 1; 144 and the teacher/ students ratio is 1; 33.31, it is learnt. The density of population differs from state to state township to township. There are hardly 40 students in some primary schools while it has been found that the student population in some primary schools ranges from 400 to 700. In some classrooms there are less than 20 students per teacher while in others a teacher has to handle 60 to 80 students. According to the joint research by the Ministry of Labor and UNICEF the reason why 57.6% of 5-14 year olds became dropouts was because of inability to meet school expenses. Similarly, 57% did not register for the same reason. Nowadays it is possible that a higher percentage of children from rural and suburban areas will not be able to attend schools.

73 It was pointed out that the inability to attend schools for financial reasons was the high cost of text books, exercise books, writing materials, contributions to Parents/Teachers Associations (PTA) and School development and furniture funds. The prices changed by GEC to schools are Kyat 250 for a dozen 40 pages exercise book and kyat 600 a dozen for 80 page books. English, Burmese and Math text books can be purchased together form the schools for kyat 40 but these can be available only in the middle of the AY. It is learnt that these books are sold outside for kyat 300. Stationary supplies and school governing committees are forcing students to purchase expensive books, writing utensils. Although there is a stipulation for free primary education for everyone if a new student seeks admission or transfers to another school, see are changed for resignation from a school and admission to another. For big name schools in large cities, admission fees ranging from 5 to 6 figures have to be paid. There are differ variations in fees for school in suburban and rural areas. On admission parents have to purchase desks and chairs for their children and donate these to the school. In addition school accessories, fluorescent lights building fund etc., have to be donated. Parents also have to help in school building extensions. For example of the cost of a school building is estimated at kyat 20 million the Education Department headmaster, school board, PTA have to take responsibility to fund the balance kyat18 million.

74 Just as there are generous donors the students are also made to meet the cost. School uniforms are also expensive. It costs about kyat 500-600 for green shorts longyis, and white shirts/blouses. Two sets are needed costing kyat 2,000 to 5,000. Some are unable attend school if the uniform gets wet and do not own another set of uniform. The joint report by the Ministry of labor and UNICEF stated 15.7% represented only those from South Okkalapa and Hlaning Townships in Rangoon Division and Chanmyathisi and Pyigyitaya Townships in Mandalay Division. They do not represent other Divisions and States. The aforesaid four Townships depend on market economy and not agricultural economy. If statistics could be obtained from States/Divisions it is estimated there will be more than 15.7% who are uninterested in schooling. It is said this disinterest is due to the education system. There is no reason to doubt that parents want their children to be educated but because of the current education and economic systems which could not provide any role for educated persons the thinking among students and their parents is that educated people of all levels from matriculates to graduates have no future non prospect of employment. As the subjects taught in schools have no relation to reality they are unable to attract students. The researches have praised the India education system which has been able to attract students because it can be applied to everyday life. It has also been noticed that teaching methods need to more modern in approach. The young

75 students who have no interest in schooling become more involved in helping parents to earn their daily income for survival. Even children of primary education level had to engage in peddling snacks in food processing business, waiting at tables in restaurants, domestic servants, picking up trash, looking after younger children while parents work, tending cattle ( it is said that a cowherd can earn 15 baskets of paddy annually) and laboring at constructions sites by carrying bricks, stones, sand, etc., There is less debore for schooling for reasons of survival. As a result of helping parents with their daily chores, school attendance because irregular, backward in daily lessons due to absences from classrooms leading to disinterest in education and deterioration in the system. In Burma although the time frame to complete primary education is 5 ½ years “it may take as long as 12.2 years to complete the course. This figure for rural areas is 25% and for urban areas 22%”according to the researchers from the Ministry of Labor and UNICEF. The reasons why students are showing disinterest in schooling are because teachers in addition to their teaching duties had to undertake often outside responsibilities and , therefore, unable to attend school regularly and thus fail to teach their students as is customary. Electricity outages of frequent failures obliged using kerosene lamps or candles. Rise in kerosene oil and candle prices made it impossible for students to

76 study regularly ad this led to lessoning interest in studies according to some parents. It became obligatory for parents to send their children to and form schools when they are situated far from home. The young students became tired and bored because of the distance and gradually lost interest in school education. The teachers like other public servants are reeling under the excessive cost of living. Their salaries are not sufficient for survival most food the teachers them had to use their know how as capital investment and started giving tuition as a sideline to earn extra income. Accordingly, tuition classes have now become a regular feature in the present day education system. Even children in primary classes are generally not free from tuition mania. Once more students become involved with tuition classes the teachers get lose in teaching in school. The students too dependent on tuition classes begin to miss school attendance with noticeable loss of interest in school learning. The gap in educational status between rural and urban areas can be guided roughly. Urban residents are in a better position economically than those in rural areas and able to meet education expenses and thus the children form urban areas are in a better position to receive education. Urban residents being more knowledgeable than rural inhabitants on the one hand and not owning any land on the other hand, they are able to encourage their children by providing education. While the children form urban areas are still at school those from

77 rural areas learn just enough reading and writing and then assist their parents in agricultural work. Urban school children find it easier to get transportation to attend school whereas most of the unclean area children have to proceed with great inconvenience to then place of education. Urban area children are able to attend tuition classes to improve their education but rural area school children are unable to attend such classes to help than in their studies. Urban area children have more time to study because electricity is more readily available but rural area students have less opportunity in that respect. High prices for kerosene oil and candles make them unaffordable. There are the reasons for gap in education between urban and rural children.

(Part 3) Constructive ideas are needed to bring to fruition the scheme outlined in the enactment to provide free compulsory prim any education for everyone, to encourage regular attendance at school and to reduce dropouts. As stipulated the Academic Year is 199 school days and special attention must be taken to achieve this aim. This is to prevent frequent absences form class rooms without sufficient reason. On the basis of annual population growth of 1.84% there will be

78 approximately 850,000 5 year olds by the year 2002. Even at the ratio of 1;144 school/students by the year of 2002 6,000 primary schools will be needed and arrangements should begin now. The present ratio of 1;144 is based for the whole country but in heavily populated areas there are usually 400 to 700 students for one school and it is any essential to open more schools. If grand buildings cannot be built, schools conforming to standard are required. A school must be established where students are safe, free from hazards and hot water logged. There must be a playground. The building must have a roof, walls and flooring, suffix-light and good ventilation. Clean, fresh water must be available in the place. Sanitary toilets are absolutely necessary. It has been found that the dropout rate for 5-14 year olds is 34% of that 57% had to leave for financial reasons. If the reason for dropping out is financial then association lake PTA, school governing brands should assist the indigent students. The Ministry of labor and UNICEF researchers have suggested that if the dropouts are due to other financial reason other than inability to meet school expenses then educational systems should be loosened and revised. Indigent people should be provided with books, writing materials and if possible school uniforms free of change such children should not have to pay admission fees, PTA subscription and sontribrite to school building and development fund. To solve the problems relation to attending schools situated far way or from almost inaccessible places arrangements should be made to establish boarding

79 schools, selling bicycles at reduced rates, concession fares on buses and trains. Ill fed children have been seen to be weak in learning and memorizing. It should be arranged to face young children in schools. For those not shorwing interest in schooling, instructions in verbal skills handicraft and mechanical subjects should be provided. For those who are helping the family to earn more income in some way evening schools should be established so that their education is not disrupted. During the AFPFL era Agnes Convent in Shan State (such as Kalaw and others) there were long holidays during the cold season and short ones in summer. In like manner arrangement ought to be made in agricultural townships to split school holidays according to locality during the planting and harvesting seasons to enable students assisting in agricultural work not to have their education disrupted. To make the students interested in their studies sufficient educational materials should be made available. Bicycles and such like means of transport should be provided to teachers to enable them to get to school in time. When building schools. Housing should be included for teachers. On else, house rents should be given to teachers to reside in places near the school. To enable teachers to keep up with the times workshops on teaching methods must be arranged. Seminars with teachers from other modern countries

80 should be organized. At large number of teachers should be sent abroad for observation. Special awards ought to be given to teachers sewing in rural areas and distant places. It is noticed that students under very knowledgeable teachers of both sexes are not bored but are diligent. Teachers, on the other hand, being hard-pressed with school activities are not able to do any outside reading or improving their general knowledge. Arrangements should, therefore, be made to enable teachers of both sexes to visit libraries and reading rooms to further their knowledge. *It is seen that in the State Budget for 1999 the appropriations for the armed services amount to 40% of the total allotted to all the ministries and Directorates. If apart from a few armed insurgents, other armed groups have ceased fire, the total budget appropriations should be allocated to the armed services. Allocations for educational purposes ought to be more than 14.1% for ordinary expenditure and 7.7% for capital expenditure. Any received for specific educational projects should be used for the specific purpose without any deduction. It should be noted such financial aid is intended to supplement the original budget allocations. After 1993 child care center and pre-schools were established. It learnt that have are 634 child care centers and 5 pre-schools in Burma. Only children between the ages three to five are admitted to these

81 institutions and there are none yet for those under 3 years. Child care centers cannot be clarified as preschools, the reason being that these centers are under the care of those without any training in childcare and others. Kindergarten syllabuses are being taught prematurely. There is an absence of teaching regarding health, nutrition, psychosocial care and stimulation. Young children should be provided with lessons and necessary assistance to promote their faculties and development. In the syllabuses for primary classes there must be consanguinity in school days and improvement in testing methods. Teaching should not be a burden on learning. Educationists should give guidance as to whether it is appropriate to establish a standard where the highest grade according to age must be the target on fix a benchmark where the minimum level of education is sufficient. *In order to raise the level of primary education it was stated in the “Union of Myanmar; Education For all DFA, 2003” published in May, 1999 that a “Continues Assessment and Progressive System (CAPS)” was introduced in (1991-92) in 44 schools in 3 townships. This proposal needs to be discussed at length. It is also necessary to discuss it soonest without any delay. This is the time to raise questions. If it is the intention of CAPS to prevent exam failures on not to have repeaters that should a student

82 who does not even meet the lowest grade fixed for his class be promoted? If it is not the case in densely populated areas or schools with a large number of students (for example, TTC in Rangoon) how can a teacher in charge of a class 60-70 students continuously assess and record the capabilities of each and every students? If it is the intention of CAPS to reduce dropouts what was the outcome in the schools selected for EFA which were picked in 1991-92. If the dropout rate is high because of inability to meet schooling expenses as a direct cause or to take up employment to urgent income as another reason, how will EFA help in such instances? In any case, if CAPS is intended to increase the number of schools and improve their capability it is essential to have people in the teaching field and those who are daily assessing the situation. It is also essential to increase the number of fully qualified teachers in order to have an acceptable teacher student ratio. Humankind must of necessity have education for one’s decent living standard to have dignity and to be able to take up employment to raise one’s status to be knowledgeable to reach conclusions based on facts and for further pursuit of education.

83 Conclusion Intelligent and knowledgeable people are required for any country’s progress and development. It is not enough to coin slogans like “Only with education will the nation prosper”. The present education system is one where education depends on affordability. The cost of education is indeed burdensome. The reasons for school age children being distanced from education are due to financial problems and high cost of living as we know form preparing this paper. Funds for education will not be sufficient so long as there is instability and no real peaceable condition in the country. Donors are also hesitant with the fear that their aid and will go to waste. It must be emphasized that to achieve stability and attain peace in the country democracy is an absolute necessity.

*Union of Myanmar, Education for EFH Assessment year 2000 page 16

84 Chapter 5 Report of the Health and Social Affairs Committee of the Committee Representing People’s Parliament CRPP elected during the Multiparty Election of 1990 Report submitted to CRPP on the subject of Social Affairs fixing the minimum level at state fixing the minimum level at state hospitals, clinics, rural health centers and maternity and children health centers.

Draft Report At the present juncture under the military administration the majority of the people is facing awful conditions in the fields of health education and social affairs never before experienced though out history. After 1985 especially the budget appropriations for the health sector declined dramatically. The amount expended in the health sector in 1985 was kyat 18.7 per Read and this declined to Kyat 6.9 per hand in 1996. Supportive aid to ease the health problem was woefully insufficient. The quality of service provided was also noticeably inferior. There were only a few government employees to undertake the task. In 1993 the 95,238 village tracts in the country there were 6074 rural

85 medical and semi-medical clinics equal to 10% or 470 villages served by one medical clinic. Regarding children mortality rate, 49.3% was due to malnutrition, 20% to malaria, 26% to respitoratary diseases, 15% to dysentery and diarrhea, 2% to measles and 37% to other aliments. The number of deaths at childbirth was 500 per 100,000 in 1980 which in 1994 it was 230 per 100,000 and later the death toll was 100 in urban and 180 in 100,000 in rural areas, it is learnt. In Burma today the worst disease is malaria which is the cause of death of a large number of people 20% of the hospital parents are from malaria. In 1991 1 million people were treated as outdoor patients 22% of the patients who died in hospital were due to malaria. It is learnt that the frightful diseases such as HIV, AIDS made the appearance about 5 years ago in Burma and is reported be widespread in the country. Advance warnings have been received that in another couple of years or Burma will face this dreadful disease like those countries in Africa. Similarly it is learnt that TB is on the increase in Burma and preventive action must be taken before the situation gets out of control. Presently, only 60% of the country’s people population and 47% of the rural residents can benefit from the government’s health programs. 60% of the country’s population and 50% of rural residents now have clean water. 43% of the entire population and 36% of rural were residents have hygicmic facilities.

86 Burma’s life expectancy is understood is be 58.4 years which is less than 6 years than that of other South East Asia nations. Burma’s general health situation is becoming inferior and deteriorating. The reasons are because the governments system to improve the situation is inadequate and substandard especially since health workers are not provided with up-to-date training, lack of necessary equipment shortage of required medicines and drugs and lack of funds (including foreign exchange). The abovementioned list of inadequacies has been taken from publication and statements issued by UN agencies and its down countries. 2. To overcome this unsavory situary it will require a government cognizant of its responsibilities and act with authority and transparency and only commendable administration come into being. The aforesaid deterioration having been neglected for over then years, it will not be easy to find a speedy solution. It will certainly need to be tackled in stages over a period of time. For example, it will take time to train and have ready the required number of doctors, specialists, nurses and medical service employees. Accordingly it will be necessary to fix the minimum level to achieve whatever is essential based on the existing situation and carry out the unavoidable tasks depending on locality and by stages.

87 3. Health programs which must be under taken at a minimum level. (a) Budget appropriations must be provided at the rate of kyat 18 per person at least to give medical assistance to all the nationalities in the country. If circumstances permit more assistance must be allocated. (b) Arrangements must be made to have the established number of medical provides. Especially, there must be a full complement of medical provides at medical clinics set up in rural tracts and administrative unit. (c) The whole nation must be invocated against important diseases. (d) To eradicate malaria a scheme will be drawn up for the entire country. (e) To draw up a scheme for the whole country to prevent child mortality resulting from malnutrition. (f) To try best to reduce utmost child mortality form respitonatory and intestinal diseases. (g) To regard HIV/AIDS as an important issue and prevent it, seeking aid from WHO. (h) Will endeavor to prevent the spreading of TB and to carry act effective cure of the disease. (i) To take steps as the government priority to provide clean water in rural areas as it is the basic program to promote primary health in these areas. 4. Minimum standards for hospitals health clinics, rural health centers, and maternity and child health centers.

88 (a) There must be at least one medical center for each village tract. This must be under the control of a nurse holding midroitery and nursing diplomas. This person will be responsible for the sanitary condition of the center and its environment and also continuously seek the help of residents to obtain sufficient water. Under the direction of the township Medical officer the person in charge of the center must obtain in time preventive and other stipulated medicines form the township Primary preventive medical programs including school health and maternity and child health will be undertaker as a priority measure. (b) There must be at least one hospital in each administrative unit. In every hospital there must be one doctor and service personnel as per establishment chart under the control of the Township Medical officer. Basically, it is their duty to be prepared just like the medical center. Assistance must be provided to village residents in their endeavor for school health and maternity and child welfare. In every Township, there will be a Health Officer and service personnel. They will be provided staff as per establishment chart. The Township Medical Officer must supervise not only the township hospital but also hospitals in administrative units, medical clinics dispensaries, sub-dispensaries and maternity and child welfare centers. The TMO will be in charge of lady Health visitors who will tour village tracts. Responsibility must be taken to see that clean water is available at all times. Arrangements must be made to organize villagers in places where sufficient

89 water is unavailable and the matter reported to the divisional officer and then endeavor to obtain the needed water. Responsibility must be taken in timely fashion to have enough stipulated present time inoculation drugs and medicines. In addition care must be taken to see that everything is in order for patients who are the primary reason for a hospital. All hospitals and clinics in the township must be organized to assist the maternity and child welfare in their work. Lady Health Visitors shall be assigned their duty. Then main responsibility will be provided primary medical card for child mortality from malnutrition. Arrangements will be made with Township Education Officer for in consultation school health programs within the township.

Division/ state The respective Child Medical Officer of a Division or a state and service personnel must take responsibility to see that the clinics, hospitals in and within the township are able to perform their stipulated minimum standard duties. Assistance must be given to smooth the way for the townships in carrying out their tasks. It is important, especially to ensure that the Ministry of Health’s instruction and directions and implemented successfully. Responsibility must be assumed to see that materials, human resources and assistance needed for the successful outcome are kept ready and according to

90 circumstances to co-ordinate and combine these forces. (e) The Ministry of Health and Health Directorate at the center of things must take responsibility for the succers of the scheme to raise the country’s health situation the aforesaid minimum standard. In particular, schemes and programs to provide clear water, prevention and cure of stipulated diseases for the whole country must be drawn up by top responsible persons at the center and specialists working in co-ordination for the successful emergence of the objective. This project is to emphasize primary health care for eradication of malaria reduction of child mortality from intestinal diseases and prevention and cure of TB. Of the programs laid out in paragraph (4). The following must be carried out within 6 months to 1 year. (a) Personnel for hospitals, clinics and rural medical centers in townships administrative units and rural tracts will be appointed. (b) Stipulated medicines and drags will be replenished according to the required quantity. (c) Arrangements will be made to supply clean water to hospitals, clinics and health units. (d) Will ensure the availability of preventive medicines and drugs aforesaid hospitals, clinics and health units and timely inoculations.

91 Appendix (A) Committee Representing People's Parliament (CRPP) Notification No 24 (4/99) As the following matters concern all the people, these should be decided only by the parliament comprising parliamentary representatives duly elected by the entire population. 1. The country's population is estimated to reach 60 million by the year 2000 AD. It has been reported in the media that the state Peace and Development Council (SPDC) will undertake the following projects for self sufficiency in food and development of rural areas where cultivators vesicle. (a) To enable the cultivation of 14 million acres for monsoon rice crop and 4 million acres for summer rice crop with each acre yielding 100 baskets of paddy every year. (b) To increase the acreage for cultivation of supplementary crops according to locality. (c) Self sufficiency of edible oil. (d) To increase the planting of rubber trees in Tenasserim Division. (e) To increase breeding of livestock, fish and prawns. (2). (a) In order to increase the acreage of cultivable land and yield, thousands of acres of virgin fallow and wetlands must be converted into cultivable land. It is stated that in doing so the land being worked by others (in other words, land being cultivated under license) should not be included in the acreage allotted to those receiving special privileges.

92 (b) It is also stated that the authorities will give permission to plant oil crops if there are virgin and fallow land available in order to have self sufficiency. (3). (a) It is learned that those permitted to implement the projects are national entrepreneurs. These people who are co-operating with the authorities have been dubbed as "comrades". These entrepreneurs had received the following special privileges from the authorities. They are; (1) Those who had contracts for different projects, especially construction works and thus became wealthy. (2) Those who were given import / export permits in external trade and earned huge profits and therefore became prosperous in the present era. (b) List of entrepreneurs who were granted permits by the authorities is shown in the appendix. 4. It is learned that entrepreneurs with projects for 5000 acres and above will be granted the following benefits; (a) Permission to carry out the project for 30 years (Those who are 20 years now will be 50 years old by then). It means the rights of the new generation are controlled from now. (b) The people who have been permitted to carry out the project will be allowed to export half of the rice produced from their land while the remaining half can be sold within the country. (c) Machinery, insecticides, fertilizer etc., required for agricultural purposes can be imported from abroad tax free.

93 (d) The authorities will undertake for their "comrades" worksites to build roads, bridges, irrigation, canals and for accessibility also arrange telephone connection. (e) The "comrades" can also apply for loans. 5. (a) Mention will be made of cultivating rice paddy in wetlands. The most important crop in Burma is rice. In order to keep the country peaceful for economic development and promote social issues, Accordingly, serious consideration must be given to the issue relating to rice cultivation in wetlands and to revitalize fallow land for cultivation. (b) In wetland areas there are roughly the following types of land: (1) Certain plots of land out of wetlands which can be cultivated. (2) Plots of laud where thatch and wild reeds abound. (3) Areas where thick bushes and thickest are abundant. (4) Natural ponds, lakes and creeks. (c) It is learned that the entrepreneurs will undertake to employ the following methods to make use of cultivable lands from out of the above categories. (1) To get hold of the cultivable acreage from cultivators who own and have been working the land. (2) To procure the thatch plantations and ponds, hakes, etc. from the local people who own these lots. (3) To take over ownerless land areas.

94 (d) The local population residing near the wetland areas use the thatch leaves as roofing material. The thickets are used for firewood. In addition, in areas where rice cultivation is possible the local people try their best to cultivate the crop. (e) If the wetlands are to be used for rice cultivation all the rights and privileges mentioned in 5(b) will be lost. The local population will be deprived of their economic and social rights. (f ) The cultivators and farmers who are cultivating the land they own but included in the wetlands area will lose their farmlands and become dispossessed. Those engaged in thatch trading, firewood dealers, and those working in fisheries will become unemployed. It may be mentioned here that under the colonial administration laborers from other countries were recruited for rice cultivation and the necessary financing was provided by the chattier community who followed landowners become landless farm laborers later due to vagaries of weather, Mauro chattier moneylenders, and disparity in prices between commoner goods and farm produce and the world economic crisis. All these factors contributed to the Burmese cultivators to vise up in arms. (g) Manpower is essential for rice cultivation in the wetlands area. It is learned that the authorities intend to establish " labor villages " with resident farm workers and cultivators working people and families from some localities in the township should that be the case, social problems are found to arise. Town and city dwellers have no experience in rice cultivation

95 and they are also bound to lose whatever slight advantage they are getting at present. (h) The wetlands act as natural depositary for rainwater during the monsoon season and other water flow. This has been the case from the time Burma appeared in the world. It will be tantamount to destruction of native if some areas are used for cultivation in the wetlands. If nature is destroyed the surrounding areas will be adversely affected and problems can arise. Crises affecting the economy and social issues are likely to occur which will also create political problems. The excess water will flow to other areas and this will destroy the weather pattern in the original areas while causing floods in areas where there was a dearth of water previously. It is absolutely essential to preserve t he harmonious conditions governing water resources, weather, and environment and protect the trees. plants and living creatures which depend on the ecosystem. (6) Burma's politics, economy and social affairs are based on agriculture. Hence agriculture, especially rice cultivation, plays a dominant role and every effort has to be made to increase the cultivated acreage. The wetlands are also part of the scheme for expanding cultivation. However, such a scheme is not a recent innovation, in 1963, Burma Socialist Program Party government drew up a scheme and started cultivating in the Amara, Seepin, Khin Tandyi and Kamakathit cooperative villages in Pegu District wetland areas; another scheme was introduced to develop new agricultural land in Shwelaung Township and PyoRon Township in the Irrawaddy Delta region

96 with loons from the world Bank to grow paddy categories (1) and (2) but practically no appreciable improvements resulted. 7. The situation prevailing in Burma's agricultural section after 1988 will be shown. (1) The authorities of various stripes are using the services of the cultivations by granting yearly tenancies. The majority of the farmer generally has only 3 to 5 acres of cultivable land each to work on. (2) Even with the yearly tenancy, the authorities concerned exercise excessive power. 12 to 14 baskets are forcibly demanded out of the prospective yield in the guise of provision for public servants, gifts and for armed services irrespective of whether the total yield is successful or otherwise. Payment for such rice paddy is about half or less than the market value. The cultivations are honest and fearful, so in order to meet the unfair demands made by the authorities they had to pawn or sell their possessions to purchase the quantity needed to complete the quota at high prices from others, Failure to do so entailed various types of mental and physical torture and the cancellation of the tenancy which ruins the life of the cultivator and his family. For to tool lack of lure, the cultivator despite his interest in agriculture will turn his back on it with resultant drop in output of rice and other crops. The quality also deteriorated. The produce also cannot be exported abroad since the rice is below export standard. Nowadays, the expression " Burma Rice " has disappeared from the international rice market.

97 (3) Due to inability to inability to purchase sufficient fertilizers, the rice output has declined. (4) With regard to cultivation of summer rice crop, the authorities forced cultivators to plant rice in regions where water cannot be provided, ordering cultivating various types of bean plants in unsuitable soil and regions. These caused loss of manpower, waste of cattle energy loss of capital outlay and forced the cultivators to undergo hellish conditions. Farmers and cultivators who comprise 80 percent of Burma's population have been deeply affected. (5) The people living in rural areas are forced to work without wages on various projects initiated by numerous authorities. People had to abandon their own work and let it go to ruin in order to cultivate the fields owned by the armed forces without receiving payment. Also they had to plow and cultivate the armed forces owned follow land free of change. The people also had to clear the follow land owned by the armed forces. In some areas, the inhabitants are forced to leave their farms, paddy fields and worksites and relocated elsewhere on the grounds that these areas are infested with insurgents. (6) In a nutshell, the people in rural areas are presently living under unlivable conditions because of authoritarian village rule and an erroneous economic system. The entire agricultural industry from its basic foundation lies in ruins. (8). (a) Because of the abovementioned reasons agricultural output has declined and the quality of the products has deteriorated. It is essential to raise the standard of living of the cultivator in order

98 to increase production. The one year tenancy systems must be abolished. Forced labor practices must be abandoned. The sale of sufficient fertilizers must be permitted. Cultivators must be taught scientific cultivation method seeds which will produce good quality rice must be developed. (b) It is estimated that there are about 31 million acres of cultivable land of which cultivators work on 16 million acres approximately. Priority must be given to improve the quality and increase the output in the cultivated acreage. in line with the market economy system the cultivations must be given the right to store, mill and sell their produce. The right to sell includes sale both inland and abroad. Leans at reasonable interest rates must be provided for capital financing that may be needed. The right to cultivate without hindrance must be permitted by which it is meant people must be persuaded as human nature demands persuasion. Forceful methods should not be favored. Hence, for the aforesaid 31 million acres of cultivable land and approximately 16 acres of land under cultivation, the rights and prurleges granted to private entrepreneurs must also be extended to the existing farmers and cultivators. (9) For the 31 million acres of cultivable land it is noticed that the authorities have not given the cultivators the incentives that form the basic principles of the market economy but offered them to their selected private entrepreneurs. It is learned that large acreages were secretly given to these entrepreneurs initially in a matter of this nature affecting the

99 agricultural policy of the whole country an open announcement must be made and then allocations of land decided based on the financial status actual capacity, experience and capability to undertake the project. To make the most effective use of the country's best natural resource-land and achieve optimal benefits from its use detailed discussions must be conducted between fully qualified specialists, local representatives and the authorities. (10) It was stipulated in Para that the private entrepreneurs must not include in their list of working cultivable acreage the land they had acquired from other landowners by various means. Mention will be made here of an example worse than that. The powers that be will undertaking development of unused land, fallow land and wetlands confiscated ponds, lakes, fisheries, etc, and handed them over to the private centre premiers. (11). (a) It is learned that approximately 20,000 acres of agricultural land and fisheries which had been cultivated and operated by cultivators for generations located in 17 villages located west of Mirhla Township Pegu Division were confiscated and handed over to a private entrepreneur called Thein Shwe Company. Accordingly, the people who ate presently cultivating their paddy fields and working at the fisheries lost their possessions and are now unemployed. Some became field laborers. There is no other source of employment in these areas. (b) It is also reported that they said entrepreneur with the help of the luigaluon Department, has dug irrigation canals and built dams

100 wherever necessary. The local resident ate therefore, worried that during the monsoon season areas which had never been flooded before will now face flooding. (12) It is learned that private entrepreneurs can obtain loans from the bindles for funds required for their projects. When such situations arise it will be cause for concern if special privileges exceeding customary banking practices are granted as are being done in other specific matting as the Burmese banking system and currency policies will be adversely affected. (13) The authorities have proclaimed that Just as the agricultural sector will develop and progress only when thousands of private modern agricultural lands are established the rural areas where farmers and cultivator reside will flourish. It is evident that such statements lack clarity, extrapolating the increase in cultivable acreage with agricultural policy. (14). (a) For the development of rural areas, it is essential that every help be given to the cultivators who are currently engaged in agricultural work by allotting more cultivable acreage. Financial assistance for cultivation relation expenditure like fertilizers for example, and to prevent flooding. A particular need is for provision of good quality seed paddy and to improve agricultural knowledge. Moreover, it is necessary to help the cultivators to conform strictly in accordance with the market economy, to allow the export of their produce abroad and to offer inducements in order to make them attracted to agricultural work.

101 (b) Nowadays, in some underdeveloped countries, the administrations and international organizations are successfully carrying out the establishment of rural communities and villages. Provisions ate made for land, housing, water, food agricultural implements. In addition, other essentials such as schools, roads, water connections ate arranged thus lowing cultivators to produce superior quality rice with resultant developing economy. (15). (a) Whoever, the cultivator may be if there are insufficient fertilizers or good quality crop is not produced , it will not be possible to sell and export inferior quality of rice and paddy. In overseas trade, products have to be sold in competition with other countries. It will be possible to trade internationally only if the produce is of comparable standard and the milling is on par with other nations. (b) It is learnt the private entrepreneurs will be permitted to export 50(fifty) percent of rice and paddy produced from their land while the reaming 50(fifty) percent can be sold within the country. If that be the case it cannot be denied that the possibility of these private entrepreneurs purchasing rice and paddy from other cultivator will not arise. In such an eventuality it is extremely important that the purchases are made at market prices. It is necessary to ban and stop unfair business practices occurring. (c) Another important factor is that the authorities' plan to allocate large tracts of land to private entrepreneurs to cultivate rice and agricultural produce should not turn out to be just a pipe dream.

102 (16) According to news sources a private entrepreneurs who obtained permission to farm the wetlands in DaKa village area in Nyaungdon Township allotted up to 120 acres each to some cultivators. It is said that these cultivators had to pay tenancy fees which are more than what the entrepreneur paid to the authorities. They had to purchase the necessary machinery engine oil, fertilizers etc., from the entrepreneurs. It is also learnt that funds could be obtained as loons from the some source. At harvesting time the cultivate will have to tender 10(ten) baskets of paddy known as "duty performed" paddy to the authorities. Formation goes that the remaining produce must be sold to the entrepreneur at kyat 10,000(ten thousand) below market price. In truth this is an undesirable profiteering. (17) However it may be, the state Peace and Development Council (SPDC) action has caused the local population to lose their social welfare and economic rights and privileges farm and cultivators lost their lands and became unemployed. The poor can become poorer, the middle class disappear and only two classes, the poor and the affluent may remain. All over the world steps are being taken to maintain and preserve natural surroundings and Burma is part of it. However, because of the actions presently being undertaken, there is every possibility that the environment will be adversely effete. (18). (a) Moreover, the actions taken directly concern the farmers and cultivators who comprise the largest force in the entire population. Such matters

103 which concern the whole country should be handled by the Representatives who were duly elected by the whole nation through free and fair elections conducted according to democratic practices to attend to issues that will be of benefit to the country on their behalf. These elected Representatives will have to conduct detailed discussions in the Peoples' Parliament and decide on principles guiding the agricultural sector. Committee Representing Peoples' Parliament Rangoon April 23,1999.

APPENDIX . CHART Names of Private Enterprises permitted to cultivate uncultivated land, fallow land and wetlands, together with location and acreage Serial

Company/ Organizatio n

1

Asia World

2

Dagon International

3

Myanmar Billion Group Yuzana Company

4

Region

Township

Magwe Division Htae Toe Salin Kan Ye Boke Pwint Pyu Gyi Myo Sa Minbu Po Kyce Kan Kan

Minbu Minhla

Acreage Allotted 198,000 10,000 36,000 29,000 30,000

104 5

Service International

6

Shwe Mithazu

Koe Bin

7

Shwe Thazin Syndicate

Thazi

8

Olympic Company

Akayit

9

Aung Min

Yedwin Gaung Shwe pandaw

10

Htike

Small Projects

11

Home Ministry

12

Rangoon Development Committee Dagon Sike Pyoe Ye Group Shwe Htair Co.Ltd

13

14 15

Nga Phe Salin Sinbaungw e Sinbaungw e Sinbaungw e Taung dwingyi Aung Lan

Satee Stone Agricultural Group

S.I.Limited

10,000 20,000 5,000 7,000

11,400 Rangoon Division Singyan

28,500 Taikkyi 2,000 Taikkyi 1,500 Tantabin Taikkyi

Singyan

18,000

Taikkyi 2,000

Hmawbi Taikkyi

Tanravin 5,000

Irrawadd y Division 16

40,000

244,343 Nyaungdo

105

17

Yuzana Mogok

18

Olympic

19

Small Projects

n Danubyu Pantanaw

Deedok South A Yoy Kin Mogok Pantanaw

30,000 20,380

1,500 170,813

Total

470,323

APPENDIX (B) Source: New Light of Myanmar (10-2-99) " Tree of prosperity will grow in the fields "

Part (c) Reports of the Committee Representing People' Parliament (CRPP) elected in the Multiparty Democratic Elections in 1990 relating to; Parliamentary Affairs Committee International Relations Committee Ethnic Nationalities Affairs Committee Defense Committee Appendices.

106

Chapter (2) International Relations Committee Report International Relations The International Relations Committee of the People's Parliament decided to submit the following proposals to parliament. At the conference held at Bandun Indonesia in April 1955 the five principles of Co-existence were adopted. The principles are; ● The integrity and sovereignty of a country to be respected and acknowledged by another country. ● To refrain from attacking and incurring the boundaries of another country. ● To refrain from interfering in another country's internal affairs. ● To achieve equality and promote development in both countries. ● And peaceful co-existence. Burma will adhere to these principles. ● Neutralism will be adopted. ● Nowadays, no country can stand alone and therefore in matters involving politics, economics, social affairs, education, etc. There is interrelationship between countries in order to develop mutually. Burma will, therefore, have friendly relations with other countries, especially with neighboring countries. ● Burma will join regional organizations. ● Burma will effectively engage with the UN and UN Agencies (including special UN special envoys).

107 Report of the Ethic Nationalities Committee submitted by the Committee Representing People's Parliament (CRPP) elected during the Multiparty Democracy Elections of 1990.

Speech given by U Aye Tha Aung Secretary of the Committee Representing Peoples Parliament (CRPP) February 12, 1999 I am happy and honored to be given the opportunity to speak on the 52nd anniversary of Union Day. Today, February 12, is a glorious, memorable day for on this day in our country's past, unity was achieved through discussions and consultations. In other words, over 50 years ago, on February 12,1947 National Leader General Aung San and leaders of Shan, Kachin, Chin ethnic nationalities agreed to establish a Union of Burma and put their signature to the Panlong Agreement in order to reach accord discussions and negotiations involving concessions had to be thrashed out until final agreement was achieved and in doing so it was also noted that success was attained only because of General Aung San's broadmindedness, his detachment from bias and racial prejudice, love for the whole country. Patience and tenacity and these attributes resulted in the unity of purpose. Such admirable precedents must be the standard which we must adopt. On the other hand we can clearly see from historical perspective that the leaders of the ethnic nationalities with firm conviction and trust that " Only by joining hands with the

108 Burmese people that we will also achieve freedom without delay " decided to work and co-operate fully. Another factor which the Shan Leaders included in their declaration and guaranteed was " Equality of status, rights, democratic rights and equal privileges on par with the Burmese people." and this can be seem therein. Just as these form the essence of the Panlong Agreement, they are also the basic principle for the establishment of the Union of Burma. However, at a later date, there were deviations from such impeccable principles. As a result of these deteriorations, the unity established was shattered and widespread armed conflicts erupted which in turn will serve as a lesson in history. At the present time, it has been able to achieve ceasefire with armed groups but we cannot deny the fact that basic demands and various political issues have yet to be settled. These need to be solved in reality in line with the basic principles. How will these issues be solved in accordance with which basic principles? The union of Burma is not a country where only one nationality resides. It is one in which several nationalities live together. Hence, it is not appropriate to have a unitary government but establish a Union. By Union, it does not suggest forming a Union in name only but a genuine Union where every nationality id equal in status. Everyone's birthright (national rights) must be acknowledged and every nationality must have the right to determine their own affairs, enact laws. Every nationality must have real freedom, equal status, unity as the basis of

109 genuine freedom. Only by unadulterated equality in status can unity be established and with unity genuine peace can be attained. What is the current state of conditions in the country? To be can did there is general decay in such sectors as politics, economy, education and degeneration in national consolidation and unity. The political situation which is the key factor and extremely delicate is demanding in gent necessity to tackle the issue as a national crisis. Are we going to blind side and ignore this crisis, doing what we like for the benefit of one group only, compounding mistakes? Let us not procrastinate but instead broaden our outlook and solve the problem through discussions and negotiations. At this juncture, we should learn from the past. There is no need to mention in detail how after gaining in dependence organizations which shouldered responsibilities did whatever they claimed fit resulting in immeasurable loss to the country. Everyone is aware of the fact. The lessons learnt from the past deeply detrimental to the interests of the people at large should suffice. So, how shall we proceed? Are we going to push the country into a deep abyss selfishness, holding firmly to self interest, outmoded policies? If blind faith is pursued I shudder to think of the future. Therefore, in the interest of the country and for the sake of all the nationalities, let us discard our prejudices and hatred, reorient our thoughts and cultivate national unity, co-ordinate our efforts and without further delay initiate discussions in order to solve the current political crisis.

110 Another factor is that the armed force will always exist in the nation. Hence, the armed forces which had always borne a noble tradition should rid any suspicions they hold and bequeath these noble tradition to the future. The armed forces after seizing the reins of power announced to the country that they would establish multiparty democratic system, organize elections, hand power over to the victorious party and then armed forces would return to their barracks. Those were the promises given by the armed forces and in accordance with these undertakings they permitted the setting up of political parties, organized elections, But in the matter of transferring power to the victorious party there has been a tremendous delay. In the meantime, the armed forces issued law No1/90 and pressured to sign under the provisions of this Law. Law 1/90, states that after the election Law and rules and regulations are accomplished the People's Parliament would be conversed. However, Parliament has not been convened up to this date and a National convention was held instead. At this point in time, no steps have been taken with regard to the 1990 elections and voices are heard that another will be held. These are undesirable precedents and practices which should not be bequeathed as historical legacies. What needs to be done is to sustain its original undertaking and honor the results of the elections which they themselves organized and in this manner bequeath a praiseworthy precedent. In conclusion, I would like to say that conversing the People's Parliament is a national

111 requisite at this juncture. It is essential to have faith for the fulfillment of this objective. All detainees must be released immediately. I earnestly suggest that all feelings of distrust and suspicion be cast aside and commence negotiations and discussions.

U Aye Tha Aung Committee for Ethnic Nationalities

The Problem of Ethnic Nationalities in Burma And The Future of the Union (International Experiences) In seeking a solution to any problem it is essential to be objective. When the problem relating to ethnic nationalities in Burma has to be studied at close hand it will not suffice to make a judgment based on the past 50 years' historical perspective. It is necessary to study the current status of the ethnic nationalities in Burma jointly with the situational changes in the international communities. This is because in addition to the differences due to diversity of the ethnic nationalities, religions affiliation, traditions based on culture, national issues arising from the period of colonial domination also come into play. Problems affecting ethnic nationalities have arisen based on polities in different guises not only in Burma but also in many countries around the world. In Indonesia, East Timor is endeavoring to gain independence, and other Indonesian provinces

112 such as Aceh, Rice, Irian Jaya and East Kalimantan have shown strong desire for secession. In the Philippines, the Moro National Front from Mindanoo Island has resorted to armed struggles to secede resulting in the death of about 120,000 people. In Sri Lanka also Tamil people from the Jafna Peninsular are waging armed struggles in order to secede and this is causing the loss of many lives and destruction of the economy. Also in India there have been frequent riots relating to religion and race and of these the problems about the Sikhs seeking secession and the current Kashmir issues are causes for concern. In China with a population of over a billion peoples Tibetans are agitating for secession of Tibet from China, Moslems of Turkish ancestry and the Mongols from Inner Mongolia are likewise seeking secession. Besides East Asia and Asian countries where problems regarding ethnic nationalities exist, Arab countries have Bedouins who are dissatisfied and armed conflicts with the Kurds. Political pundits have, therefore, expressed the view that in the third world countries the problem relating to ethnic nationalities is the most import ant. In Yugoslavia, an East European country, armed racial conflicts led to the destruction of national unity and the disintegration of the Federation. In Kosovo following the disintegration of the Federation, the racial conflict between Albanians and Serbs led to military intervention by NATO forces which developed into an international crisis. In Czechoslovakia, even after the country was split in two as the Czechs and the Slovaks could not stay as

113 one and peacefully established Czech and Slovak republics, in Czech republic the Moravian and Silesian Peoples' demand for separate regions came up while in Slovakia there were agitations by the Hungarian minority for self-government and Ukrainian ethnic groups attempted to gain cultural rights. 15 countries which once were part of the superpower USSR established themselves as independent states. Later on, armed conflicts developed in Russian Federation over the demand by Chechen people to secede from the Federation. Racial conflicts also occurred Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan and other republics. It was not only in underdeveloped and developing countries that racial problems arose. In Britain both peaceful and terrorist methods are being deployed to get Northern Ireland to secede and there are moves by the people of Scotland and Wales for more self-government. Just as the French speaking province of Quebec in Canada is attempting to secede, even in USA problems relating to African Americans exist. It will be seen from the instances mentioned alone that problems relating to ethnic nationalities prevail in various forms in many countries around the world and while matters have been settled through peaceful negotiations and discussions in some of these countries, in others there are armed conflicts between the nationalities. Separate states have been formed peacefully when the people of different nationalities do not wish to co-exist. Only in some countries armed conflicts grew in intensity resulting in the destruction of the Federation because of the lack of unity. The

114 underlying reason is because there are practically very few countries in the majority of the world's countries are established with people of different ethnicity and such ethnic nationalities in modern times. (1) Have the desire and intention to stay together in an atmosphere where rights are equal to preserve and maintain one's culture and to remain part of the same ethnic nationality. (2) In any country where the majority ethnic nationality exercises dominance and control over other ethnic nationalities and through acts of discrimination gains advantages, such behavior create harmful results for the ethnic nationalities. (3) In the countries which replaced the imperialist powers of old, the dominant nationality held the reins of power and exercised control over other ethnic nationalities. These are the basic causes for the problems concerning ethnic nationalities erupting in many countries in the world in various shapes and forms as part of political issues. Hence, we ought to make a brief study and compare the problems regarding Burma's ethnic nationalities in the context crisis developed. Finally, as a result of economic problems and financial difficulties there was popular uprising leading to the downfall of the Suharto regime. After the collapse of Suharto administration, the students and the general population continued agitating due to dissatisfaction over the involvement of the armed forces in political affairs and demanding the transformation to a democratic system. On the other hand there were intense political agitations for independence by the people of East Timor which had

115 been illegally occupied by Indonesia. The ethnic nationalities in many Indonesian provirus had suffered suppression and violations of human rights for nearly 50 years under the administration of the Javanese and the Central Government and the economic exportation of the Javanese. Because of such conditions, the ethnic nationalities living in Aceh, Riu, Irian Jaya, East Kalimantan have expressed strong desire to secede from Indonesia. In some provinces armed conflicts have arisen. A review of the current developments indicates the possibility of disintegrity of unity and increased tension in Indonesia if efforts are not made to establish a union practicing a democratic administration system. The Philippines is and island state with approximately 7000 large and small islands. The of ethnic racial conflicts in some countries out of many. Indonesia is a country comprising over 3,000 Islands with a population of oveer 130 million. Nearly 200 languages and dialects such as Bahasa Indonesia, Dutch, English, Java, Sudan, Madure are used in the country 85 percent of the population are Muslims while the remaining 15 percent profess Christianity, Hinduism and Buddhism. Indonesia at one time was a colony of Portugal, Britain and the Dutch. It gained independence in 1949 and Sukarno was its first president. After gaining independence a federal system of government was adopted in line with varied nationalities living there but this was replaced in 1950 with a unitary system of government. This resulted in dissatisfaction among the ethnic nationalities in various regions of the country. In 1955 the basic

116 constitution was abrogated and a guided democratic system was established under which the president was entrusted with more power and parliament was transformed into a consultation assembly. There was unrest and an increase in in regional and provincial protests and among the ethnic nationalities. In 1967 military commander, Suharto seized power from Sukarno and became president. Suharto ruled about 30 years like a dictator with the backing of the armed forces. Because of his dietarian system of government and nepotism a financial Filipinos belong to the same ethnic nationality as the Malays and Indonesians. Tagalong is the national language and English and Spanish are also spoken. 90 percent of the population are Christians with the remaining 10 percent professing Islam and Buddhism. The country was once a colony of Spain and under American rule at one stage. It became independent in 1946. The majority of the population being Christians, the major portion of the administrations are also Christians. The inhabitants of Mindanao Island are Muslims and underdeveloped economically socially and in education and lag behind in regional development. Because of generate discontent in the spheres of religion economy and social issues the Mindanao is lenders formed the Moro National Liberation Front and engaged in armed insurrection. The original objective was to establish an independent nation armed conflicts over 24 years resulted in the death of over 120,000 people. In 1976, as a result of the intervention of the Islamic Organization a ceasefire was declared and negotiations were conducted.

117 However, the talks broke down after the National Liberation Front refused to accept the government's offer of self-government. In October, 1992, discussions resumed between the government and the Moro National Liberation Front through the good offices of the Malaysian government acting as intermediary. A successful conclusion was reached this time and according to the agreement the Moro National Front brooks their claim to set up a separate state and accepts the offer of self-government. In this way, it was agreed to hold regional elections in 1999. India. It has a population of approximately one billion people and was the old Mogul Empire: It also became part of the British colonial empire. It is not only a country with numerous ethnic nationalities; it is also one where different religions, races, high and low castes, languages and dialects exist. Yet, during the early period just after gaining independence, India's leaders laid the foundation for and practiced democratic principles without admixture of racism, and religion with politics. Some areas of Asian region situated in North Eastern India were carved to form new states such as Mizoram, Megalara, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland and in like manner some parts of central and southern regions were partitioned on the basis of ethnic nationality and language and formed into states such as Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamilnadu, Lrjarat, and Mahrashtra and in such manner solved racial problems, It will be seen that in such manner India with 25 states and 7 regional divisions endowed with equitable powers together with a democratic

118 union system was able to maintain national unity. Even the agitation by the Sikhrationals to establish a separate state after seeding from Punjab State appears to have subsided. By a close Study of the situation it can be seen that whatever the differences may be in ethnic nationality, religion and language, if democratic practices and union system are adopted rational unity will be achieved and the Union will remain strong, everlasting. However, India's leaders of a later era and extremist Hindus are making efforts to deviate from the noble traditions of the past where there was no discrimination of racial grounds nor admixture of religion and politics which form the political foundation of India. These extremists are attempting to discriminate against people of different castes and religions, to create a theocratic Hindu state and such actions are bound to lead racial and religions strafe. The Jammu/ Kashmir crisis can be attributed to the fact that the inhabitants are mostly Muslims and wherever problems arise there the Indian central government used extreme measures to curl the disturbances, particularly the Indian army and police force violating human rights on innumerable occasions as a result of which racial hatred became more entrenched. Should India fall behind the Hindu extremists' wishes to discriminate against other nationalities and adopt Hinduism as the state religion India will be bound to face racial riots causing countries fatalities and subsequent uncontrollable problems and retaliatory racial attacks.

119

People's Republic of China (PRC) It has a population of over 1,000 million people with about 56 ethnic nationalities. The Han with approximately 92 percent of the population forms the major ethnic nationalities. The remaining 8 percent of the ethnic groups how ever live in over half the country's land area. There are 5 autonomous regions and 21 provinces. China has a vast expanse of land and during feudal times, warlords ruled the laud separately. People of Turkish descent from the west, and Mongols and Munches from the north infatuated into the country and ruled the land. Imperialists such as the Portuguese, British, French and USA also gained foothold in China. It was only in 1910 that a unified Republic of China was able to be established. Under the leadership of Dr.Sun Yat Sen. later in 1949, the Chinese Communist Party headed by Mao Tze Tung established the People's Republic of China (PRC). Although PRC is administered under a unitary system with centralities control it can be seen that special regions have been created for ethnic nationalities who were also given certain rights and privileges, thus smoothing the problems relating to ethnic nationalities. In Tibet, however, there are agitation and disturbances due to racial issues, religious repressions, various violations of human rights and demands for independence. There are also strong desires for secession by Muslims of Turkic which had been subjugated by force of arms for a number of years set up their own states based on their national

120 characteristics and regained their independence and sovereignty. Later on, the Chechnya ethnic nationalities within the Russian Federation resorted to armed conflicts while there are armed insurgencies in republics such as America, Georgia, Azerbaijan and others by ethnic nationalities. A study of the situation shows that there was a lot of racial dissatisfaction during Glariest times and Lenin designated the Glariest Empire as " Ethnic nationalities Person." The Soviet Union Collapsed and disintegrated because Soviet leaders after the revolution adopted the great Russian nation Chauvinism and oppressed other nations. The nations which joined the Soviet Union had also been forced to do so because of subjugation by a stronger power. In spite of laws enacted outlining the rights and privileges of the nationalities these could not be exercised freely because of the centralized administrative system. Every nationality adores independence and the dire need for democratic rights and ardent desire to free itself from centralized administration which had curbed their national prerogatives and the chawanism of the Russian people caused the various nationalities in the Soviet Union to establish separate countries and the result was the disintegration of the Soviet Union. Which the Union was established in a sound, correct format and rights and privileges of the nationalities were enacted by law it must be concluded that the collapse was due to not exercising power democratically ancestry residing in the northwest and by the Mongols of Inner Mongolians.

121 The Soviet Union, which at one time was a superpower and annexed several small states during the days of the Gzars and conquered and integrated several Baltic states into the Soviet Union is now the Russian Federation after the disintegration of the Soviet Union into 15 separate independent countries. With about 100 ethnic nationalities, after the Russian revolution several enactments were made under which self-governing republics, Union republics, autonomous regions, ethnic zones were established rights and privileges granted to ethnic nationalities in addition to which the right of secession was also permitted by law. It may be assumed that compared to the reigns of the Czars the people enjoyed bawdier privileges but in base its policy on the people as a whole but on the dictatorship of the proletariat and a centralized administrative system the people comprising different strata and ethnic it did not derive any advantage. When liberal thoughts, speed and writing were permitted and President Gorvacher under his Glasnost policy the Russian people took part in the struggles for democracy and human rights and changed the mode of living Elsewhere in the Union the peoples of other countries. Republic of Yugoslavia was formed with 6 states , namely Serbia, Macedonia, Goatee, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, with about 9 nationalities such as Goat's, Serbs, Slovaks, Macedonians, Hungarians, Turks, Albanians, Bosnians, Montenegrins living together. The languages used are

122 Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Macedonian, Hungarian and Hungarian. Of these people using the Serbo-Croatian language, 42 percent are Serb nationals while 23 percent are Croatians. These two nationalities have not been on good terms with one another for centuries. There are 34 percent Orthodox Serbians, 24 percent Roman Catholics, 10 percent Muslims. The 6 states were on their own prior to 1918 while Serbia, Macedonia and Montenegro were under Turkish rule for a number of years. Bosnia and Herzegovina were earlier ruled by the Turks but later on were government by Austria and Slovakia and Croatia were under the control of Austria and Hungary for several years. It was only in 1918 that these two were administered jointly under the Serbian Kingdom. During the second World War the Goats while under Nazi Germany rule collaborated with the Germans and massacred the Serbs which caused a great deal of enmity. There was a brief period of calm under communism which gave precedence to class over nationality. Slovakia and Croatia bring industrialized countries generated the largest a mount of revenue and had to support Serbia and Montenegro which caused resentment. Serbia doing with the Yugoslav armed forces gained dominance in the administration of the Federation. When the Serbs moved to and resettled in the neighboring states of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina there was a great deal of resentment from the inhabitants of these countries. When agitations for democracy exploded in East European countries the

123 resentment between the nationalities living together reared its ugly head resulting in parting of ways and establishment of countries with separate nationalities. After the formation of separate countries, the racial conflicts between the Serbs and the Albanians from Kosovo Province in the Serb Republic caused the loss of many lives and property in addition to which NATO's involvement in the crisis changed the nature of the problem from one of internal affairs to an international issue. Judging from the experiences gained from Yugoslavia, it will clearly be seen that problems relating to racial issues can lead to the total destruction of national unity. Conflicts between major racial groups led to disastrous civil wars and the Serbs under their ethnic cleansing scheme massacred, tortured and ill-treated other ethnic nationalities. In retaliation, Croatia, Bosnians and other ethnic nationalities committed atrocities and as a result many lives have been lost and property destroyed. Cruelties not in tune with a civilized world and despicable acts which make one shudder are being committed. Czechoslovakia is a union between Czech and Slovak Republics. It has a population of 15 million, Czechs 10 million and Slovaks 5 million of which Hungarians and other nationalities comprise 12 percent. Czechs and Slovaks are of different racial stocks and from two different countries which were part of the Austro Hungarian Empire in 1918. These two have no bitter prejudices with one another but because the Slovaks and other nationalities resent the

124 political and economic dominance of the Czechs they had the desire to live apart. The reason they joined in a union was not of their volition but because of their inability to resist the pressure of outside powers. When the chance came to make their choice freely according to democratic principles, the Czechs were reluctant to agree to the dissolution but peacefully accepted the Slovaks' decision to part company and established the two sovereign and separate states of Czech Republic and Slovak Republic. Even so, agitations in the Czech Republic by the Moravian and Siberian nationalities for selfgovernment can been noticed and employing separate platforms participated in the elections in which they won 22 seats. In the Slovak Republic, there are signs of the Hungarian ethnic nationality comprising 10 percent of the population demanding the right to organize political activities and indications of the Ukrainian racial group's desire to take on active role in their social, religions, cultural and education sections in order to publicize their cultural heritage. If a study is made of the problems concerning ethnic nationalities and racial conflicts occurring all over the world it will be observed that in many countries the issues involving nationalities are in the forefront of all political matters. In particular, after the collapse of the centralize administrative system under communism after 40 years of control in Eastern Europe the desire to resurrect and develop one's cultural traditions and nationalist feelings swelled and became widespread. Problems which at one time were regarded as internal affairs were transformed into

125 international crises due to the involvement of outside nations. In some countries, issues relating to ethnic nationalities were solved through discussions and negotiations while in others, it will be seen that matters were resolved through concessions made during negotiations after years of armed conflicts. In a few countries furious fighting still contrives because no agreement has been reached. In a country like Czechoslovakia separate states were peacefully established due to lack of desire to remain together. In some countries, however, intense armed conflict developed. resulting in destruction of unity and disintegration of the nation. After observing the disunity between ethnic nationalities and the struggle for power among the nationalities which led to disintegration of countries a false concretion arise that the only way to maintain solidarity and unity is the use of force for effective and binding consolidation. It must, however, be borne in mind that in a country where people of various nationalities reside the strongest basis for national solidarity and unity is to foster heartfelt conviction that all ethnic nationalities have equal rights and privileges, equal status, mutual respect and also to acknowledge in the right spirit the fact that differences exist among all ethnic nationalities in the matter of culture and tradition, language, religions practices, that are welcome and commendable. It will be seen that in many countries with different nationalities success has been achieved by helping differing ethnic groups to join hands and co-operate in undertakings,

126 by easing tension among the nationalities, objectively assisting and solving differences. Example: USA. Canada and Switzerland are models. In observing the problems affecting nationalities in several countries in the world it has been noticed that the under mentioned issues are involved. 1. Self determination over cultural matters. Some ethnic nationalities who form the minority compared to the total population of a country have developed string feelings because of changed circumstances and awakening of nationalism to organize on their own, religious, cultural and traditional practices, education sectors and seek help and support from their country. 2. Political Autonomy Some ethnic nationalities, particularly those who live in defined geographical boundaries and historically had enjoyed autonomy due to their separateness from the others want political autonomy or join other nationalities on equal status and establish a Federal Union. 3. The desire to secede and establish a separate state. It has been noticed that due to the dominance and chauvinism of a major nationality race over other nationalities and inequality in the sphere of politics, economy, and religion in addition to discriminatory

127 practices making it impossible to remain together efforts were made by some minority nationalities to establish a separate state for themselves. In this way the concept sensationalism became more pronounced and widespread than the nationalism that developed after the end of the second world war. When practicing nationalism in the current situation it is essential that it must conform to the circumstances prevailing in one's country. Big nationality chauvinism or master race attitude and narrow, bigoted nationalism must not come into play. In a country with several ethnic nationalities particularly, if a national policy based on a major national race or master race is practiced it will be impossible to avoid an endless circle of racial conflicts. It is, therefore, imperative to adopt and practice a multinational policy to foster national unity and solidarity. Anyway, there are several countries in the world today with numerous ethnic nationalities living together under a union or federation and adopting democratic practice. In these countries, national unity has been achieved, the Union firmly established and some are prosperous and developed. In such countries, despite the differences in race, religion and traditions, there is no discrimination because of ethnicity and religion, no domination by the majority national race over other nationalities, should such instance occur on a minor scale the matter is settled by negotiations democratically to reduce the tension, separation between politics and religion in line with democratic principles and practicing a national policy leading towards multinational unity and solidarity and thus

128 achieving the objective and remaining developed and prosperous of all such countries, some will be mentioned. Switzerland is a country with the best among many countries with racial and regional differences to demonstrate how national unity and solidarity can be achieved through the Federal system of administration. Switzerland is the oldest existing Federal Union which was established in the year 1291. There are 26 cantons and there is a great disparity in population in each and every canton. 83.5 percent of the population are Swiss nationals with 16.5 percent other nationalities. Languages spoken are German, French, Italian and Romance and religions professed are Roman Catholicism and Protestantism, Switzerland is one country in Europe with the biggest diversity in race, religion and language. Originally, a confederation was formed with 3 cantons, Uri, Swiss and Anchor and in 1530 the number of cantons increased to 13. Presently, the Federation wrists of 26 cantons and stands out as a model for peace and tranquility in the world. The constitution of the confederation having conferred very limited power to the central administers, it become ineffective in carrying out its functions. Accordingly in 1774, the country was transformed into a Federation. Switzerland is not only the highest ranking democratic country buttes also one with peace and tranquility internally. There is political stability and it is acknowledged and respected internationally a central country. The Swiss Federation practices a multiparty democratic system. There are two

129 legislatures a legislative assembly to which all carton select and equal number of legislation and a national parliament. Whose member are elected by the citizens and powers are entrusted to these legislatures. Since each and every carton has it's our constitution and has particularly unrestricted self-government rights. Thus the Federal government represents the dignity and unity of Switzerland but it exercises special care not to encroach upon the authority, rights and parentages of all the cartons.

The United States of America's original inhabitants were known as Red Indians (how called Native Americans.) Dutch, Spanish, British, French and other westerns came to establish trading posts but the British prevailed and this family led to the founding of 13 colonies. On July 4, 1776 the Declaration of Independence was published after which the country gained its independence from England. In 1781, the 13 states enacted the confederation Act and established the United States. The states retained sovereignty and most of the political powers and only branch over authority in trade, commence and taxation to the confederation. This arrangement was found to be ineffective and impractical by the confederation and accordingly in 1789 a Federation similar to a union was reestablished. By doing so. There was a vast difference in the size of the population and land area between the largest and the smallest states, Georgia state and Rhode Island state had a disparity equal to be times in

130 Land area, which that between Colorado state and Rhode Island state was 100 times. USA being a country to which people of several nationalities come and settle down, naturally is cosmopolitan but it cannot be pinpointed as a country where specific nationalities reside in a particular region on state but residence is casual and un planned. While it is true that there has been some discrimination against Africans and Hispanics there is no instance of conflicts between states. Even in a country like USA where full fledged federal system is practiced, state governments have the freedom to legislate, administer and run the judicial system, while the federal government wields great authority the state. The rights they are legally empower without any interference from the federal government. In other words, by clearly outlining the powers of the federal government, the states have the right to exercise the remaining powers. At the decided to have two legislative bodies in the union congress to deal with issues that may arise between small states like Delaware and Rhode Island and large states like New York and Virginia. The congress was to consist of the House of Representatives whose members of were to be elected according to population while in the senate equal representative by each state was decided. In such manner was the solution provided for big and small states, since each and every state has the right to elect on equal number to the senate which wields a great deal of authority, it was a guarantee power and

131 inclusiveness for the small states in legislative and administrative matters. In USA, just as the presidents enjoy full authority so do the America congress and the Supreme Court. Canada is a country with the largest width in the world and is a member of the British Commonwealth of Nations: Protestants of British ancestry form the majority and there are also about 6 million Catholics of French ------------ other residents are Native Indians and in the northern regions are the Eskimos. The two official language are English and French , English is spoken by the majority of the population while about 30 percent speak French, In 1497 John Cabot, an Italian seaman but a British subject, was the first to set foot in New Found land which was then declared as a British possession . In 1543, cattie, a Frenchman reached St.Lawrece which was then earmarked as a French possession. Another Frenchman Champlain who arrived in Quebec 1603 established a colony there. In this manner, regions in Canada became British and French colonies. When 2 wars between British and French broke out in Europe it spread to Canada between the two countries. The French who lost the war handed Canada over to the British in 1763. Canada was granted self-government in 1791 and become the Dominion of Canada in 1867. Canada gained independence from Britain in 1950 and is a member of the British common wealth. Canada has 10 provinces and 2 territories. The provinces have separate parliaments and legislatures and can freely

132 administer domestic issues. The legislative powers in Canada are vested in the senate and the House of Commons. The 10 provinces elect a proportionate number of senators while members for the House of Commons are elected according to population. Canada is split into two divisions, one where people of British descent are dominant and the other controlled by French descendents. People of French ancestry expressed their dissatisfaction over the domination by the British dissatisfaction over the domination by the British descendents who are in the majority and in October 1995 the party whose demand was for secession of Quebec province and ratted the electorate won the contest. In the referendum which was held to decide the question of against the proposal. That the decide ten question of whether Quebec still remains a province in Canada. This is a practical example to show that the decision whether to secede or otherwise is the prerogative of the people not that of political parties. A careful consideration of all the abovementioned instances will show that the union will be per-peculated by acknowledging the fact that people have the right of self-determination and to forge their own fate and by practical application of the fait that power lies in the hands of the people. In other words, by the people and honoring the rights and freely privileges of democratic principles, national unity and solidarity will be firmly established.

133

Burma's Ethnic Nationalities Problem & The Future of the Union It can even be said that the problem relating to ethnic nationalities and civil strife were born at the same time Burma become independent. So long as problem affecting ethnic nationalities cannot be resolved satisfactorily and correctly it will be impossible to establish national unity and solidarity. To create such unity and solidarity it is absolutely essential to make a resolute decision to adopt and practice a democratic system and multi nationalism. In the past a Burmese nationalist practiced the type of nationalism with emphasis placed on Burmese people. This attitude placed the ethnic nationalities outside the political habit and increased their bitterness and dissatisfaction. The political problems which Burma must tackle immediately are for democracy to flourish and for resolution of ethnic nationalities issues. Though these problems are regarded as separate issues they are intentioned and almost impossible to untangle just as the right and prelates of ethnic nationalities cannot be attained without a democratic system flourishing, national unity and solidarity cannot be established without resoling the problems of the ethnic nationalities. By intension, in the absence of national unity, development and prosperity will be just a pipe dream.

134 The union of Burma is bound to face various dangers, crises and destruction of national unity and solidarity if the problems concerning ethnic nationalities are not resolved in properly or if erroneous ways are adopted in doing so. It is therefore, of utmost importance to give serious thought when dealing with this dilemma. It is also imperative that in resolving a problem impartiality and objectivity must be exercised. When there is essential to search for the source of the problem Accordingly, in resoling the ethnic nationalities dilemma it is necessary objectives to review Burma's past historical background keeping in mind the exiting situation of the ethnic nationalities and How the Union of Burma came into being. Of all the ethnic nationalities in Burma such as Mons, Burmese, Arakanese, Shans, Kayahs, Karens, Khchins and Chins some had their own kings and rulers from time immemorial, others had their chieftains and administrators and then all lived separately and independently on their own. When Burma's historical background is reviewed impartially and objectively it will be seen that apart from a period of over 100 year under Pagan's Aiwav rattan, Aloungsithu and Kyansittha, about 50 years during the Toungoo are of Tabinshwehte and Bayinnaung and about 40 years during te Konbaung ear of Aongpaya and Sinbyushin in the reaming period the Burmese had their own kings, capitals and Kingdoms, the Mons had their monarchs, capitals and Kingdoms, the Arakans had

135 their kings capitals and kingdom, the Shan likewise had their Kings, capitals and Kingdoms. In other words these existed as small Kingdom with territories; other ethnic nationalities had chieftain's leaders, head men etc. Living separately and under their own administration. Even during the reigns of the aforesaid powerful monarchs although the Shans, Kachins, Karens, Kayahs Chin ethnic nationalities swore allegiance by paying tributes they freely exercised control of their own administrations. Moreover, Arakan was an independent kingdom during the Pagan, Toungoo eras and up to the middle of the Konbaung era and it was during the reign of King Bodawpaya that it was conquered by the Burmese King. Even during the colonial administration, the areas in which Shans, Kachins, Karens Kayahs and Chins resided were administered separately by the British under the Hill Regions Administration. It was only under the basic constitution of 1947 the whole country now designated as Union of Burma was unified and established as a single nation, it will be noticed. This came about because of the concord reached at panlong and knows as the Panlong Agreement. Hence, in order to study the developments leading to the formation of the Union of Burma, it is essential to review, not only the Panlong Agreement but the points of agreement in it. It will be necessary when mentioning Panlong Agreements to review the terms of the Agreement, the views, opinion discussions, submissions, points of agreements prior

136 to the agreement spells out the Shan, Kachin, Chin nationalist. This is because while the agreement spells out the points agreed upon, the discussions and negotiations convey the sprit that led to agreement. It can, in fact, be designated as Panlong spirit was originally negotiations and discussions principally about the methods to be employed for a union between the Shan State and Burma proper when the leaders of the Kachin and Chin leaders joined in. Under the British administration Burma was divided into 3 administrative areas: 1. Burma proper 2. Hill Regions. ( Later re-named Frontier Areas Administration ) 3. Karenni In Schedule (2) of the Burma 1935 the Hill Regions were defined as areas Designated in Part (1) and Part (2) of the Act. The Shan state and some other areas were included in Part (1) an under the control of the Governor. The administration in Burma proper was not permitted to have any say regarding this region. Myitkyina, parts of Bhamo, village tracts in Homalin, Tamu Town ships in Upper Chindwin subdivision, Kyain Seikky Twoship, Myawadi circle in Kawkareik Township, Eastern part of Taungoo subdivision, hill regions in Thaton subdivision were indluded in Part (2). The administration in Burma proper could off advice regarding Part (2) about the Governor's decision was final. In this manner , when the British governed Burma, the government elects under Burma Act 1935

137 administered Burma proper and the governor had direct control over the hill regions. After the second World war, just as colonial countries were clamoring for independence, political struggles were taking place in Burma. In such a situation, Shan saw was ( hereditary rulers ) discussed among themselves regarding matters affecting Shan state and Burma and agreed to invite the leaders from Burma to attend a meeting . At the first meeting of the Anti fascist Peoples Freedom league (AFPFL ) held in June 1946 at the central platform of Shwe Dagon Pagoda Deedok U Ba Choe sub-matted a resolution titled " The issue of Ethnic Minority Nationalities. "In that resolution it was clarified that" By ethnic minority nationalities the Karens have been prioritized identical steps will be taken for the Shan, Kachin, Chin, and other ethnic nationalities ". The resolution further stated that "In establishing an independent New Burma, in give our solemn promise and under-taking that we will adopt measures approved by all national minorities and ethnic nationalities". Ever ethnic minority nationality shall be given the right to secede at any time is also promised." It can clearly be seen from this resolution that in seeking independence the foremast political party (AFPLF) had the intention that the Hill Regions should gain freedom together with the rest of the country and in regard to the two jouncing hands gave recognition to " the right to decide one's destiny " and " the right of secession" and thus emphasized freedom and equality in forging the unity.

138 At this point in time, the saw was ( hereditary rulers ) of Shan state realizing Burma was bound to become independent by some means decided based on their discussions regarding the relationship between the two nationalities convened a meeting at Panlong in March, 1946 . In such a manner was the first Panlong conference held. Although Bogyoke Aung San ( father of NLD leader Daw Aung San Suu Kyi ) was unable to attend the Conference other leaders like Tha Khin Nu (later first Prime Minster of Independence Burma), U Ba Gyan were present. From this first Conference the Union and solidarity spirit was born. It was then decided that another Panlong conference would be convened the following year. In Burma, momentum to gain independence was getting stronger with time and resulted in the signing of the Aung San Attlee Agreement which stipulated the formation of an Interim Government and the election of a constituent Assembly. The following was incorporated in the Agreement regarding the frontier areas. The British government and the Burmese representative agree that after attaining the approval of the people of the frontier regions it is essential to incorporate these regions with Burma as soon as possible, During. The period prior to such incorporation in settling matters affecting the interests of the frontier regions and Burma both sides ought to co-operate to reach an amicable solution. In order to achieve this objective it was agreed as follows (a) There must be freedom of association and freedom of movement between the people

139 residing in the front area and the people of Burma. (b) The following three principles must be placed before the leaders and delegates of the frontier areas attending the Panlong Conference or any special conference that may be held in order for them to signify which principle of incorporation they can accept during the interim period (1) ---------------------------(2) ---------------------------(3) ---------------------------After the conclusion of the Panlong Conference or special conference the British Government and Burma Government shall together search for the best method to reconcile their objectives with the expressed desires of the people of the frontier area in order to bring matter to a successful outcome. (c) It has been found among several points mentioned in the Aung San Agreement that an emergency committee be formed to search for the best method to enable the ethnic nationalities in the frontier area to participate in the drafting of the basic constitution. Shan nationals also become politically active, formed the Shan Freedom league (SFL) and declared that Shan State would join Burma to gain independence, In doing so 1. To join under a union ( federal) system.

140 2. To have equal rights and status 3. Shan state must be given unfetters Self-government 4. To be given the right to secede at any time, if so desire. That was the slogan for rallying the people. Also, in the letter which the Sawbwas (Hereditary rulers) addressed to the Governor it will be seen that they stated " If a Union is to be established wit Burma 1. Shan state must be given selfgovernment 2. Equal rights and equal status 3. To be allowed to secede at any time desired and added that registrations will be under these basic principles. Judging from these facts, it is obvious that both the Shan rulers and the people agreed to with Burma to attain independence but such unity will be on a Union or federal basics only. The waves of Shan political consciousness affected the Kachin and Chin regions, the delegates who had attended the second Panlong Conference held a meeting at Nam Phatka village near Kutkai and decided as follows: (1) The Kachin people to gain independence at the same time as Burma

141 (2) To form a Kachin state in accordance with the desire of the Kachin people. (3) The separate Kachin State is to comprise of Bhamo and Myitkyina Districts, Kachin Hill regions and the plains north of Kachin . These were part of 8 resolutions expressing the views of the meeting. According to these resolutions the Kachin leaders in deciding like the Shan to unite with Burma to attain independence their desire to set up a separate Kachin state and form a Union with Burma is evident . After the Aung San Attlee Agreement was signed, the issue of Burma and Shan State forming a Union reached a critical juncture. It was at this politically sensitive situation that the second Panlong conference was held from the 6th to 12th February, 1947. At this conference the leaders of the Shan, Kachin, and Chin and frontier areas unanimously decided to take part in the constituent Assembly to discuss the establishment of the future Union of Burma. In addition, a meeting attended by representatives of Shan Sawbwas (hereditary rulers ) , Shan people and Kachin leaders held on February 6, 1947 resolved as under. " The Committee is of the opinion that independence will be attained soonest by the Shans and Kachins co-operating with Burma. In accordance with this conviction their respective representatives will be delegated to take part in the Burma

142 Government expectative council during the interim period based up on the following factors – 1. To enjoy the same status, rights, benefits as the Burmese people in a democratic manner. 2. The Shan representatives in the executive council Shan deal with and undertake responsibility for all internal matters relating to all the respective nationalities in the state. Moreover there shall be joint responsibly in dealing with matters such as defense, polities railways, taxation , ect. 3. The committee endorses the demand by the Kchins for a separate Kachin state. 4. Agreements between the Burmese Delegates and His Majesty's Government shall not be the concern of the Shans and Kachins. 5. After independence is attained , we must have the right, if so desired, to secede from the Union of Burma at any time we elect to do so. These resolutions were placed before the Panlong Conference. According to these Sub-missions, the leaders of the Shan, Kachin, Chin ethnic nationalities in co-operation with Burma wanted to do so on the principle

143 that all the states in the Union of Burma enjoy equal rights. This is very evident. In this way, while some difficulties were encountered in shaping Kachin state agreement was finally reached and the Panlong Agreement containing 9 points was signed on signed on February 12,1947. This Agreement was signed by the representatives of the Shan, Kachin, Chin and Bogyoke Aung San on behalf of the Burmese. Although the representatives of the Karen and Kayah attended the Conference they did not sign the Agreement. Karens reside not only in Salween district but also in the Irrawaddy delta region, Tuongoo district and many in some areas, However, under the Hill Region administration only Salween district was included. Diverse differences of opinion among the Karen leaders regarding the formation of a Karen State made it difficult to gain unanimity of views and accordingly, the Karen representatives at the Conference did not take part in the discussions sensitive attended as observers. They regarded Karenni State as a buffer state on the basis of a proto signed by the British government and

144 Kinwun Mingyi representing the Burmese King of the time. They had also not yet given thought about joining the Union of Burma, so they refrained from signing the Agreement. Moreover, representatives of the Arakanese and the Mons who had maintained their position as ethnic nationalities historically, by virtue of the size of their population, culture and living in areas of their own did not attend the Conference and matters concerning these nationalities were not even discussed, it was noticed. In any case, the Panlong Agreement had its being in having been signed by the Shan, Kachin and Chin delegate whose submissions for a Union of Burma with equal rights for every nationality were accepted under the Union principle. This Agreement is one which the delegation from Burma and the Shan, Kachin, Chin delegations signed in effect "An Agreement in writing " just as it is one in which aforesaid issues like establishing a Union of Burma where all nationalities have equal status with the right to secede if and when desired. Such principles are " Agreement in Spirit " In short, an Agreement embodying Panlong Spirit, Panlong Principles. In the same manner an Inquiry Commission that was stipulated in the Aung San Atlee Agreement regarding the frontier area was formed. That Commission interviewed several representative form the frontier areas including Karenni State and

145 submitted its report. Of the proposals from this report the important ones are; 1. The majority demanded the establishment of the Union of Burma and the right of secession. The matter should be discussed in the Constituent Assembly and if the right of secession is agreed to adequate, sound rules, regulations and exceptions should be incorporated. Moreover, at the preliminary meeting of the AFPFL, Bogyoke Aung San said " It is necessary to find the answer as to whether when we set up a new Burma we want to establish a kind of union or a type of nation having a unitary system with only one major race. In My opinion, after framing necessary rules and regulations relating to the rights of ethnic nationalities mentioned before it is impossible to have a unitary government under one national race. It must be a kind of Union " Bogyoke Aung San in his speech in the Constituent Assembly on the basic principles which should be incorporated in the basic constitution said, " We will fulfill the commitments we made according to the Panlong Agreement and the proposals in the report of the Frontier Areas Enquiring Commission not only in the letter but also in the spirit. He also said " I have learned that some leaders of the ethnic nationalities are rather sceptical whether we will deviate from the basic principles we had agreed to . I will say from this place that is they harbor such thoughts it is or insult to our honesty and pride. He said its solemnly. In this way, the basic constitution for what will become known as the Union of Burma was adopted in

146 1947. In accordance with this constitution the Kachin State which included MyitKyi and Bhemo District was established on January 11, 1948. The Chin hills Distrit was combined with areas of Arekan Yomah and designated as Chin Hills Special Division. Shan State also became an entity in 1948. The Kayah became part of the Union under Basic Constitution of the Union of Burma Amendment Act (62) of 1951. Under Amendment Act (61) and Extension of Karen State Act of 1952 the Karen State was formed. The Arakan and Mon nationals did not attain statehoods but remained attached to Burma. However it may be, if a cursory study of the Arakanese and Mon nationalities is made it will be seen as under. The preliminary congress of AFPFL drew up a draft basic constitution in which 14 proposals were included. In deciding the qualification for attaining statehood in the Union it was stipulated in proposal (30). 2 (b) States which have all or some of the attributes shown below are entitled in accordance with the law to become a state within the Union, an autonomous state or a state for an ethnic nationality.

Attributes (1) Clearly defined geographic borders. (2) Existence of one language different from the Burmese Language (3) One culture. (4) Existence of one tradition historically. (5) Having a group of people with economic and commercial interests.

147 (6) Sufficient population. (7) The desire to regard oneself as a member of a separate Union and exist according to one's own specialty. According to the standards stipulated in this proposal the Arakanse and Mon nationalities were entitled to statehood, it will be seen. However, statehood was never granted to Arakan and from people milder the basic constitution of 1947 and in fact not a word was watered about these two nationalities during the discussion. This was not only a weakness of the 1947 constitution but there were others also. The primary weak feature was that under the Union system. The Union was to be formed with all states enjoying equal status and rights but was established with Burma prop-er where the Burmese nationals were in the majority as the pivotal centre with the shan, Kachin, Karen, Kayah states were treated as vassal states. Moreover, the States' had lesser authority while the Burmese nationality were allowed to appropriate more authority than warranted as if Burma proper was the Union of Burma itself causing discontent among the states leading to the feeling of discrimination and racial disharmony. As a feature signifying a Union the chamber of Nationalities and the Chamber of Deputies were established but the Chamber of Nationalities was not endowed with appropriate authority and there was no equal representation ir4respective of the size of each state. There was unfairness in the allocation of finance and revenue due to the erroneous formation of the Union. In administration also the Burmese

148 nationality's feeling of apartness made the ethnic nationalities more bitter. It was because of these failings several difficulties and crises arose in the political, administrative and economic sectors after attaining independence. Due to these reasons, at the all-states conference held in 1961 in Taunggyi, discussions took place including the granting of statehood to Arakan and Mon nationalities, amending the basic constitution and federalism. There is no truth in the propaganda spread by the military junta which seized power in 1962 that the Union of Burma faced disintegration because of federalism issue (secession). This was not one of the weaknesses of the basic constitution of 1947. Just as that there never was any agitation for secession, in the declaration in 1961 the issue of secession was not mentioned. The demand was for amending some of the articles in the basic constitution and to re-organize the Union into a federal system.

Federal Principle The paragraph referring to secession was included in the basic constitution of 1947 was because as mentioned earlier during the period prior to the Union between Burma and Shan State the latter included this piece as a precautionary measure in view of its weaknesses in politics and the economy. At that point in time there was a vast difference in the general situation in Shan State compare to Burma. Shan State had natural resources to a fair extent but it was under a feudal administration, politically backward and

149 economically underdeveloped and thus suffered by comparison with Burma's political and economic situation. It was in this context and anxiety before union with Burma to protect itself from political and economic exploitation that the paragraph concerning secession was inserted. This is true from the logical point of view. Secessions in other countries will show that such instances have nothing to do with whether their basic constitutions included the right of secession or otherwise but rather on the grounds of political, racial and economic factors.(For example, East Pakistan broke away from Pakistan and establish Bangladesh Republic.) However, the military commanders in order to cover up their original intention to seize power spread the unfounded rumor that the Union of Burma was going to disintegrate because of secession (federalism) that Shan State was going to secede and join SEATO and then took over the reins of power. A close study will reveal why they seized power. While it is true that the armed forces came into being through the struggles for national emancipation and had good traditions fighting the fascists and in the endeavors to gain independence, civil wars broke out after independence as a result of conflicts over political ideologies and some military leaders wrong fully regard them selves as saviors and became proud and overbearing based on their role during the civil conflicts. During the political crisis in 1958, there was an attempt to seize power, so power had to be handed over in the form of a caretaker Government and as a

150 result some military leaders began to harbor growing aspirations in the governance of the nation. Moreover, some politicians made use of some military leaders to achieve power for themselves, deviating from democratic principles, blinded by their Ranger for power not caring whom they hurt by their acts and only looking for their own welfare totally oblivious of the perilous that the nation was likely to face in the future. This made the military leaders' desire greater. During the political crisis in 1962 over the basic constitution, the army leaders' political aims based on militarism were plain to see. On February 24,1962 when the representatives of the ethnic nationalities pointed out the shortcomings of the basic constitution of 1947 and proposed the change to federalism before Parliament the armed forces seized power under the pretexts that such a proposal would lead to the Union's disintegration and that the Shan State was arranging to secede and join SEATO. Also, the military leaders erroneously looked upon themselves as saviors and natural rulers of the country and their propaganda emphasized this erroneous fact. As a matter of fact their action was to establish a political policy based on militarism. From 1962 to 1988 they governed the country under the cloak of socialism with a single party dictatorship. During that period a basic constitution drafted according to their liking but portraying it as having the people approval was enacted in 1974. This constitution annulled all the previous nationalities rights and privileges and was based on a unitary system which was not suitable for a country with

151 several ethnic minorities. This led to vigorous opposition and insurgencies by the nationalities. The single party system was the cause of the country being classified as one of the poorest in the world and the people had to face crises in every sphere including polities, economy. Because of these crises there were public agitations which led to the abolition of the one-party system in 1988. However, military leaders seized power and organized multiparty elections on May 27,1990 but they ignored the outcome and continued to govern harshly and oppressively. Nowadays, the military rulers are suppressing democratic and human rights and depriving the ethnic nationalities of their rights and oppressing them through military dictatorship. At the same time, the military men are extensively publishing a national policy with the armed forces taking the leading role in national politics. To make their slogan take shap0e they convened a pseudo-national convention using every type of machination and are drafting a basic constitution. That convention had to be suspended as it was not endorsed by the elected representatives of NLD and the ethnic nationalities. There are, however, indications that the military authorities will continue to draft the constitution and have it enacted somehow, should the political parties and the ethnic nationalities be faced with such a situation, they must unequivocally and squarely object to it. At the present moment democratic rights cease to exist and the ethnic nationalities have lost their privileges because of the continued governance of the military.

152 Accordingly, the problems that need to be resolved immediately in Burma are revival of democracy and solution of ethnic nationalities issues. So long as we are unable to solve these problems we cannot attain real peace nor can be achieve national unity. Progress and development in a country without national unity will merely be a pipe-dream. Although democracy and the solution of ethnic nationalities issues are regarded as 2 separate problems, the two problems actually are so intentioned that it makes it practically impossible to split them. Just as problems of the ethnic nationalities cannot be sold if democracy does not flourish, national unity cannot be attained if the ethnic nationalities problems remain unsolved. In handling these issues, it must not only be dealt with objectively and correctly but it is essential to do it simultaneously. In Referring to solution of ethnic nationalities problems, it means the emergence of a basic constitution that is in accord with the existing circumstances of these ethnic nationalities. For the emergence of a basic constitution the under mentioned factors already presented earlier be considered objectively. It is, therefore, submitted and proposed with basic principles how Burma should be organized and established in the future. 1. International Situation and Ethnic Minorities Problem. 2. Panlong Agreement and the views of the Ethnic Nationalities. 3. The failings and weaknesses of the 1947 basic constitution.

153 When the question is raised whether in establishing a new Burma it should be in a unitary or union form it will clearly be seen by a careful study of the issues discussed before that there is no other way but only " True Union " or " Federalism " system. Here, some mention will be made of the views of political leaders relating to the Union.

National leader Bogyoke Aung San's Views "Now, when we establish a new Burma, I want to answer the query whether it should be in the form of a union or a unitary state with only one majority nationality. In my opinion, it should not be in the form of a unitary state with one majority nationality and rights and privileges govern by rules and regulations are granted to other ethnic nationalities. The nation must be in the form of a union." (From the speech given at the preliminary conference of the AFPFL)

Former Prime Minister U Nu's Views "Since some of the leaders of the ethnic nationalities are not now insisting on secession, it is possible at this time to establish a federal system. A Federal Union without the right of secession." (Statement made during discussions with leaders.)

(NLD General Secratary Daw Aung San Suu Kyi's Views) "As the chairman explained earlier, federal is an English word. We all know that we accept that

154 federal does not imply secession. But there are different types of federalism. How will the powers be divided between the central and constituent states? This is federalism's main problem. We have to make a decision." (From the minutes of the discussions with the leaders) Note; "I am of the opinion that so long as a genuine federal union cannot be established it will not be possible to attain peace and co-operation among the ethnic minorities in Burma."

(By Kenneth A.Mckay) By Federal Union, it means the prescribed procedures under which the sovereign power of a government is to be shared between the Central Government (Federal Government) and the State Governments. The Central Government assumes responsibility for important subjects like foreign affairs, national defense, currency leaving the remaining sectors under the control of the states. In such manner, under a federal system,, separate governing bodies (state can maintain unity and have a certain degree of self-government. In a full fledged federal Union like USA, the states have legislative, administrative, judicial powers. While the Federal Government has great authority the states are able to exercise their powers without interference within the framework of the law. By explicit definition of the Federal Government's

155 powers, the states can freely exercise control over the remaining ones. Switzerland serves as a model when the issue of federalism is under study. There are 26 administrative regions in this country. Not only are there vast differences in racial proportions, but also in the languages spoken and religions professed. In Europe, Switzerland is the country with the greatest diversity in national races and language. However, the self-governing regions have their own basic constitution and sovereign power and therefore, in full control of their administrative and legal rights. In this way, one feature to have unity among national groups of several racial origins was created. Hence, when drafting the basic constitution for Burma in future it is essential to make a note of the weaknesses of the Basic Constitution of Union of Burma 1947 and study the methodology employed by some countries in framing their federal system of government. It is also essential when drafting this basic constitution a national conference attended by all the ethnic nationalities where frank, open discussion are conducted in a democratic manner (like Panlong Conference) and agreement is reached on basic principles. The under mentioned points which should be included in the basic constitution that will be drafted are submitted for the purpose of study and discussion and are not intended to be explained in detail. In Burma of the future(1) The most comprehensive democratic principles must be practiced.

156 (2) The right of all nationalities for selfdetermination and to control one's own destiny must be acknowledged. (3) No one must be given special privileges. (4) To join on equal status be filling the federal principle. (5) As a country with numerous nationalities autonomous regions and ethnic special regions should be established in the self-governing states. In framing the basic constitution it is proposed that these principles should form the basis. Burma, being a country with numerous ethnic nationalities, it is of vital importance to have a friendly relationship and solidarity among these nationalities. The alliance forged between the NLD and 4 parties representing ethnic nationalities based on the principles of democracy, equal status for all, is an important factor when framing the basic constitution of future Burma. It is, therefore, our resolve to continue our efforts based on the alliance already formed and together with other national parties and organizations representing ethnic nationalities for the emergence of nationalities enjoying equal status and rights and the convening of parliament. ( Reproduced below is the request made by 4 parties representing ethnic nationalities addressed to the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) asking SPDC to convene Parliament and to hold a dialog.)

157

A Request Made by Four Parties of Ethnic Nationalities. To Hold a Dialog to Discuss National Reconciliation. With the greatest of respect for the Union of Burma we request the initiation of a dialog to discuss national reconciliation. At the present moment, difficulties relating to politics, economy, social welfare, etc, are being encountered. To overcome these difficulties and to renew national reconciliation we sincerely believe that the following should be undertaken urgently. The fact that the armed forces after taking power allowed the formation of political parties, organized the multiparty democratic general elections are commendable moves leading to democracy. However, failing to take further steps based on the outcome of the elections left a blot on the escutcheon as far as Burma's history is concerned. There is no other way except to erase the blot. At this point in time Burma is facing several difficulties without being able to solve the problems concerning current political, economic, social and ethnic nationalities issues. We earnestly believe that the solution to overcome all these difficulties lies in holding face to face discussions and negotiations with political overtones to bring about national reconciliation between such participants as armed forces (ruling junta), democratic forces including NLD, ethnic national parties in the elections and armed groups. This submission is not for personal interest but it was after due consideration, observing the situation

158 faced by the Union and the people, to enable the nationalities living in this country to be united in resolving the direct confrontations and complicated political problems. We also believe that now is the time to act. We make this request with firm conviction that if all of us take steps to solve the problems with real goodwill, without pride, free from animosity for the Union and our people, there is no difficulty we cannot overcome. After the Committee Representing People's Parliament (CRPP) was formed the legislatures and organizations from the following supported and extended recognition. (1) European Union Parliament (2) International Parliamentary Union (3) Free Burma Coalition (Organized and base on Universities and over 100 associations all over the world. ) (4) 5 Political Parties from Denmark (5) National Parliament, Belgium (6) British Columbia Province, Canada (7) Australian Workers' Union and the General Assembly of UN and International Human Rights Commission acknowledged the formation of CRPP. In Burma, because of political crisis, the country is facing severe problems in the fields of economy, education and social welfare. The majority of the population in particular face few job openings, little income, disparity between income and expenses daily rise in prices of consumer goods, particularly rice and these cause anxiety among the people. With

159 universities and colleges closed for long spells there is worry about the country's future with the aspiration of the younger generation in tatters and generating pessimism. Such deterioration is the result not of natural disasters or economic crises but simply the result of unresolved political problems. By political problems, these are the results of the ruling cliques self-serving policy and their jaundiced view of things. Burma became independent in 1948. Soon afterwards, there were civil wars arising from ideological differences. Due to the civil strife some militaries began erroneously to regard themselves as the nation's saviors. In 1958, because of attempts to stage a coup d΄etat, power had to be handed over in the form of a caretaker Government, In 1962, basest on the problems relating to the basic constitution the armed forces seized power and ruled the country with a military style of administration because of such a turn of events, some military leader under the mistaken belief that they are the nation's saviors and automatic rulers carried out erroneous programs based on illogical views. During 50 years of Burma's independence (1948-98) the country was under military rule under some form or another for 39 years, Burma although endowed with national resources and a solid basis has become one of the poorest nations in the world resulting from the wrong and misguided rule and practically almost all of the people are living in a sea of trouble. Burma being a country with several nationalities, it is natural that there will be grievances,

160 failings, requirements affecting the national races, and ethnic nationalities regarding rights and privileges. It is also in the nature of things for the emergence of discussions and negotiations to tackle the grievances and demands. (There are also similar instances in other countries in the world.) However, in Burma wherever the nationalities present their grievances and requirements, it has been observed that instead of holding mutual discussions and negotiations other measures are employed such as prohibiting, banning, intimidation and suppressing using of ethnic nationalities forming armed insurgent forces and the civil war spread wider. Political Scientists and Military Specialists have firmly acknowledged that "The armed forces are one of the units of the administration," "military affairs are subordinate to politic." But some of the military leaders in Burma under the misguided belief that they are the automatic rulers (no need to seek public approval), standing above the nation have governed the country for a prolonged period and are intending to continue doing so; The primary factor in present day political ethos is to sect popular opinion and give weight to democratic rights. The National League for Democracy (NLD) and those of the elected from the ethnic nation amities parties are simply abiding by the dictates of the people and acting in accordance with democratic rights. The political crises in Burma today arose from the fact that some military leaders believe mistakenly that they are the natural and automatic rulers of the

161 country and the emergence of the basic concept that popular opinion and democratic rights must be respected and adopted. However it may be, we must repeat our request to hold a dialog soonest without preconditions but with a national perspective in order to salvage the situation being faced presently with drastic deterioration in polities, economy, education and social welfare.

Committee Representing People's Parliament Report of the Committee for Defense Report on the formation of a modern Defense Force in the Democratic Era. 1. On the 9th Anniversary of the Multiparty Democratic General Elections, the Committee Representing People's Parliament (CRPP) resolved that the CRPP's Defense Committee be required to submit a report dealing with the formation of a modern defense force in the democratic era. In accordance with this resolution we are submitting this report. 2. On the 6th Anniversary of the Multiparty Democratic General Elections the NLD decided at the meeting on that occasion on a firm guideline as to the steps to be taken in regard to the defense sector and resolved as follows; "The armed forces are essential and indispensable as an organization for the nation. It is

162 resolved to endorse the NLD's policy that this organized group must be reputable, respectable giving protection and support to democratic principles." 3. In the NLD's proclamation on its political aims, objects and opinion, it clearly spelled out its views relation to the national defense sector. "In line with the democratic system, the nation's power being separated under three pillars namely legislative, judicial and executive or administrative, the entire national defense sector must be under the administrative pillar or control, abiding by and respecting the basic constitution, standing by the people and thus the defense forces must become the people's favorite. Only under special circumstances and occasions shall the defense sector be allowed to play an important role like a separate pillar. Under no circumstances shall there be intervention and transgression between the pillars and there must be mutual respect for one another and in thus way control can be exercised over one pillar attempting to dominate another. A progressive, modern defense organization for national defense must be established keeping in mind the capability to take into account military strategy based on the geography of the land, proficient and cognizant of the latest techniques and thus a modern, fully developed defense organization. National defense sector must be effectively maintained by setting up people's militia units or introducing a draft for all who reach the age limit. In this way the defense organization will be as one with the people and carry out the functions of a national defense force clearly and effectively. The

163 armed forces and defense organization must be accountable to the government elected by the people and to be able to do so freely the organization as a whole in the form of a national defense group should steer clear of party politics. To protect the interests of those who lost there lives and their families necessary laws must be enacted and suitable provisions made to provide guarantees. 4. Directives, advice, speeches, views, and declarations made Bogyoke Aung San, Architect of Independence, Father of the Armed Forces, and National Leader must be given special attention practiced and implemented. The armed forces, historically, was an organization conceived , formed and struggled in the fight for independence and acted in accordance with the policies and guidance of political parties. From the time the armed forces were formed Bogyoke solemnly pledged to promote the growth of democracy and to protect it. During the parliamentary democratic after gaining independence one pledge solemnly given by the armed forces should also be honored for ever. 5. In a democratic country the three authoritative pillars are independent of each other and exercise a system of working compatibly together. Under a single party dictatorial system or a military dictatorship the three pillars of power are combined and kept under the control of a single part dictatorship or a military dictatorship. In a country practicing democracy the parliament or legislature is the most powerful body. The cabinet of ministers under the administrative or executive pillar is formed with the

164 approval of the parliament. It is for this reason the national defense and national security responsibilities must be defined with utmost clarity to enable unequivocal application and this requires reestablishment of the system. 6. The Ministry of Defense is in charge of the armed forces. It is essential to re-consider and steady this ministry's methodology of administration. During the parliamentary democracy earlier after attaining independence in establishing the ministry of Defense based on democratic principles, the people played the key role. After the military sized power in 1962 the people's influence waned while the military's authority grew. The shape and essence of the Defense Council under the Ministry will have to undergo a gradual transformation when it is formed according to democratic system. 7. The Supreme Commander is the most responsible person in the Defense Services. Extreme care must be taken in the matter of appointment of this individual who is the senior most defense officer and it is essential that a principle is adopted. The Supreme Commander is not only the head of the Defense Forces (Army, Navy, Air Force) But has also been designated as the chief of all the armed units. As the Burma Army is the product of political struggles which it led, the post of chief of the armed forces was generally by implication treated as a political position. It therefore, needs consideration whether the post should be on pa with the senior most personnel in other ministries or not.

165 8. Under the existing system, it seems as if after being appointed as Supreme Commander the person concerned is permitted to hold the position for an unlimited number of years. This becomes a precept that since the post is of a political native there is no limitation on the years of service. In spite of service rules stipulating retirement on reaching the age of Go, the Supreme Commander is still holding the post. Limitation of service according to age ought to be imposed and applied. Consideration should be given to this issue from every angle such as whether this factor should be included in the basic constitution or not and whether after getting approval from the parliament the Defense Council of the Defense Ministry shoal issue an order or not. 9. The Military Intelligence Directorate under the Supreme Commander's Office must undertake its primary duty which is to improve the battling capability of fighting units and must be under the control of the Supreme Commander. 10. The defense and security of the people in the nation concern the entire populace. In the transition to democracy it will take a certain amount of time for the State Defense and Security Council to take over from the Directorate of Military Intelligence responsibility for security which should be the duty of the people. The head of this Council will be the president appointed under the basic constitution and the president must be the most responsible person. 11. The Defense must be of high standard, modern, honorable and ready to protect democracy, and be at one with the people. Its quality must be

166 superior to its numbers. After careful consideration of the country's economic development. progress in science and technology and human resource then a defense force appropriate in size must be established. The armed forces personnel will share the same joys and sorrows with the rest of the population. It is important to be within the budget constraints. In doing so it does not mean that everything will be accomplished all at once. Things have to be done stage by stage and within a set time frame. The parliament will be the arbiter of the methods to be applied and the tasks to be undertaken. 12. There must be only one Burma Defense Force. After independence we have experience establishing militias such as Insurgent Fighting unit, Union Military Police, Sitwundan force, Pyusawhti unit, Defense unit, Police Suffering Force. At the moment, attempts are being made to have only one force, Burma Army. There are the cease fire groups, previously armed, and armed units still in conflicts. In future, in a democratic country, we must endeavor to have only one Defense organization. 13. We must review the recruitment of officers for the Defense Force. It is essential objectively to establish a youthful force able to defend the democratic country with excellent quality, high standard, modern and dignified corps of officers. 14. We must endeavor to equip our Defense Force with modern, top quality weapons. The armament policy must be based on the country's geographical and natural background, the military policy that should be adopted by the nation, to

167 maintain friendly relations with countries and constantly observing their military strategy, particularly the situation as a relatively small nation bordering two large countries, especially a policy that will fit in with the country's economic and financial status. Instead of arming oneself with various types of arms and ammunition it is preferable to bear in mind the intention to have friendly relations particularly with democratic nations and decide our armament policy. Domestic factories must produce arms and ammunition and in doing so caution must be exercised to avoid excessive expenditure arising from breakdowns of machinery and appliances in big armament factories armed personal should be giver unnecessary training involving extra duties, so care must be taken to adopt one somewhat similar with a lesser amount of work. For the successful implementation of such a scheme an advisory group comprising experts from countries having relations with us should be set up. 15. Training is an integral part of the armed forces and covers education to increase knowledge. While under a single party system a biased, one sided ideology is the basis of the training, education under democracy will be related to studies of defense selects Everyone, from generals to privates has to study the party, ideology under a dictatorship depending on rank. The training under democracy will be liberal with the aim to in compass various studies to provide a broader range of knowledge. Which will prepare one for a promising military career. Armed forces personnel undergo specified skills in order to achieve

168 their aim to defend the nation. It must also be borne in mind that the entire nation is responsible for its defense. The National Defense University must provide the best training for a military career with this objective in mind the establishment of the NBU will be the duly of a group formed by the Cabinet as decided by Parliament and not by the Defense Ministry alone. 16. The Defense Force shall undertake only the main task assigned to it. Our armed forces are interested in their military services and continue to serve until terminated for some reason or other. The civil population also serve according to their desire in various ministries. Service rules are then interpreted as desired and under the direction of the Defense Ministry Officers, senior and junior, NCO and privates are transferred to other ministers to serve in posts in existence or newly created and this arrange should be avoided . It should be done with cabinet decision in unavoidable instances in the interest of the country to fill up special position. Such a move is not to harm the prospects of other competent civil personnel and to foster unity among all service people. 17. In connection with the role of women in the Defense Force, it was noted that according to the statistics of 1998 Burma had a population with the female population at (23.79) million and the males (23.46) million, thus females exceed males by (0.33) million. Hence in the defense and security factor the female group must assume a proportionate role. Nowadays, in some countries, women possibly because of tradition or circumstances, are serving in

169 the front lines along with men. Women can shoulder the duties of communications, transportation and in the medical services. This issue of women's services will have to be considered after a review of the current situation and a scheme in line with policy must be drawn up with the approval of the Parliament. 18. Members of the armed forces if compared to other service employers have to sacrifice their life, face severe hardship and undertake life threatening duties and hence steps have to be taken to frame laws rules and regulations for their benefit. 19. In Burma presently, a new strata of armed services members has appeared. It must, however, be realized that the security and the defense of the nation devolve not only on the armed forces but also the people in this country. The armed forces cannot stand alone without the people support since Burma, geographically, has between 2 big countries, it cannot stand up militarily against them. The support of the entire population is needed. Burma's basic military principle is to practice Burma's foreign policy which is not to trespass and attack another country and to successfully defend one's country against invaders. Burma's military strategy is a " defense in depth." To accomplish this strategy successfully in the long run, the system adopted by the armed forces to do it alone will not achieve the objective. It is therefore, necessary to enact the National Service Act to prepare for the future. 20. In conclusion and with respect, will be possible to submit a mire comprehensive, detailed report regarding the establishment of a modern

170 Defense Force in a democratic country after the Parliament is convened. On that occasion, it is our intention conversant with the subject, or matters related to this subject, who have dealt with the subject, experienced people, professionals and persons of good will.

Appendix (A) Committee Representing Parliament Notification No (4) 1. There are two meanings for the word "mandate" in the political commutation. The first kind derived from the Latin word "mandere" means "an order given by a superior officer to a subordinate how to carry out his duty." The second, derived from the French word " Man day" means that the electorate has permitted a party or a leader to govern according to declared policies as the result of an election" or " permission to govern according to declared policies, regarded as officially granted by an electorate to a party upon a decision outcome of an election." 2. In line with the second interpretation in the Multiparty Democracy General election, it means that the electorate permitted the party which gained a working majority a mandate to govern the country according to that party's declared policy and principles. 3. During the period under the Burmese way to Socialism, under the concept of mandate, Parliamentary Representatives contested the elections under BWS banner and had to abide by the party's

171 policy in Parliament. They had to resign if the party was dissatisfied. 4. It is acknowledged that the responsibility to fulfill in Parliament the undertaking and promises made by the political parties before the elections to the electorate is regarded as mandate. 5. The National League for Democracy contested the 1990 elections with the main slogan of abolishing the military administration and establishing a country under democracy. Out of 485 constituencies NLD candidate won 392 seats. The elected representatives must not only abide by NLD policies but are still fully supporting them and in case of inability to personally express support because of many reasons, such representatives have given written authorization to the Central Executive Committee to act on their behalf. 6. Accordingly, the demands made by the Central Executive Committee to the State Peace and Development Council to convene the Parliament are on the basis of mandate and the authorization by elected representatives to act on their behalf According to section 47 of the Parliamentary Law of 1974 which still remain valid it was enacted that, " The State Council shall, if 34% of all the members of Parliament so request, summon a session of the Parliament at the earliest opportunity." The SPDC appear to be contravening the provisions of the law. The authority entrusted to the NLD by 251 elected representatives exceeds 34% . 7. It is because the authorities are not respecting and abiding by the law that NLD has to

172 take steps for convening the Parliament. The general public is being apprised of the facts as any consequences arising in future are because of the remissness of SPDC to be guided by the law.

Appendix (B) Committee Representing Parliament Notification No-2(1/99) Contents of letters dated January 20,1999 addressed to the Presidents of both Houses of Japanese Legislature by the Committee Representing Parliament (CRPP) elected during the Multiparty Democracy Elections 1990 are published for general information. 1. A matter causing deep concern to the elected Representatives at the elections hold in 1990 is being relayed to the Honorable Presidents of both the Upper and Lower Houses of Parliament, Japan, nearly Nine years after the general elections in Burma, the State Law and Order Council, previously and now renamed the State Peace and Order Council, is still refusing to convene the Parliament. Moreover, using bullying tactics Representatives are being forced to resign, jailed, expelled. Some Representatives have left the country in order to continue their democratic and political activities. 2. The National League for Democracy (NLD) which won 82% (eighty two percent) of the seats during the general elections held in June 1990 asked the State Peace and Development Council to convene the Parliament before August 21,1991 in accordance with the promises given by the authorities that year

173 (1990). The ruling junta failed to respond to the request and accordingly NLD declared that the party would assume the responsibility itself of convening the Parliament. The ruling junta's response to this was to unlawfully detain the elected Representatives, members of the NLD who were actively participating in the matter and those who were supporting the party. 3. It was because of such actions that on September 16,1995 the Committee Representing Parliament was set up to make prior preparations and arrangements to convene the Parliament. Of the ten members of this Committee, one of them represented ethnic nationalities parties namely Shan National League for Democracy, Arakan League for Democracy, Mon National Democratic Front, Zomi National Congress. Of the abovementioned parties, the first two named parties placed second and third in the number of seats won during the elections of 1990. 4. From the time the Committee for Convening Parliament was established, the authorities increased their pressure and speed in their efforts to wipe out the activities for democracy. Despicable steps were adopted to suppress members of NLD and other organizations agitating for human rights. The elected Representative U Saw Mra Aung who had been named as the Chairman of the Committee Representing Parliament and is also the President of the Arakan League for Democracy and over 150 elected Representatives were detained unlawfully. The entire campaign to nullify the outcome of the general elections of 1990 was organized by the Directorate of Military Intelligence, Ministry of Defense. It is for this

174 reason that an invitation to influential members of this Directorate to come to Japan as guests of the Government of Japan is causing deep concern and anxiety. 5. In Japan, members of your Excellencies House of Parliament and the people of Japan have the irrevocable right to elect your own Government. We are making this request with your kind indulgence that a great country with people possessing such dignified power should not earn the impression of supporting a cruel and ruthless military Intelligence organization whose members are blatantly breaking all civilized modes of conduct and obliterating activities relating to democracy and human rights. 6. We have the firm conviction that for the democratically elected Representatives from Japan and Burma the time will come when we can work hand in hand for peace and freedom for our region and the world in general. 7. It is requested that this communication may kindly be circulated to the Members of your Houses of Parliament. Committee Representing Parliament.

Appendix (C) Committee Representing Parliament Notification No-11 1. It is learned that between January and February, 1998 fighting broke out between Thai and Burma Naval vessels because fishing boats from the

175 other nation encroached the territorial waters between the two countries resulting in loss of lives of sailors and civilians from both sides. Tension increased and news spread that the neighboring country had increased and readied their fighter planes in case of need. 2. In the course of history, because Burma's territorial waters had been encroached by fishing vessels from the other country, Burma in 1977 enacted the Burma Territorial waters and Zones Law in accordance with the international mature laws and in order to hinder poachers had taken action against them yearly. In those days, there had been a few skirmishes using firearms between both sides but there was no tension like the dangerous situation row. 3. Moreover, the other country which had never raised a voice regarding the sovereignty of Burma's territorial waters and zones now brought up the issue over ownership of three isles which had never been disputed. These had never been any dispute not only regarding the three isles but also the size of the territorial waters which had been acknowledged and honored. 4. We consider this current dispute over Burma's territorial waters and zones not just as an incident between the military authorities and the neighboring country but as one that concerns all the nationalities in Burma. 5. It is understood that representatives from the two countries will discuss and try to reach a peaceful settlement regarding the territorial waters and zones between them. The military authorities are duty bound

176 to explain to the people the subject of their discussions and the stage of these discussion without hiding the facts in order to make the people understand the situation clearly. This is because the matter concerns the entire population and the nation's sovereignty. All matters discussed, agreed to and steps taken should be placed before and approval obtained from the parliament. Only the parliament can give a decision regard this issue. The Committee Representing Parliament also has the responsibility to submit it to Parliament for approval. 6. In settling this dispute between the two countries the Committee Representing Parliament announces its belief that the matter can be resolved peacefully and cordially befitting neighboring countries. Committee Representing Parliament

Appendix (D) Committee Representing Parliament Notification No-59(10/99) The Committee Representing Parliament is distributing for public information the Burmese translation of its Notification in English dated October 2, 1999 with regard to the seizure of the Burmese Embassy in, Bangkok by some armed men. The Committee Representing Parliament is deeply disturbed on learning that some armed men seized the Burmese Embassy and took some hostages. It is understood from the international media reports that these men described themselves as " Vigorous

177 Burmese Student Warriors." It is also learnt that they have demanded the release of all political prisoners in Burma, and for the Committee Representing Parliament and State Peace and Development Council to meet and discuss the formation of an interim government. The Committee Representing Parliament while cognizant of the desires, wishes and suffering of the students and democratic activists and the pressures exerted by authoritative organs of power compelling them to leave the country, at the same time we unreservedly condemn the seizure of the Embassy and taking of hostages. Such acts are diametrically opposite to the principles of peace, justice and human rights held and protected all along by NLD and the Committee Representing Parliament. Our Committee commends and expresses our appreciation over the Royal Thai Government's decision to forego the use of arms and the display of diplomatic acumen and courage by the Deputy Foreign Minister. The Committee's honest desire is for an issue which has erupted to be settled peacefully without causing any damage. It is earnestly hoped that in the interests of the families of the hostages they will be happily reunited soonest. In Burma, in agitating for democracy, activists frequently are separated from their families in despair and anguish as a result of harsh and overbearing measures take by the military government. There is much sympathy for those serving under such conditions of tyranny and violence. The Committee would like to bring to the notice of the international community that the violent

178 incident that occurred at the Burmese Embassy, Bangkok is the result of incessant cruelty and injustice being inflicted in Burma by the military government. It is violence breeding violence. NLD and the Committee Representing Parliament are convinced that democracy will prevail in Burma because of the people's unwavering tenacity, courage and efforts and their devotion to peace, human rights and justice. Committee Representing Parliament

Appendix (E) National League for Democracy Notification No-144 (10/99) 1. Some armed men seized the Burmese Embassy in Bangkok. Then, the diplomatic staff, employees and their families, and some foreigners who had visited the Embassy to apply for visas were held as hostages. The world community of nations and international organizations will not accept as these armed men as they had committed a criminal offense. 2. However, the world would view this act as one in which these armed men were unable to witness the vicious despicable instances of cruelty inflicted daily upon the people by the military rulers for over 10 years. This, in their opinion, was the principle factor.

179 3. The situation in Burma today is prior to the rule of State Law and Order Council renamed State Peace and Development Council, in March 2, 1962 the military staged a coup d΄etat and thus the country had been continually under military administration for over 37 years today. 4. On March 2, 1962 a dictatorship called the Revolutionary Council led by senior military officer by proclaimed several announcements, changed the administrative system many times, and ruled the country. There was no progress in the nation, instead not only was there regression, there was a lot of distress among the people. The only thing that increased was cruel injustice. 5. In 1988, when activists for democracy demonstrated the military authorities opened fire and it is learned that over 4,000 people were killed. 6. In the later stages, the military authorities adopted a more effective way than gunfire, that is using suppression which causes a living dead existence. As part of the program to obliterate opposition, enquiries were made against democratic activists individually from the lowest ward or village level up to Headquarters level although working within the law. After completion of enquires, individuals or groups of individuals would be arrested jailed or detained and tortured in several ways so that even though alive, both body and spirit are under restraint and this was carried our against one group after another continuously.

180 Volume B Chapter 1 Report of the Finance/Economy/Commerce Committee to the Committee Representing the People’s Parliament Economy PART A Preface 1. The economy of the Union of Burma got into difficulties because of isolationism and policies based on centralized socialist economic plans, and began to disintegrate in the early 1980s. The pressure from economic and social hardships increased because of the collapse of the market and high inflation created by a shortage of manufactured goods and government budget deficits. The democratic uprising of 1988 followed the demonetisations of the Kyat in 1987. The military crushed the 1988 uprising and the State Law and Order Restoration-SLORC took over power. 2. The SLORC declared that it would adopt a market-oriented economy and announced an open trade policy with foreign countries. When isolationism and the centralized economic plans of the Burma Socialist Program Party-BSPP were

181 abandoned, Burmese traders, farmers and the general public were given a chance to exhibit their abilities and the economy acquired momentum. They also had a chance to enjoy the benefits of international trade and investment. (a) SLORC/SPDC Economic Practices and Their Effects 1. Change of Gross Domestic Product-GDP The GDP increased by an average of 4.2 percent from fiscal 1990 to 1994. This seems to be an improvement over the annual deficits of the Socialist era from 1986/87 to 1988/89. Compared to the deficits of the late 80’s, the situation in the early 90’s seemed better. However, it was not favorable compared to 1985/96, the last year of socialist economy that was about to break down, a year that showed a surplus in the GDP. The GDP was kyat 52,989.4 million in 1985/86. Only in 1992-93 did it again return to the kyat 54,756.6 million level. Per capita income in 1985/86 and 1996/97 were kyat 1,510 and 1,549, respectively. In 1997, Burma’s per capita income was less than that of Laos, Vietnam or Cambodia. Moreover, we will analyze policies and practices in the production sector. Finance and production are two interrelated factors in an economic system. This is summarized as follows.

182 (b) Macro-economic Situation The economic factors that influence and change a country’s economy extensively and effectively are the government expenditure, money supply, lending interest rates, employment and wages, external trade, and foreign exchange rates. The macro-economic practices of the State Peace and Development Council-SPDC are defined by laying down its policies on State Budget and Finance, interest rates, external trade and foreign exchange rates for stabilization of the market, an increasing investment and economic development. 2. Financial Sector All of Burma’s financial problems are created by the government. The difference between the government’s expenditure and income generation directly affected Burma’s economic situation. The SLORC/SPDC’s annual expenditure exceeds its income, as shown in Appendix A. The Union Bank usually prints more currency notes to provide loans to the government as a remedy for the budget deficit. Printing more and more currency notes whenever required causes inflation, bringing down the value of the kyat and causing a rise in commodity prices. Prices cannot be stabilized by increasing imports because of insufficient foreign reserves. The government fixed the foreign exchange rate at about kyat 6 equivalent to one US dollar while the market rate is over kyat 300 to one US dollar.

183 Expenditure under the government’s budget shows an increase of 13.5 times from fiscal 1987/88 to 1996/97. The budget deficit in 1997/98 is higher than that of 1996/97. It was on the average 6.5 percent of GDP for 1993/94 and 1995/96 and 7.0 percent in 1997/98. One of the main reasons for the increase in budget deficits is due to the income decline of the State-owned Economic Enterprises (SEEs). The deficit in the SEEs’ funds rose from 1.9 percent of GDP in 1993/94 to 9.1 percent in 1997/98. In 1997/98 the total government budget deficit was kyat 69.2 million out of which kyat 41.1 million was that of the SEEs. It is obvious that the deficit of the SEEs is more than half that of the total deficit. The percentage of GDP gradually decreases every year because the government cannot collect revenue from taxes effectively. It is absolutely nowhere near international standards. Tax revenues covered 61 percent of government expenditure in 1993/94 and only 48 percent in 1997/98. It is a measure of governance for the government to secure a budget needed to run the country. In the early 80’s the Socialist government’s income was 16 percent of GDP. In 1997/98, SLORC’s income was only 6.5 percent of GDP. In the early 80’s tax revenue of the Socialist government was 9 percent and plunged to 3.9 percent in 1997/98. Although the SLORC’s income was 6.5 percent of GDP, it was on the average 15.5 percent for the Laos Government for the fiscal years 1995-96 and 1997-98. For the Vietnamese, it was 22.2 percent during 1995-97. The ability to

184 collect tax revenues as supplementary income for Burma, Laos and Vietnam were 50.8%, 82.0% and 84.5% respectively for the above-mentioned years. It is found that the SLORC/SPDC’s ability to collect revenue or in other words, the SLORC/SPDC’s management and administrative ability is obviously inferior to that of neighboring low-income countries. As income declined, so did expenditures. In the early 80’s government expenditure was 16.4 percent of GDP and declined to 9.3 percent in 1997/98. The total expenditure of Laos was 22.3 percent of GDP in 1995/96 and 1997/98, while that of Vietnam was 24.6 percent. The spending power of the SLORC/SPDC was just half of those low-income neighboring countries. The government’s expenditure decreased due to lesser income. Although expenditure for other sectors declined, the ratio of defense budget increased. During Socialist rule in the early 80’s, the defense budget was 20.7 percent of the government’s total expenditure. During the SLORC/SPDC era, it was 30.6 percent for fiscal 1997/98. Low-income countries in South Asia and the peninsular countries spend only 16.8 of government income on defense. Vietnam, although a military power, spends only 20.5 for defense. Burma is not a military power nor does any other country threaten it. Moreover, it has declared that there is internal peace in the country. And yet the defensespending budget is very high. This means that it is aiming towards stability of the government rather than of the nation. It is natural in countries where

185 sovereignty is assumed by dictators to have a high rate of defense spending in order to oppress opposition forces. This is a normal occurrence in a dictatorship country. The expense of intelligence surveillance is heavily inflated under the heading current expenditure. Moreover, it is not exceptional to assume that the expenditure of the government’s auxiliary forces such as the Union Solidarity and Development AssociationUSDA, the Red Cross, the Fire Brigade and Women’s Association are incurred under the government’s security account. It can be seen from the budget account that the deficit is causing inflation and great disorder to the market economy. In order to achieve economic stability, expenditures and deficits must be reduced. Due to excess budget deficits Vietnam and took control of the country’s economy and made economic reforms with effect from 1989. In the manufacturing sector, it allowed wider reconstruction including exemptions and flexibility of prices. It also reduced its defense budget allocation. After modernizing its army, it retrenched 500,000 soldiers and 800,000 civil servants. The party government and the military gave priority to the interests of the nation and reduced its defense and administrative expenses. Vietnam’s rate of commodity prices increased 70 percent per annum in 1990 and declined to 5 percent in 1993, within a three-year period. This is a good example to learn from.

186 3. Inflation Money supply has risen ten times between 1988 and 1997. Consumer prices have increased six times according to official statistics, while unofficial statistics show a much higher figure. The value of kyat currency declined due to inflation. The market rate for US dollar rate has risen eight-fold between 1988 and 1997. 4. Balance of Trade In 1987/88 the trade deficit was K. 2410.5 million, and it increased to K. 2927.1 million in 1994/95. Although the average amount of export value grew 20 percent each year between 1990/91 and 1994/95, there was a trade deficit as the growth in the amount of import value also increased. The amount of export value declined starting from 1995/96 as tonnage in rice export decreased. In 1994/95 the amount of rice export value was 20 percent of the total amount of export value and it declined to 1 percent in 1997/98. The amount of export value for pulses and beans rose from 15 percent of total exports in 1994/95 to 24 percent in 1997/98. The amount of export value of teak and rubber are stable. The amount of import value gradually rose in the market-oriented economy. In 1997-98 it rose 13 percent. Imported luxury goods such as food, beverages and cigarettes enjoyed a large ratio of total imports.

187 (5) Balance of Payment In 1994/95, there was a surplus of K.406.3 million. There has always been an annual deficit in other years. In 1995/96 and 1996/97, the deficit was K. (211.1) million and K. (300.00) respectively. There is a probability of 1997-98 showing a deficit. Annual budget and trade deficits, inflation, skyrocketing commodity prices, and insufficient foreign exchange reserves are the SLORC/SPDC’s regular annual economic scenario. Burmese academics, experts from the World Bank, IMF, Asian Development Bank-ADB and intelligentsia from other countries have given frank advice and suggestions to handle the macroeconomic problems of Burma. However, the SLORC/SPDC neglected to take their advice and suggestions for various reasons. These reasons include lack of understanding of the advice given, because those leaders and decision-makers may have unrealistic views of the lives of the people, and lack of political strength to face the people. (c) Production Sector 1. Agriculture As the government released its monopoly on the agricultural sector, agriculture grew from 47.2 percent of GDP in 1989/90 to 51.2 percent in 1997/98. The Burmese people not only consume rice but also export it so as to be able to purchase commodities and construction materials. Although production GDP in the agricultural sector has risen, it is insufficient to

188 fulfill the basic needs of an increasing population. Rice production was 5.5 percent of GDP in 1995/96 compared to the previous fiscal year but only about 2.9 percent in 1997/98. Although the government declared the policy of giving priority to the agriculture sector, it was found that positive results have not been achieved as mentioned above. 2. Paddy Drought and floods affected paddy cultivation in 1997/98 and 1998/99. Although agriculture relies on weather, there are also many other factors hindering it, the major obstacle being village administration. There is no discipline, rule nor law in managing the farmers at the village level. The rural authorities treat villagers cruelly and rudely either in implementing demands from higher authorities or in fulfilling the wishes and aspirations of those holding local authority. Under these conditions the hapless farmers face a bleak future but they continue to farm because that is the only livelihood they know and the only source of their income. They have to be content with what they can produce and cannot develop other investments to supplement their income and to improve their lives. Hence they cannot attempt to increase production. This is the basic and major problem of Burmese rice production. Farmers would be able to concentrate on their livelihood only when a peaceful, pleasant and stable village management is established. In addition to mismanagement and a bad social environment, the government’s economic policies and the local authority treatment of economic issues are

189 also factors exacerbating production of rice. I.e.:

the

problems

with

1. Non-ownership of land and annual requirement of permit to farm; 2. Quotas demanded by the government and local authorities at lower than market prices; 3. The monopoly of rice export by the government; 4. Lack of fertilizers and fuel; and 5. Lack of modern agricultural credit system 1. There is no production growth because farmers do not have the right to own, transfer or to sell land. The requirement for permits needed for farmers for the right to farm every year causes them to lose interest in the land after a year. This leads to neglect in long term nurturing of the land to increase yields. Since there is no right to transfer ownership, a farmer cannot raise money to invest in his farm by mortgaging his land. 2. There has been no change in the rice quota system of the government although the government declared in 1997 that they would make necessary changes. Local authorities and auxiliary organizations of the government also demand quotas at lower prices. This collection of 20 to 25 percent of the yield is another factor that reduces production power. Moreover, the procurement price is far below the world price. The government-purchasing price is currently about K. 300 per basket of paddy. Purchase for export on the domestic market is around K. 500 per basket. At that

190 price a ton of rice would fetch US$ 112.00. In the world market, a ton of rice would fetch over US$ 200.00. The difference is plain to see. If the private sector including entrepreneurs and farmers were permitted to export rice, there would be freedom for competition, which would allow the producers to enjoy the differences in the domestic and the world prices. The more they earn, the more they will be able to concentrate on their work and the better the production, the better the control on the market prices. This would also promote exports and speed up the country’s economy and would successfully raise the management, livelihood and economy of the farmers. The government’s internal and external income will also rise. The history of Burma’s economy proves that the whole country can be self-sufficient based on the agricultural expertise of the farmers. 3. Other Crops Output volume and export tonnage as well as income has soared since free trade of pulses and beans was permitted in 1990-91. Export Tonnage of Pulses & Beans Ton (in thousands) Year Output Export

1994/95 1109 425

1995/96 1337 610

1996/97 1329 595

1997/98 1522 661

In 1988/89, the output of pulses and beans was 370,000 tons. In contrast, 1 to 5 million tons was

191 produced in 1997/98. For the same year the export figure rose from 17,000 tons to 661,000 tons. 4. Establishing System”

an

“Entrepreneur’s

Agricultural

Since the SLORC came to power, agriculture acreage has increased for various reasons. There is no increase in wheat and oil crops output because of imports. The government’s agriculture policy is aimed at export of surplus paddy, production of pulses and beans and industrial crops for self-sufficiency and export, and self-sufficiency in edible oil. These targets have yet to materialize. During early 1999, the highest officials of the SLORC/SPDC personally led the reclamation of land with slogans to make use of free, virgin and fallow lands and the wetlands. This is to promote current rice exports and to prevent future rice imports. Relying on investment and management abilities of entrepreneurs’ agriculture activities began on reclamation of a vast acreage of land throughout the country to produce paddy, perennial and other crops, livestock, fish and prawns. Regarding these activities the CRP issued an announcement 24(4/99) dated 25/4/99. After analyzing Burmese social issues it is hereby declared again that only parliament has the right to resolve the rice/paddy issue in Burma. The agricultural activities of the SPDC are: (1) An extensive plan aimed at changes in the agriculture sector, which is the basic foundation of Burmese society, beginning

192 with ownership to work in other services, methods, and social relationships. (2) It is an act that would overturn the very basis of livelihood of farmers, the right to own and cultivate the land of the majority of the farmers from among the union nationals. (3) It is an act that may lead to a farmers’ revolt, similar to that of 1300 BE (Burmese era) as a result of the disparity between the poor, the farmers and the rich who enjoy the right to cultivate on vast acreage of lands eliminating the rural middle class farmers. Hence the SPDC’s programs are not acceptable at all. When the independent Union of Burma was first established, the forefathers of the nation, thoroughly understanding Burmese as well as world history, laid down a policy to insert an agricultural system that was led by the farmers in the plains as well as in the hilly regions in the 1947 constitution. All consecutive governments after independence, in accordance with the 1947 Constitution, preserved the production system of the farmers that they had inherited for almost 50 years. The program of the SPDC was an autocratic establishment of an agricultural system that gives the right to cultivate on vast land to national entrepreneurs who have management abilities and a large amount of investment capital. Changing Burmese traditional ways of cultivation means uprooting the Burmese traditional social system. This

193 great, deep, and retrogressive offence to Burmese national tradition would change the history of the nation pushing the country into the backwater. This concerns the majority of the people. Therefore, it is a matter of national politics. The Burmese government and political organizations have, without fail, sought the wishes and inspiration of the majority of the people, no matter how greatly they differ in political views, leadership, and attitude in various levels of actions starting from seeking opinions to laying down and implementing detailed procedures. In the process of eliminating the traditional production system of Burma and of introducing a new economic system, that is in other words, in the process of deciding a national issue, the SPDC dominates the rural areas without seeking the people’s wishes and aspirations. Hence, the transformation of a village economic and social system is not acceptable. If observed from a professional angle, the program currently implemented by the SPDC is a declaration of a whimsical procedure. It is not a national rural development project, not a national agricultural development project and not a national rice production development project. According to the government’s information services, it is but a declaration that investors and entrepreneurs would cultivate paddy, oil crops, rubber as well as vegetables in Irrawaddy, Tenasserim and Magwe Divisions and Shan State by developing wide tracts of agricultural land by the year 2010. It is not a vital project of acceptable standards. Hence it cannot be accepted as a national project.

194 Moreover, in order to resolve the Burmese agricultural problem, the authority has to ensure increased production, make the agricultural system viable, create a good environment through good management, increase input and give farmers the right to work peacefully on lands in terms of revenue, and educate and provide loans to farmers. The system of allowing capitalists and entrepreneurs on wide tracts of farming land is an inaccurate remedy stemming from ignorance and a misguided view of Burmese agricultural and rice production problems. Hence this is not accepted. The SPDC’s scheme is to replace the traditional system accepted by all (past) governments and the people, which is cultivation of land by farmers, with one by investors and entrepreneurs. It is unacceptable because it is a great social, economic and political blunder. 5. Upgrading the Livelihood of Farmers The following will have to be carried out to establish a modern agricultural system for the farmers, instead of marching along a path of using investors in rural areas following the military leadership, if there is a genuine wish to improve the livelihood of the farmers and Burmese agriculture. In order to know and be in touch with the social, economic and political situation and views as well as the rural administrative situations:

195 (a) (1) Farmers associations must be formed; (2) The associations must have the right to hold meetings; (b) (1) Domestic and foreign rice traders must be able to hold meetings; (c) (1) Conferences of agricultural experts should be convened, and (2) Conferences of agriculturists, economists, and social scientists should be convened. 5. National Paddy Plan A national paddy development plan should be drafted and submitted to the people after convening a paddy development conference based on findings and proposals obtained from the meetings and conferences of farmers, traders and specialists. Hence, it is a matter to be carried out only by the representatives duly elected by the people in accordance with democratic principles. The representatives, after having thorough discussions on the issue at the Hluttaw, should lay down the National Paddy Plan. 6. Industrial Sector In the industrial sector, rice mills, edible oil mills and sawmills contribute to most of the production portion. 28 percent of the industrial sector’s production is by the State-owned industries. During the past five years, there was a 7 percent increased in import in this sector. In 1996/97 and in 1997/98, because of the

196 import problems of raw materials, spare parts and fuel energy, annual growth decreased by 5 percent. 7. Construction Private and public construction activities declined visibly in 1997/98. In 1995/96 and in 1996/97 annual production values rose 27.2 percent and 24.5 percent respectively from year to year. However, due to slowing down of the tourism industry, the Asian economic crisis and cessation of foreign direct investments and joint-ventures activities, the development of the construction sector declined 9 percent in 1997/98. 8. Transport Sector The regime understands the importance of transport and is constructing roads, bridges, harbors, airports, and waterways. It is beneficial to the economy, administration and welfare. It is in conformity with the duties of a government. However, the people suffered greatly because they have to contribute “voluntary” labor as well as quotas of funds for these constructions. (d) Status of Burmese Economy By observing and analyzing the household consumer index, commodities and services, production and types of exports, the following facts were found to determine the status of Burmese economy. 1.

Status of a Household Consumption

197 According to statistics prepared by the Central Statistical Organization, 65 percent of household expenditure in Rangoon was for food and beverages and 35 percent for other items in 1996, whereas in Mandalay it was 71 percent and 27 percent respectively. The household consumer index in Rangoon in 1986 is the same as that in 1996. It has not changed for a decade with 65 percent spent on food and 35 on other expenses. However, expenses on specific types of food have changed. In 1986, 9.8 percent of the food expenses were on rice but in 1996 the percentage had risen to 15.5 percent. Expenses for meat, fish and edible oil were 30.2 percent of total expenses in 1986 but it declined almost half to 16.9 percent in 1996. It is found that the consumer index of the people has deteriorated, as they become poorer and poorer during the 10 years of the market oriented economic system. In general it can be observed from the consumer index that according to income ratio the number of the poor has grown. The total proportion of income spent on food by the poor is higher than that of the rich. The higher the income, the more the consumption grew on others items such as durable and movable household goods, house rent, transport charges, education, health and entertainment expenses. One average household in Rangoon is spending 65 percent of its total expenditure on food. The people consumed less fish, meat and edible oil in 1996 compared to 1986.

198 2.

Comparison of Production Index

When surveying the status of production index of a country, the volume and form of production from agriculture, industrial and service sectors are normally determined. The table below shows the production index in the changes of GDP in three groups of countries for the years 1970, 1980 and 1994 -Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia; SriLanka, China, India and Vietnam; Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Cambodia, Burma and Laos. Singapore is a service rendering country, with little agriculture production as it lacks land for cultivation. Thailand’s agriculture sector contributed 30.2 percent of GDP in 1970. Nearly 25 years later in 1994, it declined to 11.1 percent. However, it was found that industrial production rose from 25.8 percent in 1970 to 42.1 in 1994. Also in Sri-Lanka, China, India, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal, GDP from agricultural production clearly declined while other sectors increased. The index of production by sector in Burma has shown only a slight change in nearly 25 years from 1970 to 1994. In 1994, number 8 to 13 of table (B) shows that among the group of the six Least Developed Countries-LDCs Burma’s industrial sector was 14.4 percent of GDP. This figure is even less than that of Laos for the same year, which is 17.9 percent. The industrial sector indicator was 24.8%, 19.0% and 19.6% for Bhutan, Nepal and Cambodia respectively, all higher than that of Burma.

199 3. Comparison of Terms of Trade As there is no change in the role of manufacturing in Burma there is no change in exports. During the colonial days in 1938-39, statistics showed exports of rice, metal, timber, other basic agricultural products and minerals contributed 70 percent of the total exports. According to the statistics, even after 50 years in 1990, these produces still make up 65 to 75 percent of total exports. In table (c), the percentages of the total volume of export for the six developing countries are shown by sector. Country export figures are shown in the following table. (53.4 + 28.9 = 83.3) percent of the total export of Burma is earned from the agriculture and livestock breeding sectors. Industrial finished goods contribute only 10.9 percent whereas they contribute 21.3 percent in Bhutan. If compared with under developed neighboring countries, the industrial finished goods value of exports of Burma is at the bottom. Hence it will have to work very hard to become a modern nation. According to a consumer, production and export indexes survey, it is obvious that the status of the Burmese economy is extremely low. It is the poorest LDC in Asia. Hence to reach the current economic status of neighboring countries, Burma needs to work very hard.

200 4. Comparison of Investments Investment is necessary for GDP growth. The current average investment volume of Burma is only 12.4 percent of GDP per annum. The investments volumes of the neighboring Least Developed Countries are 18.4 and 20.6 percent in Cambodia and Nepal, respectively. In 1993/94, Malaysia’s investment volume was 38.0 percent of GDP. Burma would have to seek necessary investment capital not only from domestic but also from foreign sources. The government as an organization cannot alone achieve successfully find sources of investment capital. This can only be achieved if an independent economic system is established that allows the masses to participate. Only then will the prestige of the people and their country be secured and fulfill the lives of the people. (e) Future Economic Developments Forecast Burma’s consumption volume, status of production and export commodities is discussed above compared with the neighboring countries. It is found that the country is below the standards of the world’s economy. We will have to evaluate the possibilities in striving to reach the world standard. The 1994 Human Development Report of the United Nations Development Program-UNDP stated the following. Based on 1994 figures, GDP of Burma and Malaysia was calculated by employing the Purchasing Power Parity Dollar-PPP$ method. After establishing the

201 1994 GDP of Malaysia as the target GDP for Burma, they calculated when Burma would reach this target. In 1994 Burma’s GDP was PPP$ 1051, whereas Malaysia’s was $8865. In calculating how long it would take Burma to reach Malaysia’s figure and to increase the growth of Burma’s current 1994 GDP, the calculation must be based on the annual growth rate used in planning and the population growth rates. The estimated GDP growth in the Five-Year Implementation Plan is 6 percent for 1994. Population growth is 1.9 percent. Therefore, per capita GDP growth is 4.0 percent. Burma with PPP$ of 1051 in 1994 would take 53 years to reach Malaysia’s level. A different method of calculation of UNDP was with a fixed foreign exchange rate. In this method Malaysia’s per capita GDP in 1993 was $ 2,905. Burma’s per capita GDP was $ 268 and it would take another 56 years to reach Malaysia’s level of 1993. Here it is found that Burmese people are 50 years or half a century behind Malaysia. International Relations In the above paragraphs the followings are discussed: 1. To established a new economic system after abolishing an economic network system monopolized by the military dictatorship in order to stabilize the deteriorating economic system; and 2. To implement a free democratic system through macro-economic and production sectors.

202 Tasks to be carried out are proposed in Part B. It is essential to face economic adversity simply with transparency, honesty and courage to handle the wide and serious issues that concern stability, longevity, and successful economic development. The government is misinterpreting and implementing a self–reliance policy. It is true that one should be selfreliant in any kind of undertaking. What is wrong is the use of ‘self-reliance’ as ‘only I myself can be relied on.’ The consequences of these wrong ideas can be seen in the consecutive economic sufferings from 1962-88. As the people opposed its earlier policy, the SLORC declared an open door policy and a marketoriented economy. However, military leaders who have been trained to rely on themselves could not adopt a genuine independent market-oriented economic system. Although the daily press covers meetings between various levels of authorities and foreign firms, they are not using an open door policy but practicing a military-monopolized economic network. The ‘self reliance’ economic policy of the military causes disarrays in the economy. The world economic lesson is that a country becomes rich only when it can join in the world market. Therefore, the Union of Burma should join in the world market not only for the purpose of trade but also for loans, investment and financial matters. Burma must learn to practice and accept the concepts on a wide variety of subjects, other arts & sciences, and knowledge of the world and apply them to the Burmese system, mentally and physically. We are currently facing a lack of required technology, know-how and expertise,

203 skilled workers, communications, transportation, and factories for economic stability and development, and these shortfalls have accumulated throughout years. There would never be successful achievement in the three main objectives if foreign countries do not join in to address the need for these human resources, expertise and materials. The volume of work needed to attain economic stability and development is extremely high. Regarding these matters domestic and foreign professionals have submitted their proposals. However, the SPDC cannot handle the stability of the economy let alone achieve the three main objectives. This is due to (1) lack of political leadership and (2) inability to gain international support due to lack of friendly nations. Therefore, to successfully obtain economic stability, the first requirement is to discuss the stability of the economy with the Members of the Parliament elected by the people and its organizations. The second requirement is to develop a normal relationship with those countries that provide Burma with Official Development Assistance-ODA. The Development Assistance Committee’s 21-member countries are Australia, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and the United States. There is also a need to be in alliance with the International Financial Institutions and organizations such as the IMF, BRD, ADB, UNDP, UNICEF, UNESCO, UNHCR and WFP. Then we need to stop name-calling like referring to ‘the neocolonialists and its followers’ and obtain billions

204 of dollars in support. This is a practical and sincere patriotic policy. According to a 1997 UNCTAD publication, the current Least Development Countries situation is that Bangladesh, which is three times more populated than Burma, has an ODA assistance of (15) dollars per person while Burma has (3.4) dollars. Although classified in the same category of poverty, Bangladesh received 15 times more support than Burma for 1995. According to the ODA report, Burma gets the least assistance among the 48 ODA recipient countries, which shows the SPDC’s weakness in international relations. The Burmese military government’s relationship with the world is a failure. Foreign Funds In laying down a new economic policy for the Union of Burma we need to build up foreign funds as follows: (1) A Stabilization Fund to normalize the deteriorating economy; (2) A Transformation Fund to develop a new system; and (3) An Economic Development Fund to develop. The Union of Burma needs to work jointly with Financial Institutions such as the IMF, BRD, ADB, investment organizations, and the 21-member countries’ Development Assistance Committee that can provide expertise and financial assistance and with other institutions and governments calculate the funds for maintaining and developing the economy.

205 Appendix (Table A) Figures relating to Inflation SN

Year

1

2

1.

198788 198889 199890 199091 199192 199293 199394 199495 199596 199697

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Finance & Revenue Ministry Budget Deficit (Million Kyat) 3

Union of Burma Central Bank money volume (Million Kyat) 4

Central Statistics Consumer Price Index 1986=100

-4021.6

9713.0

12653

Annual statistics book 1997 Foreign Importexport (Million Kyat) 6 -2410.5

-6314.7

15937.0

155.00

-1274.1

53.8

-8019.7

21536.0

191.00

-560.9

62.3

-12204.0

32333.0

133.73

-2570.2

88.0

-12311.4

43737.0

301.80

-2410.8

105.5

-12094.9

60200.0

369.09

-1775.3

119.3

15517.4

74982.0

492.99

-3695.5

113.4

-29647.2

98323.0

643.66

-2927.1

120.4

-38819.5

121800.0

735.51

-5259.5

159.1

-54469.8

176865.0

882.80

-6100.0

430.0

5

Market Rate Dollar exchange rate 7

43.0

206

Table B ( a, b, c ) GDP percentage - Changes in 3 Production Sectors 1970, 1980, 1994 (a) Agriculture Country Singapore Thailand Malaysia Indonesia Sri Lanka China India Bangladesh Bhutan Nepal Cambodia Burma Laos

1970 22 30.2 35 31.7 42.2 44.5 49.5 -

1980 1994 1.1 0.2 20.2 11.1 22.9 14.8 24.4 16.6 26.6 20.5 25 21 38.1 29 49.4 34.9 56.7 42.4 61.8 43.3 - 44.8 47.9 47.1 - 57.4

1970 38.8 30.1 35.8 41.3 27.2 51.7 25.6 14.8 12.2 11.9 12.3

1980 1994 38.8 37.4 30.0 42.1 35.8 45.4 41.3 43.6 27.2 30.1 51.7 54.0 25.6 27.0 14.8 18.9 12.2 24.8 11.9 19.0 - 19.6 12.3 14.4 17.6

(b) Industry Country Singapore Thailand Malaysia Indonesia Sri Lanka China India Bangladesh Bhutan Nepal Cambodia Burma Laos

-

207 (c) Services Country Singapore Thailand Malaysia Indonesia Sri Lanka China India Bangladesh Bhutan Nepal Cambodia Burma Laos

1970 38.8 30.1 35.8 41.3 27.2 51.7 25.6 14.8 12.2 11.9 12.3 -

1980 1994 38.8 37.4 30.0 42.1 35.8 45.4 41.3 43.6 27.2 30.1 51.7 54.0 25.6 27.0 14.8 18.9 12.2 24.8 11.9 19.0 - 19.6 12.3 14.4 - 17.6

Source: Asia Development Projection, Asia Development Bank 1995/96.

Table C Country

Food

Agricultural

Energy

Manufactured products 83.8 76.5 61.9 49.7 21.3 10.9 33.4

Others

0.8 24.5 28.4 1.5 7.7

Minerals products 2 18.5 5.1 18.4

Nepal Bangladesh Laos Cambodia Bhutan Burma Developing countries Developed countries

0.4 13.5 3.6 35.4 13.3 53.4 24.9

15.7 9 7.7 14.9 9.8 28.9 12.9

11.2

2.9

24.8

3.8

56

1.3

1.2 0.3 8.6 0.2 2.7

208

ECONOMY Part (B) Proposals submitted to the Committee Representing Parliament for Resolutions (a) To build a free economic system with perspectives 1. To implement clauses concerning a free economic system in the Constitution 2. To endorse laws that will preserve and enhance the free economic system and to revoke the laws that hinder its progress. (b) To create necessary organizations that will build and preserve a free economic system 1. To form a democratic government 2. To remove the exploitative economic network of the military junta (a) To remove all nationalized economic ventures (b) To remove the State-owned Enterprises-SOEs and economic enterprises of governmental departments and organizations (c) To remove the State co-operatives and its related ventures (d) To remove economic ventures related to State connected social organizations

209 (c)

Macro-economics State Budget 1. To increase National Income 2. To systematically reduce expenditures 3. To reduce deficits 4. To stop supporting the State Economic Enterprises-SEEs from the State Budget Financial 1. To systematically align the official exchange rate to the prevailing market rate 2. To control inflation by raising bank interest rates 3. To increase the volume and export commodities amount 4. To form the State Budget and Finance Advisory Board

Balance of Payment 1. To practice proper payment system in border trade 2. To limit import of luxury goods 3. To effectively increase the volume and amount of export commodities 4. To effectively promote Foreign Direct Investment and foreign financial aid (d) Production 1. Agriculture Sector Farmland Sector 1. Land Ownership 2. Freedom in the choice of cultivation

210 3. To promote free trade and eliminate the quota system and price control 4. Freedom to export 5. Establishment of modern agricultural banks 6. To stop reclamation of wetlands, fallow and virgin land and its related activities 7. To develop rural road transport 8. To explore the development of a national paddy plan 9. To form Farmers’ Associations Forestry Sector 1. To maintain rural environment 2. State to preserve, protect and reclaim forests 3. To permit free export of teak and other related woods 4. To permit private sector participation in domestic sawmills and other forest products services Livestock and Fishery Sector 1. To promote and increase permits for private sector Industrial Sector 1. Privatize state industries to promote export and exclude from State Balance of Payment 2. To encourage the expansion of small businesses and cottage industries

211 Energy Sector To develop a national energy plan Transportation Sector To develop a national transportation plan Communication Sector To allow private sector participation in communications services Construction Sector Workers Sector International Economic Relations

212 Part B A summary of the current economic situation, its status and future economic prospects of the Union of Burma under the State law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC)/State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) was shown in Part A. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was described under the heading “Economic Practices and their Effects”. Although there was moderate change in the national GDP, the per-capita GDP reached the 1985/86 level only in 1996/97. State financial situation with regards to macro-economic situation, inflation, and balance of payment, foreign funds and the standard of living were also reflected. Production Sector such as agriculture, industrial, construction, transport, communication were also covered. In summary, it may be concluded that the country’s current economic situation is in chaos because although the government holds the power, it does not have the political and administrative qualities of a good government. Not only is the government unable to handle the macroeconomic problems, it cannot effectively attract and lead the private enterprises to success in the respective sectors although it declares that it would build a market economy. As it is the bounded duty of any analyst, critical appraisal of the weaknesses of the economy, followed by suggestions and proposals for improvement to

213 stabilize the economy is duly presented to the Committee Representing Parliament (CRP). Proposals for Economic Stability and Progress in the Union of Burma Economics affects everybody. A stable and supportive environment is necessary for economic growth just as much as a stable and constructive environment is necessary for human development. Organizations that have proper perspectives are essential for such free economic environment. Political leaders should lay down liberal economic perspectives, which are in line with the democratic political ideals in order to establish free and innovative views. Accordingly, the old ideas of the undemocratic governments be replaced by liberal economic perspectives acceptable by the people and included in the New Constitution. We propose that the CRP include perspectives of a free economy in the constitution. The perspectives of a free economy should be endorsed as national laws. Therefore, the laws related to economic policy should be those that nurture a free economy. Laws that hinder a free market economic system should be revoked. Therefore, we propose that the CRP decide to endorse economic laws that will nurture a free economy.

214

Forming an Organization Organizations must be formed to implement and maintain those free economic perspectives. Establishment of a democratic government is the first step towards formation of those organizations.

(1) A Democratic Government Economics and politics are mutually related and beneficial. The current Burmese economy is in deterioration owing to the political situation. This paper shows that a democratic government is basically needed to contribute towards today’s economic condition of the people and the nation. In brief, a democratic or good government means a government, which avoids doing the unnecessary and doing something, which is necessary. As an example, as an individual needs to earn enough to balance its income and expenditure, so it is for the good government. The SLORC/SPDC government does the contrary. To curb inflation caused by deficit for years in succession, it tries to cut expenditures rather than find ways to get more revenue. This was done heavily in the education and health sectors. According to tax revenue collection norms, SLORC/SPDC is not an able government. Although the government claims to invite foreign direct investment by promulgating new laws and

215 regulations, in actual practice mistrust, secret dealings, cronyism prevails and contracts materialize only after obtaining approval from several upper levels. If required by the higher level at anytime, the approved contracts, licenses, Memorandum of Understandings (MOU), agreements are likely to be dishonored. As there is no rule of law, the investors just have to leave the country or wait rather than make a move for litigation. These led to hesitation by investors in entering the country after their proposals being accepted and approved. There is uncertainty for new investments with such an uncertain investment environment. This is due to SLORC/SPDC’s lawless rule according to its whims and tactics. The Burmese government is blacklisted in international relations because it does not practice equal and mutual negotiations but always wants the upper hand. The world sees this government to be immature, as it does not solve domestic political problems with sound and firm strategies. For fear of disintegration of the military, it anxiously and wrongly adheres to the ultra nationalistic policy while chanting anti neo-colonialism slogans. The SPDC administers the economy by orders based on military views and system. The country is being governed in a military manner. In a country, there exists an area where oppression is predominant that people either cannot express themselves or face danger if speak out. The lives of people in such backward and remote areas are

216 uncertain, their belongings unsafe and have to live in constant fear. Not only for the people who are assigned official duties from above, but people at grass roots level who are being reassigned for duty by these people, torture, insult and murder are practiced as of right. As the life of the people in such areas are so harsh an unstable it has become abominable and their political and economic lives destroyed. Farmers have to survive on what is being left after meeting the quota demands from their harvests. For the country’s economy or agriculture to grow a democratic government is essential. Therefore, we propose that the CRP decide to convene the Pyithu Hluttaw as soon as possible and work for the emergence of a democratic government in order to achieve stability and growth in the free economy.

Market economy monopoly

network

under

the

military

The military neither understands nor trusts and accepts the fact that unlike quota systems the economy can run smoothly without any supervision through mutual fulfillment of needs. Therefore, they form Military owned enterprises to plan and implement their own projects without clearing up the State-owned Enterprises SOEs or government-run businesses. They form their own economic ventures from the Central, down to all levels of command. Initially, subsistence and welfare are the excuse but soon they monopolized

217 by removing or restricting other private businesses in their respective areas, divisions for the benefit of their own businesses. Other businesses cannot compete with those of the ruling government. The fundamental rule of a free market economy is freedom and equality; any business that does not have those qualities does not belong to the free market economy. Apart from the historic State Economic organization and the military backed economic enterprises, the following are also part of the government economic network: 1. Economic ventures owned by various government offices and departments 2. Union Solidarity and Development Association owned economic enterprises 3. The economic ventures owned by government auxiliary forces such as the fire brigade and nurses association 4. All cooperative ventures owned by the Ministry of Cooperatives 5. Various economic ventures of the City Development Committees 6. Economic ventures of those who hold social and political influences over the ruling authorities and their organizations All the above businesses form part of the government’s economic network. They control and hold the key to the country’s economic system. The economic ventures of the State, military, social and political organizations formed by the government

218 and those nurtured by the government, friends and joint venture partners enjoy more privileges than other businesses. They have the following privileges: 1. Permits 2. Capital, loans and foreign currency 3. Trade with fixed rates 4. Priority given 5. Mutual inter-relations Government owned and related businesses monopolize and lead the Burmese economy. The true private entrepreneurs become second-class in business and are ignored. The military monopolized economic network has to be removed for the sake of economic freedom. Therefore, we propose that the CRP adopt the following resolutions: 1. To systematically remove all SEE’s 2. To remove economic ventures owned by government departments and organizations 3. To allow cooperative ventures that strictly aim at economics and that are free from government control 4. To allow economic ventures of social organizations that are free from government control In building a free economic system there is a need to include necessary laws, which allow enacting, revising and revoking laws in the State constitution. There is also a need to remove the monopoly of the military in the government machinery and to introduce executive and judiciary in building a constructive society for a

219 democratic free economy system to emerge. The international financial trade will grow with firm foundations only when the Asian economic crisis period is over that the Asians will consider Burma a worthwhile country to invest. Macro-economic Conditions The basic economic factors for widespread and meaningful change in a country’s economic system are the government’s balance of payment, money in circulation, lending rates, employment, wages, foreign trade and foreign exchange rates. The government must lay down national monetary and fiscal policies, interest rate policy and foreign trade policy to stabilize prices, increase investment and economic growth. The SPDC’s macroeconomics is as follows. Finance There is budget deficit in the government’s balance of payment almost every year. Therefore, to increase income, expenditure cut is necessary. Income The government’s income for 1982/83 was 16.0% of GDP. In 1997/98 it was only 6.5%. The plunge was due to decrease in revenue, which was 9.8% of GDP in 1982-83 and only 3.3% of GDP in 1997-98. For 1997-98, in the neighboring Laos revenue was 10% of GDP and in Vietnam 17.7%. Therefore, effort must be

220 made to increase income. Therefore, we propose that to get more income, the CRP hold productive discussions at the Pyithu Hluttaw taking advice from the from national and international experts, the IMF, the World Bank and the Asian Development BankADB and would be donors to all possible resources. Expenditure State expenditure for 1982/83 was 16.4% of GDP and declined to 9.3% in 1997/98. Current expenditure was 78.6% of the total expenditure in 1982/83 and declined to 52.3% in 1997/98. Capital expenditure was from 21.4% to 47.3% of total expenditure in 1982/83. This could be due to the fact that it is not possible to cut capital expenditures in some projects. Sector wise, for defense expenditure increases from 20.7% of the total expenditure in 1982/83 to 30.6% in 1997/98. There was a changed from 10.6% to 12.8% in the Education Sector. In the Health Sector it declined from 6% in 1982/83 to 3.3% in 1997/98. Other expenditures declined from 62.8 in 1982/83 to 5.3% in 1997/98. Expenditures with no significant change are the defense and capital expenditures. As mentioned in Part A, Vietnam being a true democratic government, reduced expenditure and taking into consideration the people welfare, retrenched a total of 1300,000 from its employees, where 500,000 are military personnel and 800,000 civil servants. Although it was a difficult task, nevertheless it was carried out for the sake of the

221 country and the majority. Therefore, by controlling its serious commodity price problems and winning the confidence of the international community by proving its economic prowess, the country’s development situation improved. This is the common international practice. Although difficult, being tactful in applying methods beneficial to the people, the country economy will improve. The government and nationalistic democracy party at a risk in democratic countries apply this method. There were times of success and times when the government has to step down. Governments which do not have confidence in its political ability and the country’s potential dare not take the risk and avoid taking the bitter medicine and wish to prolong their inevitable death. Therefore, it is proposed that the CRP re-assess the State budget increase spending in the education and health sectors while cutting the Defense and Home Affairs Ministry and its related security spending. Government Income and Expenditure Economists with fair judgment have not defined that there should not be a budget deficit or that it is only right if there is a balance in the income and expenditure. It is said that in practice it depends on the situation and time. Today, Burmese government is facing a budget deficit for several years. The only way to counter the high commodity prices caused by this deficit during times of scarce foreign exchange reserves is to control the successive deficits.

222 Therefore, it is proposed that CRP adopt the resolution to address the deficit problem in the soonest possible time. There are two components in the government expenditure indicator, one that of the Government and the other that of the State-owned Economic Enterprises-SEEs. SEEs have been showing deficit almost every year, which is supplemented by printing more currency. This in turn causes commodity price rise, inflation and people improvised. If the responsible personnel really love the country and consider the people, they should drop the idea of promoting the national economy based on SEEs and remove these enterprises from the State Budget allocations. Therefore, it is proposed that the CRP resolve to remove all State-owned factories, industries and enterprises from the State Budget. Monetary Foreign Exchange Rate In the Union of Burma, the government’s exchange rate and the open market rates are separate two rates of exchange. The government’s rate has been for decades fixed at about Kyat 6.00 to one U.S. dollar. This rate does not match the internal external trade and the requirement of today’s currency market. Therefore, the open market rate covers four fifths of the foreign currency market while the government rate used by SEEs covers one fifth only. The government issuance of Foreign Exchange Certificate-FEC as a

223 substitute for foreign currency complicated the foreign currency market further. The market rate for US$1.00 is equivalent to approximately Kyat 300. The economic situation remains unstable and the Kyat unreliable due to these two rates and because some of the SEEs bidding process of goods and services are in dollars. It is also hard to calculate trade and value. The foreign currency problem fuels economic instability. To uproot from this economic plight, a gradual and systematic realignment is needed to adjust the official and the parallel exchange rates of Kyat 6 to 300 Kyat. The realigning of the Kyat would bring about a crisis in trade and commerce. Taking this into consideration only one fourth of the foreign currency market will be affected. Regarding prices of imports, the consumer index for those with minimal income would suffer little impact but pharmaceutical related products and other essential commodity would need a separate survey. However, the exchange rate should be rectified for the sake of the nationals’ current problem and for the country economic development. This is to be determined by discussing with the people even though this is a political risk. The IMF and the World Bank has proposed suggestions to the government concerning the Burmese Kyat realigning. However, the government has still fixed the official rate of about Kyat 6.00 (to a dollar). Therefore, the CRP should adopt the proposal to realign the official exchange rate systematically to a more realistic figure of the prevailing rate.

224 Interest Rate People are keeping cash in hand to gain swift proceeds in trade, which created a rise in commodities prices and boosted currency inflation. Similarly, trading currencies brought about unstable US dollar-Kyat rate and deflated the Kyat. Therefore raising bank interest rate would control inflation, stabilize the currency and halt its flow into foreign land. Therefore, the CRP should adopt the proposal to raise and adjust the bank interest rate in line with inflation. Finance and Monetary Management Mechanism Currency in circulation Survey One of the reasons for economic disarray is the government’s uncontrolled spending. Annually, the Union of Burma Bank should administer a currency survey to find the cause of currency changes and how to control currency, during the period of the State Budget estimation. The Union of Burma Bank should directly submit this annual report to the government so that the government could study the trend to control the prevailing currency situation. Therefore, the CRP should adopt the proposal that the Union of Burma Bank should directly submit the annual report on currency in circulation survey and report to the Cabinet at the end of each fiscal year. The Ministry of National Planning and Economic Development with its responsibility of developing

225 Burma’s economy, the Ministry of Finance and Revenue with its responsibility of administering monetary and the State Budget, and the Union Bank with its responsibility of administering currency market are direct macroeconomic advisors to the government of the Union of Burma. Each of these government organizations has its own responsibility to secure the nation’s economic development. These three organizations should consolidate to take the whole responsibility of stabilizing the State economic situation to be most effective. Therefore, the CRP should adopt the proposal to form a Budget and Finance Advisory Board with the Minister for Economic Planning, Minister for Finance and Revenue and the Central Bank Governor. Foreign Expenditures Burma’s balance of payment always shows a deficit. There is a need to reduce imports and increase exports. Firstly, to dominate and control the land, sea and border trade. The majority of border trade is smuggling, illegal and unregistered trade. It drains foreign currency and boosts the need for more foreign currency. These matters are needed to be under better and more systematic control. Therefore, we propose that the Committee Representing Parliament adopt to handle border trade more systematically. Although there are various restrictions on imported goods, the bulk of the imports are luxury goods and consumables for the rich. There is a possibility to reduce imports.

226 Therefore, the CRP should adopt the proposal to restrict the import of luxury items for the time being. Increase Export The main constraint for export is the government’s monopolization of export of nearly all items. In reality, there are various government red tapes and restrictions even for permitted private sector export items. The government monopoly and restriction on export must be stopped. Therefore, the CRP should adopt the proposal to drain government monopoly and allow the private sector freedom of export in order to increase export. We need more Foreign Direct Investment-FDI and financial aid to open up Burma’s economic blockage. Therefore, there are reasons to assess and analyze the existing law, rules and regulations, to reduce centralization and to expand management to concerned personnel for a smooth flow in procedure. Therefore, the CRP should adopt the proposal to review the existing law to encourage foreign direct investment and foreign aid into Burma, to relax Central control and to affix a strategy to increase levels of decision-making management.

227

Production of Commodity (1) Cultivation Agriculture Farmland Ownership In the Union of Burma, the State owned land. The government allocates state-owned land. The government representatives allocate farmland in village tracts on an annual basis. From the production analytical point of view, these two factors discourage farmers to upgrade the land because they do not own the land and for the right to cultivate, it is in the hands of the village authorities. Therefore, the farmers grow yearly cash crops because they do not have the incentive, the time, the labor or cash to develop the soil it reduces or ceases production. In this way land productivity decline. Therefore, the CRP should adopt the proposal to grant land ownership—to mortgage, to sell and to inherit – to all farmers who work the land. (2) Freedom of Cultivation Although the government does not have the policy or program to authorize which crops to cultivate, subordinate to the authority are issuing directives to farmers to grow crops of their liking. Farmers have no freedom to decide. Therefore, the CRP should adopt

228 the proposal to provide farmers and other landowners the freedom of cultivation. (3) Quota and Price Reduction Quota and price reductions are imposed on agricultural produces of the farmers. Commodity rations are collected as tax. This taxation system is not fair and promotes corruption and is outmoded. Buying lower than the prevailing market price destroys the free market. Therefore, the CRP should adopt the proposal to bring an end to the quota system and to buy paddy from the farmers at the prevailing market rate. (4) Freedom in Rice Export The government monopolizes rice export. Therefore, the farmers are not able to enjoy the benefits leaning on the world market price. Moreover, the rice brought in quota system is of the lowest quality and not of export standard; therefore, Burma rice is not conspicuous in the world market. For the farmers’ benefit of enjoying the world market price and to cultivate better quality seeds, the CRP should adopt the proposal to remove government monopoly over agricultural produces and allow freedom of export. (5) Establishment of Agriculture Banks There will be a need to provide logistic support such as land development, buying quality paddy,

229 mechanical and production support for the farmers’ improved production as changes in the right to ownership, cultivate and freedom to trade and export are carried out. Investment capital becomes essential for these matters. Therefore, banks similar to economic banks that facilitate production and returns are required to assist the farmers. Therefore, the CRP should adopt the proposal to encourage the establishment of modern agriculture banks. (6) Virgin and fallow lands and the wetlands At the end of 1998 and the beginning of 1999, the government leaders stating the need to be selfsufficient in rice for the Union of Burma by the year 2000 visited the lands with possibility for reclamation. Land reclamation to grow rice and oil crops, cotton, kitchen crop such as pepper, onion, perennial crops such as rubber and coconut palm were arranged in Irrawaddy, Pegu, Magwe, Sagaing, Tenesserim Divisions and in the Shan State, etc. The feasibility of this land reclamation is neither an economically planned project nor the result of agricultural methodical findings. This is just a sudden government concern, a trump up card to prevent future rice crisis or the danger of revolt because of its consequences. Therefore, they need to be stopped immediately together with loans provided to the entrepreneurs from the peoples’ budget creating inflation. The special program of rice export by those entrepreneurs who participate in land reclamation should also be stopped. Transferring the rural life of the people into the hands

230 of the entrepreneurs by order of the SPDC military regime must be stopped. Therefore, the CRP should adopt the proposal to stop all activities on wetlands, fallow lands and virgin lands; and to bring a halt to all financial support from the peoples’ budget to the entrepreneurs and immediately prohibit rice export by these entrepreneurs. (7) Rural Transport There is a need to develop road facilities in rural areas for the betterment of transporting produces to other parts of the region at the least possible cost. Therefore, the CRP should adopt the proposal to develop National rural transport and communications. National Paddy Plan The Government warned that there is a possibility of a national rice crop crisis in the year 2000. The Intelligentsia and experts also predict the same. Therefore, paddy must be given special priority to prevent a national crisis. Firstly we need a National Paddy Plan. Therefore, the CRP should adopt the proposal of a National Paddy. Farmers’ Associations The main strata of people necessary to participate in prevention of the national paddy problems are the farmers. Therefore, it is necessary to systematically determine a process for the farmers to officially express their genuine problems, their livelihood overall situation and their production. Therefore, the

231 CRP should adopt the proposal of promoting legal formation of farmers’ associations. Forestry (1) Trees provide protection for the environment. There must be a national foreign conservation plan for the growing population and scientific development in production and marketing. Therefore, the CRP should adopt the proposal to draft a rural environment ecological equilibrium program. (2) To protect depletion of forests, to maintain earth and soil, to cultivate and to reserve forests systematically, the CRP should adopt the proposal ensuring that the State would take responsibility to expand forest reserve and conservation. To demolish State monopoly over teak and other hard wood and promote export earning by innovating competitive bidding and direct marketing of forest products for private entrepreneurs. Therefore, the CRP should adopt the proposal to enact a policy for private entrepreneurs to export teak and other related hard wood and moreover, to allow private sawmills, producers and finish wood and wood products producers to work permits, distribution freely market forest products. Livestock and Fishery The government would encourage growth in the private sector for fishing concessions, breeding and

232 marketing in internal coastal and inland areas. The private sector would enjoy the right to deal in the fishery and related products such as dried fish, fish paste, fish sauce and canning. The government would provide environmental friendly economic logistic support. Therefore, the CRP should adopt the proposal of the vast expansion of fishery sector for sufficient local consumption and support the private sector to raise the standards of catching, breeding, drying, storage, canning, etc. Industry The foremost requirement is to change and reduce the State-owned industries and cronyism. The government needs to create an environment to promote environmental friendly private based industries. Therefore, the CRP should adopt the proposal to separate the State industries from the State funds soonest and find ways for improving its performance on its own by further more, consideration of liquidation, dissolution and transfer, as necessary. Cottage Industries and Small Businesses The majority of the Union of Burma production of goods and services are from cottage industries and small businesses. To develop the national economy, there is a need develop small businesses to be in balance with large services. Small businesses have limited work environment with a confined market, modest capital and little management. Therefore, it

233 needs the government’s guidance and leadership to enlarge its vision and capabilities. Logistic support is needed to provide small businesses with modern economic perspectives, scientific technology, education in management, loans, etc. Therefore, the CRP should adopt the proposal to endorse in necessary legal amendments, structures, loans and technical expertise that will encourage small businesses to grow in trade, industry, transportation, services and other sectors. Energy Agriculture and industrial sectors depend on the Energy Sector. In some countries, there is a separate plan for rural electricity project. The condition of today is such that we barely receive adequate electricity even for residential consumption. There is a constant cutting and rationing of electricity in production services. The majority of the people and the producers know that there is no sufficient production and import of fuel. This sector consumes a lot of capital and hard currency. It is absolutely necessary to find funds and loans from the United Nations lending agencies, financial institutions, banks, governments and other non-economic organizations. Therefore, the CRP should adopt the proposal to develop a plan including provisions for possible foreign loans and aids for domestic energy consumption project.

234

Transportation The majority of the people are aware that the lack of infrastructure, vehicles and fuel is the main constraint in transporting agricultural produces from rural areas to the various markets. All city dwellers are aware of the inadequate transportation of rural areas as well as the burden of the Rangoon-Mandalay transportation system. Therefore, the CRP should adopt the proposal to draft a National Transport Plan that considers transportation plans for Rangoon City, Mandalay City, each States/Divisions, rural areas, especially border areas and to seek foreign funds and aid in support of the plan. Communications Personal as well as economic and financial matters require a valuable and never ending source of the fastest means of communications which is circulating round the world by corresponding, telegraphs, telephones, fax, telex, etc. The need is great in transferring a swift communication system for all nationals, merchants, and entrepreneurs from the backwaters of not receiving letters and unanswerable telephones. These problems can be quickly upgrade with international support allowing private entrepreneurs participation and end the government’s monopoly in the communication sector. Therefore, the CRP should adopt the proposal allowing private local and foreign investors’ participation in the

235 communication projects communication system.

to

modernize

Burma’s

Construction SLORC/SPDC, as their responsibility of a government, build roads, bridges and dams. However, these were built with lack of consideration of the economic consequences in inflation, high-rise of prices and unnecessary spending of foreign currency. It worsened the macro-economic system and moreover, there have been reports of misusing the funds meant for building these roads, clock towers, bridges and dams for personal gain. The economic benefit is little compared to the imposed force labor. An individual or in a group providing voluntary labor for the sanitation of the neighborhood and community is traditional. All countries have this tradition and it is not any single nation’s practice. Egypt Pharaoh’s pyramids and China Emperors’ Great Wall are evident examples. It is also true that Burma has a tradition of voluntary labor. However, behind the truth lies a ruthless force labor. This is a wellknown fact and there is no need to further expand this subject. One of the reasons the public dislikes the military government is forced labor. Another drawback concerning the Construction sector is the government’s force relocation program. The government relocated many in order to use the land for their construction projects. The relocated families faced economic and social problems and

236 transportation and education difficulties in resettling. In the end the majority of the people defined the military leaders’ public announcement of ‘from hut to house’ program as a lie. Therefore, the CRP should adopt the proposal to legally announce forced labor as a criminal offense and promulgate such a law and totally (totally) revoke any existing law that allows such actions concerning force labor. The CRP should also adopt the proposal to issue the announcement that amendments would be made on land ownership and government confiscation; and that forced removal of land tenants and confiscation of land is a criminal offense. Workers The National League for Democracy’s objectives in the economic, social and political issues are to work together to create a program for the benefit and welfare of all, to achieve a strong and secure life for each individual from all strata. This would outmode supposition based on the wrong beliefs and unjust persecution and eliminate the narrow outlook of one group one class system repression on another. It would develop and widen a system for each individual to be able to decide one own live and right. The CRP should adopt the proposal practicing this concept in finding solutions to address the national economy. Workers mean individuals joining a work environment. Therefore, to have life security it is necessary for the employers and the workers to

237 negotiate. The employer is one individual-one organization and has more variety of rights than each worker. In a democratic society, workers’ representative(s), a responsibility leading body is needed to speak on behalf of all workers. Therefore, the CRP should adopt the proposal promulgating a law that will encourage and allow the formation of Workers’ Associations/Unions. Apart from Workers’ Associations/Unions, for today’s working class, the needs to earmark appropriate National Minimum Wage and minimum salaries for independent entrepreneurs are widely understood. Moreover, there is a need to formulate an environment of fair working hours and social welfare such as ensuring medical benefits. Therefore, we propose the CRP to adopt revision of the National Minimum Wage, a special work plan for all workers including civil servants and armed employees after reviewing and making adjustments. Moreover, we propose the CRP to adopt promulgation of laws that would ensure workers’ benefits such as fair working hours and social welfare benefits after reviewing and making adjustment. It is necessary for the employers and the workers to be in constant touch with each other for the production of goods and services to grow in the respective sectors. Therefore, the CRP should adopt the proposal to have the formation of joint committees for employers and employees for the benefit of the national economy.

238

International Relations and Economic Funds Addressing the Union of Burma’s stagnant economy would be a vast and complicated process in many ways. A large amount of financial and logistics support are needed to achieve economic stability, strength and growth. Therefore, a variety of international supports are required to boost the Union of Burma’s economic ability. The CRP should adopt the proposal to strengthen international relationships for economic purposes and to work jointly with the UN organizations such as the IMF, IBRD, ADB, UNDP and the (Development Assistance Committee) 21 nations and other powerful countries and governments. We wish to submit a proposal to CRP to adopt a joint implementation program for the stability, strength and growth with the concerned countries and to develop a (1) Stabilization Fund, (2) Transformation Fund, and (3) Economic Development Fund.

End of document

239

“APPENDIX” The Manifesto of the National League for Democracy on Multi-Party Democracy General Election 1. Throughout the Union of Burma in 1988 there was an extraordinary and unprecedented uprising of all people. They rose up to demand Democracy. Thus, a democratic state was established in order to be liberated from the bitter experience of the society. 2. Now, a chance to establish a democratic system began to emerge that would totally change society. Hence, all the people of Burma, with active spirit and strong determination, would have to elect the peoples' representatives. Those representatives would form a democratic government in accordance with the aspiration of the people and draw up the state constitution that will enable a successful reconstruction of the country. 3. The National League for Democracy firmly believes that, today, in Burma, the masses of people are earnestly aspiring for the formation of a Democratic government that will guarantee basic human rights. 4. The National League for Democracy clearly understands that all the people of Burma are very keen to establish a firmly united "Union" in the near future with equal rights for all ethnic nationalities who cherish democracy. 5. In order to bring about the aims and aspirations of the people successfully, the National League for Democracy, consisting of people wishing to represent farmers, workers, merchants and entrepreneurs, students, youths, women, technicians, academicians, artists and ethnic nationalities, shall let their members participate in this multi-party General Election and pledges to accept the decision of the people.

240 6. The National League for Democracy, while declaring its principles and policy below, shall accept the wishes of the people and establish a democratic state as desired by the people. Political 7. As the Union of Burma is a member of United Nations, we shall practice the democratic rules of conduct as stated in the United Nations Charter. With a firm principle that, not only we, but our future generations also, will never lose democratic rights. We must firmly lay down the democratic foundation. (a) The power of a state must be derived from the people. (b) Totalitarianism and other political systems that oppress the people must never be allowed to flourish. (c) In establishing state power through multi-party general elections, every adult citizen must have the right to vote and to elect their representatives in accordance with the basic principle of democracy. (d) We believe that for political parties, apart from working diligently for the country, must also take up responsibility of being a political nurturing ground. A political party must sow the seeds and nurture seedlings, cultivating leaders for future generations. They must also act as a bridge connecting the public at large to the Executive and Legislative branches of the stand, and to be a tool with the ability to limit the unjust abuse of power by any authoritative persons or organizations. (e) Free and fair elections, which are the cornerstones of a democratic state, create a base rooted in democracy in which the social life of all the nation's people can develop. The people, who are the primary owners of state power, must have discipline and must not violate the interests of others. According to the rule of law, every citizen must be free to fully enjoy his basic rights such as, freedom of

241 belief, freedom of worship, freedom of speech, freedom to organize and freedom to earn a living. (f) The constitution shall distinctly guaranteed basic human rights. Laws shall be adopted allowing one to sue any person for violating human rights under the constitution or specified act. 8. According to the will of the people the "Pyithu Hluttaw" has emerged and been established in accordance with the law. The sovereign power of this "Hluttaw" is ablsolute. 9. The sovereign power of "Pyithu Hluttaw" shall be practiced without reservation, in accordance with the following principles: (a) There are three independent sectors, i.e., the Legislative, Executive and Judiciary. Each sector must exist independently without interfering with one another. (b) In working to enact, amend or abolish any laws, it must be independent and in conformity with humanitarianism, having justice and equality. (c) The administrative machine must not be an apparatus to oppress the people. It must be a machine with the ability to manage and safeguard the interests of the people. (d) Every citizen shall be equal before the law, irrespective of national or social origin, religion, social status, political opinion, language, sex, age, colour or race and no infringement shall be made of those basic human rights. For example: (i) The judiciary branch of the government, which must protect basic rights as guaranteed by the constitution, must have standing equal to that of the Legislative and Executive branch of the government and must be independent of them. (ii) The Supreme Court must have independence from and absolute authority over all other judicial courts under its jurisdiction.

242 (iii) The adjudication process must be made public. The accused must have full rights with which to defend himself in accordance with the law. (iv) All judges must have the right to adjudicate independently. There must be no external intervention. Foreign Affairs 10. To adopt independent foreign policy in international relations. (a) Any state must respect the sovereignty and territorial integrity of other states. They must have policies of nonaggression, non-intervention, equality, mutual benefits and peaceful co-existence, which are the Five Points Principle of the Peaceful Co-existence of States laid down at the Bandung Conference (Indonesia) in 1955. For neighbouring countries, they should have a good neighbourly relationship, establish mutual understanding, and develop co-operation for mutual benefit. (b) To avoid isolationism and be in an active position to stand firmly for on its principles regarding world affairs. (c) To actively participate in any international organizations having the same aims and objectives, and to co-operate particularly with regional organizations and projects with regional interest and the interest in the country. (d) Shall have firm and close relations with the United Nations, World Bank, IMF ... etc. National Defense 11. (a) The army is born from the people. The army must respect and abide by the constitution of the state. It must stand with the people and must be an institution the people can depend on. The army must be free from party politics and loved by the people. (b) Strategically, a modern army must be established in accordance with the geographical location of the Union of Burma.

243 (c) Suitable arrangements are to be made for fallen military personnel and their families, as well as war veterans and their families. Economy 12. The National League for Democracy believes that the Party that takes responsibility of the new government elected by "Pyithu Hluttaw" will not be able to foresee the financial problems it will have to face. But for the moment, emphasis should be made for short-term economic development. Thus: (a) Shall give priority for the stability of prices, finance, and jobs, and to work to insure people have confidence in the domestic currency; (b) To lay down suitable policies for finance and currency, and manage the government's budget properly; (c) To revise the exchange rates between Burmese currency and foreign currencies and change it as deemed necessary. (d) Priority shall be given to the import of goods that will benefit energy refill fuels, transport vehicles and for the falling of prices. (e) In exports, to encourage goods of various kinds, to be exported as much as possible. (f) To revise and amend foreign investment laws for setting multiple increases in foreign investment. (g) To strive for the reduction of foreign debts and to once again receive foreign aid. (h) To revise the laws, circulate orders, rules and regulations and the management system, that restricted economic enterprises, and some will be amended, and some are to be abolished, as seemed fit. (i) The present various types of revenue system shall be revised and amended to benefit the private enterprises. (j) Various enterprises of economic sector must completely base itself on the market economy. Special encouragement

244 shall be made for a quick development of private enterprises. (k) To encourage tourist industry for further development and smooth running. Enterprises concerning industry, energy, construction, mines and the service industry 13. (a) The nationalized economic enterprises that are included in all the above sectors of economy, shall be given back to their original owners respectively and for those enterprises whose original owners can no longer take responsibity for them, the state shall try and get the economic expertise and financial investment to continue to run the business. (b) The business enterprises will not be nationalized. There will be no demonetizations of currency. (c) The productions and sales of minerals and gems Act shall be prescribed. Permit for joint-venture enterprises and private enterprises shall be granted. (d) With the exception of some enterprises, if immediately abandoned, could cause devastation to domestic economy and increase unemployment shall be retained, the remaining nationalized enterprises shall be abolished and privatized. For the nationalized factories and industries, that cannot be immediately abolished or privatized, reform work shall be made with respect to investment and constitution in accordance with situation of present era. Unnecessary expense shall be strictly prohibited. (e) To work toward deferring external debt that must be repaid and to get international financial aid once again to reconstruct the country. (f) Shall allow foreign investment that will benefit the development of the country's economy, according to the principles of a market economy. (g) The state shall take responsibility for all the currency that is legally printed and distributed so that the people may

245 have total confidence in the currency. (h) Shall strive for the widespread use of modern technology and technical know how, in construction of a new state with respect to education sector for the new generation, trade and commerce sector, as well as mass education and other agriculture-dependant enterprises. Transport and Communication 14. (a) Reform shall be made, concerning transport and communication, as much as possible, in order to allow for a smooth flowing of goods. This will be done in the hopes that prices will then fall. (b) The work on roads, transport and communication shall be extended for the regions that are still politically, economically and socially backward. (c) The necessary reform work shall be extended to provide smooth and fast communication. (d) Joint-Venture aviation enterprises shall be established with foreign companies. Farming 15. The following farming policies shall be implemented for the economic development in this sector. (a) Every farmer, working for farming has right to own land and to transfer it and to prevent the revival of feudal system by law. (b) The minimum prices for farming products, on one hand, must cover the basic production cost and the cost of living for farmers, and on the other hand, the domestic prices of the farming products shall have to be adjusted with the international market price. (c) Farmers shall be given the right to cultivate, to store their farming products, to grind their seeds and to sell and transport their goods. (d) Considering the economic situation, the agriculture bank system that shall give long and short-term loans to

246 farmers for reforming their lands and other expense of land management shall be extended. (e) Considering the economic situation, all possible arrangements shall be made for farmers to get enough fertilizers. (f) Aid and encouragement will be provided for easy access to high-yield seed varieties and their cultivation. (g) With a well adjusted budget, arrangement must be made for the farmers to obtain enough chemical fertilizers. (h) Considering the economic situation, priority shall be given to the production of mechanical accessories for agriculture and technology concerning industrial farming. (i) The farming industry shall not be restricted only to the production of paddy and industrial raw materials. The farming industry will encourage farmers to alter their farming system by growing other grain crops that yield more foreign currency. (j) Permits for extending cultivated land or virgin soil to the private farming industry for long-term plantation purposes shall be granted. (k) In looking forward to the progress of modern agricultural technicians, for raising the standard of their skill, they will be encouraged to acquire more knowledge. (l) The Land nationalization Act, Rent for the Cultivation of Land Act and the Protection of Farmers Rights Act shall be revised. Forestry 16. For the development of forestry in Burma, the following principles shall be adopted. (a) The state shall make a special plan to reserve the forests and protect the environment to prevent deforestation. (b) A systematic plan shall be made to let the people use timbers and other forest products for their household needs.

247 (c) Systematic management of the extraction of teak and other basic hard wood timbers will be established. Provisions for selling these forest products abroad will be established after consulting with experts. (d) The policies for plantation, production and sale of hard wood for domestic use, other forest products and timber for industrial raw materials shall be revised and extended. (e) Expansion and review of cultivation and timber distribution practices for domestic and industrial use. (f) Contact shall be made with foreign organizations or institutions to obtain machinery, spare parts, accessories and advanced scientific technology. (g) Rules and regulations shall be laid down for entrepreneurs and working people who rely on the forests and forest products, to let them use the forest on a small scale. (h) Arrangements will be made to allow privately owned saw mills to produce finished goods from forest products. They will be given the right to distribute and sell these products both inside and outside the country according to the law that shall be adopted. Fishery 17. For the development of the fishing industry, for the nourishment of the people, to prevent the extinction of fish, near and far from seacoast, and for preserving the fishery profession, the following work shall be done. (a) Steps shall be taken to encourage private enterprises to extend domestic fish and livestock breeding. (b) Priority shall be granted to private enterprises for all fishing business near and far from the seacoast. Regarding the work that private enterprises cannot do, state cooperatives and joint venture system shall be established.

248 (c) The NLD shall negotiate with the international bodies to get the necessary technical aid to produce finished fishery goods and to export the goods abroad. (d) The production of tin provisions, the work to receive technology for producing high quality goods, and the use of up to date ships for coastal fishing shall be encouraged. Education 18 (a) In basic education, compulsory education system up to the primary level and free tuition education system shall be implemented stage by stage, in accordance with the prevailing circumstances. (b) To separate the teaching of vocational education from high tech education. (c) In order to modernize the country in each and every respective sector, and for raising the standard of universities and colleges, more state scholars shall be sent abroad. Expertise from abroad shall be invited. (d) The co-ordination of teachers, parents and students shall be practiced, beginning from basic education up to university, in compliance with the principles of education laid down by the state. Health 19 (a) Plan shall be made principally for public health, especially geared toward prevention as deemed necessary. (b) Special attention shall be given for government hospitals to receive sufficient medicine to treat diseases. (c) To assure government hospitals, currently being degenerated in every aspect, to become well equipped. (d) Permission shall also be granted to open private clinics for the public in accordance with the law. (e) Shall encourage private health insurance enterprises. (f) The state shall encourage athletics and physical fitness for the public and give necessary training to athletes, so

249 that they may be able to participate in international games and tournaments with high standard. (g) The state shall contact and co-operate with international health organizations and foreign experts to obtain the latest medical technology. Social Welfare 20. (a) The state shall pay special attention to take care of orphans, delinquent minors and abandoned children. The government will give them education and create vocational opportunities for them. (b) The government and private donors shall make a joint effort to care for the elderly. (c) Regarding the care of women, the government shall give support as deemed necessary. (d) The government shall co-operate and work together with private donors for the welfare of the public. Culture 21.(a) to maintain and foster national culture and traditions. (b) To co-operate with and participate in international cultural exchange programs. Ethnic Nationalities 22. Equal rights must be enjoyed by all ethnic nationalities. In addition: (a) All ethnic nationalities shall look forward to unity, solidarity, peace and progress of the Union; (b) The state shall work towards the principle of equal rights for all the nationalities. Based on this principle, no special privileges, hindrances or restrictions shall be placed upon the ethnic nationalities preventing them from enjoying equal rights and privileges. (c) Shall strive to all assure that all the ethnic nationalities have the right to self-determination with respect to all fields such as politics, administration and economic management, in accordance with the law.

250 (d) Before the establishment of a new constitution, as an interim program, the "Pyi Thu Hluttaw" shall prescribe law and form the authoritative body for the presently existing states. (e) Shall look forward to all nationalities joining hands to work together. They will co-operate by helping and supporting each other for the benefit of the development of the entire Union, respective states and regions. (f) Upon successful establishment of a democratic system, after having firmly laid down the foundation of a democratic society, a national co-ordination convention, similar to that of the Pinlon Conference, shall be convened. This convention shall firmly lay down the future guiding principles of the Union to assure unity and solidarity among all the ethnic nationalities. (g) All ethnic nationalities have the right to maintain and develop their languages, literature, culture and traditions. (h) Ethnic nationalities shall work together to consolidate the sovereignty of the Union of Burma, and work to develop all aspects of the country such as its political and social structure, its economy, education system, health services and regional development. Ending to Armed Struggle 23 Based on the principle that sovereignty of the Union of Burma must be consolidated, the unity of all the ethnic nationalities should be established so democracy can flourish. In the future democracy all ethnic nationalities will enjoy equal political, economic and social rights, and will be able to participate in reconstruction of the deteriorating situation in the country. The armed struggle that has been carrying on unceasingly for more than forty years must be stopped by resolving the problems through political means. 24. For promoting productions and raising the living standards of both formers and workers, and for cultivating

251 the lives of youths and students to develop physically, mentally and culturally, the following means to organize themselves shall be encouraged:(a) Farmers; The forming of a Farmer's Union shall be encouraged. It is necessary for this Union to be free from party politics. It must be a single, consolidated union. Each member of the Union, as a individual, has the right to participate in any party he pleases. (b) Workers and servicemen; Labour for workers and servicemen should be organised. It is necessary to form this union in accordance with the rules as prescribed be the Convention of International Labour Unions. The Union must be a consolidated organisation, free from party politics. These Unions have the right to demand legal rights for workers within the framework of the law. In addition: (1) Appointing and promoting service personnel must be carried out in a just and fair fashion. Positions should be allocated according to the level of the candidate's qualifications. In this process, the abuse of power where those in authority give special preference to some individuals must be strictly prohibited. (2) The technicians and intelligentsia shall be appointed at the national level, according to the requirements of the state. Workers shall be allowed to work in foreign countries as long as they abide by certain conditions. (3) Reconsideration shall be made for the aggrieved servicemen or for various other reasons. (4) The resolution of conflicts between entrepreneurs and workers must be fair and in accordance with the law. (c) People working in the trade and commerce sector, from industrial entrepreneurs, import and export enterprises, land and water transport to college industrial unions, traders, brokers, shop keepers, small scale vendors, including slow running vehicle drivers, shall be encouraged to organise themselves systematically in order to actively participate in

252 trade and commerce. This will raise their standard of living and develop the country. (d) Youth and Students (1) For any country, youths, especially students, are the most precious human resource for the future destiny of the country. We shall cultivate them and raise them by giving them modern education, and the tools to form a new country. (2) They shall be permitted to form a consolidated student union that will prepare them for national politics. (3) This single, consolidated student union shall be a symbol of national unity. (e) Women (1) In serving the country in the fields of administration, economics and social work, women must have equal rights and share responsibility of official duties. They must also hold the same rank as men. (2) Pregnant women are entitled to state-provided health care. By law, working women are entitled to "maternity leave" during the delivery period. Conclusion 25. We are determined to build a successful Union of Burma in the midst of the family of nations, having sovereignty and territorial integrity and equality among nations. The people must be prosperous and free from danger and fear, in accordance with their aspirations. 26. In so doing, we earnestly believe that the support, encouragement, criticism, advice, mutual help and coordination of the people are the main means by which to reach our objective aims.

"Democracy must surely win." 6 November 1989 National League for Democracy