Emergency and Disaster Nursing Course
BURNS Prepared by: Basel AbdulQader RN,BSN Supervised by : Manar Nabulsi RN,Ph.D
Contents Objectives Introduction Mechanism of injury and Biomechanics of
burns Types of burn injuries Signs and symptoms based on the pathophysiology Nursing process application Research utilization References
Objectives At the end of this scientific presentation , each one of the students shall be able to : Identify burn traumas, types and degrees. Discuss the common mechanisms of injury associated with burn traumas. Discuss the pathophysiologic changes according to burn effects and manifestations. Apply the nursing process in dealing with burn clients including “assessment, diagnosis, planning ,implementation and evaluation .
Introduction Burn patients experience lots of disastrous problems , embarking from the initial events of the injury , and through periods of hospitalizations and rehabilitation . Caring of burn victims in any emergency department is very stressful and challenging for the health team members including nurses , physicians , occupational therapist and even psychiatrists and dietitians,
Introduction
raising the issue of collaborative holistic approaches and continuing education to preserve knowledge and skills specially related to resuscitate burn victims.
Epidemiology During the past two decades ,trends of burn
incidence, hospitalization , and deaths shown all a decrease caused by the emphasis on preventive education and implementing of safety measures . The American experience with burn injuries revealed a dramatic decrease in burn cases estimated from 2.5 millions in 1970’s through 1.5 millions in 1990’s .
Epidemiology And a decrease in number of deaths is significantly noticed, as in 1970’s , the number of deaths related to burns was estimated to be 12000 deaths per annum, compared to 4000 deaths in 1990’s . Also the great advances in treating burn shocks, which had been considered the leading cause of death for many years, were shown improving mortality rates (1970’s 30% TBSA, 1990’s 80% TBSA).
Epidemiology About the Jordanian experience with burn
patients, the latest figures and numbers from the burn unit at JUH reveal that in 2005 , the number of admissions was 86 patients , 3 of them were died only. Another study made by Haddadin K.& Amayreh W. for non-aacidental pediatric burn patients in Burn Unit, Farah Royal Jordanian Rehabilitation Centre/King Hussein Medical Centre.
Epidemiology revealed after 7 years of this retrospective study that more than 70% of burn victims were below the year of 6 yrs and in absence of their parents. Also found that the major method of burn was scald burns associated to boiling water effect. And child abuse was one of the most indicators of burn accidents.
The Skin Overview
Mechanism of injury & Biomechanics The energy agents that can cause burns are:
Energy
Thermal
Chemical
Electrical
Pathophysiologic Changes Skin and soft tissue injury
Zone Of Coagulation Area of coagulation affected Zone Of Stasis Capillary occlusion, decreased perfusion Edema formation 24-48 hrs Zone Of Hyperemia Increased blood flow results from inflammatory processes
Pathophysiology Plasma loss and vascular responses Intravascular volume loss Diminished tissue perfusion Release of vasoactive agents Capillary semipermiability Lost Moving of fluids and substances like proteins
from the intravascular to interstitial space Hyperemia hypovolemia
Hemodynamic changes Lessened circulating blood volume results in
decreased cardiac output initially and increased pulse rate. There is a decreased stroke volume as well as a marked rise in peripheral resistance (due to constriction of arterioles and increased hemoviscosity). This results in inadequate tissue perfusion, which may in turn cause acidosis, renal failure, and irreversible burn shock.
Hemodynamic Electrolyte imbalance may also occur. Hyponatremia usually occurs during the 3rd
to 10th day due to fluid shift. The burn injury also causes hyperkalemia initially due to cell destruction, followed by hypokalemia as fluid shifts occur and potassium is not replaced.
Metabolic Demands Catecholamine release appears to be the
major mediator of the hypermetabolic response to burn injury. "Burn fever" is common and is dependent on depth of burn and percentage of TBSA involved. Temperatures of 102°F to 103°F (38.8°C–39.4°C) are common as "fever spikes." Healing a large surface area requires much energy; glucose is the primary metabolic fuel.
Metabolic change Because total body glucose stores are limited
and stored liver and muscle glycogen is exhausted within the first few days postburn, hepatic glucose synthesis (gluconeogenesis)
Despite all nutritional support, it is almost
impossible to counteract a negative nitrogen balance; the sooner a burn wound is closed, the more rapidly a positive nitrogen balance is reached.
.
Renal changes Glomerular filtration may be decreased in
extensive injury. Without resuscitation or with delay, decreased renal blood flow may lead to high oliguric renal failure and decreased creatinine clearance. Hemoglobin and myoglobin, present in the urine of patients with deep muscle damage often associated with electrical injury, may cause acute tubular necrosis and call for a greater amount of initial fluid therapy and osmotic diuresis.
Pulmonary Changes hyperventilation and increased oxygen
consumption are associated with major burns. The majority of deaths from fire are due to smoke inhalation. fluid resuscitation and the effects of burn shock on cell membrane potential may cause pulmonary edema, contributing to decreased alveolar exchange. Initial respiratory alkalosis resulting from hyperventilation may change to respiratory acidosis .
)Pulmonary )CO poisoning Carbon monoxide
(CO) is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, nonirritating gas produced from incomplete combustion of carbon-containing materials. Affinity of hemoglobin for CO is 200 times greater than for oxygen.
Hematologic Changes Release of thromboxane A2 leads to
Thrombocytopenia, abnormal platelet function, depressed fibrinogen levels, inhibition of fibrinolysis, and a deficit in several plasma clotting factors occur postburn. Anemia results from the direct effect of destruction of red blood cells due to burn injury, reduced life span of surviving red blood cells, and blood loss during diagnostic and therapeutic procedures
Immunologic change The loss of the skin barrier and presence of
eschar favor bacterial growth. Hypoxia, acidosis, and thrombosis of vessels in the wound area impair host resistance to pathogenic bacteria. Burn wound sepsis The wound will be fully colonized in 3 to 5 days. Seeding of bacteria from the wound may give rise to systemic septicemia.
Gastrointestinal changes As a result of sympathetic nervous system
response to burn trauma, peristalsis decreases, and gastric distention, nausea, vomiting. Ischemia of the gastric mucosa and other etiologic factors put the burn patient at risk for duodenal and gastric ulcer, manifested by occult bleeding and, in some cases, lifethreatening hemorrhage.
Extend of burn
Extend of burn First degree Pink to red: slight edema, which subsides
quickly. In about 5 days, epidermis peels, heals Pain may last up to 48 hours; relieved by cooling. spontaneously. (Sunburn is a typical example.)
Extend Second degree
Superficial Pink or red: blisters form (vesicles); weeping,
Takes several weeks to heal. edematous, elastic. Scarring may occur. Superficial layers of skin are destroyed; wound moist and painful.
Second degree
Deep dermal white and red: edematous reddened Takes several weeks to heal. areas blanch on pressure. Scarring may occur. May be yellowish but soft and elastic—may or may not be sensitive to touch; sensitive to
cold air. Hair does not pull out easily
Third degree Destruction of epithelial cells—epidermis and Eschar
must be removed. Granulation tissue dermis destroyed.forms to nearest epithelium from wound Reddened areas do not blanch with pressure.margins or support graft. Not painful; inelastic; coloration varies from For areas larger than 3-5 cm. tissue is called eschar.Expect scarring and loss of skin function. Destruction of epithelium, fat, muscles, and Area requires debridement, formation of bone.
Rule of nine
Thermal injuries The most common
Type of injuries Varies according to severity The prognosis is better.
Electrical injuries The type of current Duration of contact to electrical source Location of electrical source Causes necrosis in skin , tetany, cardiac
dysrhythmias
Chemical burns Chemical agents either alkaline or acidic, or
petroleum based products. (alkaline penetrate more than acidic) painful Identify neutralizing agent
Inhalation burns May be upper airway (supraglottic)
and incur injury in minutes to hours or may involve lower airway and cause adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). This can occur in as little as 4 hours of burn
Nursing care for burn patients Assessment
with all trauma victims, a primary and secondary trauma survey, including assessment of airway, breathing, and circulation as well as vital signs, is done. Other assessment parameters specific to the burn injury focus on extent and severity of burn injury and inhalation injury.
Nursing process Nursing assessment Severity of Burns Severity of burns is determined by: Depth—first, second, third degree Extent—percentage of TBSA Area of the body burned—face, hands,
feet, perineum, and circumferential burns require special care.
Nursing diagnosis Impaired Gas Exchange related to inhalation
injury Ineffective Breathing Pattern related to circumferential chest burn, upper airway obstruction, or ARDS Risk for Infection related to loss of skin barrier and altered immune response Body Image Disturbance related to cosmetic and functional sequelae of burn wound
Nursing interventions
Stop the burning process if possible Remove all clothing and jewelry Ensure patent airway Prepare for incubation Cannulate two veins
Fluid resuscitation formulas First 24 hours—4 mL of Ringer's lactate
weight in kg % TBSA burned. One-half amount of fluid is given in the first 8 hours, calculated from the time of injury. If the starting of fluids is delayed, then the same amount of fluid is given over the remaining time. Remember to deduct any fluids given in the prehospital setting
Patient's weight: 70 kg % TBSA burn: 80% 4 mL 70 kg 80% TBSA = 22,400 mL of
Ringer's lactate 1st 8 hours = 11,200 mL or 1,400 mL/hour 2nd 16 hours = 11,200 mL or 700 mL/hour
Treatment Hydration therapy Escharotomy Grafts Flabs
summary Burn is not traumatic not only for the patient,
but also for the family , so the care giver must ensure the the holistic care approach dealing with the victim.
Refrences mo, L., & Kravitz, M. (1993). The management of acute burn
and burn shock resuscitation. AACN Clinical Issues in Critical Care Nursing, 4(2), 351-366. nster, A. M., Smith-Meek, M., & Sharkey, P. (1994). The effect of early surgical intervention on mortality and cost effectiveness in burn care. Burns, 20(1), 61-64.
Smith, D. J., Thompson, P. D., Gardner, W. L., &
Rodrigues, S. L. 1994. Burn wounds: Infection and healing. American Journal of Surgery, 167(1A), 465485.