Ch. 23: Americans In The Great War, 1914–1920

Americans

debate foreign policy, 1914–17 New technology increase war’s destruction USA emerge as major world power War emergency (1917–18) force dramatic political, economic, social changes at home Postwar conflict over continuing changes or restoring prewar status quo War and 1919 peace disillusion many

Ch. 23: Americans in the Great War, 1914–1920

Years

of European competition over trade, colonies, allies, armaments Germany (Triple Alliance) rival England (Triple Entente) for world leadership Many Americans see growing German power as threat (militarism, autocracy) Assassination by Serbian nationalist trigger chain of events in Europe (see Map 23.1) Result = war (Central Powers v. Allies) http://www.the-map-as-history.com/demos/tome06/

I. Outbreak of the First World War

 

Wilson proclaim neutrality in war Full neutrality not possible ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦

Ethnic groups in USA take sides Wilson & advisers hold pro-Allied views: see Germany as threat to civilization USA-England trade (arms, loans) grow; USA-German trade drop; Germany see US trade with England as un-neutral Wilsonianism = ideas Wilson assume will spread if Allies win

II. Taking Sides

USA

will lead nations toward peaceful world World of free trade, capitalism, democracy, open diplomacy, fewer arms, & no empires Wilson proclaim US destiny = save world Ideals benefit USA; mix idealism with realism Wilson willing to impose ideas on others

II. Taking Sides (cont.)

Wilson

not want to enter war USA caught in crossfire between belligerents ◦ England violates neutral rights by seizing US cargoes for Germany (take property) ◦ Germany tries to stop US trade with England via submarines (take lives) Wilson

demand Germany comply with strict interpretation of international law

III. Violations of Neutral Rights

Lusitania

sinking (1915) takes 1198 lives (128 Americans); contraband (ammo) on ship Bryan advocates banning Americans on belligerent ships, but Wilson rejects it Wilson asserts US right to sail on any ships Bryan resigns; some Americans call him traitor Germany halts attacks on passenger ships after Lusitania, but tensions increase (Sussex, 1916)

IV. Secretary Bryan’s Resignation

Tonnage of vessels sunk in naval action in Atlantic, 1916-1918

Many groups fear costs/consequences of Movement not unified Feb. 1917, Germany take calculated risk

war

of full submarine war (defeat Allies before US entry) With Zimmerman Telegram, Wilson see Germany as threat to US security Wilson’s response (without Congressional consent) ◦ ◦

Orders U.S. merchant vessels armed Orders U.S. Navy to fire on German U-Boats

V. Peace Advocates; Unrestricted Sub Warfare

President Wilson before Congress, announcing the break in official relations with Germany on 3 February 1917

Wilson

accuse Germany of violating neutral and human rights War to make “world safe for democracy” US ideas & interests require German defeat By 1917, Wilson assume USA must enter war to shape peace & postwar world Wilson get support from preparedness groups (National Security League) April 2, 1917--War declared on Germany

VI. War Message and War Declaration (April, 1917)

Defense

Act, Navy Act (1916) start

buildup Selective Service Act (1917) start draft 4.8 million serve; most draftees in early 20s, white, single, US-born, poorly educated 400,000 blacks serve; in segregated units ◦ 90% in labor units; those in combat do well ◦ Du Bois & NAACP support war ◦ Hope for change at home after war

VII. The Draft and the Soldier

3

million evade draft Conscientious objectors face harassment Pershing insist AEF remains independent of Allied control, criticizes trench warfare Machine guns, poison gas, etc. kill huge #s 1 million casualties at Somme, 1916 Many survivors suffer “shell shock” (PTSD) US men/materials tip balance & end stalemate

VII. The Draft and the Soldier (cont.)

Challenges Wilson’s vision of world Lenin attacks capitalism; wants worker

uprisings Release secret treaties to embarrass Allies Wilson respond with 14 Points (1918) Show Allies as different from Central Powers Point #14 calls for League of Nations to achieve US vision of ideal world order Lenin makes peace with Germany (early 1918)

VIII. Bolshevik Revolution (1917)

Germany

then launches offensive in the West; Allies halt it Allies then launch counter-offensive Germany accepts armistice (Nov. 1918)

◦ 16.6 million die (6.6 million = civilians) ◦ 21.3 million wounded ◦ US losses = 53,000 combat dead (+ 62,000 dead from disease); 200,000 wounded ◦ War destroy European economy & 4 empires

IX. Americans in Battle

 U.S.

allies in danger of losing war ◦ Germans sink 881,000 tons of Allied shipping during April, 1917 ◦ Mutinies in French army ◦ British drive in Flanders stalled ◦ Bolsheviks sign separate peace with Germany; German troops to West ◦ Italian army routed  Teaming of U.S., English navies halves Allied losses to submarines  June 1917--U.S. troops arrive in France  Spring, 1918--U.S. forces help halt final German offensive ◦ battle of Chateau Thierry ◦ battle of Belleau Wood  September, 1918--Germans out of St. Mihiel

“Over There”

US

Gov’t intervenes as never before in economy & society Form partnership with big business via dollar-a-year executives on new agencies W/ cost-plus contracts (guaranteed profits) & no antitrust acts, big business get bigger US Gov’t bureaucracy grow to shift economy to war-related production

X. Mobilizing the Home Front

Food

Administration tries to increase production and conserve food Fuel Administration control coal, ration gas War Industries Board = largest agency

◦ Make purchases, allocate materials, & set prices (all on business advice) ◦ WIB order standardization of goods ◦ Economy supply enough men/material to win ◦ Shortages (esp. coal) at home result

XI. Business-Government Cooperation

USA Rest

finances ⅓ of war through taxes through loans/bonds; US debt rise from $1 billion (1914) to $25 billion (1919) War cost $33.5 billion; veteran benefits & interest on debt triple that figure over time Corporate profits swell during war to $7 billion Labor ◦ Benefits from full employment ◦ Suffers rising cost of living (food, fuel, etc.)

XII. Economic Performance

Draft,

expanded production, & drop in immigration create labor crisis US Gov’t recruits workers from Midwest & South to northeastern factories, help with housing New opportunities for women & blacks Total # of female workers not grow much Key change = shift in occupations Some enter traditionally male factory jobs

XIII. Labor Shortage

Most

= single, white, & in clerical jobs Black women move into openings in domestic service & textile factories 1,000s volunteer as military nurses/clerks or work for Red Cross/Salvation Army Also support mobilization programs Female support for war help achieve suffrage (19th Amendment, 1920)

XIII. Labor Shortage (cont.)

Labor

shortage accelerates black migration from rural south to northern cities 500,000 move (1916–1919) Young, single males seek opportunity National War Labor Board discourages strikes and urge management to work with unions AFL cooperate with US Gov’t in war effort Not able to stop some workers from striking

XIII. Labor Shortage (cont.)

African American Migration, 1911920

 Wilson

tries to silence any who question war  Result = massive violation of civil liberties  CPI seeks mind mobilization with propaganda  Demonize Germany  Urge self-censorship & spy on neighbors  Vigilantes harass GermanAmericans  State/local governments, businesses, & colleges fire dissenters, ban German culture

XIV. Committee on Public Information (CPI)

Espionage

Act (1917) bans treasonous (loosely defined) material from mail Sedition Act (1918) bans criticism of US Gov’t US Gov’t crushes IWW, imprisons Debs Supreme Court upholds 2 Acts During war, US Gov’t can restrict First Amendment

XV. Espionage & Sedition Acts

Wartime

suppression evolves into postwar repression of leftists/unions/immigrants 4 million workers strike for better pay/hours Opponents label them “Red” to discredit them No radical conspiracy New American Legion demand conformity

XVI. Red Scare; Labor Strikes (1919)

Attorney General harasses alleged radicals State/local governments, vigilantes copy him His assistant, Hoover, arrests 4,000 people

(1920) without search warrants; deny them legal counsel A. G. Palmer’s excesses slowly offend public To topple Soviets, Wilson sends in troops (1918) Arm opponents, impose embargo, refuse recognition, & ban USSR from diplomacy

XVII. Palmer Raids; Wilson’s AntiBolshevism

Despite

participation in war, blacks still suffer discrimination & violence KKK revive; lynching continues Race riots occur (Chicago, 1919) as northern whites resist “Negro invasion” Continuing racism disillusions Du Bois Growing militancy among black veterans & African Americans in northern cities

XVIII. Racial Unrest

Wilson

ignores Republican majority in Congress Allies seek harsh peace and spoils of war Wilson not follow or achieve 14 Points in Paris Wilson accepts huge reparations/war guilt on Germany Allies gain colonies (mandates) from losers ◦ British: Iraq, Palestine ◦ French: Syria, Lebanon

Create

anti-Soviet nations in Eastern Europe

XIX. Peace Conference & Obstacles to Wilson’s Plan

League = Wilson’s top goal in Paris Centerpiece for new world order All nations have a vote in Assembly Major powers control League via Council Article 10 calls for collective security Joint action to preserve status

quo/prevent war Wilson exempts Monroe Doctrine & domestic matters from League action

XX. League of Nations & Article 10

 Some

balk at Wilson’s concessions (14 Points)  Conservatives fear Article 10 will limit US action, stop US expansion, pull USA into war  Lodge propose reservations, esp. Article 10  Wilson lambastes critics  Collapses with stroke; refuse to compromise  Senate reject treaty (1919-1920)  With reservations, treaty would have passed

XXI. Critics of the Treaty

Would

USA swap traditional unilateralism for collection action? Core issue for critics Want freedom of action in imperialist world US economic & military power grow Postwar international system not stable Nationalists want independence New East European nations weak Germany, USSR want revenge & expansion http://www.the-map-as-history.com/demos/tome03/

XXII. An Unsafe World