農藥中毒

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農藥中毒 楊振昌醫師 國立陽明大學醫學系內科暨 臺北榮民總醫院內科部臨床毒物科

農藥 (Pesticides) • 保護農作物及其生產物或改良作物目的 所用之化學藥品 • 農藥之種類: • 殺菌劑 (Fungicide) • 殺蟲劑 (Insecticide) • 除草劑 (Herbicide) • 殺蹣劑 (Acaricide, Miticide)

農藥 (Pesticides) • • • • • •

殺線蟲劑 (Nematocide) 殺鼠劑 (Rodenticide) 引誘劑 (Attractant) 忌避劑 (Repellent) 植物生長調節劑 (Plant growth regulator) 補助劑 (Supplemental agent)

農藥之沿革 • 歐洲及中國於公元前即有使用硫黃、 東蕓草 (Hellebore) 及 紅海蔥 (red squill) 之記錄 • 十九世紀後,農藥使用日益增加 (CS2 、 除蟲菊 精、 硫酸銅、 砷酸鉛等 ) • 1939 年: DDT 被發現具良好殺蟲效果 • 1944 年:發現巴拉松 (Parathion) • 1950 年:殺菌劑保米黴素 (Blasticidin-S) • 其後各種除草劑、 殺蟲劑陸續被製造

殺蟲劑 (Insecticides) • • • • • • •

植物性殺蟲劑:如除蟲菊 有機氯劑:如安殺番 有機磷劑:如大滅松 氨基甲酸鹽:如安丹 有機氮劑:如培丹 有機氟素劑:如 Fussol 其他及雜類:如溴化甲烷

除草劑 / 殺菌劑 • 選擇性除草劑:如 2-4-D 、 草滅淨、嘉磷塞 異丙胺鹽 • 非選擇性除草劑:如巴拉刈、五氯酚鈉 • 撒佈用殺菌劑:如波爾多、 錳乃浦、三苯醋 錫、快得寧 • 種子消毒劑:如免賴得 • 土壤消毒劑:如福馬林 • 果實保護劑:如硫尿素

其他農藥 • 殺蹣劑:如克氯苯 • 殺線蟲劑:如巴拉松、二溴氯丙烷 • 殺鼠劑:如殺鼠靈 ( 短效 ) 或得伐鼠 • 植物生長調節劑:植物荷爾蒙 • 補助劑:包括展著劑 (spreader) 、增量劑 (diluent) 、溶劑 (solvent) 、乳化劑 (emulsifier) 、協力劑 (synergist) 、固著劑 (sticker) 、分解防止劑 (stabilizer)

農藥型態 • 液劑: (1) 液體狀: 溶液、乳劑、水懸:粉 ; (2) 粉狀:可濕性粉劑、可溶性粉劑 • 粉劑 • 粒劑 • 煙霧劑 • 燻蒸劑 • 錠劑 • 油劑… ...

農藥 (Pesticides) • • • • • • • •

理想的農藥 低毒性 效力大 無藥害 品質安定 價格低廉 物理性質好 使用簡單,可混用… .

農藥毒性的分級 • 可依據半致死劑量 (LD50) 作簡單之分類 ∀ ≥ 5,000mg/kg :無毒性 • 500-5,000 mg/kg :低毒性 • 50-500 mg/kg :中毒性 • 5-50 mg/kg :強毒性 • < 5 mg/kg :劇毒性

農藥中毒之流行病學:臺灣

表一、臺灣地區導致中毒之毒性物 質分類(1985-1993) 毒性物質 農藥 藥物 清潔劑 溶劑 動物螫咬 殺鼠劑 化粧美容用品 防蟲劑 中藥 一氧化碳及有毒氣體 食物性毒素 碳氫化合物

≤ 18歲 N % 633 10.9 1,886 32.4 410 7.1 285 4.9 172 3.0 148 2.5 246 4.2 251 4.3 111 1.9 93 1.6 89 1.5 49 0.8

> 19歲 N % 6,239 35.4 4,874 27.7 1,196 6.7 736 4.2 781 4.4 658 3.7 383 2.2 257 1.5 319 1.8 331 1.9 190 1.1 168 1.0

全部 N % 6,872 29.3 6,760 28.8 1,606 6.9 1,021 4.4 953 4.1 806 3.4 629 2.7 508 2.2 430 1.8 424 1.8 279 1.2 217 0.9

資料來源:Yang CC, et al. Taiwan National Poison Control Center: Epidemiologic Data 1985-1993. Journal of Toxicology-Clinical Toxicology 1996;34:651-663.

Acute Pesticide Poisonings in Taiwan Percentage of all pesticide poisonings

60.0% Insecticides

50.0%

Herbicid

40.0%

Fungicid Others

30.0% 20.0% 10.0% 0.0% 1985-1988 n= 2,013)

1989-1991 (n= 1,718)

1992-1994 (n= 2,264)

1995-1997 (n= 2,389)

1998-2001 (n= 2,885)

Figure 1. Distribution of poisoning substance by calendar time among 11,269 patients with acute pesticide poisonings in Taiwan

台灣地區的農藥中毒 • 中毒物質以有機磷殺蟲劑 (23.3%) 、嘉磷 塞異丙胺鹽除草劑 (15.4%) 、巴拉刈除草 劑 (11.9%) 、除蟲菊精殺蟲劑 (11.6%) 、 及氨基甲酸鹽殺蟲劑 (6.7%) 為主 • 中毒者以 30-39 歲者最多 (19.5%) ,其次 為 19-29 歲 (18.2%) • 中毒途徑以口服為主 (79.2%) ,其次為吸 入 (13.3%)

台灣地區的農藥中毒 • 中毒原因以自殺 (66.7%) 為主,職業相關 者佔 13.6% • 中毒之死亡率為 14.5% ,以巴拉刈居首 (61.5%) ,其次為有機磷殺蟲劑 (13.1%) 、氨基甲酸鹽殺蟲劑 (8.2%) 等 • 中毒死亡與暴露途徑、中毒物質、中毒原 因、其他中毒物質、及年齡等因素有關

表十一 、口服暴露中毒死亡與非死亡組間 ,基本資料之差異及相對之 OR No. of fatal cases

No. of non-fatal

Adjusted OR*

(n= 1,552) (%)

cases (n= 7,378) (%)

(95%CI)

Substances Paraquat

789 (66.5)

397 (33.5)

Glyphosates

111 (7.0)

1,480 (93.0)

3.0 (2.0, 4.3)

Other herbicides

38 (5.9)

609 (94.1)

2.1 (1.3, 3.4)

320 (16.1)

1,668 (83.9)

7.2 (5.1, 10.2)

Carbamates

59 (13.5)

379 (86.5)

7.3 (4.7, 11.3)

Pyrethrin &

39 (3.4)

1,115 (96.6)

Mixed insecticides

46 (33.6)

91 (66.4)

21.0 (12.8, 34.5)

Other insecticides

14 (5.3)

250 (94.7)

2.2 (1.1, 4.1)

Fungicides

32 (5.8)

519 (94.2)

2.2 (1.3, 3.5)

104 (10.7)

870 (89.3)

5.1 (3.5, 7.5)

1985-1988

391 (23.4)

1,280 (76.6)

1989-1991

220 (16.4)

1,125 (83.6)

0.7 (0.6, 0.9)

1992-1994

297 (16.1)

1,553 (84.0)

0.7 (0.6, 0.9)

1995-1997

295 (16.3)

1,511 (83.7)

0.8 (0.6, 1.0)

1998-2001

349 (15.5)

1,909 (84.5)

0.7 (0.6, 0.9)

Organophosphates

108.7 (75.9, 155.7)

1.0

pyrethroids

Others Calendar year

1.0

表十一 、口服暴露中毒死亡與非死亡組間 ,基本資料之差異及相對之 OR No. of fatal cases

No. of non-fatal cases (n=

Adjusted OR*

(n= 1,552) (%)

7,378) (%)

(95% CI)

104 (7.9)

1,211 (92.1)

1.0

7 (5.6)

118 (94.4)

0.7 (0.3, 1.8)

1,414 (19.3)

5,909 (80.7)

3.8 (3.0, 5.0)

27 (15.8)

144 (84.2)

3.3 (1.9, 5.6)

1,415 (17.4)

6,733 (82.6)

1.0

Pesticides

71 (19.9)

286 (80.1)

1.7 (1.2, 2.4)

Others

66 (15.5)

359 (84.5)

0.8 (0.6, 1.1)

≤18

62 (9.4)

600 (90.6)

1.0

19-29

316 (17.0)

1,538 (93.0)

1.4 (0.9, 2.0)

30-39

255 (13.5)

1,632 (86.5)

1.4 (1.0, 2.0)

40-49

198 (14.8)

1,142 (85.2)

2.0 (1.4, 2.9)

50-59

221 (18.8)

955 (81.2)

2.9 (2.0, 4.2)

60-69

221 (22.4)

765 (77.6)

4.7 (3.2, 6.9)

≥70

245 (27.4)

648 (72.6)

6.7 (4.6, 9.8)

Unknown

34 (25.8)

98 (74.2)

3.8 (2.1, 7.0)

1,546 (17.7)

7,215 (82.4)

1.0

6 (3.6)

163 (96.5)

0.3 (0.1, 0.7)

Intent of exposure Accidental Occupational Suicide Unknown Other toxins No

Age (years)

Route of exposure Oral only Oral and other route(s)

表十二、非口服暴露中毒死亡與非死亡組間 , 基本資料之差異及相對之 O No. of fatal cases

No. of non-fatal cases

Adjusted OR*

(n= 23) (%)

(n= 2,085) (%)

(95%CI)

Paraquat

3 (2.6)

112 (97.4)

4.2 (0.4, 46.2)

Glyphosates

1 (0.9)

110 (99.1)

1.0 (0.1, 21.5)

Other herbicides

3 (3.0)

96 (97.0)

5.0 (0.5, 54.1)

Organophosphates

7 (1.2)

562 (98.8)

1.5 (0.2, 13.4)

Carbamates

0 (0.0)

307 (100.0)

N/A

Pyrethrin &

1 (0.7)

134 (99.3)

1.0

Mixed insecticides

0 (0.0)

21 (100.0)

N/A

Other insecticides

0 (0.0)

88 (100.0)

N/A

Fungicides

3 (1.5)

203 (98.5)

2.7 (0.2, 30.0)

Others

5 (1.1)

452 (98.9)

1.9 (0.2, 18.3)

1985-1988

6 (1.9)

306 (98.1)

1989-1991

4 (1.3)

304 (98.7)

1.4 (0.3, 6.0)

1992-1994

1 (0.3)

379 (99.7)

0.2 (0.0, 1.6)

1995-1997

7 (1.3)

547 (98.7)

1.0 (0.3, 3.9)

1998-2001

5 (0.9)

549 (99.1)

0.6 (0.1, 2.5)

Substances

pyrethroids

Calendar year 1.0

表十二、非口服暴露中毒死亡與非死亡組間 , 基本資料之差異及相對之 O No. of fatal cases

No. of non-fatal cases

Adjusted OR*

(n= 23) (%)

(n= 2,085) (%)

(95%CI)

Accidental

6 (0.9)

649 (99.1)

1.0

Occupational

11 (0.8)

1,382 (99.2)

0.6 (0.2, 1.6)

Suicide

4 (8.2)

45 (91.8)

10.4 (2.4, 45.7)

Unknown

2 (8.7)

9 (81.8)

18.6 (2.6, 135.1)

14 (0.9)

1,508 (99.1)

7 (1.2)

563 (98.8)

2.2 (0.8, 6.0)

2 (12.5)

14 (87.5)

27.7 (3.6, 211.9)

≤18

0 (0.0)

101 (100.0)

19-29

1 (0.7)

154 (99.4)

0.7 (0.1, 6.4)

30-39

1 (0.4)

260 (99.6)

0.4 (0.0, 4.2)

40-49

4 (1.3)

316 (98.8)

1.0 (0.2, 4.6)

50-59

4 (0.8)

513 (99.2)

60-69

5 (1.0)

500 (99.0)

1.4 (0.3, 5.4)

≥70

7 (3.6)

190 (96.5)

5.2 (1.4, 19.2)

Unknown

1 (1.9)

51 (98.1)

3.4 (0.4, 33.2)

Intent of exposure

Other toxins No Pesticides Others

1.0

Age (years) N/A

1.0

農藥中毒之流行病學: 其他地區

農藥中毒之流行病學 • 每年約 300 萬嚴重的急性農藥中毒個案,其中 約 22 萬人死亡 (WHO 1990) • 中毒個案 95% 發生在開發中國家,並導致約 2500 萬農夫之中毒個案 • 在已開發國家,農藥中毒不是大問題,但中毒 而住院者,死亡率並不低。以英格蘭及威爾斯 為例,中毒住院者之死亡率約 12% (Vale JA 1987) ,蘇格蘭則約 19% (Proudfoot AT 1988)

農藥中毒之流行病學 • 美國 (1985-1990) • 25,418 人住院,其中 78% 為意外中毒 • 341 人因農藥中毒死亡,其中 64% 為自殺 • 中毒住院及死亡者,皆以男性居多 • 同時期報告至毒物中心之農藥中毒個案共 338,170 人,其中嚴重中毒者 782 人,死亡 97 人 • 除草劑佔中毒者之 8% ,但佔死亡者之 25%

Ann Emerg Med 1997;29;232-8

農藥中毒之流行病學 • 美國 (2002) • 2,380,028 名通報個案,其中 1,153 人死亡 ( 死 亡率約為 0.04%) • 96,112 人為農藥中毒 (4.0%) ,多數無或僅有 輕微症狀,其中僅 18 人死亡 • 農藥中毒以殺蟲劑 ( 以氨基甲酸鹽為首 ) 及殺 鼠劑居多 • 中毒原因以意外佔絕大部份 Am Emerg Med 2003;21;353-421

Table 1. Deaths frompesticide poisoninginEngland andW ales 1945-1989 Pesticide Herbicides Paraquat Sodiumchlorate Phenoxyacetate Other/ Unknown Insecticides Organophosphorus Organochlorine Other/ Unknown Rodenticides W oodPreservatives Molluscicides Fungicides Miscellaneous Total

Number (%of all pesticide deaths) 787(77.7% ) 570(56.3) 113(11.2) 50(4.9) 54(5.3) 110(10.9) 68(6.7) 8(0.8) 34(3.4) 69(6.8) 30(3.0) 7(0.7) 6(0.6) 3(0.3) 1012(100)

* 同時期共有 87,385 名中毒死亡個案,農藥中毒者以男性及自殺居多 ** Hum Exp Toxicol 1994;13:95-101

Table 3. Pesticide groups identified by toxicological analysis among 1,138 fatal cases in Northern Greece Ye a r 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995

O r g a n o p h so p h a te s N o. % 15 6 5 .2 11 5 5 .0 4 5 0 .0 9 5 6 .2 3 3 0 .0 7 8 7 .5

C a r b a m a te s N o. % 5 2 1 .7 6 3 0 .0 2 2 5 .0 5 3 1 .2 5 5 0 .0 1 1 2 .5

M isc e lla n e o u s N o. % 3 1 3 .0 3 1 5 .0 2 2 5 .0 2 1 2 .5 2 2 0 .0 ---

* 45% of fatal poisoning cases were attributed to pesticides ** Vet Hum Toxicol 1996;38:366-367

農藥中毒之流行病學 • 德國的 Bonn 毒物中心 (1974-1993) • 共 111,313 名資料完整之通報中毒個案 • 56% 為兒童, 13.4% 有產生毒性,藥物中 毒居多 (37.1%) ,其次為家庭用品 (31.2%) 及植物 (9.7%) • 農藥中毒在成人僅佔 7.6% • 中毒物質之個別比重,在研究期間並無明顯 之改變 * Vet Hum Toxciol 1995;37:367-8

農藥中毒之流行病學 • • • • •

日本的 Hidaka 毒物中心 (1982-1995) 共 1,000 名住院中毒個案,其中 89.5% 為自殺個案 中毒死亡率為 27% ( 意外者為 1% ,自殺者為 30%) 農藥中毒佔 518 名,死亡率為 51% 農藥中毒者以巴拉刈居多 (291 名個案, 76% 之死亡 率 ) ,其次為有機磷及氨基甲酸鹽殺蟲劑 (155 名個案 , 24% 之死亡率 )

* Vet Hum Toxciol 1996;38:34-5

農藥中毒之流行病學 • 伊朗德黑蘭的 Loghman-Hakim 醫院 (1994) • 7,000 名中毒個案 • 中毒個案 65% 為成人、女性居多、 89.8% 服食一 種毒性物質、自殺佔 87.5% 、口服暴露為主 (78%) 、藥物為主 (60.2%) • 農藥中毒僅佔 4.9% ,中毒物質以 organophosphates(57%) 、 aluminum phosphide 及 zinc phosphide 為主 • 死亡率以農藥中毒者居首 *J Toxicol-Clin Toxciol 1997;35:387-93

農藥中毒之流行病學 • • • • •

(1) 土耳其 Izmir 市 (1996-2000 年 ) 4,251 名解剖個案,其中 331 名為中毒死亡 男性居多、 43% 為殺蟲劑中毒、自殺及口服暴露為主 殺蟲劑中以有機磷為主 (78%) (2)1993-2001 年 25,572 名中毒個案中, 8.8% 為農藥中毒,其 中 80.3% 為殺蟲劑中毒, 19.7% 為殺鼠劑;中毒者以 0-6 歲 及 19-29 歲為主;中毒死亡率僅 0.4%

* Vet Hum Toxciol 2003;45:106-8

Table 2. Hospital admissions and deaths from poisoning in Sri Lanka, 1998

Tox ic agen t

To tal h o spita l H osp ital d ea th s ad m ission s O rg an op h osp h ate an d carb am ates 1 4,973 1 ,4 40 O th er p esticides 6,45 6 81 0 M ed icin al ag en ts 1 0,813 19 1 S n ak e b ites 3 3,607 16 9 O th er p oison in g an d toxic effects 1 4,205 42 4 Total 8 0,054 3 ,0 34 * Poisoning is the third leading cause of death in Sri Lanka ** 4,070 reports to the PCC between 1988-1997; 48.8% were suicidal; 34% were due to pesticide exposure (10% mortality rate among hospitalized patients) * J Toxicol-Clin Toxicol 2002;40:551-5

Table 3. The distribution of acute poisonings vs type of toxic agent in the years 1989-1991 in Poland Toxic agent 1989 (%) 1990 (%) 1991 (%) Drugs 4728 (56.0) 4121 (53.3) 3879 (52.4) Alcohols 1697 (20.1) 1608 (20.8) 1841 (24.9) Gases 868 (10.3) 868 (11.2) 714 (9.7) Pesticides 285 (3.4) 210 (2.7) 252 (3.3) OPs 109 (1.3) 85 (1.1) 102 (1.4) Carbamate 12 (0.1) 17 (0.2) 24 (0.3) Dipyridyl 12 (0.1) 6 (0.1) 6 (0.1) Coumarin 4 (0.05) 7 (0.1) 5 (0.1) Others 148 (1.8) 95 (1.2) 115 (1.6) Mushrooms 256 (3.0) 380 (4.9) 204 (2.8) Remaining 587 (7.0) 519 (6.7) 444 (6.0) Unknown 22 (0.3) 33 (0.4) 65 (0.9) Total 8447 7737 7399

* Vet Hum Toxciol 1994;36:228-233

臺灣地區常見之農藥中毒 • 殺蟲劑 (Insecticides) 有機磷殺蟲劑 (Organophosphates) 氨基甲酸鹽殺蟲劑 (Carbamates) 除蟲菊殺蟲劑 (Pyrethrin and pyrethroids) • 除草劑 (Herbicides) 巴拉刈 (Paraquat) 嘉磷塞異丙胺鹽除草劑 (Glyphosate-surfactant herbicide)

•有機磷農藥 : 美文松 (Mevinphos)

殺狗蚤之有機磷製劑

低毒性之有機磷製劑 : 陶斯松

有機磷殺蟲劑中毒 Stage of clinical presentations

• Acute cholinergic syndrome (crisis): muscarinic effect, nicotinic effect, CNS effect • Intermediate syndrome: proximal muscle involvement • Delayed polyneuropathy: distal muscle weakness, motor nerve predominant

有機磷殺蟲劑中毒 Clinical manifestations

• Symptoms are usually rapid onset and patients may die within 30 minutes due to respiratory failure • Muscarinic effects : Salivation, Lacrimation, Urinary incontinence, Diarrhea, Gastrointestinal cramp, sweating, bronchorrhea, Emesis, bradycardia, hypotension, miosis • Nicotinic effects : muscle paralysis, weakness, fasciculation, hypertension, tachycardia • Central nervous system effects : dizziness, lethargy, headache, delirium, seizures, coma • Miscellaneous : Garlic-like odor, whitish vomitus , hyperamylasemia, pancreatitis

嚴 重 度 無 輕 度

初 始 症

狀 及 徵 候

B Ccholinesterase>50% ofnorm al 無;R ,頭 痛 ,頭 暈 ,四

病患可以行走 但 抱 怨 倦 怠 感 肢 麻 木

,嘔 吐 ,流汗 稍 增,流涎,胸 悶 ,氣 管 分泌

物略增,腹 絞 痛

B Ccholinesterase 或腹 瀉 ;R

20-50% ofnorm al 中度

病患 須 臥 肌 肉 束 抽 動

床且 合 併

有縮 瞳 ,全身明顯無 力 ,

(fasciculation),

嚴 重 ,但 尚 未

及上 述 之症狀變

導 致 立 即 的 生

命 危 險

;R B C

cholinesterase10-20% ofnorm al 重 度

昏 迷 ,明顯 縮 瞳 且

無光 反 射

及氣 管 分泌物 大 量 增 加

,四 肢 癱 瘓

,肺部囉 音 ,呼 吸 困

難或衰 竭 ,發紺,低血 壓 ,休克 或 明

顯之心 搏

B Ccholinesterase<10% of 過 緩 ;R norm al 表 二 .有 機 磷 殺 蟲 劑 中 毒

嚴 重 度

,口 鼻

之 分 類

標 準

左肺塌 陷

左肺塌陷 ( 恢復正

左肺塌陷 (I) (one lung intubation)

左肺塌陷 (II) ( 進步中 )

急性肺水腫 (I)

急性肺水腫 (II)

急性肺水腫

有機磷殺蟲劑中毒 Treatment of poisoning • Keep airway patent (intubation as needed) • Decontamination (gastric lavage, skin and hair decontamination) & activated charcoal • IV fluid and dopamine for hypotension • Benzodiazepine, phenobarbital & dilantin for seizures • Charcoal hemoperfusion maybe useful in severely poisoned patients who were not responded to above treatment : usually not recommended! • More aggressive treatment required for patients with moderate to severe poisoning • Antidotes : atropine & pralidoxime

Atropine • Indication : patients with muscarinic symptoms/signs • Dosage : 2-4mg (pediatric dose 0.05 mg/kg), repeat every 10-15 minutes until atropinization; OR 0.0040.016mg/kg/min, adjust the dosage by the amount of bronchial secretion (not by heart rate or pupil size!) • Course of therapy depends on the clinical severity Should be used with caution in patients with BPH, glaucoma, high fever, hypertension, hypothyroidism • Adverse effects : anticholinergic manifestations, e.g. dry mouth, decreased intestinal motility, mydriasis, urine retention, tachycardia, fever, psychosis, hallucination, seizures, coma, ventricular dysrrhythmias

Atropine Continuous infusion Advantages less dosage required less incidents of overdose less complications less nursing care Disadvantages infusion pump is needed

有機磷殺蟲劑使用 atropine 之方式

輕度或無中毒 輕微分泌物增加 頭暈 , 腹痛等症狀 HEase 20%-50% N)*

無症狀則不用給 ropine, 否則 atropine 5mg in IV bottle 0ml (=0.006 or 0.01 g/ml), Start with 0.002 g/kg/hr ( 在 50Kg 的患者 17 or 10ml/hr)

中度中毒 ( 針瞳 ,fasciculation, 分泌物明顯增加等症狀 CHEase 10-20% N)*

重度中毒 ( 呼吸衰竭 , 昏迷 , 休克 , 抽搐等症狀 CHEase < 10% N)*

Atropine 5-10mg in IV bottle 500ml (= 0.01 or 0.02mg/ml) Start with 0.004 mg/kg/hr ( 在 50Kg 的患 者約 20 or 10ml/hr)

Atropine 10-20mg in IV bottle 500ml (= 0.02 or 0.04mg/ml) Start with 0.008mg /kg/hr ( 在 50Kg 的 者約 20 or 10ml/hr)

根據患者的呼吸狀況 ( 有無 rales, 痰量多寡 ,chest X-ray 是否有肺葉塌陷 ) 以調整藥 量 . 原則上勿以瞳孔及心跳快慢作為調藥之依據 , 但應注意避免因使用 atropine 後 可能引起的心跳過速 (>=140/min) *cholinesterase 佔標準值之比率 圖二 . Atropine continuous infusion 之使用方式

Atropine • In tachycardia : first correct the possible causes of tachycardia, such as dehydration, fever, hypoxemia, hypotension • In tachycardia : If tachycardia persists or worsens after atropine usage and other possible factors have been corrected, decreased dose of atropine or change parenteral atropine to inhalation atropine should be warranted • In fever : differential diagnosis between atropine overdose and infection (especially aspiration pneumonia) is indicated

Pralidoxime (2-PAM) • Indication : reactivates acetylcholinesterase and antagonizes nicotinic effects of OPS poisoning • Dosage: 1-2gm (pediatric dose 25-50 mg/kg) over 30 minutes, repeat the dose every 6-12 hours; OR 500mg/hr (maximum dose 12gm/day) • Usual treatment : 3 days; longer therapy maybe needed on few occasions • Rapid infusion (> 500mg/min) or large dose : dizziness, headache, nausea, neuromuscular blockade, inhibition of cholinesterase, weakness, blurred vision, diplopia, tachycardia, CPK & ALT • Obidoxime or HI-6 maybe more potent than 2-PAM

氨基甲酸鹽殺蟲劑中毒 • Natural carbamate: physostigmine (calabar bean) • Synthesized since 1940s Carbamate insecticides Carbamate herbicides Carbamte fungicides • Toxicities of carbamate insecticides are entirely different from carbamate herbicides and carbamate fungicides

氨基甲酸鹽殺蟲劑中毒 英文名 Aldicarb BPMC Carbaryl Carbofuran Carbosulfan

中文名 得滅克 (地蜜) 丁基滅 必蝨 加保 利 加保 扶(好年 冬) 丁基加保 扶(新好年 丹) 雙滅必蝨 納乃得 (萬靈)

白鼠或 小白 鼠之 LD50 (mg/kg) 0.3-0.8 340-410 850 2-5 64-218

Hokbal 340-470 Methomyl 10-14.7 (lannate) MIPC 滅必蝨 150 Propoxur 安丹 23.5-41 表一 .臺灣地區 市面上 可見之部 份氨基甲酸鹽殺蟲劑

最常見導致中毒之 carbamate: 納乃得

氨基甲酸鹽殺蟲劑中毒 • Reason of exposure : suicide, food residues... • Route of exposure : GI tract, airway, & skin • Interact with acetylcholinesterase (carbamylation of esteratic site) inhibition of hydrolysis of acetylcholine acetylcholine excess cholinergic symptoms or signs • Clinical manifestations are not easily distinguishable from organophosphate insecticide poisonings except Rapid reactivation of acetylcholinesterase No garlic-like odor

氨基甲酸鹽殺蟲劑中毒 • Muscarinic effect : miosis, salivation, lacrimation, urinary incontinence, diarrhea, gastrointestinal cramping, emesis, bronchorrhea, bronchospasm, hypotension, bradycardia, pulmonary edema (“SLUDGE” or “DUMBELS” syndrome) • Nicotinic effect : hypertension, tachycardia, dystonia, muscle paralysis, fasciculation • CNS effect : anxiety, headache, dizziness, confusion, coma, seizure, respiratory depression • Children are more likely to have CNS effects (e.g. seizure) instead of muscarinic effects

氨基甲酸鹽殺蟲劑中毒 • Other manifestations : extrapyramidal signs, aspiration, hyperamylasemia, pancreatitis, DIC, metabolic acidosis,… • Mortality rate ~ 5.8% and cause of death mainly due to respiratory failure (airway obstruction, muscle paralysis, or respiratory depression) • To date, intermediate syndrome hasn’t been reported in patients with carbamate poisoning • Delayed neuropathy (?) : possible since there were 2 case reports (carbaryl & m-tolyl methyl carbamate)

氨基甲酸鹽殺蟲劑中毒 • Diagnosis : history and clinical manifestations; response to low-dose atropine, RBC & plasma cholinesterase (should be measured earlier after poisoning) • Treatment : decontamination, maintain respiratory and cardiovascular function, IV fluid, diazepam, atropine, pralidoxime,... • Laboratory workup : CXR, arterial blood gases, CBC, biochemistry, ECG, and abdominal ultrasonograph (if needed)

Atropine • Indication : patients with muscarinic symptoms/signs • Dosage: 2-4mg (pediatric dose 0.05 mg/kg), repeat every 10-15 minutes until atropinization; OR 0.0040.016mg/kg/min, adjust the dosage by the amount of bronchial secretion (not by heart rate or pupil size!) • Course of therapy depends on the clinical severity • Should be used with caution in patients with BPH, glaucoma, high fever, hypertension, hypothyroidism • Adverse effects : anticholinergic manifestations, e.g. dry mouth, decreased intestinal motility, mydriasis, urine retention, tachycardia, fever, psychosis, hallucination, seizures, coma, ventricular dysrrhythmias

Pralidoxime (2-PAM) • The use of PAM in patients with carbamate insecticide poisonings remains controversial Reasons proposed against the use of PAM (1). Rapid hydrolysis of carbamylated acetylcholinesterase (2). PAM, in high concentration, can react with anionic site of acetylcholinesterase and then inhibit enzymatic hydrolysis of acetylcholine (3). In anecdotal reports, PAM has been reported to potentiate the toxic effects of carbaryl (4). Possible toxicities of PAM

Pralidoxime (2-PAM) • Indication : concomitant organophosphate insecticide poisoning, severe toxic manifestations, requiring large dose of atropine, or insecticide poisoning with uncertain cause • Dosage : 1-2gm (pediatric dose 25-40 mg/kg with total dose < 1gm), repeat the dose every 6-12 hours; OR 500mg/hr with maximum dose no more than 12gm/day • Rapid infusion (> 500mg/min) or large dose may lead to neuromuscular blockade, inhibition of cholinesterase, weakness, blurred vision, diplopia, dizziness, headache, nausea, tachycardia, CPK & ALT

除蟲菊精殺蟲劑中毒 • 天然除蟲菊 (pyrethrum) 及人工除蟲菊酯 (pyrethroids) • 天然除蟲菊來自菊科植物 Chrysanthemum flower ,包括 pyrethrin I 、 II 、 cinerin II 、 jasmolin I 、 II 等成份 • 除蟲菊酯 (pyrethroid) 為人工合成的產品,如 permethrin 、 cymethrin 、 allethrin 、 fenothrin 、 fenfluvalerate

除蟲菊精殺蟲劑中毒 • Type I syndrome (T syndrome) : restlessness, incoordination, palpitation, paralysis, aggressive sparring, elevated startle response, tremor, hyperexcitation Example: pyrethrin I, allerthrin, tetramethrin, kadethrin, resmethrin, phenothrin, permethrin

• Type II syndrome (CS syndrome) : hyperactivity, convulsions, ataxia, choreoathetosis, dermal tingling, coarse tremor, paresthesia, profuse salivation Examples:cypermethrin, cyhalothrin, deltamethrin, fenvalerate, fluvalinate, decamethrin, cyfluthrin, flucythrinate, cyphenothrin

除蟲菊精殺蟲劑 (I)

除蟲菊精殺蟲劑 (II)

除蟲菊精殺蟲劑 (III)

除蟲菊精殺蟲劑 (IV): 噴香及拜貢

除蟲菊精殺蟲劑 (V): Type II 製劑的賽滅寧

除蟲菊精殺蟲劑中毒 • 對於昆蟲及害蟲有極佳之效果 • 對於人體一般毒性很低,因此常作為家庭及 住家附近環境之殺蟲劑 • 半致死劑量一般在數百至數千 mg/kg • 支氣管痙攣及過敏性肺炎為較主要的毒性症 狀 • 市面產品中常添加高比率之溶劑,但其成份 多半不明

除蟲菊精殺蟲劑中毒 • 毒性症狀: • facial dysthesia 、 、 corneal damage 、 rhinitis 、 sore throat 、 asthma 、 respiratory paralysis 、 pulmonary edema 、 nausea 、 vomiting 、 paresthesia 、 contact dermatitis • 嚴重病患: convulsion 、 coma • 天然除蟲菊精較易導致過敏症狀

除蟲菊精殺蟲劑中毒 • 治療原則: 洗胃 活性碳 (?) 如有呼吸困難時,則使用氧氣,必要時 給予氣管擴張劑,甚至於氣管插管 有抽搐時以藥物控制抽搐 其他支持性療法

巴拉刈 (paraquat) 除草劑 (I)

巴拉刈 (paraquat) 除草劑 (II)

巴拉刈除草劑致口腔潰瘍 (I)

巴拉刈除草劑致口腔潰瘍 (II)

Paraquat 致急性肺泡炎 (I)

Paraquat 致急性肺泡炎 (II)

Paraquat 致肺纖維化 (I)

Paraquat 致肺纖維化 (II)

Paraquat 致肺纖維化 (III)

Paraquat 致肺纖維化 (IV)

巴拉刈除草劑與檢驗試劑 sodium dithionite 反應 (I)

巴拉刈除草劑與檢驗試劑 sodium dithionite 反應 (II)

巴拉刈除草劑與檢驗試劑 sodium dithionite 反應 (III)

Treatment

巴拉刈除草劑中毒

• Inducing emesis is not recommended (additive PP796, a phosphodiesterase inhibitor is emetic) • If no contraindication (e.g. seizure, CNS depression with unprotected airway, GI tract not intact): early gastric lavage until return fluid is clear & administration of activated charcoal • The effect of sodium polystyrene sulfonate (Kayexalate) remains inconclusive: survival in 6 of 22 patients (Yamashita 1987) • Whole bowel irrigation has not been shown to be of any benefit

巴拉刈除草劑中毒 Treatment

• Do not administer supplemental oxygen unless the patient presents with marked hypoxic symptoms/signs • Forced diuresis has not been shown to modify the outcome; possible aggravation of pulmonary edema • Hemoperfusion maybe useful if it can be commenced within 2 hours of ingestion Longer duration of hemoperfusion ? Possible complications of hemoperfusion: thrombocytopenia, hypocalcemia, hypotension, hypoglycemia, hypothermia

巴拉刈除草劑中毒 Treatment

• N-acetylcysteine may be effective (limited evidence) • Cyclophosphomide + corticosteroid: (1). 68% (41/61) mortality rate in untreated group vs. 28% (20/72) in treatment group (Addo & Poon-King 1986); but not all cases were confirmed by serum paraquat levels. (2). Survival in 18/22 patients (treated) vs. 12/28 patients (untreated) with moderate poisoning (Lin 1999); the data lost statistical significance when reanalyzed on an intention to treat basis (Buckley 2001)

巴拉刈除草劑中毒 Treatment

(3). No difference in survival between groups (Perriens 1992) Possible complications of therapy: septicemia, alopecia, acne, infertility in female patients • Vitamin C, vitamin E, sodium thiosulfate, colchicine, superoxide dismutase, radiotherapy...: lack of supporting clinical evidence • NO inhalation maybe helpful (Koppel 1994) • Hemodialysis if acute renal failure develops • Lung transplantation : occasional survival

嘉磷塞異丙胺鹽除草劑中毒 • 主成份: isopropylamine salted glyphosate (41%), polyoxyethyleneamine (a non-ionic surfactant, 15%) 俗稱 : 年年春 , 好你春 , 好伯春 , 日日好 , 紅星… • Color : brown yellow, pH 4.8 • LD50 of glyphosate : 5,200 mg/kg • Toxic mechanism : remains unclear but probably related to the surfactant polyoxyethyleneamine (GI tract irritation or ulcer, hypotension, diarrhea…)

嘉磷塞異丙胺鹽除草劑中毒 • Initial symptoms/signs : nausea, vomiting, sore throat, salivation, oral and GI tract ulcer (no severe injury) • Later stage (6-8 hours) : diarrhea and abdominal pain (uncommon and maybe due to the frequent use of cathartics in treatment of poisoning) • Other manifestations : conjunctivitis following splash contact, hypothermia, nystagmus, periorbital edema/burn, tachycardia, palpitation, erythema, contact dermatitis, hyperamylasemia, elevated liver enzymes, leukocytosis

嘉磷塞異丙胺鹽除草劑中毒 • Severe toxicity : metabolic acidosis, fever, hypotension, hypovolemia,acute renal failure, GI hemorrhage, ileus, hypoxia, bronchospasm, pulmonary edema, ARDS, seizure, hyperkalemia, cardiac arrhythmia, shock, coma • Airway injury due to aspiration is likely to be the major cause of death : injury of the artenoepiglottic fold may indicate airway injury (Chang 1995) • Mortality rate: 3%-11.3% • Predictors of mortality : hyperkalemia, pulmonary edema, and metabolic acidosis (Lee

嘉磷塞異丙胺鹽除草劑中毒 • Diagnosis : history and clinical manifestations; differential diagnosis between various herbicides • Treatment : decontamination (use of activated charcoal ?), fluid and electrolyte replacement, airway protection and aggressive treatment of aspiration pneumonia • Hemodialysis if acute renal failure develops Never use atropine or pralidoxime • Laboratory workup : CXR, arterial blood gases, CBC, biochemistry, ECG

嘉磷塞異丙胺鹽除草劑中毒之建議處理 方式

血壓下降或休克

腹痛或食道

少量服食 疼痛 , 潰瘍

高度懷疑 低血壓 吸入性肺炎

疑吸入性肺炎 ,

或併服其他毒藥物 補充水份及電解 質 , 監測血壓及心 CXR, 動脈血液 電圖 , 腎功能 氣體分析 , 抗生 素 ; 監測血壓 , 心 吸入性肺炎或 跳及呼吸 , 必要時 低血壓產生時 , 依其治療方式 給予氣管插管 處理 ; 其他藥物 之檢驗 , 並作必 要之處理

先禁食並觀察 依吸入性 肺炎 必要時安排上 之治療原 則處 消化道內視鏡 理 ; 如有 其他症 檢查及給予必 狀 , 則症 必要時給予升壓劑 ( 如 dopamine 狀治療 norepinephrine); 要之藥物治療 腎功能不佳則 安排 hemodialysis

圖一 . 嘉磷塞異丙胺鹽除草劑中毒之建議治療流程

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