Part I: Chapter One
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Kathleen Stassen Berger
Part I
Chapter One
Introduction Defining Development Five Characteristics of Development Developmental Study as a Science Prepared by Madeleine Lacefield Tattoon, M.A.
1
Defining Development The science of human development seeks to understand how and why people—all kinds of people, everywhere—change or remain the same over time. There are 3 crucial elements. 2
1. Science • developmental study is a science…. – theories – data – analysis – critical thinking – sound methodology 3
2. Diversity • studying all kinds of people – young and old – rich and poor – every ethnicity, background – sexual orientation
4
3. Connections Between Change and Time
• Changing or remaining the same over time – transformations – consistencies of human life • beginning to end – understanding each segment of life 5
Dynamic Systems Theory • stresses the fluctuations and transitions – the dynamic synthesis of multiple levels of analysis
• the interaction between people and within each person – parent and child – prenatal and postnatal life – between ages 2 and 102
6
Five Characteristics of Development “…developmentalists are acutely aware of the reciprocal connections between one moment in life and another… leading to five principles that are useful for understanding any age of human life…” 7
1. Multidirectional • changes in direction; development is dynamic, not static – each fraction of a second – years are analyzed, revealing unexpected twist and turns
8
The Butterfly Effect – the power of a small change • all change may have a large effect • every change affects a dynamic system
– a tiny event could have an enormous impact, not that is always does • opposite can occur… large changes can affect people in contradictory ways (i.e., 9
2. Multicontextual “…humans develop in dozens of contexts that profoundly affect their development…” – physical surroundings – family patterns
• Social context – historical – socioeconomic 10
The Historical Context – corhort • people born within a few years of one another – these people are affected by the same » values » events » technologies » culture 11
The Socioeconomic Context – socioeconomic status (SES) • “social class” – more than money – occupation – education – place of residence
• includes advantages and disadvantages
• Question: does low SES cause damage in 12
3. Multicultural “…culture affects each human at every moment… culture is so pervasive, people rarely notice their culture while they are immersed in it…”
13
Deciding What to Do Each Moment – culture • the patterns of behavior that are passed from one generation to the next • groups have their own culture – – – – – –
values customs clothes dwellings cuisine assumptions
14
Ethnicity, Race, and Income – ethnic groups – share certain attributes » ancestral heritage » national origin » religion » culture » language
• ethnic categories arise from history, sociology, and psychology, not from 15
Ethnicity, Race, and Income – race
– used to categorize groups of people » based on appearance » 95% of the genetic differences between one person and another occur within, not between, supposed racial groups
• race is misleading as a biological category – race = social construction – an idea created by society – perceived racial differences lead to discrimination 16
Ethnicity, Race, and Income – social construction • SES (socioeconomic status) – a form of income or wealth – overlaps with ethnicity and race – national history and SES affect culture, development
17
4. Multidisciplinary “…a broad array of disciplines and cross cutting topics… each person develops simultaneously in body, mind, and spirit…” Development is divided into three domains; – biosocial – cognitive – psychosocial 18
The Three Domains
19
5. Plasticity • denotes two complementary aspects of development – human traits can be molded
• yet maintaining durability of identity • culture and upbringing affect both aspects of plasticity • Genes and other biological influences
– provides hope and realism
• hope = changes is possible • realism = each developing person must build on 20
Developmental Study as a Science •
based on objective evidence
•
laden with subjective perceptions •
making developmental science challenging
21
Steps of the Science Method •
to avoid distortions of unexamined opinions and to control the biases of personal experience 1. ask a question 2. developing a hypothesis 3. test the hypothesis 4. draw conclusions 5. Make the finding available 22
Ways to Test Hypotheses •
Four methods: 1. Observation 2. The Experiment 3. The Survey 4. The Case Study 23
Observation •
record behavior systematically and objectively – occur in a naturalistic setting – tries to be unobtrusive – can occur in a laboratory or in searches of archival data 24
The Experiment used to establish cause
•
a particular treatment to expose to a specific condition
–
notes whether their behavior changes
• –
independent variable = imposed treatment or special condition
–
dependent variable = specific behavior being studied »
experimental group: is given a particular treatment 25
The Experiment
26
The Survey •
Information is collected from a large number of people by: – interview – questionnaire – some other means •
wording and the questions can influence answers 27
The Case Study •
intensive study of one individual or situation – asking about past history – current thinking – future plans
•
can provide unanticipated insight 28
Studying Change over Time
29
Studying Change over Time •
CrossSectional Research – designed to compare groups of people who differ in age but share other important characteristics (i.e., education, SES, ethnicity)
30
•
Studying Change over Time
Longitudinal Research
– design in which the same individuals are followed over time and their development is repeatedly assessed
31
Studying Change over Time •
CrossSequential Research – designed to first study several groups of different ages and then follow those groups over the years
32
Caution from Science •
developmental scientists also discover changes that are not beneficial – television, divorce, shift work, automobiles.
33
Caution from Science •
Correlation and Causation can be confusing
–
a correlation indicates the degree of
•
relationship between two variables. –
a correlation is positive if both variables tend to increase or decrease together
–
a correlation is negative if one variables tends to increase when the other decreases
–
a correlation is zero if no connection is evident 34
Caution from Science •
Quantity and Quality – a second caution concerns how much scientists should rely on data produced •
quantitative research: provides data that can be expressed with numbers
•
qualitative research contains descriptions of conditions, and 35
Caution from Science •
Ethics in Research – Caution for all scientists is to ensure that research meets ethical standards •
“code of ethics” – A set of moral principles that members of a profession or group are expected to follow
36
Caution from Science •
Protection of Research Participants – Researcher must ensure that participation is voluntary, confidential, and harmless
37
Caution from Science •
What should we Study? – Consider the most important ethical concern: •
“Are scientists studying issues that are crucial to human development?”
38
Part I
Chapter One
Introduction Defining Development Five Characteristics of Development Developmental Study as a Science Prepared by Madeleine Lacefield Tattoon, M.A.
1
Defining Development The science of human development seeks to understand how and why people—all kinds of people, everywhere—change or remain the same over time. There are 3 crucial elements. 2
1. Science • developmental study is a science…. – theories – data – analysis – critical thinking – sound methodology 3
2. Diversity • studying all kinds of people – young and old – rich and poor – every ethnicity, background – sexual orientation
4
3. Connections Between Change and Time
• Changing or remaining the same over time – transformations – consistencies of human life • beginning to end – understanding each segment of life 5
Dynamic Systems Theory • stresses the fluctuations and transitions – the dynamic synthesis of multiple levels of analysis
• the interaction between people and within each person – parent and child – prenatal and postnatal life – between ages 2 and 102
6
Five Characteristics of Development “…developmentalists are acutely aware of the reciprocal connections between one moment in life and another… leading to five principles that are useful for understanding any age of human life…” 7
1. Multidirectional • changes in direction; development is dynamic, not static – each fraction of a second – years are analyzed, revealing unexpected twist and turns
8
The Butterfly Effect – the power of a small change • all change may have a large effect • every change affects a dynamic system
– a tiny event could have an enormous impact, not that is always does • opposite can occur… large changes can affect people in contradictory ways (i.e., 9
2. Multicontextual “…humans develop in dozens of contexts that profoundly affect their development…” – physical surroundings – family patterns
• Social context – historical – socioeconomic 10
The Historical Context – corhort • people born within a few years of one another – these people are affected by the same » values » events » technologies » culture 11
The Socioeconomic Context – socioeconomic status (SES) • “social class” – more than money – occupation – education – place of residence
• includes advantages and disadvantages
• Question: does low SES cause damage in 12
3. Multicultural “…culture affects each human at every moment… culture is so pervasive, people rarely notice their culture while they are immersed in it…”
13
Deciding What to Do Each Moment – culture • the patterns of behavior that are passed from one generation to the next • groups have their own culture – – – – – –
values customs clothes dwellings cuisine assumptions
14
Ethnicity, Race, and Income – ethnic groups – share certain attributes » ancestral heritage » national origin » religion » culture » language
• ethnic categories arise from history, sociology, and psychology, not from 15
Ethnicity, Race, and Income – race
– used to categorize groups of people » based on appearance » 95% of the genetic differences between one person and another occur within, not between, supposed racial groups
• race is misleading as a biological category – race = social construction – an idea created by society – perceived racial differences lead to discrimination 16
Ethnicity, Race, and Income – social construction • SES (socioeconomic status) – a form of income or wealth – overlaps with ethnicity and race – national history and SES affect culture, development
17
4. Multidisciplinary “…a broad array of disciplines and cross cutting topics… each person develops simultaneously in body, mind, and spirit…” Development is divided into three domains; – biosocial – cognitive – psychosocial 18
The Three Domains
19
5. Plasticity • denotes two complementary aspects of development – human traits can be molded
• yet maintaining durability of identity • culture and upbringing affect both aspects of plasticity • Genes and other biological influences
– provides hope and realism
• hope = changes is possible • realism = each developing person must build on 20
Developmental Study as a Science •
based on objective evidence
•
laden with subjective perceptions •
making developmental science challenging
21
Steps of the Science Method •
to avoid distortions of unexamined opinions and to control the biases of personal experience 1. ask a question 2. developing a hypothesis 3. test the hypothesis 4. draw conclusions 5. Make the finding available 22
Ways to Test Hypotheses •
Four methods: 1. Observation 2. The Experiment 3. The Survey 4. The Case Study 23
Observation •
record behavior systematically and objectively – occur in a naturalistic setting – tries to be unobtrusive – can occur in a laboratory or in searches of archival data 24
The Experiment used to establish cause
•
a particular treatment to expose to a specific condition
–
notes whether their behavior changes
• –
independent variable = imposed treatment or special condition
–
dependent variable = specific behavior being studied »
experimental group: is given a particular treatment 25
The Experiment
26
The Survey •
Information is collected from a large number of people by: – interview – questionnaire – some other means •
wording and the questions can influence answers 27
The Case Study •
intensive study of one individual or situation – asking about past history – current thinking – future plans
•
can provide unanticipated insight 28
Studying Change over Time
29
Studying Change over Time •
CrossSectional Research – designed to compare groups of people who differ in age but share other important characteristics (i.e., education, SES, ethnicity)
30
•
Studying Change over Time
Longitudinal Research
– design in which the same individuals are followed over time and their development is repeatedly assessed
31
Studying Change over Time •
CrossSequential Research – designed to first study several groups of different ages and then follow those groups over the years
32
Caution from Science •
developmental scientists also discover changes that are not beneficial – television, divorce, shift work, automobiles.
33
Caution from Science •
Correlation and Causation can be confusing
–
a correlation indicates the degree of
•
relationship between two variables. –
a correlation is positive if both variables tend to increase or decrease together
–
a correlation is negative if one variables tends to increase when the other decreases
–
a correlation is zero if no connection is evident 34
Caution from Science •
Quantity and Quality – a second caution concerns how much scientists should rely on data produced •
quantitative research: provides data that can be expressed with numbers
•
qualitative research contains descriptions of conditions, and 35
Caution from Science •
Ethics in Research – Caution for all scientists is to ensure that research meets ethical standards •
“code of ethics” – A set of moral principles that members of a profession or group are expected to follow
36
Caution from Science •
Protection of Research Participants – Researcher must ensure that participation is voluntary, confidential, and harmless
37
Caution from Science •
What should we Study? – Consider the most important ethical concern: •
“Are scientists studying issues that are crucial to human development?”
38
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