Overview of renewable energy resources Introduction: The renewable energy resources can be classified into solar energy, wind energy, energy from biomass & landfill gas, geothermal energy, wave & tidal energies. Solar energy (i.e. its effect) may be used in one of the following ways to generate electricity heating (thermal), light photons (photovoltaic), temperature gradient (in oceans & solar ponds). The wind energy is used either with horizontalaxis or verticalaxis wind turbines to convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical energy (in the blades of the turbine). With biomass, any one of the following methods may be used to generate electricity: direct combustion or gasification / pyrolysis.Mthane collected from landfills or anaerobic digestion process may be used in generating electricity. Any of the available forms of the available geothermal energy (low, moderate or high temperature) can be used to generate electricity. Wave energy may be utilized to generate electricity through the use of the oscillating water column (OWC) turbine to generate electricity. From tidal energy, electricity can be generated using the bulb, rim or tubular turbines. The solar energy: The solar energy is used to generate electricity and for heating purposes. The methods of using the solar energy to generate electricity can be classified into: thermal (heat), photovoltaic (light, photon), ocean (temperature gradient) and solar ponds (temperature gradient). The first, namely thermal, can be classified into: parabolic trough, central receiver (power tower) and parabolic dish with Sterling cycle engine. The second method, namely photovoltaic, uses the light (photons) in the solar energy to convert it into electricity. The materials (crystals) used to achieve such conversion is classified into: thick film (mono or polycrystalline), and thin film. The third method, namely ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) makes use of the fact that the water on the surface (top) of the ocean is hotter than the deeper water. A temperature gradient is thus created that can be used to heat an intermediate fluid that is then used in generating electricity. This method can be subclassified into: open and closed cycles. The fourth, namely solar ponds, where the temperature gradient is created artificially by adding salt to the pond water (site). The water in the depth will be hotter than surface water. This temperature gradient will be used to generate heat thus saving on electricity consumption with heating loads or to generate electricity. The parabolic trough method: it uses the curved trough reflectors to concentrate the sun energy onto a receiver pipe running along the inside of the curved surface. This energy heats up oil flowing in the pipe and the heat energy then is used to generate steam in heat exchangers, then steam is used to generate electricity in conventional steam generators. The power rating can go as high as 80 MW. The central receiver (power tower): The sun's energy is concentrated by a field of hundreds on mirrors (known as heliostats) onto a receiver located on top of a tower. This energy heats water or molten salt flowing through the receiver. The salt's heat energy is then used to generate electricity in conventional steam generators. The power output ranges from 30 to 200 MW for molten salt and up to 10 MW for water. The dish/engine system: it is a standalone unit that is composed of a collector, a receiver and an engine. The sun's energy is collected and concentrated by a dishshaped surface onto a receiver that absorbs the energy & transfers it to the engine's working fluid. The engine converts the heat to mechanical power in
a manner similar to conventional engines (compressing the working fluid when it is cold, heating the compressed fluid & then getting it to expand through a turbine or piston to produce the work that will be converted into electricity in a generator or alternator). The power rating for such design can go up to 30 KW. Photovoltaic (PV) systems: Generating electricity from such systems can be classified broadly into stand alone or grid connected. The basic elements that are common to both applications are: the cells which when put together form the module & when the modules are put together form the array, batteries to store the dc generated from the PV array, the inverter to invert the dc into ac to be connected to the different loads. The ratings of a PV system can be classified according to the application of the system either it falls under residential for the domestic sector (1 to 5 KWpeak), integrated for the commercial and industrial sectors (10 to 250 KWp) or centralized for utility generation & distribution sectors (100 KWp to 5 MWp). <>Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC): The generation from the temperature gradient in oceans also benefits from the solar energy. It utilizes the temperature difference between the warm surface sea water and the cold deep ocean water to generate electricity. There are 2 distinct cycles any of which can be used to generate electricity: closed (vapourizing low boiling temperature fluid) or opened (vapourizing hot sea water) cycle. A temperature difference between the hot and cold water of 20 deg C is required to be able to generate electric energy using OTEC technology. The 3 different types/installations are: land based & near shore facilities, shelf mounted or free floating. The rating of such plants can go as high as 100 MW. Solar ponds: it is another method that uses the temperature gradient in water to generate electricity. This technology is termed salinity gradient. A solar pond is created if convection or evaporation is reduced so that the heat collected by the pond is stored. It is a shallow body of saline water several meters deep (salinity increases with depth). Solar radiation entering the pond is stored as heat in the lower layer. The temperature (heat) up to 80 deg C is available on a 24 hour basis. Solar ponds can be used for heating purposes thus saving on electrical energy consumption (for heating applications). Practically, solar ponds are used to generate electricity through Rankine cycle engine up to 70 KW. The wind as a source of electrical energy: Wind is simply air in motion. All renewable energies (except geothermal & tidal) plus energy in fossil fuels comes from the sun. About 1 to 2 % of the energy coming from the sun is converted into wind energy. Wind is caused by the uneven heating of the earth by the sun. The heating varies with time and with reflectance of surface. Wind generators: the basic components of a wind generating power system are: the rotor including the blades, the gearbox, the generator, the batteries, the sensors, the controls and the tower. The horizontal wind turbine produces electricity by using the natural power of wind to drive a generator. The blades (1, 2 or 3) rotate around a horizontal hub. The hub is connected to the gearbox and generator, which are located inside the nacelle. The nacelle houses the electrical components and is mounted at the top of the tower. There is another design, though is rarely used, the vertical axis wind turbine which does not use a tower or a yaw mechanism. It has the motor and other controls on the ground. The main disadvantage of such design is that it has lower efficiency as the air speed closer to ground is much
lower than at 40 or 50 meters high. The elements of a typical wind turbine system: 1) The rotor with a diameter up to 65 meters. 2) The blades of the rotor, 1 or 2 or 3 of them. Most installations will have 3 blades. The blades are made of glass fiber polyester or woodepoxy. The rotor operates at a constant speed 15 to 50 rpm or at a variable speed. 3) The generator (induction asynchronous or synchronous) is gear box or directly driven. 4) The yaw mechanism turns the turbine to face the wind. The sensors are used to monitor the wind direction and the tower head is turned to line up with the wind. 5) The towers can be any of the following tubular made of steel (painted gray) or lattice tower (2580 meters height). The power is controlled automatically as wind speed changes. The turbines are stopped at very high speeds to protect them from damage due to high winds. There are basically 2 methods to control the power output: the pitch control and the stall control. In the first method control is achieved through the change of the angle of the blade of the rotor. The second is a passive control that would stall the rotor at high speeds because of the inherited design of the blades of the rotor, their thickness & twisting. The capacity of such systems varies from several kilowatts to 1.5 MW (the longer the blade, the larger the swept area, the greater the energy output). Energy from biomass including landfill gas and anaerobic digestion: Electrical energy can be generated from biomass. Biomass (organic material) can be classified into: 1) Water & land based vegetation & trees. 2) Virgin biomass. 3) Waste biomass which can be further classified into: 3.1) municipal solid waste (MSW), municipal biosolids (sewage) & animal waste (manures). 3.2) Forestry & agricultural residues. 3.3) Certain types of industrial wastes. Electrical energy can also be generated from gas collected from landfill sites. The gas generated by decomposition of organic material at landfill disposal sites is approximately 50% methane. Anaerobic digestion is a biochemical process by which organic matter is decomposed by bacteria in the absence of oxygen producing methane (about 60%) and other byproducts. The methane collected in either cases is used as a fuel in gas boilers to evaporate water into steam that expands in a steam turbine rotating a generator thus generating electric energy. The methane can also be used to fire a gas turbine directly. With Biomass, any one of the following processes is used to generate electricity: direct combustion, gasification or pyrolisis of biomass. Pyrolysis means the thermal destruction of organic material in the absence of oxygen (usually without the addition of steam). Gasification methods can be further classified into airbased (direct) or indirect gasification cycles. In the former, the biomass is partially oxidized by oxygen amounts, with steam present, to provide the energy needed for the thermal conversion of the biomass to gases & organic vapours. In the latter, an external heat, instead of oxygen, is used to provide the energy for the high temperature steam gasification of the organic fraction of biomass to organic gases and vapours (non condensible vapours). If the primary products are
condensible vapours, the process is considered pyrolysis. Direct combustion can be classified into biomass firing or cofiring (coutilization) which means the introduction of biomass as a supplementary source in high efficiency boilers. These boilers may require minor modifications. The biomass direct combustion methods are: pile burner, stoker grate, bubbling (atmospheric) fluidized bed, circulating (atmospheric) fluidized bed and suspension burners. The co firing methods are: pulverized coal fired, fluidized bed (atmospheric & pressurized) and spreader stoker. Geothermal energy: It is heat (thermal) derived from the earth (geo). It is the thermal energy contained in the rock and fluid (that fills the fractures & pores within the rock) in the earth's crust. This energy resource can be classified into low (less than 90 deg C or 194 deg F), moderate (90 150 ?C or 194 302 ?F) & high (greater than 150 ?C or 302 ?F) temperature. It is also classified into whether the energy (heat) is used directly or indirectly (through heat pump or power plant). The direct use of such heat is in industrial processes, in growing fish, to heat building and for greenhouse growers. In power generation 1 of 3 methods is used. The first, the direct use, where the energy coming out from the ground is mainly dry steam. This steam is piped directly into a dry steam power plant to provide the force that will spin the turbine generator. The second is the use of the energy in flash power plant. Water is brought up to the surface through the production well, where upon release from the pressured deep reservoir, some of the water flashes into steam. The steam, from the separator, powers the turbine. The last method is used in binary plants, where the geothermal water is passed through a heat exchanger (heat is transferred into a second binary liquid that boils at a lower temperature than water). The binary liquid flashes to vapour that expands across and spins the turbine blades. Wave and Tidal energy: Electricity can be generated from waves. The power output can be as high as .5 MW per installation. The generating devices can be classified into fixed (shoreline, near shore line or sea bed) installation or floating one. There are a few designs for the fixed installation from which the most common is the oscillating water column (OWC) where a column of air contained above the water level is alternately compressed & decompressed (creating a high speed air in an exit blowhole). This air stream is allowed to flow to the atmosphere through a pneumatic turbine that is used as the prime mover to the generator. Tidal energy (twice daily variation in sea level) is caused by the gravitational effect of the moon and to a lesser extent of the sun on the oceans. The earth's rotation is also a factor in the production of tides. Plants up to 240 MW can be built, though function of the location as not all locations are suitable for such installations. The generation of electricity can be accomplished during the outgoing tide (ebb) or the incoming tide. The former being more common. The tidal systems can be classified into barrage, fence or tidal turbines (which are more or less similar in shape to the wind turbines). The barrage technology includes the bulb, rim or tubular turbines.