Oriya Medieval Bhakti Poetry

ORIYA MEDIEVAL BHAKTI POETRY SPECIAL EDTITION May –June 2009

Oriya Medieval Bhakti Poetry

Editorial

Priyadarshi Patnaik: Editorial Comments and Introduction

Key Concepts and Contexts

D P Pattanayak: Oriya Meter J M Mohanty: Historical background Namrata Chaturvedi: Mysticism of Charyā Poetry Tandra Patnaik: Orissan Vaisnavism Tandra Patnaik: Sunya Purusa Tandra Patnaik: Gyānamisra-Bhakti Tandra Patnaik: Pindabrahmānda Tatva Tandra Patnaik: Chitta-mana Tandra Patnaik: Sudra-bhakti Tandra Patnaik: RādhāKrishna Tatva Tandra Patnaik: Srusti Tatva

Sri Jagannath Temple at Puri, Orissa. Photo courtesy – hindupedia.com Several photographs used in the section relate to Sri Jagannath temple and deities in it. Rest of the images are traditional “Patta Chitras” of Orissa of various Hindu Gods and Goddesses. These are taken from various websites which are acknowledged.

Poems

Priyadarshi Patnaik: PrePanchasakhā Age Luipā Kukuripā Fragment from Sisu Veda Sāralā Dāsa Priyadarshi Patnaik: Panchasakhā Age Jagannātha Dāsa Achyutānanda Dāsa Balarāma Dāsa Jasobanta Dāsa Sisu Ananta Dāsa Priyadarshi Patnaik: PostPanchashakhā Age Chaitanya Dāsa Arakshita Dāsa Debānanda Dāsa Uddhava Dāsa Sālabega Bhima Bhoi Priyadarshi Patnaik: Koili Dutakāvya Mārkanda Dāsa Jagannātha Dāsa Lokanātha Bairāgi Dāsa

Editorial Comments and Introduction Priyadarshi Patnaik

Puri Temple. Water colour by Gaganendranath Tagore. Courtesy – indiapicks.com Medieval Oriya Bhakti Poetry Modern-day Orissa was a place of rich ferment of varied religious and philosophical traditions between the 15th and the 17th century AD. The Buddhist Tantric tradition which prevailed between the 8th–11th century AD had a powerful influence on later Vaisnavism. Later Nāthism became popular on the soil. At various points of time Saivism and Sāktism also left their impressions on the Orissan land. Fourteenth to 16 th century was a critical period in Orissan literary history where the language of literary Oriya matured. So also did its religious and spiritual tradition, growing into a rich amalgam of diverse faiths and spirits unified primarily by the cult of Lord Jagannātha at Puri. The poetry that emerged showed diverse influences and experiments in terms of both thoughts as well as forms. They also showed refinement in terms of assimilation of various religious and philosophical beliefs and resulted in a fairly evolved form of Vaisnavism that was unique to Orissa.

A quick look at Orissa since the early days gives us some idea of the diverse influences that pervaded this land.

· Orissa from 350 AD to 500 AD – Matharā kingdom – worshippers of Nārāryana. · Orissa from 500 AD to 750 AD – Saivism was strong in the region. · Orissa from 800 AD to 1100 AD – Bhauma Dynasty – Buddhists and Somo Vamsi Vaisnavas. (The Bhaumakaras were Buddhists)

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Thus, we find that the region that now constitutes Orissa was already exposed to diverse influences by the 11th century AD, a time when one finds Oriya as a language slowly emerging. By the time of Sāralā Dāsa (14th-15th century) an amalgamation of diverse mores and practices was discernable. And by the time of the Panchasakahās (15th –16th century) this assimilation was more or less complete, centred on the cult of Jagannātha. However, bhakti, in the writings of Sālabega and Bhima Bhoi, continued even into the 18th-19th century. Yet, this is a tradition that has suffered great neglect in the hands of modern scholars as well as translators. Although considerable work of merit has been done by modern Oriya scholars, certain aspects, especially Buddhism and Tantra, have been neglected. And when it comes to scholarship in English, there is hardly any mention of the significant contribution of Orissa to Tantra and later Buddhism. Similarly, from the point of literary texts and their translation, this tradition – which is so rich in metaphysical or bhakti poetry – has suffered. While many other such bhakti traditions and writers in those traditions are well known to us across Indian – Kabir, Nanak, Surdas and so on – the Oriya saint-poets are barely remembered, even by modern-day Oriyas. This is because they were hardly ever translated in the last century. Even today not many critical or historical writings on them are available in English, and translation of these works is hardly undertaken in any serious way. Modern scholars avoid translating the passages of deep metaphysical significance, symbolism and poetic merit because of the difficulty involved and due to lack of any incentive for either translation or publication. Hence, the Orissan Metaphysical tradition is poorly represented in the history of Indian literature. Due to lack of translation, it has failed to come to light in the Global context. With the advent of modern education, this long tradition is in danger of obliteration unless efforts are made to resurrect and present it in a modern idiom, through translation and representation of their metaphysical basis, and by delineating the major influences like Tantra, Buddhism, Yoga, Advaitism, Nāthism, Sāktism or Goudia Vaisnavism on them. However, things are changing. Scholars are today coming forward to translate these texts in spite of the difficulties involved. It is only because of such a positive approach to this tradition and to its texts that many eminent scholars and writes like D. P. Pattanayak, Soubhagya Mishra, Prafulla Mohanty, Sarat Chandra Satapathy, Jatin Nayak, Rajkishore Mishra, Arun Kumar Mohanty, N. S. R. Ayenger, Late Niranjan Mohanty, Jayant Biswal, Dharanidhar Sahu, Ramanendra Mohapatra, Diptiranjan Patnaik and Lipipuspa Nayak have come forward to translate them. In spite of the innate difficult involved in such translations, the translators have put in immense effort to attempt and capture both the meaning as well as the spirit of the poems; to make them read like original texts. While the poems could have been presented as a single continuous tradition, keeping in mind the historical context and time period, they have been divided into four subsections, namely, The Pre-Panchasakhā Age, The Panchasakhā Age, The PostPanchasakhā Age and The Koili Dutakāvya Tradition. While the first three show historical continuity, the fourth section brings out one unique genre that evolved out of this tradition, merely as an illustration, and to indicate that there are many such rich genres, mores and contexts that need to be explored. While the main focus is on the 15th-16th century (Medieval Orissa when one takes the evolution of Oriya language into consideration) the continuity of tradition is shown by including earlier and later poems.

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These different time periods, poets and poems come with very brief introductions that attempt not to distract the readers from reading the poems themselves, but to provide essential supplementary information. Any contemporary appreciation of this metaphysical tradition may be difficult without an understanding of the philosophical and religious concepts within which the poems were written. Even today, in certain parts of rural Orissa where tradition is strong, many of the poems are still recited or sung and the people of the soil have no difficulty in understanding much of the concepts or symbolism involved. However, for the modern audience of the 21st century many of the poems can be made more lucid by an understanding of certain key concepts which are ingrained in these writings. The short notes in the section entitled Key Concepts and Contexts attempt to address this problem. Professor D. P. Pattanayak‟s short note on “Oriya Meter” shows the close link of Oriya verse to classical music tradition. Sodasā (poems beginning with each letter of the sixteen vowels and Chautisā (34 consonants) are discussed. It points to the early experimentations in verse pattern in Sāralā Mahābhārata and the popularity of ninesyllabic verse in the hands of Jaganātha Dāsa. Professor J. M. Mohanty‟s “Oriya Bhakti Poetry: The Historical Background,” provides the historical context from within which one can look at both the theme and style of Sāralā Dāsa and the Panchasakhā. A very rich historical period, it is interspersed with both ups and downs that are reflected in the works of the poets of the period. Dr. Namrata Chaturvedi‟s “Mysticism of Charyā Poetry,” provides a background to the development of Oriya poetry tradition in three distinctive ways – the origin of the language as well as the important philosophical concepts and poetic figures that pervade the whole of Oriya bhakti poetry. Professor Tandra Patnaik‟s short notes focus on key concepts that one needs to understand in order to make the experience of reading the bhakti poems by Oriya poets a more fulfilling experience. These are Sunya Purusa, Gyāna-misra-bhakti, Pinda-brahmānda tatva, Chitta-mana, Sudrabhakti, Rādhā-Krishna tatva and Srusti tatva. For the serious reader, these articles would be of immense value for an understanding of the poems. Finally, the effort to bring an extremely rich philosophical poetic tradition to public attention would not have been possible without the enthusiastic support of the team at Muse India headed by its Managing Editor, Sri G S P Rao. Their efforts are to be deeply appreciated.

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Oriya Meter D P Pattanayak

Jagannath Temple. c 1880. Photographer unknown. Courtesy – blogs.fullorissa.com

The culture of Orissa is an amalgamation of Munda, Dravidian and Aryan cultures. Because of the Vindya ranges, Orissa remains the gateway between the north and the south of India. Orissa and Oriya developed their unique and individual cultural characteristics because of this cultural osmosis. The earliest man was close to nature. Therefore, whether it is the death of a near and dear one or a marriage in the family, the emotions overflowed in the form of music which resembled the noise of a spring or the music created by the wind passing through bamboo reeds. With settled cultures, whether it was painting on the cave walls, development of simple musical instruments to accompany vocal performances and/or dancing to the tune of natural rhythm, complexities in cultural forms developed. It is not at all surprising that the earliest Sangita Shāstras defined music as the combination of songs, musical instruments and dances (gittam Vādyanca nrutyanca trayam sangita muchyate). According to another text, whether it is singing, solo playing with instruments or dancing, if it is entertaining it is Sangita. As music separated itself and developed rāga the division came to be known as Desi and Mārgi. Desi consists of regional variations without ornamentations. At the time of Bharata of the 4th Century, who compiled the Nātya Sutra, music had become four-fold, Abanti, Dākshinatya, Pāncāli and Audramāgadhi. It means that diversity in singing, accompanying with instruments, as dancing existed long before Bharata and they were classified. Again, it is said that Regions, Dresses, Languages and Behaviour constitute Pravruthi (nānā desa besa bhāshachārya khyāpayatiti Pravruthi). Audra magadhi as a Pravruthi was well known and was used in Anga, Banga, Kalinga (Orissa), Vatsa, Udra, Magadha, Paundra, Nepoala and was both in Antargiri and Bahirgiri.

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It must be mentioned here that prose is a later development and poetry was used to maintain the oral tradition through recitation. In earlier times varieties of prose were also sung. According to Sangita Ratnākara, six varieties of prose were sung in India, one of them being Utkalikā. The confusion about prose and poetry was not a feature of India and Orissa. A character in Bourgeois Gentilhomme was surprised when he was told that during his life of thirty years he was speaking prose. Therefore, it is not at all surprising that there was a contemporary debate about Rudrasudhānidhi (8th century ?) being prose or poetry. The earliest landmark in Oriya literature is Mahābhārata of Sāralā Dāsa. According to the majority opinion, this is a work of the 15 th Century. Prior to this there were Sodasā and Cautisā, compositions which speak of vowels as consonants in Oriya and provide material for studying language change. The poem that was written by putting the 16 vowels in the beginning of each line or each pāda was known as Sodasā. Similarly, by putting the 34 consonant in the beginning of each line or Pāda is known as Chautisā. Now Oriya has 6 vowel phonemes and 28 consonant phonemes. And yet the old forms are retained because of their popularity. First of all six Rāgas and 16 Rāginis were identified. Then variations ensued. A technical term Mela came to be used after the 13th Century. It entered into literature and was extensively used around the 13th Century. Mela refers to a specific group of vowels. It helps in the creation of Raagas. Before the creation of Ragas poets counted letters and wrote poetry. Subsequently Guru Laghu mātras were counted. That is how Nabākshari (nine syllables) and Chaturdasākshari (14 syllables) poetry was written. It was followed by Guru Laghu creations at a time known as the Bhanja Era in Oriya literature. The two stalwarts of the metaphysical tradition in Oriya are Jagannātha Dāsa and Balarāma Dāsa who wrote Bhāgavata and Rāmāyana respectively. Bhāgavata was written in the Nabākshari Vrutta. This must have been the most popular melody of the time. There were nine letters in each line. The language was conversational. Balarāma’s Ramāyana was known as Dāndi Ramāyana. It was written in Dāndi meter. The lines were uneven. It is said that a line should be as long as a breath holds. Once formalized this became Dāndi Vrutha. The poets of the metaphysical tradition have indicated that the particular should be sung in such and such Vāni or Vrutta. They are compositions resulting from 72 melas, thus becoming models for subsequent writing.

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Historical background J M Mohanty

Minor temples at south side of Puri temple. 1890 AD. Photo by Poorna Chandra Mukherjee. Courtesy – oldindianphotos.blogspot.com Oriya Bhakti Poetry emerged in the 15th and 16th centuries. But both the centuries constituted a critical period for Orissa when it rose to heights of glory and fell into depths of despair. The power of the Imperial Gangas that ruled Orissa beginning from the later part of the 11th century came to be weakened towards the later part of the 14 th century and the last two Ganga kings, Narasimhadeva IV and Bhanudeva IV, who ruled respectively from 1378AD to 1414 AD and 1414 AD to 1435 AD, had to contend with continuous attacks from the north and the south, as well as continuing intumescing squabbles and warfare. By the fourth decade of the 15 th century, the conditions became intolerable, and when Bhanudeva IV was away from his capital and busy in the South, one of his ministers, Kapileswar Routroy, seized the throne and proclaimed himself the king. Kapileswar Routroy, who assumed the royal name of Kapilendradev, inaugurated a new dynasty called Suryavamsi (claiming descent from the mythical Surayvansa – Solar Dynasty – of Lord Ramachandra), and ruled Orissa with great aplomb and power from 1435 AD to 1468 AD, when he conquered vast territories in the North, South and the West, extended his empire from Ganga in the North to Kavery in the South, and established himself as one of the greatest monarchs of the time. For Orissa it was a turning back to the glorious days of the Great Ganga emperors, Chodagangadeva, Anangabhimadeva III and Narasimhadeva I, particularly after almost a century of humiliation under weak Ganga rulers. So the strongly rejuvenated national spirit of Orissa rose to a height unprecedented before. Kapilendradev was a powerful ruler. His son and grandson, Purusottamdev and Prtaparudradev, who ruled after him though not as strong as he was, were strong in a

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way to hold on to their own in spite of occasional reverses, and for about 100 years beginning from about mid-15th Orissa experienced a great elation of spirit and motivation. But the times were changing. The greater debacle came from the North, from the Muslim invaders, who had been poaching on Orissan territories since the beginning of 13th century, and this was supplemented by internal intrigues, disloyality and strongly motivated ambitions. Prataparudra died in 1538, and by that time the cup was almost full. His two sons, Kaluadev and Kakharudev were minors and were almost nonentities, and were quickly murdered in succession by Prataparudra‟s ambitious minister Govinda Vidyadhar, who usurped the throne, and founded a new dynasty, called the Bhoi Dynasty. Govinda Vidyadhar ruled from 1540-1549. He was followed by his son Chakrapratap who ruled from 1549-1557. He was murdered by his own son Narasimha Jena (1557-1558) who in turn was murdered by one Mukunda Harichandan, the then Governor of Katak, who emerged as the ruler of Orissa in 1560 and ruled till 1568. Mukundadev was a powerful ruler. He stood strongly against the external, particularly the Muslim invaders. But he was struck by internal enemies and by his own people and was killed in a battle in 1568, when Orissa lost its independence and came to be ruled by the Afghan rulers of Bengal that continued almost till the end of 16 th century, which was later replaced by the Mughals, the Marathas, and finally by the British. The change of administration in Orissa after 1568 AD, had two important political effects. First, Orissa lost its independent identity as it used to have before 1568 AD, and virtually became an appendage of Bengal. Secondly, with the weakening of the central administration, that was more given to personal aggrandizement, the feudatory chiefs of Orissa became practically independent – a system of division which was officially institutionalized later, under the Mughal rule, as the „Garjat‟ and the „Mughalbandi‟. The condition was chaotic. In fact, the spirit that had arisen high in the 15 th century with the advent of Kapilendradev had appreciably fallen low by the third decade of the 16 th century and came to a depth of despair by the time Pratāprudra passed away. After that, for about 30 years till 1568 AD, it was a horrifying tale of continuous intrigues and murders, manifestation of man‟s basest instincts and a sad sequel to the glorious days of Surayavansi rulers. The change of guards in 1568 AD only aggravated the situation when the local roots were cut off by an indifferent, unscrupulous and self-motivated administration. All had a telling effect on the contemporary conditions of living. Sarala‟s „Mahābhārat‟ and „Chandi Purāna‟ etc. in the 15th century were the joyous song of a nation in an up-beat mood, when the nation crossed shackles to burst forth into power and glory. The mood changed in the 16 th, when it became one of helplessness and defeat, of indiscipline and insecurity. A different creative vision was necessary to bind the nation together, to put hope and strength in the losing heart, no longer the poet who marches ahead and carries the standards of victory and glory, but has to be a teacher, a moral preceptor, who can enlighten mental darkness, and can bind together the failing hearts in new solidarity and strength. The Oriya Bhakti poets in the 16th century, the so called „Panchasakhās‟, the Five Friends, did all that. They cut caste distinction and provided hope and strength to a losing and defeated nation – a singular phenomena that did not have any royal or military support, but rose as a mass movement, and flourished in the trust and confidence of the mass.

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Mysticism of Charyā Poetry Namrata Chaturvedi

View of Dol Mandapa. 1890 AD. Photo by Poorna Chandra Mukherjee. Courtesy – oldindianphotos.blogspot.com

In tracing the history of Oriya poetry one invariably comes across Charyā Sahitya, literature written by Siddhāchāryas who belonged to parts of Orissa, Bengal, Bihar and Assam. These siddhāchāryas were practitioners of Mahāyāna Buddhism, amongst whom Luipā, Sarahapā and Kanhupā hailed from Orissa. The term „siddha‟ derives from the original Sanskrit „siddha‟ meaning „fulfillment‟ or „achievement‟ and denotes one of the eighteen categories of celestial beings in Hindu mythology. Siddhas are believed to be semi-divine beings who dwell in the sky between the earth and the sun. Their literature dates back to the period from 8th to 12th century, a vibrant period in the religious history of India when the devotional movement now categorized as Bhakti movement was inspiring saints and poets all over the subcontinent from Andal in Tamil Nadu to Lalleshwari in Kashmir. Charyā sāhitya is believed to mark the beginnings of Oriya poetry. It belongs to what is known as Adi Yug (ancient period) in Oriya literature when the Charyāpada was composed. It consists of 47 padas (verses) composed by 22 saints (siddhāchāryas) whose names are affixed to the beginning of each (except first) pada and also as the signature towards the end of each pada. These poems were primarily meant to be sung, like the devotional verses of Kabir or Mirabai. The original palm leaf manuscript was discovered in Nepal by Haraprasad Shastri at the Royal Court Library in 1907. This manuscript was edited by Shastri and published by the Bangiya Sahitya Parishad as a part of Hajar Bacharer Purano Bangala Bhasay Bauddhagan O Doha in 1916 CE under the name of Charyācharyavinishchayah. This text consisted of a commentary in Sanskrit titled Charyāgeetikoshavritti written by Munidatta. Besides, there is also a Tibetan translation done by Chandrakirti. The language of these verses is peculiar; it is called “Sandhyā Bhāshā” (twilight language) as the metaphors and images therein are meant to conceal half and reveal half of the meaning. Poetry that developed in different parts of India during this period evoked unique styles, like the “ulat bamsi” (inverted

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flute) of Kabirdas, Aham and Puram styles of mapping the inner and outer landscape in Sangam style and so on. This literature predates the celebrated epic (Geet Govinda) written by Jayadeva in Sanskrit. Charyā poetry is significant for understanding the development of devotional literature and the subsequent Vaishnavism in Orissa and other parts of Eastern India, wherein Sri Chaitanya was a popular saint. The religious philosophy in these verses is of Tantric Buddhism, with its emphasis on yoga and the worship of sakti.

In these verses, one notices bold sensuality with images of lovemaking and consumption that evoke the intensity of spiritual desire. In his padas, Kanhupā evokes images of dombi, an untouchable woman and her sensuality and lovemaking. In the following two verses, Kanhupā comments on the pretensions of the mundane world regarding untouchability and the ignorance of the world in differentiating between the chaste and the impure:

I plied three worlds with great ease And slept in the sport of great happiness. O Dombi, tell me, how is your lover, He who is at the high castle outside, But inside, a kāpāli. Dom woman, you have turned everything into the untouchable Without any reason you have pushed aside the moon. Some say you are very bad. Wise men do not leave your neck. Kanhu sings: you are chandāli, passion-woman. Dombi, there is no one as unchaste as you. [emphasis mine] (Charyāpada 18) Samsāra and Nirvāna are the tabor and the drum. The mind and vital breath are the flute and the cymbal. Victory cries spill over the sky. Kanhupā goes to wed Dombi. By marriage to Dombi he consumed the birth. For a dowry he receivd blissful religion. Day and night pass in love making. Night ends in the net of the yogini. The yogi is intense with Dombi. [emphasis mine] He does not leave her for a second. He is intoxicated with the love of Sahaja. (Charyāpada 19)

In Tantric mysticism, sexual union is considered pure and symbolic of the ultimate union of the soul with god. In these verses, the yogi expresses the ecstasy of love-making and the pleasure of sexual union is likened to the pleasure of spiritual union. This trope of equating the love of god with the love of man/woman was common in Bhakti literature, with the tradition of „madhurya bhakti‟ wherein human love was equated to divine love. In the tradition of Tantric mysticism, the trope of love is expanded to include images of

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sexual union and the language of expression is very direct without euphemisms of any kind. The language of these padas is „sandhyā bhāsā‟ where half the meaning is left concealed. At the surface level, these verses would sound erotic but disjointed to a reader; however, within the gaps lies the meaning. Through the images of sexual intensity and intoxication, the yogi conveys his blissful union with god. During the medieval period in Eastern India, this Tantric mysticism influenced a particular sect of Vaishnavas known as Vaishnava-Sahajiya. Since the philosophy of this sect contrasted with the other sects of Vaishnavism with its insistence on sexual love as means of attaining divine love, it was considered as a „left handed path‟ (vāmacara) and heterodox (nāstik) by many. The trope of Rādhā-Krishna love was popularized and „sandhyā bhāsā‟ was followed to enable a coded and encrypted expression of belief. These verses, because of the very nature of encrypted meaning through the use of deceptive language are considered impure and vulgar by many. For a person not initiated into the Tantric system, the images and metaphors would appear crude and abhorrent. However, it is unfair to apply the codes of morality of the mundane world to literature that is mystical and other-worldly. Lal-Ded the saint of Kashmir was known to roam the streets naked. From the worldly standard of morality, this is unacceptable and objectionable. However, Lalleshwari or Lal-Ded is revered as a saint by both Hindus and Muslims. Mirabai may not have been the ideal Hindu wife, but is definitely the ideal of spiritual lover and the composer of beautiful and lyrical divine verses of love. As the padas were originally meant to be sung, there were accompanying ragas to each verse. The most common among them was patamanjari, along with others like gabada or gauda, gurjari or gunjari, kāmod, baladdi or baradi, mallāri and bhairavi. These verses offer an insight into the life of people in pre-medieval Orissa. For instance, it is revealed that girls wore peacock feathers, flower garlands and earrings as adornments; cows were common domestic animals, along with elephants. The occupation of hunting, rowing the boats and pottery were common, and occupation-based caste system was rigid. At the same time, the unconventional lyrics of the songs challenge norms and are subversive in potential to the extent of being criticized and considered unacceptable even in devotional literature. In these songs, hierarchies are challenged, conventional ills like the caste system are questioned, and most importantly, sexuality is not denied to women nor any euphemisms employed in describing sexual ecstasy and concurrently spiritual union. This Tantric mysticism is an important part of mysticism in Eastern India and the poems of these siddhachāryas contribute to an understanding of this medieval cult of worship.

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Orissan Vaisnavism Tandra Patnaik

Jagannath Temple, view from South-East. 1892 AD. Photo by William Henry Cornish. Courtesy – oldindianphotos.blogspot.com

Orissan Vaisnivism is unique and indigenous, with a distinctive metaphysics of its own. Like all other forms of Vaisnavism it is centered on the worship of Visnu or any of his forms. In case of Orissan Vaisnavism that flourished in this land 16 th century onwards, the main focus was on Lord Jagannātha who by that time has been already identified as Visnu. Vaisnavism has a long history of its own in Orissa. Worship of Nārāyana and Mādhava was already popular in Orissa since the 8 th century A.D. But it took a new turn and was given a new impetus by a group of five eminent Santha poets of Orissa Jagannātha Dāsa, Balarāma Dāsa, Achyutānanda Dāsa, Yasovanta Dāsa and Sisu Ananta, popularly known as the Panchasakhā or the five soul-mates. This new form of Vaisnavism radically differed from the other forms of Vaisnavism in its metaphysical perspectives. This neo-Vaisnavism (which in the absence of an appropriate name is called as Orissan Vaisnavism) not only accepted Jagannātha as an avatar (the Lord incarnate) of Visnu but also conceived Him to be of the nature of the indeterminable and ineffable Sunya Purusa. Again, for them, the mode of worship was nirugna upāsanā, i.e, the worship of a God transcending all qualities, both positive and negative. The concepts of Sunya Purusa and nirguna upāsanā introduced by these santha philosophers can be put in direct contrast to other forms of Vaisnavism, specifically Ramanuja‟s Sri Vaisnavism and Sri Caitanya‟s Gaudiya Vaisnavism (also very popular in Orissa during that phase). Both these schools conceive the parama Isvara as saguna, i.e., they believe that the worshippers adore the Lord along with his divine qualities. Besides, most of the forms of Vaisnavism emphasise pure bhakti or else premabhakti, i.e, bhakti accentuated by love, but for the Orissan Vaisnavas the path to realization is gyana-misra bhakti, i.e., bhakti accentuated by selfknowledge. Another distinctive feature of this form of Vaisnavism is its monistic or Advaitic leaning that is very rarely found in other forms of Vaisnavism. The Orissan

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Vaisnavas subscribe to the view that there is no dividing line between the jivātman and the paramātman, while the other schools of Vaisnavism maintain a subtle distinction between the two. Because of such radically distinct viewpoints historians and critics often find it difficult to put the Orissan Vaisnavas in any class or school of Vaisnavism. Some scholars call them crypto-Buddhists, others call them Yogācaris and there are still others who call them the Bauddha-Vaisnavas. Such epithets are ascribed to them because there are certain elements in their bhakti philosophy that have strong traces of Buddhism and other non-Vaisnavic schools. In fact, Jagannātha cult as well as the Oriya culture were profusely exposed to different religious and philosophical movements that swept different parts of India. Fortunately for Orissa, the culture of this land embraced and assimilated diverging religious and cultural traits within its fold. Orissan Vaisnavism is a living example of such a culture of assimilation. This is evident from the typical metaphysical stance the Orissan Vaisnavas adopted. There are certain elements of Buddhism (especially Tantric Buddhism) in their philosophy, yet they were not Buddhists; their strong monistic leanings may bear a close affinity to Sankara‟s Advaitism, yet they did not fully subscribe to the abstruse metaphysics of Sankara. They believed in the impermanence of the empirical world, yet they were not Māyavadins like Sankara. Similarly, they believed that the human body is the very basis of controlling the mind and therefore could be taken as the means of the sādhanā, yet they were not the Kāyavādins like the Tantrikas. They preached theory of Hatha yoga, yet they were not the followers of the philosophy of the Yoga. To put it in brief, in the Vaisnavism spearheaded by the great Oriya santhas we come across a grand synthesis of Buddhism (especially its Tantric variety), Vedanta, Tantra, Nāthism and Yoga. This new trend of Vaisnavism was carried on further by other eminent poets like Araksita Dāsa, Caitanya Dāsa, Devānanda Dāsa, Dwāraka Das, Divākara Dāsa and others.

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Sunya Purusa Tandra Patnaik

Lion Gateway, Singhadwara. 1865 AD. Photo by Henry Dixon. Courtesy – oldindianphotos.blogspot.com

The idea of Sunya Purusa plays a pivotal role in Orissan culture and philosophy since the 15th century AD or even prior to that. Some of the earliest Oriya works like Sisu Veda, Vedānta Sāra, Sri Gitā Sāra, Vira Singha Chautisā, Gorekha Hadipa Samvāda that are believed to date between 13th and 14th century frequently refer to the concept of sunya. Santha Sāralā Dāsa, who may be said to be the founder of the santha (wise spiritual gurus) culture in Orissa, developed the idea further and very explicitly used two novel concepts viz; Buddha- Jagannātha and Úûnya Brahman in his transcreation of the Mahābhārata in the Oriya language. These two seminal concepts reveal some mystical connection between Buddhism and Jagannāthism that needs a detailed probe. But it was the five great santhas, popularly known as Panchasakhā, who gave a final shape to the theory of Sunya Purusa. They transformed Jagannātha, the presiding deity of the land, into the symbolic representation of the ultimate metaphysical principle viz., Sunya Purusa/ sunya Brahman. Many subsequent santhas like Caitanya Dāsa, Araksita Dāsa, Dwāraka Dāsa, Divākara Dāsa, Isvara Dāsa and others adhered to the same philosophy till the 19th century. Mahimā cult, which gained prominence during this century, continued to focus on the concept of the Sunya Purusa, but subsequently got rid of the Vaisnavic fervor that was associated with this term. The concept of Sunya Purusa is unique and original in many respects. Excepting in the Dharma cult of Bengal we very rarely come across a sunya-centric metaphysics within the Hindu tradition. We know that sunya is usually associated with Mahāyāna Buddhism, so it seems that the theory of Sunya Purusa may have a Buddhistic base. The idea of sunya, though not entirely unknown to the Upanishadic and Vedic culture, is also not a very popular concept of the Brahminical tradition. Texts like Sribhāgavatam and

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Tejovindu Upanisad describe Parama Brahman as sunyavat. Similarly in Visnu Sahasranāma, there is the use of the term sunya with reference to Visnu. Samkarācārya, in his commentary on this work analyses this term as „savisesa rahita tvat sunyavat (it is without determination, hence like sunya). Yet none of the orthodox (Astika) schools of Indian philosophy prefer to use the epithet sunya in the context of the highest Reality. It is interesting to note that Sankara‟s theory of Brahman, that comes closest to Nāgārjuna‟s philosophy of sunya, does not hesitate branding Sunyavāda as a form of Ucchedavāda (nihilism). So it may be safely concluded that the deeper nuances that are associated with the term Sunya Purusa must not have been entirely derived from the Upanishadic and Purānic sources. It is well known that Nāgārjuna was the first systematic propounder of Sûnyavāda. For him the ultimate truth as well as the Reality is of the nature of sunyatā. The way he uses the term sunyatā, it should stand neither for void nor for absolute negation. It is unfortunate that most of the dictionaries translate sunya as void or emptiness. Sunya, as per Nāgārjuna‟s theory, stands for the ultimate Reality (tattva). While defining tattva he ascribes to it certain characteristics, which do not allow us to be convinced that the word sunya means total annihilation (uccheda), as interpreted by Sankara. Sunyatā, for Nāgārjuna as well as other Mādhyamika Buddhists, stands for the transcendental principle that eludes all the categorical forms used in human thinking. Reality is called sunyatā because distinctions like existence / non-existence, affirmation / negation that are basic human ways of understanding the empirical world do not apply to it. Nāgārjuna declares it to be catuskoti vinirmukta, i.e., beyond the four-fold categories of existence and non-existence. Thus, according to Nāgārjuna, sunya is a principle about which neither existence nor nonexistence, nor a combination of both, nor the negation of both, can be predicated. In other words it is an indeterminate, ineffable and non-describable principle. As I have indicated earlier, Sankara too interprets Brahman as indescribable (avyakta) and nirguna (transcending determination through ascription of qualities) and nivikalpa (beyond concepts). In this sense there is not much of a distinction between the concepts, sunyata and nirguna Brahman, propounded by two apparent opponents. Because of this similarity in their conception of the highest Reality scholars are divided in their opinion about the origin of the Orissan Vaisnavic theory of the Sunya Purusa. There is a tendency on the part of many scholars to wish away the impact of the Buddhism on Orissan bhakti movement. They prefer to interpret it purely in terms of Advaitism. We must remember that neither Sankara‟s Brahman nor Nāgārjuna‟s sunyatā is anobject devotion. Sankara introduces the concept of saguna Brahman/Isvara to accommodate the theory of upāsanā or bhakti. So it will be unjust to say that the Orissan Vaisnavism is nothing but an extension the monistic philosophy of the Advaita. By the same logic we cannot say that the Oriya Vaisnavas were the followers of the Mādhyamika Sunyavāda. Rather one may notice that this unique concept of Sunya Purusa has some uncanny affinity to the Vajrayanic idea of the Vajrasattva. Historians and archeologists have already proved that Buddhism in its multiple sectarian forms had deep roots in Orissa. Recent archeological excavations very clearly indicate that this land once upon a time was the cradle of Tantric Buddhism, especially of the Vajrayāna order. There are enough scriptural evidences that clearly indicate that Uddiyāna or present day Orissa was one of the great centers of this cult. As a sub-sect of Mahāyāna Buddhism, Vajrayāna offers a modified version of Sunyavāda by incorporating the elements of yoga and tantra and in the process turning it in to a bhakti-oriented metaphysics. Like the Sunyavādins they too accord primacy to sunyatā. But they find its symbolic representation in the idea of vajrasattva. The term Vajra, as per their theory, stands for sunyatā and the word sattvā implies manifestation of forms and names in the empirical world. The basic principles of sunyavāda remains intact in this new formulation

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as the incomprehensibility and ineffability of sunaytā as the highest Reality continues to dominate the metaphysics of Vajrayāna. Here lies the basic difference between the Mādhyamika Buddhism and Sankara‟s Advaitavāda on the one hand and the Vajrayāna on the other. Both the Orissan Vaisnavas and the Vajrayānis share the theory of a monotheistic supreme Godhead. Like the Sunya Purusa Jagannāth of the Orissan Vaisnavas vajrasattvā, too, is conceived as ineffable and non-conceptualisble object of devotion. But as the highest Reality as well as God this is not a pure abstraction or absolute void, but rather the potential womb and receptacle of all that is there in the phenomenal world. Frequent reference to the Sunya Purusa -Jagannātha as Buddha by the Oriya santha poets also gives credence to the claim that there might have been some influence of this cult on the development of this bhakti-oriented metaphysics based on the ineffable nature of God. It must be made clear that these santha philosophers were not Buddhists, nor the crypto Buddhists as it has been claimed (as indicated in Nagendra Nath Vasu‟s Modern Buddhism and Its Followers in Orissa). They were ardent worshippers of Lord Jagannātha, who by that time has already been recognized as a fully Vaisnavised and Hinduised deity. But the idea of conceiving God as sunya is not definitely a part of Hindu tradition. So, in the true sense the theory of Sunya Purusa is an amalgamation of Buddhistic and Upanishadic ideas. I have already indicated that there seems to be no discordant note between Sankara‟s conception of Brahman and the Buddhist concept of sunyatā. Since neither of the ideas was alien to Panchasakhā they did not have any compunction about using the term Sunya Purusa or sunya Brahman interchangeably with reference to the highest Reality. The impact it had on the common mass also proves that the people of this land were not unacquainted with this spirit of amalgamation; otherwise it would not have been possible for the Panchasakhā to propagate a bhakti cult in which the God, specifically Jagannātha, was depicted as unnameable, non-graspable, formless Sunya Purusa. Acyutānanda Dāsa‟s Sunya Samhitā, Anākara Samhitā and Sunya Samhitā Tikā; Balarāma Dāsa‟s Virāta Gitā and Sārasvata Gitā and Jagannātha Dāsa‟s Tulā Bhinā and Virāta Gitā, Chaitanya Dāsa‟s Nirguna Mahātmya and Visnugarbha Purāna, Dvāraka Dāsa‟s Parache Gitā and Bhima Bhoi‟s Brahma Nirupana Gitā very explicitly deal with the concept of Sunya Purusa. These works throw light on the varied nuances associated with the term. There uses suggest that Sunya Purusa-Jagannātha is a personal God and the object of meditation and devotion. He is thus the Parama Isvara. One may note here a peculiar amalgamation of the Advaitic conception of Nirguna Brahman and Ramanuja‟s theory of Saguna Parama Isvara. But in the Indian orthodox tradition no reconciliation between these two concepts could be achieved because they held on to two widely divergent concepts. Here the Orissan Vaisnavas seem to score a metaphysical victory. Another interesting note of similarly between Vajrayāna and Panchasakhā conception of the Sunya can be observed in their classification of the sunya. In the treatise Pancakarma of Nāgarjunepāda, a Siddha of the Vajrayāna cult, a hierarchical presentation is sunya is offered. They are sunya, atisunya, mahāsunya and sarvasunya. Panchasakhā also follow this classifying sunya. Achuytānanda talks of three grades of sunya viz., sunya, mahāsunya and jyoti, whereas Yasovanta talks of four viz, sunya, jyotirsunya, mahāsunya and chetanā.

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Gyāna-misra-Bhakti Tandra Patnaik

Singhadwara, Jagannath Temple. 1870 AD. Unknown photographer. Courtesy – oldindianphotos.blogspot.com

Another important concept introduced by the Panchasakhā is the theory of gyāna-misra bhakti in contrast to the suddha bhakti of the Vaishnavas. In my discussion on Sunya Purusa, I have already indicated that these philosophers laid a great stress on nirākāra mantra. Their mode of worship is often called nirguna upāsanā. So instead of conceiving bhakti as an emotional attachment to God, they preached a form of bhakti based on selfknowledge and yoga. Jagannātha Dāsa‟s Srimad Bhāgavata develops this theory in greater detail. He always insists on realising ātman in ātman. He specifies that the knowledge of the self is true knowledge. With this knowledge alone bhakti can be achieved. This insistence on self-knowledge as the path to mukti bears strong resemblance with Samkara‟s Advaitavāda. It is well known that Samkara has charted out the path of gyāna as the only path to spiritual realization. He even defines bhakti as svarupanusandhāna, i.e., an investigation into one‟s (atman) true nature. Similar emphasis has been laid on knowledge in Buddhism which they term it as pragnyā. It is a fact that Orissan culture was exposed to both Samkara‟s teachings as well as Buddhism. Whatever may be the source of the theory of gyāna-misra bhakti, it formed a central theory of mukti of the Orissan Vaisnavism. This theory is clearly brought out in the following verses by Balarāma Dāsa and Achyutānanda Dāsa.

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Bhakti arises out of self-contemplation, And from such a bhakti yoga emerges.1 By penetrating gyāna one gets bhakti And penetrating bhakti one gets gyāna.2 Clarifying the notion of gyāna Achyutānanda says, “the knowledge of „you‟ is within your heart. You have to find it there and realise it. Again “Brahmagynāna and Gyāna Brahman are never far from you, they are inseparably present within your heart.” In this context, Vajrayāni notion of ahamkāra may be of some interest. A peculiar feature of Vajrayāna worship is the identification of the bodhicitta with the deity worshiped. According to ahamkāra theory, the worshiper must consider himself to be the deity. Instead of worshipping an external object, the self or the mind of the worshipper himself is worshipped. In medieval santha philosophy as well as in the rituals of the Jagannātha temple we notice the impact of this theory of ahamkāra. Sisu Ananta Dāsa, in his Hetu Udaya Bhagāvata therefore boldly asks “can there be a god outside your mind?” The same idea is echoed in the writings of Dvāraka Dāsa, another medieval santha. He writes, “The ignorant people worship gods and goddesses made of stone or wood, without realising that the „I‟ (god) is nothing but atman”.3 _____________ 1

Balārama Dāsa, Vedanta Sāra Gupta Gitā, Verse 69. Achyutānanda Dāsa, Guru Bhakti Gitā, 3.50. 3 Chattish Gupta Gitā, 12th Adhyāya. 2

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Pinda-brahmānda Tatva Tandra Patnaik

Puri temple complex now. Courtesy – meridianphotographicgallery.com

This is one of the central theories of Orissan Vaisnavism. According to this theory the individual being (Pinda) is considered to be the microcosmic form of the macrocosm brahmānda (the cosmic being). We have already noted that sunya Brahman is believed to be immanent in all created beings (brahmānda). So, the true seeker tries to realize the Brahman by identifying his atman with his creation. This they consider to be one of the means of having the direct cognition of the sunya-bodied and infinite Parama Brahman. We have also noted in the previous section that the Oriya santhas believed that there is no distinction between the atman and Brahman. So they highlighted on realizing the atman in atman. This realization can be possible through the control of our minds or chitta. This in turn brings in the importance of the body. So we cannot talk of controlling the mind without controlling the body along with its faculties and sense organs. Therefore, the various schools of Yoga and Tantra put emphasis on the pinda or kāyā. This theory, according to many scholars is rooted in the metaphysics of the Nātha cult – a cult that became very popular during the 12th century AD in Orissa. This philosophy, propounded by Gorakhanātha, has strong traces of Tantric Buddhism and Yoga. Like the Vajrayānis they accepted sunya as the highest Reality, but they identify it with Siva. Besides they adopted Hatha and Astānga yoga of the Yoga system of philosophy as a means of the realization of the self or moksa. As Hatha yoga is a system of controlling the mind, they put a lot of emphasis on the body and controlling human tendency to be swayed away by the false and illusory attractions arising out of sense experience. Thus,

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in this case, body is not taken to be profane but the ground of realizing the divine. One of the earliest pronouncements regarding the divinity of the body, however, comes from Buddhist female siddha Laksminkarā of the Sahajayāna order. This is a sub-sect of Tantric Buddhism. Laxminkara was the sister of Indrabhuti, the king Orissa, who himself was a siddha of Vajrayāna. Sahajayāna is many respects, is a radical version of Tantric Buddhism. Vajrayãna believed in personal god, and later on included innumerable gods and goddesses within its pantheon. But in contrast, Laxminkarā developed new forms of anti-idolatry stand and anti-ritualism. Here I quote the famous lines form her Adyayasiddhi. She declares, that no suffering, no fasting, no rites, no bathing, no purification, nor other rules of the society are necessary nor do you need to bow down before the images of gods, which are constructed out of wood, stone or mud, but you should with concentration offer worship to your own body where all gods reside. Similarly, Saraha Pā, another siddha, who is said to have spent a considerable time in Orissa and learnt mantrayāna in Orissa, puts this theory in a simpler form, scholars explain many scriptures, but fail to know that Buddha resides in the body. Both the theories, i.e., anti-ritualism and kāya sādhanā (body as the medium of self realization) are very smoothly amalgamated in Orissan Vaisnavism. Let us take some examples to illustrate their viewpoint on this important theory: The eminent santha Balarāma Dāsa, in his work Virāta Gitā, writes: What is known as the grand temple (Jagannātha temple) Is nothing but your body.1 Similarly, in another important work by the same author entitled, Gupta Gitā, he goes on to locate different sacred places of Orissa in different limbs of the human body. We may find the echo of Laksminkarā‟s radical declaration in the following lines of Sisu Ananta – “all these theories about Brahman and sunya, can be demonstrated and realised in your body. You see me (God) in your body, as we are one and non-different.” By emphasizing the importance of body as a means of meditation and worship the seeker is asked to withdraw from meaningless outward rituals. So, the Oriya Vaisnavas dismiss such practices in strongest possible words. Dvāraka Dāsa, despising all forms idolatry and rituals associated with it says: “All chanting, rituals, pilgrimages are meaningless, all the arrays of gods and goddesses are nothing but illusions.2 In this connection it must be stated that the Oriya santhas place a lot of emphasis on kāyā sadhanā and Ghata yoga. They name their system after Hatha yoga as Ghata (body) yoga, which means the yoga of the body. One comes across a lot of discussion on this theory in their writings. Therefore it is necessary to describe in brief the concept and the process of Ghata yoga. This yoga aims to realize the nirākāra (formless) Reality by transmuting the subtler body into a gross physical super-conscious one. So they accept the theory of the six plexuses (sadacakra) of which the highest is sahasrarā (the thousand petal lotus), and the three mystic nerves or nadis, i.e., idā, pingalā and susumnā from earlier Tantra yoga practices. Here are some of the salient features of the Hatha/Ghata yoga. The Orissan santhas believe that there are seventy two thousand nerves in the body. Only three out of them are very important and are located in the spinal column. Idā on the left, pingalā on the right and susumnā in the middle running parallel to one another. These three nerves meet inside the forehead between the two

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eyes. This juncture is known as trikuta. Above the trikuta there is a small slit known as the brahma randhra leading to the region of sunya or alekha and the valve of the slit is as delicate as the skin of the sesame seed (tila chopā). The sādhaka is to raise the vital wind upward through susumnā and keep it in the trikuta and then open the gate of brahma randhra to concentrate upon the Brahman. The vital energy conceived in the nature of the coiled snake called kundalini is taken to be moving downwards in case of ordinary human beings who fit it in worldly indulgences. In yogic sādhanā the path of kundalini is reversed and directed upwards. This is known as Olata sādhanā or ujāni implying a process of reversal from pravrutti and to nivrutti. The upward journey of the kundalini towards the highest chakra (sahsrarā) is the march of the finite towards the infinite. The union of both is sometimes taken to be the place of dalliance of Radhā Krisna, sometimes as the seat of Jagannātha and Sunya Purusa. The Orissan Vaisnavas believe that Brahma cakra or sahasrara is as luminous as the rays of thousand suns and spot of effulgent light (jyoti). The writings of these santhas are full of symbolism when they come to describe the path of Ghata yoga. Though in many respects they follow the nine layered bhakti of Caitanya‟s Vaisnavism, yet, in their writings one comes across a different interpretation of the stages of bhakti, mostly following the system of Nisvati yoga. They are – yantra, mantra, tantra, chhāya, jyoti, abada haja (sahaja) and rasa guna.

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Biratā Gitā, 4th Adhyāya. Chatisa Gupta Gitā, 12th Canto.

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Chitta-mana Tandra Patnaik

Jagannath temple. Courtesy – img2.travelblog.org

The medieval santhas laid a great stress on mana or mind, (also called chitta). They emphasise that the empirical world, its manifestations, as well as all the activities of the human life are controlled by the mind. Sometimes they also refer to the five dimensions mind, viz – mana, amana, vimana, kumana and sumana. This theory of the Panchasakhā as well other philosophers of the period bears a great resemblance to the Vajrayāni notion of chitta. We know that according to Yogācāra branch in Buddhism, the empirical world is the creation of our false mental constructions (kalpanā). Vajrayāna accepts this theory and accordingly it considers that samsāra (the phenomenal world along with its transience) and nirvāna, both, are due to our chitta or mind. This philosophy of mind is reflected in Sisu Ananta‟s Hetu Uudaya Bhagavata. He writes: “It is due to false mental constructions (Kalpanā) that we are in the bondage of samsāra. These false mental constructions hide from us the real nature of the truth. This mind, when freed from all such conditions, knows the highest truth, for there is no god outside your mind.”1 ____________________ 1

Santha (Bhakti) Sāhitya, Chittaranjan Das, Orissa Sahitya Akademi, 1982.

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Sudra-bhakti Tandra Patnaik

Image of Lord Jagannath. Courtesy – gosai.com

The Buddhistic concept of samatā seems plays a great role in Panchasakhā philosophy. It is well known that the Buddhists raised their voice against the discrimination among human beings. Therefore they followed the ideal of samatā (equality) by proclaiming that every human is a potential Bodhichitta (the enlightened one). Nāgārjuna describes this ideal in the following way: The Buddha is like the sky (which has neither origination nor cessation), and all beings are like him, therefore, they are of the same nature as the Buddha”. 1 The Mahāyāna ideal of samatā was further developed by the Sahajayāna Buddhism (which once upon a time had its roots in Orissa) through the introduction of the concept of samarasa. Etymologically speaking, sama means sameness and rasa belongs to its cycle (cakra). So samarasa means oneness of the nature of all that is there in the universe. Consciously or unconsciously, the ideal of equality provides the Oriya santhas with a conceptual apparatus that they use to register their protest against the caste-ridden hierarchical social order. Pancasakhā, especially, Achyutānanda, modified this concept to bring out the superiority of the lowest caste, i.e. sudras, in the Brahminical class order.

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Thus, he made an attempt to break the hierarchical order so that a sudra might be considered as important as a Brahmin. Keeping this in mind Achyutānanda introduced two novel ideas viz; sudrabhāva and sudrabhakti. In our traditional caste system sudras are regarded as the lowliest since no specific duty is assigned to them in the society like the other three castes. Their only duty is to serve the three higher castes with a sense of humility. Achyutānanda transforms this disqualification into a great qualification by declaring that in the spiritual realm, to be humble and low gives one a sense of inner humility. He claims that a real bhakta, like a sudra has, no scope for displaying his ego. This sort of attitude is called sudrabhāva. This, according to him is a great quality that would enable a seeker to serve mankind with the sublimation of his ego. This sort of service to god with an attitude of service to the mankind is called sudrābhakti. Achyutānanda declares, “that is why I have decided to be a sudra”. In fact, all the five santhas (Panchasakhā) preferred to call themselves sudra, though they were not sudra by birth. With a new connotation attached to the term sudra they tried to inculcate a sense of dignity in the lives of the people suffering from low esteem about themselves. The message of samatā and maitri, i.e. equality and fraternity, became the hallmark of the Jagannātha culture, perhaps due to the impact of Buddhism. Till date, at least, it is theoretically believed that, prasāda (the edible offering to God) can be shared from the same pot by all without any discrimination of caste and creed. ________________ 1

Nāgārjuna, Mahāyāna Vimsaka, 2.

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Rādhā-Krishna Tatva Tandra Patnaik

Image of Baladeva. Courtesy – gosai.com

Vaisnavaism in Orissa was not a new concept. But it was fully assimilated in the Jagannātha cult after Rāmānuja and his Sri Vaisnavism attracted the royal attention. However, Rāmānuja did not talk of Rādha as the consort of Visnu. It was Nimbārka who introduced this concept and it was made popular in Orissa through Jayadeva‟s immortal work, Gita Govinda. But during 16th century the concept of Rādhā-Krisna got a new impetus when Sri Chaitanya came to Orissa. Despite his sway over the mass and royalty alike, Orissan Vaisnavism did not lose its identity and did not accept Chaitanya‟s interpretation of the Rādhā-Krisna Tatva. It is interesting that despite proclaiming allegiance to Chaitanya‟s theory Panchasakhā maintained a distinct line of thought. Chaitanya never had a written work. Whatever we know of his philosophy is through his biographers, especially Krusnadāsa Kavirāja‟s Chaitanya Caritāmrta. According to this work Chaitanya refuted the Brahmanvada of Samkara and argued that Brahman (Krisna) cannot be indeterminate in nature. In this sense He is saguna as He possesses all possible powers. His power is threefold –Visnu sakti, Ksetrajna sakti and Jiva sakti. Visnu sakti, which reflects that his own inherent nature has three dimensions – saudhini, sambit and hladini (being, consciousness and bliss). Rādhā represents the blissful element of Krisna. Being a part of His own transcendental power, Rādhā is non-different

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from Krisna. But jiva and samsāra are due to the jiva sakti and avidya sakti of the God. They represent the phenomenal world. Therefore jiva can never be non-different from God or the parama. Because the jiva is God‟s creation he has the elements hladini sakti within him. This makes him feel emotionally attached to the Lord. Thus, for Chaitanya natural and inalienable love for God is the path to realization. This is typified in Rādhā‟s intense love for Krisna. He considered philosophical knowledge as an obstructive element for true bhakti. In the true sense of the term Chaitanya was opposed to Sankara‟s theory in every respect. Oriya santhas were unflinching monists. So there is bound to be a lot of difference between Chaitanya‟s Vaisnavism and also other forms of Vaisnavism. Oriya santhas do talk of Rādhā and Krisna, but for them they are the symbolic representatives of jiva (individual soul) and parama (the highest Reality). In this sense they are one and nondifferent. According to Orissan santhas, as jiva and parama are non-different. Similarly, Rādhā and Krisna are two dimensions of the same Reality. In the words of Sisu Ananta, “Rādhā-Krisna is a twofold entity. One is jiva and the other is parama” (Hetu Udaya Bhāgavata). Gaudiya Vaisnavism may agree with this idea of non-duality between Rādhā and Krisna, provided these two concepts are not seen as jiva and parama, for nondifference between jivātman and paramātman cannot be accommodated in their dualistic metaphysical framework.

Besides, Gaudiya Vaisnavas hold that Brindāvana is the eternal place of Krisna‟s love sport. But the Oriya santhas describe that the spot of Krsna‟s eternal sport is sunya mandala keeping in line with their sunya-centric metaphysics.

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Srusti Tatva Tandra Patnaik

Image of Subhadra. Courtesy – gosai.com

The Orissan Vaisnava‟s believed that the phenomenal world is not illusory but real. So they conceived the Sunya Brahman or Sunya Purusa as the ultimate ground of the cosmic existence. It is the manifestation of the unmanifested. There is, as if, a gradual transformation from formless to form, from nameless to name. Balarāma Dāsa puts it in the following way: In those days my shape was sunya. This way a million years went by. In my womb the universe was born. This was the manifestation of Brahman.1 This is why they repeatedly say that in the beginning there was nothing – neither the earth nor water, neither the God nor the stars, the primeval being existed as sunya. One may be reminded of the similar description found in the famous Nāsadiya Sukta of the Rg Veda, yet there is a difference. While in the Nāsadiya Sukta the primeval fecundity

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is referred to as the source of creation, in case of Panchasakhā, it is the Sabda Brahman – the aum. This is sometimes also called ekaksara. Therefore Jagannātha Dāsa says, Sunya arises out of mahāsunya, From this arises pranava (aum).2 Sometimes they conceive that the creation is a gradual progression from aum (ekaksara) to nāma (Words) and from nāma to rupa (form). Again some of the santha poets prefer to explain the process of creation in terms of male and female principle following the Sāmkya theory of prakrti and purusa or the Nātha conception of nāda and bindu. Regarding the question – why the manifestation? – the Orissan santhas offer a very interesting explanation. They ascribe it to the karunā or dayā of the Sunya Purusa. Both Achyutānanda and Balarāma Dāsa shared the view that Sunya Purusa willed creation out of compassion. Here the Mahāyāna conception of karunā seems to have some influence on these thinkers. According to Buddhism the Buddha is bound to the humanity by the bond of compassion. That is why the Buddha is born again and again till everybody is liberated. We find the reflection of this ideology in Achyutānanda‟s proclamation that the unmanifest Sunya Purusa manifests Himself because he wants every human being to realize the real truth. ___________________ 1 2

Brahmānda Bhugala, 1st Adhyāya. Tulābhinā.

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Pre-Panchasakhā Age Priyadarshi Patnaik

Dasavatara. Patta-Chitra. Courtesy – dollsofindia.com

Pre-Panchasakhā Age (10th-14th century AD) Introduction The origin of Oriya, like that of many other Indian languages, can be traced back to Prakrit and Apabhrams. It can also be linked to the tribal language of that geographical location, with influences, in its script, from the Dravidyan and Indo-Aryan scripts. The oral language was codified only around the 14th century during the reign of Kapilendra Deva. Oriya literature gained a distinctive identity of its own only around the 15 th century AD. And its colonial identity as a distinctive language and not a dialect (of another language) emerged in the 19th century during British rule.

Hence, when we talk of the period before that it must be remembered that the language was evolving; people did not differentiate themselves in terms of the current geographical or political demarcations in operation. Similarly, the Vaisnava orientation that one finds in poems of 15th-17th century was yet to be shaped (although Odissan Vaisnavism assimilated from diverse cults). The present geographical location that we call Orissa was then a place where languages were evolving, Tantric practices, Buddhism, Sakti worship, Nāthism, Saivism and Vaisnavism co-existed, interacted and evolved into something unique. While Charyā poems were Tantric Buddhist, Sisu Veda showed the beginning of the assimilation of diverse religious influences and Sāralā Mahābhārata showed the impact of Jagannātha Cult that was slowly growing into a unifying force, and which later brought many poets of the devotional-spiritual or Bhakti tradition together between the 15th-16th century AD.

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The poems presented in this section emerged out of this period of “identify formation.” The language was still evolving, in a world where brahmnical Sanskrit was the language of the powerful and the elite. Oriya was tentatively asserting itself, especially in the hands of Sāralā Dāsa. (Note: A better understanding of the poems can be achieved by going through the keynotes by Dr. D. P. Pattanayak, Professor J. M. Mohanty and Dr. Namrata Chaturvedi.) Poems from the Charyāchaya or Charyāpadas The origin of Charyā poems is shrouded in mystery. They represent the journeys that texts make from one place to another, from context to context, translated, interpreted and transformed. It is believed that they were written between the 8th and the 14th century by Tantric Buddhist monks who lived in the geographical region that constitutes Bihar-Orissa-Bengal today. Discovered in Nepal, with Sanskrit and Tibetan commentary, they traveled back to us written in a style known as sandhābhāsā (twilight-language) with layers of meaning, esoteric both in style and content. Three points need to be made about them. One, the poems were not meant for everyone but only for the initiate. Hence, they were written in a way as to generate ambiguity or multiple layers of meaning. Two, they were significant in the tradition of Oriya Bhakti poetry (although the language used can only be considered a precursor to Oriya) since many of the concepts and figures here get reflected in later poetry. Three, their influence can be traced to Koili tradition (see section on Koili poems) where the concept of sandhābhāsā underlies Jagannātha Dāsa‟s exposition of Keshaba Koili in his Artha Koili. Thus, they had lasting influence on the Oriya literary tradition. The poems given in this section give one an idea about how symbols were used in such a way that their true meaning could only be revealed to the initiate or the practitioner. 1

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1

The translations of the Charya poems are based on the original texts from Ascharya Charyachaya, Ed. Karunakar Kar, Orissa Sahitya Akademi, 1989.

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Luipā

Matsya & Kurma Avatara. Patta-Chitra. Courtesy – harekrsna.com Poet: Luipā Time: 8th – 11th century Translator: Priyadarshi Patnaik The body is a tree with five branches. The ever restless mind is the seat of kāla. Strengthen the mind, achieve great bliss. Lui says, ask your guru and realize this. Why follow the path of samādhi, When in sorrow and happiness one must die! Avoiding these traps and entanglements Trap the bird of sunyatā in a silken cord And draw it to yourself. Lui says, he knows this in meditation, Sitting on the mounds, dhamanā and chamanā. ________________________ 1

Commentary: The body, like a tree with five branches, has five primary elements – the five senses. Because of these senses the mind is restless. Hence kāla (death) enters the body. If the mind is strong, one achieves transcendence. Lui suggest that one is initiated by one‟s guru into this path. The Yogic path of samādhi is not effective(?). When one goes beyond one‟s desires one is in a position to capture the ultimate state of sunyatā. Lui has realized this sitting on the two elements of the sun and the moon or Lui has realized this by controlling and stopping circulation through the idā and pingalā nerves.

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Kukuripā

Lord Ganesh. Patta-Chitra. Courtesy – pattachitra.blogspot.com

Poet: Kukuripā Time: 8th – 11th century Translator: Priyadarshi Patnaik The milk of the tortoise Can‟t be held in a vessel, The crocodile eats Tamarind from the tree. Be attentive about your household O Daughter-in-law. The thief stole away the earrings At the dead of the night. The father-in-law is asleep, The daughter-in-law is awake, The ring stolen – where to go, whom to ask? As the day breaks she busies herself cooking rice. As night falls, she takes leave of her work. This is the chargyā Kukuripā sings. Twenty listen, at least one understands.

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Fragment from Sisu Veda

Lord Krishna. Patta-Chitra. Courtesy – pattachitra.blogspot.com

Introduction The author of Sisu Veda is unknown to us. Not much is known about the text. Although it is considered a 14th century work, the Oriya one finds here is relatively simple which doesn‟t pose much difficulty for the modern reader. Tantra and yoga, both find a place here. Although not written in sandhābhāsā, much of the esoterism of the Charyā poems can also be found here.1 Sisu Veda (Fragment 1) Poet: Anonymous Time: 14th-15th century Translator: D. P. Pattanayak Not one, two separate and different Constantly continuously He is separate, In the Sisumnā it is expressed with inner radiance Nātha says, this is the belief of the Siddhas,

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Time, lotus and light, all the three Reside in the same place, The Guru who explains phase by phase He is that Guru; I am his devotee‟s devotee. He was in the seven seas, did not drink water. He was in the womb of his mother, did not drink milk. He lives within the distance he covered. Ask the Guru and with him be acquainted. The eyes and the mind both are the same. Lives he between the eyes and the mind. The mind‟s seat is over the eyes Brahma jyoti, the eternal, is self-expressed The wind turns, the six charkas blow, They remain until the water dries. The yogi who makes a knot of the sun and the moon That yogi is the ideal craftsman. The inside of the sky opens up constant The mind wind is eternal in the instant Reason unknown, mind bereft of all substance The abstract told by the Sadguru is the constant. _______________________ 1

The translations of Sisu Veda and Sarala Dasa are based on original texts from Prachina Odiya Kavita Sambhara, Ed. J. M. Mohanty.

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Sāralā Dāsa

Lord Vishnu. Courtesy – shalincraft-india.com Introduction The story goes that Sāralā Dasā was a social rebel – in a society where Sanskrit demarcated the territory for the elite and women had no place in the patriarchal matrix, Sāralā Dasā (re)wrote the Mahābhārata in Oriya for his mother. His contribution to Oriya literature is immense since he virtually he instilled in it his energy, creativity and assertiveness as the language of the masses. He also wrote Bilankā Rāmāyana and Chandi Purāna and thus made the Hindu popular texts accessible to the common people of Orissa. So, he was a poet of the people, of the village, and not of the court. He was probably not Brahmin by birth and declared himself a sudra muni (saint of the lower caste), starting a social revolution in the process. A massive work in terms of length, complexity and experimentations with meter, Sāralā Mahābhārata uses the Oriya language of the masses. Rough, ribald at places, masculine, it lacks the refinement and the musical qualities of Jagannātha‟s Bhāgabata and Balarāma‟s Rāmāyana. Innovative and flexible, it deviates from the original, reinterprets stories, and asserts its individuality. Thus, it started the process of translation-transcreation, of making accessible the world of Itihāsa-purānas that the common Oriya people had no access to until then. It is also considered one of the earliest retelling of the Mahābhārata in any other Indian language. The fragment translated here is important for its reference to Jagannātha who later becomes the focal point of much bhakti literature. It also refers to Buddha, which suggests the degree of assimilation of cultures that had taken place in Oriya at that point of time. Fragment from Sāralā Mahābhārata („Ādiparva‟) Poet: Sāralā Dasā Time: 14th-15th century Translator: Lipipuspa Nayak

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A Hymn for Jagannath I pray you Nārāyan, the lord of Nilagiri, the blue mountains In your fourfold form with triumphant lotus-eyes. One form quadrisect – And assumes the names: Jagannātha, Balabhadra, Sohadrā and Sudrisen. The name that is called Balarāma Is the truly manifest Sadāshib of Kapilas. Sohadrā, in the middle, is the creator of the universe, In all matters of creation Sohadrā is sagacious. Jagannātha is the redeemer of creation He redeems, like the Buddha, the lowly men. The four weapons – the conch, the wheel, the mace and the lotus – Bedeck the four arms, And He is named the Sudrishen pillar, After the sudarshan charka, the wheel. Knowing that the people of Kaliyug were immoral, The Lord, the wheel-in-his-hand, did not bear feet or arms. He hid his nostrils, ears and lips And the Lord became silent, the Lord Jagannātha. Munificent to every servant, He carries on his head a seven-hooded-serpent. On the top of the seven hoods, Nārāyana, the lord Set up Golak, his celestial abode, where Hindus are redeemed. He sat Rādhā, his consort on his left arm, And they frolicked immortally in the land of Golak. The eight queens of Nārāyana pick up their instruments, The beautiful, flower-like women attend to their chores. Even after eons and eons of deluge, This dalliance of the lord never ever would cease. The matters of the universe are relegated to the beginning And the end of his scheme of things, His mind engrossed in the celestial frolicking. The incomprehensible grace and prowess of Jagannātha: Bramhā didn‟t know its end Nor beginning, nor Shankara could. Shri Nilagiri1, the abode of Jagannātha, is unparalleled In beauty,

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His form by Himself determined. He transformed himself to the beautiful blue-mountain, And stayed secured in that illusory form. Near Kalpabata, the Wish-tree, is the Rohini lake, Where a crow became four-armed after one dip, A crore places of pilgrimage converge there. The pilgrimage named the Southern Bay at Puri, Serves crores of holy shrines. Nārāyana is manifest at Srikshetra, Having wished his death And reappearance as Dārubramha, The lord in the form Of a floating log in the bay. Baibasuta Manu, the descendant of Sun God Asked sage Agasti: O learned! Describe the essence of the great Immortal. How did the title Mahābhārata come to be, Tell me of this, after thorough enquiry. Agasti answered: O Manu, the Baibasuta! Listen to the Ādiparba episode of Mahābhārata, Offered by the gods with their capabilities. The gods built a weighing scale forty eight miles long, And each balance as high as twelve miles. Vishnu of infinite crores, Brahmā of infinite crores, All subsumed in that weighing scale. Eighteen Purānas: of Vishnu the king, servant Mārkanda, The minister Shiva, and Nārada the harbinger of gods. These four were the leaders for all other Purānas, They all were brought and kept on one side Of the weighing scale. On other side, they placed the Mahābhārata In eighteen volumes, Far heavier this weighed Than the thousand Purānas and scriptures. Since in the weighing scale it was Mahābhārata, That is, far more in weight, So Kashyap and Angira, the sages, named it the Mahābhārata. Thus came the title Mahābhārata, for The weighing scales were so much imbalanced in its favour. ________________________ 1 Editor‟s note: Literally “Blue Mountain”

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Panchasakhā Age Priyadarshi Patnaik

Shiva-Parvati. Patta-Chitra. Courtesy – dollsofindia.com

Panchasakhā Age (15th-16th century AD) Introduction The 15th-16th century was a period when Orissan Vaisnavism evolved and grew into a strong force. Social oppression and political instability, the works of social protest of Sarala Dāsa, the strong presence of Tantra, Sahajiya Buddhism, Nātha cult among the lowly and the poor, and of Hindu sanskritic tradition and Mahayana Buddhism among the elite, and the visit of Sri Chaitany and Gaudiya Vaisnavas, which all developed around the temple of Lord Jagannātha with its strange mixture of Tantric, Saktic, Buddhist, Saiva and Vaisnava rites, all contributed to the development of Orissan Vaisnavism. At almost the same point of time, in various parts of the country the bhakti movement, a religious manifestation of discontent with Brahminical systems, was making itself felt through saints like Kabir, Tuka Ram, Nanak, Ramdev, Eknath and others. Orissan Vaisnavism evolved around certain unique concepts like Sunya Pursusa, pindabrahmānda tatva, sudra-bhakti, Rādhā-Krishna tatva, gyāna-misra bhakti (please see entries on the above concepts in the keynotes section for detailed discussions) and made its presence strongly felt through the work and activities of primarily five saint poets –

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Balarāma Dāsa, Jagannātha Dāsa, Achyutānanda Das, Jasobanta Dāsa and Sisu Ananta Dāsa – popularly known as the panchasakhā or the five soul mates. They were not the only poets who wrote in this tradition, but they were the best known. These poets continued Sarala‟s work of popularizing Sanskrit Itihāsa-Purānas by retelling them in Oriya. They also wrote in their work about the oppression of the rich and the elite, talked of the path to liberation through a combination of right seeking (gyāna) and devotion (bhakti), and considered themselves Dāsas (servants) of the supreme force, sought effacement of ego and made their presence felt in the town of Puri around the temple of Lord Jagannātha . They had many followers, common people loved them and their popularity grew in spite of the opposition of the Brahmanical class. Their language was lucid, style simple, images inspired by various religions sects, and they wrote on a variety of subjects and experimented with many forms. The outcome was a body of poetry so popular that even today, their works are sung in many costal villages. It was a period when the Oriya literary language grew in maturity and was not overtly sanskritized. The five soul-mates came in contact with Sri Chaitany and were very strongly influenced by his personality as well as thoughts. However, their writings don‟t show any significant influence of Gaudiya-Vasinavism. But their association with Sri Chaitany, who was favoured by the King, saved them from the persecution of Brahmins to a great extent. The poems presented here provide a glimpse into the diverse images and metaphysical concepts that the poets took up and explained so lucidly so that the fairly difficult Orissan Vaisnavism was clear even to the illiterate. (Readers inclined to study the poems seriously are directed to the Key Concepts and Contexts section for a detailed delineation of some of the most important concepts and contexts that can help one understand this poems.)

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Jagannātha Dāsa

Durga-Mata. Patta-Chitra. Courtesy – pattachitra.blogspot.com Introduction Jagannātha Dāsa, most well known for his Bhāgabata, wrote in a very simple and lucid style. Arguably, his Bhāgabata is the most popular and widely read book in Oriya even today. He wielded the language effortlessly and was able to explain difficult philosophical concepts effortlessly. Probably born a Brahmin, he was very much a part of the social revolution which made an effort to dispel the Brahmin tyranny of the time. His major works include Bhāgabata, Dārubramha Gitā, Tulā Bhinā, Artha Koili and he wrote many short devotional poems, meant to be sung, as well. He wrote the entire Bhāgabata in nabakshyari chānd (nine syllabic lines) and crafted it to perfection. This section contains a short poem, a fragment from Bhāgabata, and the section on Koili Literature contains a fragment from his Artha Koili. The Elephant Sways Poet: Jagannātha Dāsa Time: 15th-16th century Translator: Priyadarshi Patnaik The elephant sways gently The time to start has come. From his body flows intoxicated sweat. He had been tied in Nilakandara1 .

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Now, for his bath he has been set free. In his sandalwood bed he had been sleeping. Now as he walks he swings back and forth. How beautifully is he swaying in his intoxication! Of the fourteen worlds he the creator! Such a beautiful elephant no one has ever seen. Jagannaath Das says His name is Kanāhi2 . From Oriya Bhagabat (The Abadhuta’s Tale from the 11th Canto) Poet: Jagannātha Dāsa Time: 15th-16th century Translator: N. S. R. Ayengar Oh Uddhava, Listen to my words, Says the lotus-eyed lord. The person who knows The essence of the Vedas Knows my glory but a little. In vain The world is deluded By arguments Least knowing that One has to seek one‟s own salvation. The intelligent Make their ātman their guru And realize themselves in their ātman Through inference in their mind. The well-being of the self Brings all siddhi And ferries one across The ocean of the world. Counseling oneself with patience Seeing yourself in every being Unconcerned with everything And through intent practice Attain samādhi, Let me now relate The story, enshrined In ancient history, Of the kind of Yadus And the Abadhuta.

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A Brahmin, kind and compassionate, Fearless and glorious, Disguised as an Abadhuta Met the king of the Yadus. Seeing his glorious countenance The king humbly asked him, O sage I bow at your feet, But I am curious t know Why do you wander, alone? You have eyes and ears But you neither see nor hear. Men in the dark pit of the world Suffer untold pains. How, being in their midst, You keep yourself clean and pure? Don‟t the woes of the world touch you? As the elephant in the ganga water Feels not the scorching sun So are you impervious To the worldly attractions! Please do recount And gladden my heart By your account. At the entreaty of the king The Abadhuta stood still. Seeing the king‟s eagerness Spoke he gravely thus: O kind of the Yadus, I have many gurus; Listen patiently, if you wish to know Who gave me dikshyā That I carry the world over. The earth, air, fire, the sky, the tree, The sun, the moon, water and ocean Elephant, bees, dove, insects and the python Fish and Pingalā the prostitute, The osprey and the Brahmin girl The deer, the spider The hunter and the bumble-bee, And the winged insect Are my twenty four gurus. I learnt from them, O King Whatever they taught. The ātman enters the body At the direction Of the unseen doer. One suffers in the world, The fruits of his past deeds. One has to accept one‟s lot Without a grumble

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And walk one‟s path undeterred. I therefore bear the weal and woe And calmly take the decree of karma. This, I have learnt from the earth. Blessed is that life That lives for others‟ good – I have learnt from the trees That stand on the mountain top. The body is not meant Only for sensual joy, One has to strive for enlightenment With a mind pure and pristine Not embroiled by māya. Finding not others faults, Abstaining from sensuality, Shunning undeserved luxury Watch how the air passes In and outside the body Blowing the stench out; Present everywhere Yet unattached and indiscriminate Like a renunciate. This I was taught By air, my guru. Just as air is everywhere Yet unconcerned with everything, Just as the cloud Born in the void Does the sky stand, Cool shade provide To creatures down below, Yet doesn‟t merge in the sky So does the ātman Not merge with the body. Therefore, I took the sky as my guru And wander merrily about the world Untouched by things mundane, O, the best of the kings, listen, Sweet words make men happy. A dip in the sacred waters And the soulful hymns to the lord Gladden their hearts And make them holier. I have learnt this from water. It therefore, is my mentor. Like the sacred rivers Meandering through the earth That consecrate the living beings, I roam about the forest of the word To rescue human souls. Behold at my body Strong, staid and effulgent But I don‟t even have a bowl!

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All I have is my bowel. I terrify people For through yogic powers I eat in every house Like fire I devour everything Regardless of faults and merits. So I roam in the world With fire as my preceptor. Birth, youth, old age and death Are causes of both joy and sorrow The body with these attributes To Jivas unacceptable For Jivas are deluded By the thought of the ephemeral. The moon passing through The phases of dark To men appears lost Yet remains an irreducible spot. So does the Jiva retain The undying ātman within That defies age and death. The moon awakened me to the truth So as my guru I took him, The sense organs in the body hunt And do their urges satiate But aloof remains the ātman Aloof in their midst – Like the impartial sun That shinning everywhere And extracting elixir Remains unattached. In time everything does it shun With no thoughts of loss or gain Jivātmā does in everybody reside Unencumbered by the pleasures of the sense I have learnt this from the sun Therefore, him as a guru I deem. Men who live with such deep knowledge Indeed are enlightened, noble and wise. They fall not in love with this world of cares Full of illustions and full of snares. Listen O king you listen with love Lest shall you perish Like the indulgent dove…. ____________ 1

Refers to the Puri town where Jagannātha temple is located. The elephant here refers to Lord Jagannātha in his Hātibesa or the time where he is dressed up like an elephant. 2 Krishna

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Achyutānanda Dāsa

Kali & Shiva. Patta-Chitra. Courtesy – dollsofindia.com

Introduction Achyutānanda Dāsa was probably born in the later part of the fifteenth century in a village near the modern town of Cuttack. He was not a Brahmin by birth and had many cowherds as his followers. Strongly influence by Sri Chaitanya, he probably organized many rāsalilas (spring sports or festival celebrating Lord Krishna‟s deeds). He could write both lucidly as well as rigorously, especially when dealing with philosophical concepts. His most significant work is Sunya Samhitā. He also wrote many other important works including Anākara Samhitā, Gurubhakti Gitā, Tatwabodhini, Brahmasankuli and also a number of mālikās (which foretell the future in cryptic language). Like Jagannātha and the other Panchasakhā, he also wrote a number of bhajans or short devotional pieces. In this section translations include some of his short poems, and a fragment from Sunya Samhitā.

O Round Eyed, your Servant Poet: Achyutānanda Dāsa Time: 15th-16th century Translator: Priyadarshi Patnaik O Round-Eyed, your servant is at your lotus feet, forever expectant.

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O Lord and Saviour let my consciousness be at your feet. You uphold the law ever cautious, there is no other way. Quickly board the boat of dharma only then will Hrisikesa take you across. There is no other way than Hari, forgive me, O Lord of the Jadus. The Formless gathers into Form the unbodied sunya. When sunya merges with sunya Formless bliss will reveal itself. Carry us across this great ocean, save us in your grasp, O Narahari. Tells Achuta, your servant waiting expectantly at your lotus feet. Sunya Purusa1 Poet: Achyutānanda Dāsa Time: 15th-16th century Translator: Priyadarshi Patnaik Sunya Purusa is caught in the stocks! There he is shinning with compassion and forgiveness. Eleven are the senses that surround him, lust, anger and greed ever on the guard. Twelve sentries stand at the fortress defense; the five innate tendencies – the five chieftains.2 Above the six circles vibrate the fifty syllables, and along the walls steam seventy-two veins. These are the soldiers that guard the fortress ever surrounding Sunya Purusa. Detached, distinct, in the palace of space, Sunya Purusa plays his games. No one can ever touch him, but touching none he creates all.

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The sunya-devotee sings of this Formless one chanting the thirty-two consonants and meditates on Sunya Purusa without form. Look friend, god is in your body! From the door of the nose the swan of breath moves, travels twelve fingers‟-length and takes the shape of the forty-nine primal sounds. At the door of the roof its shadow can be seen. In a form beyond words it irradiates in the world. All see this – yet the ignorant do not see; for It is above the fourteen worlds, beyond the space of space in the great emptiness. Now, chant the twelve essential vowels, and let the twelve sacred sounds reverberate within. Pay no heed to this body of yours, chant of the Formless and lose yourself in delight. „Sunya Purusa,‟ is the song of sunya – meditate on this mantra of the Formless. This is the sacred secret you ask of. This is how you reach concentration and then retreat. Neither is there the need for rituals and pujā, nor the need for any sacred place or position. With folded hands focus upwards, and with upturned face meditate. Looking up concentrate within at the confluence of the vital veins and meditate on the Indescribable. Echo the mantra of the Formless in the lotus circle of your throat – repeat this essence and strive at transcendence. Utter the thirty-two consonants with your focus between the eyes. Be still the way the crow stands still no movement, not even the slightest stir. Yet that energy of curd churned in its stillness. The way Mandara3 stays still, the way the mendicant meditates. Without movement, silent, hold your mind pure and still, and concentrate on Sunya Purusa. Only then does the graceful blue shape of sunya – shapeless shape, invisible grace – become visible.

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Within the fourfold Godhood the Formless pervades and the lotus blooms within the pollens. Realize this as the untouched form of the Formless. Focus completely on your unmixed mind. Look! Sunya Purusa is visible!

From Sunya Samhitā (Chapter – VI) Poet: Achyutānanda Dāsa Time: 15th – 16th century Translator: Raj Kishore Mishra The sound of gong you can perceive in a-kāra4, so also the chirp of cricket in i-kāra. (70). The notes of hens and peacocks come from e-kāra. The o-kāra produces other musical notes. (71) In this way these twelve vowel sounds spring from anaksara (i.e., the Unformed Syllable). (72) These sounds get intermingled with each other and are heard like (lapping) waves of the sea. Fools are ignorant about it whereas the wise take heed. (73) The sound is produced in this way. The sabdabrahma (i.e., the Divine Sound or Logos) is over and above this sound. (74) The divine sound perpetuates in the niche of the All-Expensive Void, the knowledge of which is only accessible to the wise. Fools indeed stand confused. (75) This sarasvata mantra (i.e., the Logos) is secret. It shall only be made public at the time of the emergence of Kalki (i.e., the last incarnation preceding the deluge). (76) Kamala-ramana (i.e., Vishnu) has (deliberately) kept this sarasvata mantra and mode of worship of Nirakāra (i.e., the Formless Absolute) a secret. (77) When the Kali era shall come to en end, impenetrable darkness shall spring up into action and brandishing his sword will annihilate the devil in his own hands. (79) Lord Cakradhara (i.e., Lord Vishnu holding the discus) will cause himself to be born to Vishnu Sharmā at Samala Nagara and will engage himself in meditation. (80) He will dispel darkness and raise genuine devotees. He will initiate them into the mantra of Nirakāra (the Formless) and as such would remove sins. (81) After being initiated into the sarasavata mantra, the devotee would feel enlightened but would love to remain in cognito for a while. (82) At the appointed time, this Acyuta (i.e., the Poet of Sunya Samhitā) will reappear in the company of his dear twelve disciples. (83)

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I told you this. Please keep it in your mind that he would be born at Samala in time. (84) Keeping this in mind, you are ordained to reveal the mantra (i.e., at the appropriate hour). Listen to me, O my twelve disciples. I am telling you further. (85) I am going to tell you the essence (of all discourses) which will burn away all your doubts. (86) Take heed of one thing. All your success lies in the recognition of the (holy) Name. (87) Show of mere beads is no sign of Vaisnavism. You will have to get rid of your vain conceit, jealousy, ego and pride. (88) You should have thorough knowledge of Panhcatmika and its inner existence in the name. Such a knower is indeed a wise Vaisnav. (89) When one realizes panctmika, he obtains the highest transit. The flame merges with the (divine) flame that ultimately assures (the adherent) eternal abode. (90) Pancabhuta (i.e., Five Elements), Pancavāyu (i.e., five winds or mortal breaths), Panca ātma (i.e. five souls), Panca mana (i.e. five states of mind), Panca bija (i.e.five seed-syllables), Panca tatva (i.e.five essences) and Panca mantrā (i.e.five vowel sounds) that constitute the saptapancatmika mahāmantra (i.e. the septenary-pentadic components of the mahāmantra) are, in fact, linked with the mantrarāja. (91-92) In the body of the Pranava or Om-kāra you shall perceive the five seed or germ-syllablesthe ekaksara (i.e. the mono-syllable) and the anaksara (i.e. the Unformed Syllable). These are in the vowel-forms, which lie hidden in the pranava. The mahāmantra and the mantraraja need to be approached through the pentadic formulae. (93-94) One‟s meditation becomes worthwhile only when he knows these secrets. There are people who merely put on beads on their necks in sheer ignorance. (95) They remain engrossed in worldly pleasures but outwardly chant the name of Hari. Even they pride in counting the beads up to one lakh (each day). (96) Krisna is never won through such type of meditation sans true devotion. (97) One must be seated steadily with deep concentration and meditate on panca atmā and repeat the relevant mantra. (98) If one‟s mind genuinely fixed at the feet of Sri Krisna, steady devotion will light up his mind. (99) Well, sit for a while and repeat the name of Sri Krisna. You shall be assured of excellent result by dint of your faith and devotion. (100) This (what I said) is the preceptorial advice of wisdom. (If you follow this) your body shall be pure and you will be on the right track because you are recipient of true knowledge. (101) Such mediation is as pure as the water of the Ganges. The mere sight of it assures one a lofty path and by mere touch he obtains good result. (102)

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Hear me then all about the Septenary-pentadic features. A disciple who had served his master can only know this. (103) A self-conceited man has no access to it. Dear young initiates, now hear from me the most secret and complex erudition. (104) Jagannath is seated in guise of a devotee and is pleased with offerings (made to him). (105) What to speak of devotion! He is pleased to gratify all desires heedless of (the supplicant‟s) acquaintance with devotional procedure of Krisna-worship. (106) One gets deliverance by mere chanting of the names of Govinda, Gopala. Proper dedication (to the Lord), of course, is beset with troubles. (107) (Devotion to Krisna) has little to do with fulfillment of desires. True devotees find a shelter there (at the feet of Krisna). (108) You can notice one such pious soul in ten millions and as such, you will find such men in galore. (109) Sri Krisna or Hari is an ocean of mercy and friend to devotees. He can ferry you across the worldly ocean in a spell. (110) Now I shall tell you about the secret story of tatva, the complexities pertaining to pancatmika mahāmantra and its septanarian fold. (111) Mark the kundali portion of Pranava. This Kundali retains in it a-kāra, hare, nanda and sādhu (i.e. associated with the mystic mahāmantra), jana of the mantrarāja and hrim (of the ekaksara). (112-113) It also conytains „fire‟ of the five (cosmic) elements, pyana wind (i.e. the all – breathing breath), the tatva ātamā (or the ideative aspect of soul) out of five souls and the manas (out of five mana-s or minds). Among all the tatvas it is buddhi (or intelligence) and among all the bijas it is parā. In its physical manifestation it is the monosyllabic a-kāra and the haru component of the Brahman. (114-115) The dandaka portion of the Pranava contains in it Krisna , Dina, Kāma, (i.e., of the mystic mahamantra), vallabhya of kāma bija and also mantrarāja. It is water out of five elements, prāna vāyu (or the inspiration-breath), dhyāna ātmā, (or meditative aspect of the soul) among (five) ātmās and sumana, (or pure mind) among (five) manas. It also contains the essential nāma and it is the vowel sound of e among five bijas. (116-118) The „hare‟ in ekaksara bāhma (i.e. the mono-syllabic Logos and also the mahāmantra?) is thus explained in the spetenary-pentadic mode. (119) The taraka portion pf the pranava denote the names of Rāma-kānda and Madhu (or the mystic mahāmantra). It is verily the rāma bija and gopi of the mantrarāja. Among five elements it is the Earth and among vayu-s (or winds) it is the samana vāyu (or expiration – breath). It also contains in it the gyāna ātmā (or the scient soul) and kumana (or the phenomenal consciousness). In the tatva, it has its own appearance and among bijas it is rāma. It denotes U-kāra vowel sound and haru of the ekaksara. (120-22)

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The ardhamātrā portion of the pranava denotes Syāma (of the mystic mahāmantra), svahā of mantrarāja and elemental air. It contains udana pavana (or up-breathing breath), the jiva ātmā (or the individual soul), among manas the vimana (or discernible mind) and the viveka tatva (or essential discernment). (124) So far the bija is concerned it contains the vowel sound of I-kāra. In the monosyllabic Brahman it is the name of Hari. (125) ____________________ 1 This is extracted from Canto IX of Sunya Samhitā Sunya Purusa – etymologically sunya stands for space, void, emptiness, blown out, all used in the positive sense. 2 Prakriti 3 The mountain which played a pivotal role in the churning of the ocean in which the gods (devatās) and demons (dānavas) participated. 4 Editor‟s Note: These refer to the different syllables. Sound is considered to have symbolic levels of meaning which reveal their spiritual character.

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Balarāma Dāsa

Hanuman. Patta-Chitra. Courtesy – dollsofindia.com Introduction Probably the most senior of the Panchasakhā poets, Balarāma spent a major part of his life at Puri. He was in conflict with the Brahmins there and came very close to losing his life due to their plotting. His most popular contribution to Oriya literature is his Jagamohan Rāmāyana or Dāndi Rāmāyana. He made no distinction between Jagamohan (Jagannātha ) and Rama and wrote the entire poem in the Dāndi meter (hence also known as Dāndi Rāmāyana). His other major works include Bhāba Samudra, Brahmānda Bhugala and Birāta Gitā. In Brahmānda Bhugala he talks of Kāya Sādhanā and compares the body with the cosmos. This section contains a short poem, and fragments from Birāta Gitā and Brahmānda Bhugala.

O, Friend of the Poor Poet: Balarāma Dāsa Time: 15th – 16th century Translator: Arundhati Patnaik and O companion of the poor my sorrows do not end.

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Priyadarshi Patnaik

If you, Dinabandhu, abandon me who will be my friend then? Garland of Tulsi, hair of Tulsi leaves with Tulsi upon your head, when I look from the Tulsi tree the disk atop your temple1 is visible. On top of your hair the mantle of Sebati flowers looks terrible! Dinabandhu, whenever you look, only victory. The one whom we call Dinabandhu is a mighty yogi. The bond of the material, non-material is tight. One hunts the puzzle of illusion & attachment. But the man of emptiness travels in emptiness, the prison cell is empty! To escape this vast ocean I have built a boat of stone; If you don't hold me, I float away, O save me Dinabandhu. Since you are happy with the love of your devotee They call you the one who is intoxicated by devotion. Balarāma Dāsa never asked for a grain of rice, only for a little ray from your feet.

From Birāta Gitā Poet: Balarāma Dāsa Time: 15th – 16th century Translator: Prafulla Kumar Mohanty At Arjuna‟s query the wielder of the disc Said, listen, O best of devotees What is known as the temple. Certainly is your body divine, The Nandighosa is your corporal frame Comprising the naval, heart, neck Fingers, hands up to the arm base And the forehead, thus making sixteen wheels. How it is, I have told you Arjun. What is called the Bada Dānda Is your face, the twenty two steps Are the bone frame below your neck, Your throat is a “multiple channel” Like a Basil pot. The entrails are Jajpur The navel is the abode of the seat of Vishnu The throat is the hollow of Kapilāsh The palate is the flag of the eye The Forehead is the city of magic. Above it the

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Nostrils are the fans The three immortal icons are in the eyes. The mind is the Garuda pillar The bhog mandapa is called the nose. North is the left ear, the right south These the monasteries are, the fourth Is the mouth, making four in all. Now I will tell you the places Of four clouds, Arjuna…

From The Geography of the Universe (Brahmānda Bhugala) Poet: Balarāma Dāsa Time: 15th -16th century Translator: Arun Kumar Mohanty Beginning Arjuna most humbly asks Sri Krishna O Lord, the ocean of mercy The Lord of the Universe A friend to the poor, the enemy of demons The liberator of the soul Lord of Mother Lakshmi Thou Lotus-eyed, the one who holds a mace in one hand Thou the kalpa- tree, the master of mankind Lord of the gopis, who once held aloft the hill Thou the most sacred Brhama The all pervasive one, who wields the chakra. Arjuna thus prays to Krishna, his mind at his Lord‟s feet. Thy true name is known to no one Even Shankar could not get thy measure First explain to me the mystery of the corporeal being. How was it born, in what shape? How did the seed sprout? Explain it to me clearly. Thus speaks Arjuna And the Lord now replies. From The Geography of the Universe (Brahmānda Bhugala) Poet: Balarāma Dāsa Time: 15th -16th century Translator: Dharanidhar Sahu Arjuna said: O Lord, how is the universe mapped out? And what is the geography of the universe? I pray you ardently to enlighten me about that. Lord Krishna answered and said: You are my devotee and friend. Now be attentive and listen to me.

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I shall reveal to you the story of creation. In the beginning The world that you know was not there; Neither the moon nor the sun was there; There was no day; no night For it was neither dim nor bright; The planet earth was not in existence; The air even was totally absent; Stars did not shine in the firmament; There were no demons, no gods; Elements like water, earth and ether Had not yet been formed; There was no such thing As the celestial sphere; There was no radiance, no liquid; Brahmā, Vishnu and Shiva Had not yet come into being. That was the time when I Was formless and vacant space. That state of complete non-presence Continued for ten million millenniums; Then, assuming the figure of the Brahman, I implanted the universe in my great womb. No thing was there; no body was there; The universe was an infinite nowhere. In that condition, it remained Ten thousand millenniums, Then all of a sudden, a feeling Stirred in my bosom; I became kind; That kindness generated a desire – The desire for creation of the universe. As soon as that desire took hold of me, My body exuded the semen of generation. That semen was divided into three clusters, Known as the primeval threesome of creation. As I held that divided semen in my palm, It trickled through the three gaps Between my outstretched fingers And fell in the form of three droplets. Out of these three fallen droplets Were born Brahmā, Vishnu and Shiva. The divine trinity produced the name Rāma. And out of the sacred name Rāma Was born the scripture called the Bhāgabata Says Balarāma Dāsa. ___________________ 1

Nilachakra

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Jasobanta Dāsa

A scene from Ramayana. Patta-Chitra. Courtesy – Columbia.edu

Introduction One of the younger fellow-mates, probably born in early 16th century, Jasobanta Dāsa wrote a number of short poems as well as long works such as Paramabhakti Brahmagitā and Sivaswarodhya. Two of his short poems are presented in this section. The Ecstatic Milch Cow Poet: Jashobanta Dāsa Time: 16th century Translator: Lipipuspa Nayak The ecstatic milch cow ran away, Severing her tether. There is no one In the twenty-one domains of Creation To describe with apt metaphors, The miracles of this cow. The cow is named Subuddhi – the one with good reason, Who could be jealous of her, or Who could cast a spell on her?

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Twelve tracts of agricultural land, each several acres, Some barren and some cultivated, Lay untouched, The cow never grazed a strand of grass. I had terthed her firmly with the triguna1 rope: The rope of sattva, raja and tama, but She snapped the rope and wandered away. Thus speaks Yashobanta: I have surrendered my soul At the feet of the cow, Now, will someone exorcise her of the spell? The Dam Poet: Jasobanta Dāsa Time: 16th century Translator: Lipipuspa Nayak The dam lies At the Triveni ghat2 ; There is a crack in the dam, Through which water gushes out. Twelve yojanas The dam stretches itself; It had been built with caution But it never stood still. The dam lies Close to mount Meru3 ; The crane squats below With a whetted vigil. Twenty-five labourers Under five chiefs4 Toiled hard; Yet the dam leaks. Thus speaks Yashobanta, The dam is against the flow; The dam is the mind, And the water is the wind. _____________________ 1

Editor‟s note: The three qualities of sattwa, raja, tama The confluence of three rivers: Gangā, Yamunā, Saraswati. Also the point in the body, where the three nerves/ veins – Idā, Pingalā and Sishumnā unite. 3 Mountain, The point between the eyebrows. 4 Twenty-five temperaments and five layers of mind 2

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Sisu Ananta Dāsa

Jagannatha-Balabhadra-Subhadra. Patta-Chitra. Courtesy – dollsofindia.com

Introduction Sisu Ananta was probably born near Puri town and was probably the youngest of the Panchasakhā. He seems to have gathered a number of followers around him and the tradition of bhakti poetry that continues into the 17th century was possible only because of the many sisyas (disciples) of the five poets who continued their tradition. The most well known work by Sisu Ananta is Hetu Udaya Bhāgabata. He also wrote a number of short poems some of which are presented in this section. The last poem here recounts a dialogue between him and Jagannātha Dāsa and suggests the degree of affection that prevailed among the five poets. Oh, Distraught Mind Poet: Sisu Ananta Dāsa Time: 16th century Translator: Jayanta Biswal Oh distraught mind Behold in your own heart the Lord Who reigns above all the gods The Formless One, Friend and Saviour. Crave for the Lord‟s shrine

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Where no mind intrudes. Crave for the Abanā way For your salvation. Like the swan‟s egg It appears mighty and majestic Hidden among the clouds It is the Bindu.1 Let not your thoughts waver Away from Bramharandhra. The many manifested from the One Ensnares you in their māyā. Ever and ever you wish To cross the sea of this life But you strive not To find a ferry to row you across. He is the Formless Mutating into so many forms, He is Eternal Youth. Yogamāyā plays on her harp Oh distraught mind, In your heart Enshrine the Shapeless One. Wise you shall be to see The meeting of Mina and Ketu And no more deceived You shall straight look at the Heaven‟s kingdom. With the thread of milk Shall you build your bridge. To wisdom‟s alley; Let your eyes Look not before, but behind Let your life Swap its familiar rhythms to strange ones – The lotus has bloomed sans its stalk. Upturned it lies See you not the seed Nor can arrange its petals! You fret and fear. The Joyous One Dwells in the heart of the lotus The playful flutist Clasps Rādhā In love‟s sweet rapture. This, the nectar of Eternity Bids Ananta For the wise to accept. For sure The Arrogant shall perish In the vanity of his ignorance.

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Oh Dāse2 Poet: Sisu Ananta Dāsa Time: 16th century Translator: Jayanta Biswal Wherefrom did Dāse get the Bindu ? How could he hold it? What greatness has the Bindu ? Asks Jagannāth of Anant. Says Anant to Dāsa dear Bindu was in space infinite Neither were the five forms of air Nor the five elements Bindu then being in primal void Was born consorting with consciousness. Bindu, the father Raja, the mother And so was born the lotus, the deity in the temple. Anant exhorts Welcome the Bindu The god in the temple. _____________ 1 2

Editor‟s note: Spot; point of focus, usually in meditation Editor‟s note: The poem addresses Jagannathā Dāsa

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Post-Panchashakhā Age Priyadarshi Patnaik

Krishna with Gopikas. Patta-Chitra. Courtesy – Arty_Zen, flickr.com

Post-Panchasakhā Age (16th-19th century AD) Introduction The metaphysical strain in Oriya poetry continued as an unbroken tradition for some fifty more years or so after the time of the Panchasakhā . But then other things took over. The devotional strain and simplicity of language got replaced by ornate style, with diverse secular themes coming in, and eroticism played a very important role in much poetry that followed. Debānanda Dāsa, Arakshita Dāsa, Chaitany Dāsa and many other poets who belonged to the middle and later part of the 16 th century were probably direct followers of the Panchasakhā poets. But then there seems to be a gap. Salabega probably came a century later born in the first decade of 17 th century. His father was Muslim and his mother a devout Brahmin. Thus, he embodied the uneasy presence of Muslim invasion to Orissa between 16 th and 17th century. His father died when he was a child and he grew up a Muslim by birth and a Hindu in spirit who was not be allowed into the temple. This is reflected in his poetry, mostly short poems, in the tradition of deep faith and devotion in Lord Jagannātha. They are without much metaphysical explorations in them. So, there is very little in common, between his poetry and the poetry of the preceding age. However, it is again Puri and Lord Jagannātha that hold these traditions together. When one comes to Bhima Bhoi and Mahimā Cult, the Vaisnavism of the Panchasakhā is no longer the binding force. But much of the metaphysic of the 15 th-16th century pervades Mahimā cult and the writings of Bhima Bhoi which shows a very strong Buddhist influence. Besides, Bhima Bhoi‟s writing is also writing of social protest since he belonged

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to the non-Brahminical caste (what is also called Dalit caste today) and suffered at the hands of the upper class. In that sense it has affinity to the writings of the Panchasakhā. The poems in this section, thus, cover a very wide period of time, and include different flavours. What binds them together is their quest for or exploration of the Ultimate, be it in the embodied form of Lord Jagannātha or as the non-material principle of Sunya. Again, a better understanding of some of the poems here is possible by exploring some of the articles in the section, Key Concepts and Contexts.

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Chaitanya Dāsa

Krishna-leela. Patta-Chitra. Courtesy – Disha G, flickr.com

From Nirguna Mahātmya (Chapter 4) Poet: Chaitanya Dāsa Time: 17th century (?) Translator: Soubhagya Kumar Mishra Sountaka speaks: Sounaka smiles at Pourani and tells him: O Soota, unravel the mystery Of the story of that father-son duo, Tell me it‟s meaning for the good of the world, Which will dispel all my doubts. Tell me what Kapila said to his parents When they were about to start the yagnya; Why he asked them not to do it; What made him to argue that? No dharma was to be attained through it. Tell me why he prevented the yagnya, O Vyāsa‟s son, hearing which we will be saved. Soota speaks: Soota says thus to the sage Sounaka, With his conscience clear and pure: Listen, O Sounaka, the great listener, I narrate the events of the past. Kapila said to his parents about

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The means of attaining moksha. He said, O Father! O Mother! I speak about the different karmas we do. If you wish to hear me, I will speak about the meaning And significance of the Vedas; About the ways by which jivas are saved. Listen to me with all your attention. I say all this for you ask me And so I am not to blame in the future. This is what the lord of the Universe is: He has no beginning, no form. He is in all matter, in all-living beings Walking on the earth and flying in the sky, He is in the gods; He is the essence of them all. He covers the still and the moving, Movement itself is His chief attribute. Who in the world can enumerate His parts. He spreads across the sky like the clouds, And covers all the three worlds. The Nether world is His feet, the earth His belly, Swarga or heaven is His head, His nose blows the forty-nine winds. The moon and the sun are His shining eyes, And His two arms lie across the two poles. Many a universe is contained in His body, He is in all bodies. So is that magnificent Being, that Purusha; He is visible to those who love and adore Him. He is with the living and also with the lifeless; Both outside and inside them; Invisible and hidden in the sunya of all; Visible in their various forms though. All jiva are born of Him; So are the five matters including parama. Just as a householder builds a house first, And spends his days living in it, And passes through the phase of joy and sorrow, Similarly does Lord Hari Engineer and build all matter, And He lives in them, known to none. He is, yet He is not as though, and Lives in the sunya and not in a material body. He is the sunya in the sunya, but Reveals His form whenever He so desires. The one who knows of that form, Is saved from this ruthless world. How else will one attain nirvāna, If one doesn‟t identify that form with Him? One realizes Him and one‟s creeper Of good deeds grows.

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Arakshita Dāsa

Radha-Krishna. Patta-Chitra. Private collection From Mahi Mandala Gitā (fragment from Chapter 14) Poet: Arakshita Dāsa Time: 17th century Translator: Priyadarshi Patnaik An Account of the Greatness of Atman or Self O Chaitanya! Listen please. My hunger and thirst do not cease. They claim me – this thirst and hunger. And I die in the sleep of fear. Violence, anger, desire, delusion – You create this world of illusion. You are sattwa, raja, tamas And you are the same as greed and lust. You are the five minds And you the twenty-five qualities

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You the six ripus And you destroy with the sixty-four maladies. If one claims in this body anything beyond you, No fault of mine is it due to. You become all-natured And pervade the entire world. Other than you in this world Is there anyone else? I ask. You were known as the seas seven And the nine-fragment-earth you became. Shrubs and mountains are the same as you And you again are trees and the stony floor. Burrows, ridges, rivers and streams – From your bodies they all emerge. Insects, birds, leaves, grass Are all made from your flesh. All the fifty-six crore creatures Only from your body emerged And the earth and the layers of the sky All from your body again. Water, wind and fire From your body were born. The moon and the sun from you came And you the sixteen divisions of night and day. You again were known as the seven days And the fifteen ththies you became. ... From your body storm clouds were born And the lightning took the shape of your shape. Oh Lord! You take the shape of the cosmic flame Make play in innumerable ways. You became mantra and yantra And again were known as dhyāna and sutra. You became the eight metals And in your body resided the nine jewels. ...

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One Purusa , you became all Made play in various colours. O, All-Bodied, you created all Who else is there in these fourteen worlds? ... You create yourself in diverse shapes And again you dissolve and kill yourself. Creatures eat up creatures Rewards and sins are all lies. Creature envy creature Creatures destroy creatures. Creatures make creatures work. This is how your illusion works. In every body, O Lord You brim and overflow. The sky and the earth are filled Equally with both beings and non-beings. Not a spark of you can be found Yet the seven worlds are full of you. This is how you pervade all Create and destroy all. Born of your own very self You die and kill yourself. None know your māya and Make reward and sin their guide. Now please do this kindness to me To this being of mine I shall see all as equal And do my work with full devotion. Do this kindness to me For I have no other way. Says Arakshita Dāsa Please forgive me, O Pitabāsa. At the feet of the enlightened souls I beg forgiveness for my mistakes.

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Debānanda Dāsa

Musicians. Patta-Chitra. Private collection

From Bāichandra Gitā Poet: Debānanda Dāsa Time: 17th century Translator: Sarat Chandra Satapathy Thus spoke the great sage: O, Sri Rāma, listen to the saga of the Maker He is none other than the Lord himself He is the spinner of the great wheel He is the elemental Formless without qualities He is the master of the universe Millions emerge out of Him And then he consigns them to the deluge He preserves and nourishes And millions emerge from his innards And the worlds come when he wishes them That makes him the lord of the universe.

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Inexplicable and formless is He Giving form to everything The phenomenal world of the four domains Which he has made. He is at play eminent in every being Manifest in the flame‟s halo, Who else is there except Him? Lord in the shape of flame‟s brightness Pervading the elemental breath Taking shape befitting the occasion He has access to all space Generates everything He is the Purusa who wasn‟t born But brings creatures to existence as he wishes, That‟s why he is the creator of the universe. Originless is he Partaking of food in every house With this void He identifies himself My life too merges with this Brahman Therefore, my son Is He known as the unrestrained And flows in the void. ____________ 1

Abanā

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Uddhava Dāsa

Goddess Durga. Patta-Chitra. Courtesy – shalincraft-india.com

Fragment from Tikā Govinda Chandra Poet: Uddhava Dāsa Time: 17th century (?) Translator: Jatin Nayak You Deceitful Deceiving Creature You deceiving creature You cannot be trusted You never ever take the name of Lord Rāma, Krishna or Hari. When you were conceived You were formless. In the first month you were a speck of white In the second you were like a small fish in water In the third month you spread branch in void In the fourth your bones took shape In the fifth your navel was formed And in the sixth seventy-two nādis were arranged In the seventh month your nose your tongue your mouth and ear Took shape Your eyes and your bow shaped brows were formed. He made blood flow ceaselessly Like Gangā and Yamunā in your veins

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All this He did on his own In the eighth month He made your fingers, hands and feet And covered everything with a case of skin. He completed his job in ten months And felt very pleased. With folded hands you prayed „O Lord, if I live in this world, I will chant your holy name all the time.” *** Know this that the maker who made you chose your body as his abode He gave your body ten openings And fitted a door to each And the highest exit susumnā resides in the Lord, son of Nanda. If you want to meet Him You cut through the web of māyā And realize God by devoting yourself to your guru *** But when you took birth and arrived on earth You forgot all this the moment you let out your first cry. The name of Hari you did not utter As you lay in the lying-in room. Five years of childhood flowed by At ten years old you spent time building castles in the sand Aged twelve you started putting on clothes But you never ever took the name of Hari. When you turned fifteen you were too full of yourself At age of twenty your thoughts turned to young women Your days were spent in the company of your wife. In this way passed the days of your youth Not even for a day did thoughts of Lord Hari cross your mind. How will you cross the ocean of the world? Now old age has overtaken you and of course You will soon get a glimpse of the land where the dead go.

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Sālabega

Sakuntala. Patta-Chitra. Courtesy – dollsofindia.com

O, Nilashaila (The Blue Lord) Poet: Sālabega Time: 18th century? Translator: Niranjan Mohanty Oh, Nilashaila The ebullient, wild elephant! Trample on and shatter My grief‟s lotus-forest. From mid-waters When the elephant cried, You saved it, chopping the crocodile With your Sudarshan disk. In the royal court of the Kurus, Hapless Draupadi pinned her thought On you, and readily You clothed her shame. Deep in the forest, The deer in obdurate troubles Offered prayer to you, And promptly you came to its rescue. Bibhisana, Ravana‟s brother, Took shelter Beneath your lotus-feet, And you protected him from adversities.

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Ajamila, the worldly king, Uttered your name once only At the moment of his death, And you made the sinner an inmate of heaven! Emerging from The stony palace-pillar You tore the arrant father Of Prahallad, your devotee, into pieces! Appearing here as Buddha, On this sacred land, Nilāchala, You have been offering Shelter almost to everyone. Oh, Lord of the universe, Give me shelter Beneath your lotus feet – Thus prays Sālabega, the low-born. (ājamila: A worldlym materialistic king, who never offered his prayer to God. He named his son Nārāyana. At the moment of his death, he cried out the name of his son, Narayana, God was pleased at this and was kind enough to give him shelter in heaven. “Govinda sits on the floral palanquin…” Poet: Sālabega Time: 18th century? Translator: N S R Ayengar Govinda sits on the floral palanquin Surrounded by hosts of heavenly beauties The golden boat rowed by silver oars The bow adonred by the deity of Nadanagopāl. On Vaisakha‟s summer bright day of auspicious Akshaya tritiyā Madanamohan1 started for Chandan Yātra2 The Lord‟s festival of summer water frolic. Conch-shells blow, bells ring And Mahuri pipe‟s sweet symphony stirs the air. For the well-being of the devotees Narend pond was etched. Sālabega says he is a low Muslim by birth Let his mind be fixed At the Lord‟s lotus-feet. __________________________________ 1

Madanmohan or Krishna. Here it refers to the smaller image of the lord which is used for the Chadan (sandal) festival as representative of lord Jagannatha since the larger image is so big and cannot be used in this festival. 2 Chandan Yātra is a vernal festival when the lord besmeared in sandal paste enjoys water folic to beat the heat of the summer.

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Bhima Bhoi

Krishna-Leela. Patta-Chitra. Courtesy – gangesindia.com

Stuti Chintāmani, Canto 17 Poet: Bhima Bhoi Time: 19th Century Translator: Diptiranjan Pattanaik King Duryadhana put the five Pāndava brothers in a house of lacquer Then you helped them escape in stealth by hiding their bodies under thy divine illusion. Thou minimize the risk in the lives of those who embrace the path of truth and dharma. You wipe their rust of sin and help them settle In the world of Sattwa. I seek thy everlasting command in the deep recesses of my mind A secret message, hid from the world revealed only to me. In the country of Pānchāla, the arrow of a disguised Arjuna hit the target You made all the five brothers marry Draupadi who turned out to be the cause of a future war. O my teacher, omniscient Lord, what more can I relate at your feet Only silent prayers in my mind at your feet bequeath. Please accept my services and devotion and grant me the tools of perfect action, Fill me with compassion and help me retain the dignity of a true renouncer. At the time of thy coronation in the age of Tretayā, during thy avtāra as Rāma The rishis were enamoured of thy beauty. You turned them into the divine consorts as they had desired And as the women of Braja they enjoyed the bliss of secret dalliance with their Lord. It is my fate to only ruminate about the bliss at the core of my heart If only you wish, I will be delivered into the sea of your benediction. By Kansa‟s dictate, O my Lord, with the flute in hand you went to pluck the lotuses. The dreaded snake Kāliya who was lying in wait amidst the flowers stung at your face. In great rage you sent for divine Garuda but your forgave the snake

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when it tool refuge in you When you forgave such a crime, O my Lord the effulgent knower of the Absolute Kindly heed my prayer now that I seek absolute refuge at your feet. The deluded Jārā struck an arrow in your foot mistaking it for a deer But you sent your messengers to fetch him to heaven forgiving his misdeeds. Despite my yoga and meditation, O my Lord, whose abode is the blue mountain I continue to languish in sins through my several births on this earth For ages I grovel in misery under this great emptiness Hoping to be salvaged some day in the boat of your blessings. Like a skilled artist at a portrait, I have employed several tricks But I find no way for salvation from this vast sea of misery The turbulent currents which tug at the roots and shake all the branches of my fragile existence The waters swirl in circles and drag me hard into their depths All the while the devotees are chanting the name of Lord Rāma To be delivered from this fallen life of Jiva in the midst of filth and sin While this flippant mind of mine is poised eternally on the pleasures of the playful world. My only hope of deliverance from this samsāra is the feet of the holy men. Without the blessing of my guru this life of mine cannot attain salvation So I, Bhima Bhoi, compose this song constantly training my mind and reason on the feet of my Guru.

No Feet No Hand Poet: Bhima Bhoi Time: 19th century Translator: Ramanendra Mohapatra No feet, no hands, Who can catch Him! Nowhere seen is such an image of Brahma. Let me untie the secret You cannot imagine Him In the human form, For, he has no tummy, no waist. There is none like Him In three worlds So calm; In attainments and failures, Withstanding all praise and disgrace. No food He eats; He being beyond ova and seeds; When hungry or thirsty, No milk or water He drinks, No dust can smear His body, Which forever shines bright. When sleep eludes, He sleeps on a heightened seat. He comes on his will To fulfill the wishes of His devotees. No ears to hear, no eyes to see No mouth or tongue, no nostrils, No answer He gives in any language,

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Yet aware of the pros and cons. In the calm breeze, He remains. Nothing topsy-turvy in this, The body of Sunya is in Mahashunya, Unexpressed by the mouth, In the voice of the tongue. The ever victoriously blissful one! If you find Him, Fall at His feet, and Wait for His commands, For, He is the only One, Who rules the three worlds. No colour, no trace of existence, Separated from the myriad shapes, He is the just arbiter of all religions. Appearance and disappearance continues, He is the doer And at the root of all action, Yet calls Himself, A yogi of Niskama Yoga. The effulgence of that Brahma, I cannot stand. Thus, I recede, And love to concentrate on His feet. Says Bhima Bhoi: Like me, surrender your intellect, At the feet of Sri Guru, For Deliverance.

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Priyadarshi Patnaik: Koili Dutakāvya

Kanchi Avijana. Patta-Chitra. Courtesy – blogs.fullorissa.com

Koili Dutakāvya Tradition (15th-17th century AD) Introduction Oriya Koili (cuckoo) poems belong to the dutakāvya tradition which can be traced back to Sanskrit poems like Kālidāsa‟s Meghadutam. The first Koili poem in Oriya, Keshaba Koili, is about the lament of Yosodhā to the cuckoo, where she talks to the bird and hopes that it would communicate her words to her absent son Lord Krishna who is in Mathurā. This is how the cuckoo is a duta or messenger. Many other Koili (messenger) poems exist in Oriya. However, a different tradition emerged from it (no longer messenger poem) which is the focus of our interest. This shows transformation of a tradition through influence of diverse religious and literary forces, namely the techniques of sandhābhāsā of the Charyā poets and the themes which were initiated by the Panchasakhā bhakti poets. Thus, the sandhābhāsā of the Charyā poems is revived in Jagannātha Dāsa‟s poem. Jagannāha‟s Artha Koili assumes that Keshaba Koili has a secret and hidden meaning (artha), tries to explain this meaning and hence is called Artha Koili. After Jagannātha, the form is again modified to suit a different purpose in the Orissan bhakti tradition. In some of the Koili poems that follow, the Cuckoo is no longer the messenger but the dark, ignorant self, which has to transform itself through self realization.

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While Keshaba Koili by Mārkanda Dasa is a messenger poem, Artha Koili is a kind of tikā (commentary) on it and Gyānodaya Koili of Lokonātha and Sisu Veda Koili by Variāgi Dāsa address the koili (cuckoo) as the dark ignorant self – the object of lament because it is in a state of ignorance. Thus, over a period of more than a century, the form undergoes a total transformation. The poems below represent this specific tradition. However, a separate tradition of koili poems as dutakāvyas continued into the 18th and 19th century which were very much like the first poem represented here. __________________ 1

The translations are based on the original texts from Odissa Koili Sahitya, Ed. Nilamani Mishra, Orissa State Archive, Bhubaneswar, 1973.

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Mārkanda Dāsa

Ramayana Scene. Patta-Chitra. Courtesy – dollsofindia.com

Kesaba Koili (Cuckoo Messenger to Krishna) Poet: Mārkanda Dāsa Time: 15th-16th century Translator: Priyadarshi Patnaik O Cuckoo, Kesaba has gone to Mathurā, on whose bidding has he gone, my son has not come back yet, O Cuckoo. (1) O Cuckoo, who shall I give milk of the breast? my son has gone to Mathurāpuri, O Cuckoo. (2) O Cuckoo, my son has not come back, the dense Brundāvana looks beautiful no longer, O Cuckoo. (3) O Cuckoo, Nanda doesn‟t enter the house, the lovely palace is desolate without Govinda, O Cuckoo. (4) O Cuckoo, King Nanda made a stone of his heart, putting collolium in his eyes placed him in the chariot, O Cuckoo. (5) O Cuckoo, the jewels on the girldle at his waist rang, bewitching the maidens of Gopapuri, O Cuckoo. (6) O Cuckoo, at night Hari would ask for the moon on lifting eyes Nanda would be at his bidding, O Cuckoo. (10)

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O Cuckoo, he would brim with laughter on the lap, swing from side to side moving upon the swing, O Cuckoo. (11) O Cuckoo, Beautiful the two liquid eyes, Cheating and lying he went, crossing the bounds, O Cuckoo (12) O Cuckoo, wherever the she parrot‟s voice carries, You can see Hari floating like a parrot, O Cuckoo. (13) O Cuckoo, on his body is smeared sandal wood paste, With him plays brother Balarāma, O Cuckoo . (16) O Cuckoo, bruising my nipple I gave him milk to drink, to my old age I could not see my son, O Cuckoo. (17)

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Jagannātha Dāsa

Elephants. Patta-Chitra. Courtesy – dollsofindia.com From Artha Koili (The meaning of the Koili or the Koili that reveals the meaning)1 Poet: Jaganātha Dāsa Time: 15th – 16th century Translator: Priyadarshi Patnaik O Cuckoo, Kesaba has gone to Mathurā, on whose bidding has he gone, my son has not come back yet, O Cuckoo. (1) Arjuna Speaks: Arjuna said, listen, O mighty armed, give me permission to ask you a question, what does one understand by Kesaba koili, to this question of, O Srihari, give me an answer. Krishna Speaks: Hearing Pārtha‟s question, Bhagavān said, you asked a very noble question indeed. By Cuckoo, the jive is meant. That life force is me, pervading everything. The jive came by itself and went by itself, hence the son did not come back and Mathura, the body, lay empty. (1) O Cuckoo, who shall I give milk of the breast? my son has gone to Mathurāpuri, O Cuckoo. (2) Again Arjuna prostrated himself at Krishna‟s feet, clear my doubts, O Bhābagrāhee. Explain to me the discourse about the mother‟s breast.

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Srihari said, listen O Arjuna, inside the pinda the jive gets great happiness. Again it disappears and goes elsewhere. It dissolves into ether and enters another pinda, to relish the nectar of Hari - mother‟s milk. Hearing this Arjuna was delighted and Krishna explained on and on. (2) O Cuckoo, my son has not come back, the dense Brundāvana looks beautiful no longer, O Cuckoo. (3) What is the meaning of dense Brundāvana? Explain this to me, O Bhavagraji. The Lotus-eyed one looked at Arjuna‟s face, and said, hear the answer, O son of Pāndu, by dense, the jive is meant, Gopa, the body, without a jive is no longer beautiful When the body was abandoned by the ultimate (parama) the body fell on the ground. This is the meaning of the word ga, listen with all your heart, O son of Pandu.(3) O Cuckoo, Nanda doesn’t enter the house, the lovely palace is desolate without Govinda, O Cuckoo. (4) Touching Partha, Bhabagrahi continued, hear this, what is meant by the house? what is the meaning of the ultimate soul? I shall explain the views of the Scriptures to you. when the harmonious purusa abandoned the abode For Nanda (the body) existence was meaningless. As long as the jiva was there the body was beautiful. But the harmonious principle went out, never came back. Because of this, the empty house looked ugly. (4) O Cuckoo, King Nanda made a stone of his heart, putting collolium in his eyes placed him in the chariot, O Cuckoo. (5) Arjuna asked, O listen Jagannātha, From where did Nanda‟s body emerge? To Arjuna‟s question, Bhagavana said, By Nanda‟s body, understand the body When the jive went into space the body dried up and it did not come back, When the soul separates from the body from both the eyes tears drop down. By collolium that is meant in the scripture. Again and again Arjuna made salutations. (5) O Cuckoo, the jewels on the girldle at his waist rang, bewitching the maidens of Gopapuri, O Cuckoo. (6) Hearing Arjuna‟s question, the Lotus-eyed one says,

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hear your answer, O Pāndu‟s son. When the jive was playing with the body the body-mechanism worked smoothly When, the jiva went off with the ultimate, the machinery became silent. The body was working efficiently only with the help of the jive, hear this carefully, O Subhadra‟s husband. (6) O Cuckoo, at night Hari would ask for the moon on lifting eyes Nanda would be at his bidding, O Cuckoo. (10) By night the eye is meant the moon is the abode of all bliss. Nanda is the final meaning, the left eye is meant. Hence, when the eye is closed there is darkness. Understand the meaning of night thus. This is my answer, O brother of Yudhisthira Hearing this Arjuna was delighted, keen to hear more, he again starts asking. (10) O Cuckoo, he would brim with laughter on the lap, swing from side to side moving upon the swing, O Cuckoo. (11) By the swinging bridge, O Pārtha, the nose is meant. The soul waits expectantly to abandon this. In the middle of Trikuta he holds his seat. That is referred to as the lap, O Arjuna On top of that you can hear, Hari bol, ringing. Taking the ultimate, jive resides in the sunya. The nose and eyes frequent the sunya Tbe body would fall without their support. (11) O Cuckoo, Beautiful the two liquid eyes, Cheating and lying he went, crossing the bounds, O Cuckoo. (12) Hear the meaning of the letter „tha‟ O Fālguna I shall explains the ways of the sastras to you Beautiful refers to the jive ultimate It never came back finding other support – the beautiful body goes in a moment, O Pārtha. Hearing this Arjuna makes obeisance. (12) _________________ 1

Notes on some of the important words used in the poem: jiva: self, individual soul pinda: the body cage: the body trapping the self purusha: jiva, self, the higher principle, samkhya influence eye: moon, idā and pingalā, tantric swinging bridge: nose, the swing of breath, idā, pingalā, susumnā, trikuta i three, the three veins swan: breath sunya: the ultimate principle, paramatmā, void.

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Lokanātha

Patta-Chitra. Courtesy – dollsofindia.com From Gyānodaya Koili (The Cuckoo of the Awakening of Knowledge) Poet Lokonātha Time: 16th-17th century Translator: Dharanidhar Sahu Wake Up! O Cuckoo!1 O Cuckoo, On the top of the hill, in a lake called kālindi Blooms the thousand-petalled lotus Deep within that lotus three streams flow At their confluence Swims the immaculate swan The swan floats in space Who can comprehend the swan‟s glory? The swan disports itself on the peak Far beyond the reach of the mind O Cuckoo, Many an ascetic quests for that swan Men of learning try to seek in vein But the swan plays in the shrine of the void Located at the end of the narrow tunnel All your transgressions will be forgiven All the dirt will be cleansed If you meditate on that swan

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O Cuckoo, At the portals of heaven Where lord Vishnu resides A road moves towards the rock-cut cave Running between the Ganga and Yamuna Walking on that road, if you are capable of Crossing the market place of distracting Voices and temptations, You will meet the swan Who remains concealed in the enormous void. O Cuckoo, Your near and dear ones How fondly you dote on them! But the moment you close your eyes They will treat you as a stranger And in order to get rid of your body As soon as possible, They will carry your body off To the cremation ground Only by constant chanting of the holy name of the lord You can overcome the hazards That visit you for your lapses O Cuckoo, All these people you see with your eyes, Not one of them will give you company When you leave the world. They do not belong to one another They do not belong to you. You brought nothing when you came here You‟ll take nothing with you when you leave. There‟s only one way to save yourself: Take refuge in God And chant his Holy Name. O Cuckoo, Quieten your restive mind Control your frickle, frantic thoughts. Wake up and take stock of the reality Hold the sun and the moon In your mind‟s sky Full up the abode of your being With the contents of awareness You will be able to conquer death If you continue in such a state of the consciousness. __________________ 1

Cuckoo (koili) stands for the mind shrouded in ignorance. The poet invokes his own unredeemed mind to realize its own potential through yogic meditation.

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Bairāgi Dāsa

Radha & Krishna with Gopis. Private collection

From Sisu Veda Koili Poet: Bairāgi Dāsa Time: 16th-17th century Translator: Priyadarshi Patnaik (Verse 9)1 O Cuckoo, that earth hides in sunya, The syllable aum resides in secret If you can, know it, You will be able to make the sun and the moon Fetch water for you, O Cuckoo. When the windless merges with the wind The spirit will reside in the cage, O Cuckoo. _________________________ 1

Notes: In the two fragments sited above the following symbols emerge as significant. triveni: the three veins tube/passage: the nostrils, breath aum: the sound that emerges from the naval, nādabrahman, anāhatanāda

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Contributors Patnaik Priyadarshi, (b. 1969) is a creative writer, painter, translator and photographer. A number of his poems and short-fiction have appeared in various journals outside and in India including Ariel, Oyster Boy Review, Hudson View, Melic Review, Still, Toronto Review, Kavya Bharati, Indian Literature and Muse India. His translations and critical writings on translation have appeared in Translation Today, Visva-Bharati Quarterly, Muse India and many edited volumes. He has published two anthologies of poems, a critical work on Indian aesthetics and co-edited two volumes on Aging and Dying (Sage) and Time in the Indian Context (D K Printworld-in Press). He is presently editing a volume on Orissan Medieval Poets and writing a monograph on poet Achyutananda for Orissa Sahitya Akademi. Patnaik is currently Associate Professor at the Department of Humanities & Social Sciences, IIT Kharagpur, where he teaches literature, communication and visual aesthetics. His research interests include Indian aesthetics, media & multimedia studies, visual & nonverbal communication, and translation. He can be reached at his email: [email protected]. Some of his visual work can be viewed at www.geocities.com/priyadarshi1 Pattanayak D P, Padmashree D P Pattanayak is an eminent linguist and is the founder director of Central Institute of Indian Languages, Mysore. He has numerous books and papers to his credit and has published widely in India and abroad in linguistics and language studies. He has held numerous significant academic positions after his retirement. Currently, he is Advisor, Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts, New Delhi. Mohanty J M, formerly professor, Department of English, Utkal University, is an eminent Oriya critic who has published widely and contributed significantly to the history of Oriya literature both in English and Oriya. He has a number of critically edited volumes of Oriya literary texts to his credit and also a number of critical histories of Oriya literature, both in English and Oriya. Many of his works have been published by Kendriya Sahitya Akademi and Odissa Sahitya Akademi. Chaturvedi Namrata, teaches in the Department of English, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong. Her research interests are Indian theatre, Indian aesthetics, comparative poetics, Indian philosophy and translating from English into Hindi and vice versa. She wrote her M.Phil dissertation on reading the metaphysical poets in the framework of the rasa theory and for her doctoral research is working on the writings of The Marquis de Sade in the backdrop of the debate on ethics and aesthetics in the Western tradition . Some of her papers have been published in JSL (JNU), Himal South Asian (Katmandu, Nepal), Muse India and her forthcoming papers are in an anthology on Indian English Literature edited by Sarbojit Biswas (Kolkata) and Indian women poets edited by Anisur Rahman (New Delhi). She can be reached at her email - [email protected] Patnaik Tandra, (b.1947), Formerly Professor, Department of Philosophy, Utkal University combines in her scholarship both Indian and Western Philosophies. A researcher for more than 35 years, she is the author of five books and a number of research papers in Philosophy of Language, Indian Culture and Orissan Philosophical Tradition. She is currently an ICPR Senior Fellow and is working on Bhakti and Mahima philosophy. She can be reached at her email: [email protected]

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