One Could Commission A Funerary Papyrus Or Purchase A Stock Copy And Have Ones Name Written In The

One could commission a funerary papyrus or purchase a stock copy and have ones name written in the appropriate places. The buyer could select the number and choice of chapters, the number and quality of illustrations and the length. Scrolls ranged from fifteen feet to ninety feet by twelve to eighteen inches tall.

Papyrus from the Book of the Dead of Nakht From Thebes, Egypt Late 18th Dynasty, 1350-1300 BC Nakht was a royal scribe and overseer of the army (general) at the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty (about 1550-1295 BC). His Book of the Dead is a beautifully illustrated example. Chapter 117 of the Book of the Dead is a spell for taking the road to Rosetjau, the burial place of Osiris. The vignettes include scenes showing Anubis taking Nakht towards a false door, the offering place in the tomb through which the spirit of the deceased entered and left the next world. Nakht is also shown receiving a libation (liquid offering) from the tree goddess, and being subjected to the Opening of the Mouth ritual by the hawk-headed god, Horus. The figures of Nakht appear squat when compared to 'classic' Egyptian art. The slightly strange proportions, seen also in the tombs of Horemheb and Ramesses I in the Valley of the Kings, are typical of representation at the end of the Eighteenth and early Nineteenth Dynasties. It is thought that this is the result of a readjustment of the artistic canon of proportions after the Amarna Period. The 'transparency' of the figures is also interesting: we can see the legs of Nakht through his white over-robe, and his feet are visible through the pool of water in the centre. Length: 71.3 cm (frame) Width: 39.2 cm (frame)

Papyrus from the Book of the Dead of Any From Thebes, Egypt 19th Dynasty, around 1250 BC Chapter 17 of theBook of the Dead is a long and complicated spell, with an equally long history. It is essentially a statement of religious doctrines relating to the sun-god Re. It includes statements with explanatory glosses on the meaning of the text, introduced in the original by text in red, saying, for example 'what does it mean?' or 'in other words'. This suggests that it was at some point felt necessary to explain an obscure text, though to us many of the glosses seem more complex than the basic text. The text is accompanied by a range of vignettes (illustrations). On the left Any and his wife Tutu are shown at left playing the senet board game (which can be a metaphor for a man travelling into the next world, like a playing piece on the board), while in front of the booth their ba spirits are shown as human headed birds, perched on top of their tomb. The two lions are those of the horizon over whose backs the sun rises daily, while the bird to the right is the benu, the phoenix-like bird and soul of the sun-god Re. At the right Any's mummy lies under a canopy, attended on by two birds identified as Isis and Nephthys. Length: 71.3 cm (frame) Width: 42 cm (frame)

Papyrus from the Book of the Dead of Any From Thebes, Egypt 19th Dynasty, around 1275 BC The judgement of the dead in the presence of Osiris This scene from the Book of the Dead of Any reads from left to right. At the left, Any and his wife enter the judgement area. In the centre are the scales used for weighing the heart, attended by Anubis, the god of embalming. The process is also observed by Any's ba spirit (the human-headed bird), two birth-goddesses and a male figure representing his destiny. Any's heart, represented as the hieroglyph for 'heart' (a mammal heart), sits on the left pan of the scales. It is being weighed against a feather, the symbol of Maat, the principle of order, which in this context means 'what is right'. The ancient Egyptians believed that the heart was the seat of the emotions, the intellect and the character, and thus represented the good or bad aspects of a person's life. If the heart did not balance out with the feather, then the deceased were condemned to non-existence, and was consumed by the ferocious 'devourer', the strange beast, part-crocodile, part-lion, and part-hippopotamus, shown at the right of this scene. However, a papyrus devoted to ensuring the continued existence of the deceased is not likely to depict this happening. Once the judgement is completed, the deceased was declared 'true of voice' or 'justified', a standard epithet applied to dead individuals in their texts. The whole process is recorded by the ibis-headed deity Thoth. At the top twelve deities supervise the judgement. Compare this with a vignette from the Book of the Dead of Hunefer, also in The British Museum. Length: 44.5 cm (frame) Width: 30.7 cm (frame)

Page from the Book of the Dead of Hunefer From Thebes, Egypt 19th Dynasty, around 1300 BC Rites before the tomb This is an excellent example of one of the many fine vignettes (illustrations) from the Book of the Dead of Hunefer. The centrepiece of the upper scene is the mummy of Hunefer, shown supported by the god Anubis or a priest wearing a jackal mask). Hunefer's wife and daughter mourn, and three priests perform rituals. The two priests with white sashes are carrying out the Opening of the Mouth ritual. The white building at the right is a representation of the tomb, complete with portal doorway and small pyramid. Both these features can be seen in real tombs of this date from Thebes. To the left of the tomb is a picture of the stela which would have stood to one side of the tomb entrance. Following the normal conventions of Egyptian art, it is shown much larger than normal size, in order that its content (the deceased worshipping Osiris, together with a standard offering formula) is absolutely legible. At the right of the lower scene is a table bearing the various implements needed for the Opening of the Mouth ritual. At the left is shown a ritual, where the foreleg of a calf, cut off while the animal is alive, is offered. The animal was then sacrificed. The calf is also shown, together with its mother, who might be interpreted as showing signs of distress. Height: 45.7 cm (frame) Length: 83.4 cm (frame)

Page from the Book of the Dead of Nebseny From a Memphite cemetery, probably Saqarra, Egypt 18th Dynasty, around 1400 BC The couple receiving offerings The scene of an owner and his or her spouse (here Nebseny and his wife, Senseneb) receiving offerings, is often shown in Books of the Dead. Such offerings are conventionally the duty of the eldest son, and indeed the horizontal row of hieroglyphs over the man at the left names him as 'their son, Ptahmose'. The hieroglyphs above, which give the text of the offering prayer, is written in what is known as 'retrograde' style. While a hieroglyphic text normally starts at the end to which the birds, animals and humans face, a 'retrograde' text should be read starting at the opposite end. In this case, the text begins at the left and continues to the right, and reflects the words coming away from the priest at the left. The papyrus of Nebseny is among the earlier examples in The British Museum, and the accompanying vignettes (illustrations) are not coloured. Nebseny was a temple copyist, whose job was probably to make copies of temple documents for archives, as well as writing out new ones. Ir is possible that he may have drawn the pictures himself rather than pay a specialist papyrus illustrator. Length: 65.8 cm Height: 35.8 cm

Papyrus from the Book of the Dead of AnhaiFrom Thebes, Egypt 21st Dynasty, around 1050 BC The 'Negative Confession' before the gods The final judgement of the deceased was a popular vignette (illustrated scene) in the ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead. It accompanied the spell in which the heart of the deceased declares before a tribunal of forty two gods that he or she has not committed a long list of specific sins. This is known as the 'Negative Confession'. The heart was prevented from lying or informing against the deceased by a spell on the back of the heart scarab placed over the heart on the mummy. At the same time, the heart of the deceased is weighed against either a figure of Maat, or her symbol, the feather. This goddess embodied the concepts of justice, truth and balance. In this example, Anhai is shown on the right of the scene, adoring the gods, and holding a sistrum and convolvulus vine. The weighing of the heart itself is illustrated between Anhai and the tribunal. The emphasis on the tribunal, with its two rows of crouching bird- and animal-headed deities, is unusual. At the bottom is the goddess Maat, wearing the feather on her head. Above is Horus with the scales, with Thoth at the top ready to record the outcome. Length: 73.5 cm (frame) Width: 45.7 cm (frame)

Papyrus from the Book of the Dead of Nakht From Thebes, Egypt Late 18th Dynasty, 1350-1300 BC Agricultural scenes Nakht was a royal scribe and overseer of the army (general) at the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty (about 1550-1295 BC). His Book of the Dead is a beautifully illustrated example. This papyrus shows Spell 110, a series of addresses to deities who dwell in the 'next world', specifically in the Field of Offering and the Field of Rushes. The deceased was expected to undertake agricultural work in the Field of Rushes. The vignette evolved from a map of the Field in the earlier Coffin Texts. It shows areas of land surrounded by water. Nakht is shown with Thoth at top right, with the balance and feather of Maat (referring to the Judgement Scene). He then paddles his boat across the Lake of Offerings where two mummiform deities stand before a table of offerings. Nakht is also shown worshipping the Heron of Plenty. He is shown pulling flax, reaping, and ploughing below. The boat of Wennefer (a name for the god Osiris), shown with a head of a snake, is moored in a channel of the water at the bottom. Three deities of the ennead (group of nine gods) are shown bottom right. Height: 34 cm

Vignette from the Book of the Dead of Nesitanebtashru From the burial of Nesitanebtashru, Deir el-Bahari, Thebes 21st Dynasty, around 1025 BC Shu supporting Nut: the separation of the earth from heaven by the god of the air This vignette is part of the Greenfield papyrus, the Book of the Dead of the priestess Nesitanebtashru, daughter of High Priest Pinudjem I. It is named after Mrs Edith Greenfield, the donor of the papyrus to the British Museum, whose husband acquired it in Egypt in 1880. It is one of the best surviving examples of a funerary papyrus. The original document was over thirty-seven metres long, with spells illustrated by a series of vignettes. One of the most important scenes shows an episode in the creation of the world, according to the Heliopolitan myth. The myth centres on the Heliopolitan god Atum as the creator. He and three generations of his descendants are known as the Great Ennead. According to the myth Atum created his two offspring Tefnut (moisture) and Shu (air) by sneezing and spitting. They in turn gave birth to Nut (heaven) and Geb (earth). This vignette shows Nut stretched over the earth, represented by Geb, who lies below her. The toes of the goddess are at the eastern horizon, and her fingertips at the western horizon. She is separated from Geb by her father Shu, who holds her up with both hands. This separation did not prevent Geb and Nut having four children: Osiris, Isis, Seth and Nephthys. The myths surrounding these four deities relate to the emergence of human society; the separation of earth and sky constitutes the creation of the world. Length: 93 cm (frame) Width: 53.5 cm (frame)

Page from the Book of the Dead of Hunefer From Thebes, Egypt 19th Dynasty, around 1275 BC The judgement of the dead in the presence of Osiris This is an excellent example of one of the many fine vignettes (illustrations) from the Book of the Dead of Hunefer. The scene reads from left to right. To the left, Anubis brings Hunefer into the judgement area. Anubis is also shown supervizing the judgement scales. Hunefer's heart, represented as a pot, is being weighed against a feather, the symbol of Maat, the established order of things, in this context meaning 'what is right'. The ancient Egyptians believed that the heart was the seat of the emotions, the intellect and the character, and thus represented the good or bad aspects of a person's life. If the heart did not balance with the feather, then the dead person was condemned to non-existence, and consumption by the ferocious 'devourer', the strange beast shown here which is part-crocodile, part-lion, and part-hippopotamus. However, as a papyrus devoted to ensuring Hunefer's continued existence in the Afterlife is not likely to depict this outcome, he is shown to the right, brought into the presence of Osiris by his son Horus, having become 'true of voice' or 'justified'. This was a standard epithet applied to dead individuals in their texts. Osiris is shown seated under a canopy, with his sisters Isis and Nephthys. At the top, Hunefer is shown adoring a row of deities who supervise the judgement. Height: 39 cm

Detail of the funerary papyrus of Taminiu, showing demons From Thebes, Egypt Third Intermediate Period, around 950 BC The demons which the deceased must pass on the way to the Afterlife There were many obstacles on the path to the Afterlife in ancient Egyptian belief. They often took the form of demons. The various funerary books were intended as assistance to the deceased, with the spells needed to overcome every problem. Some Underworld demons guarded the gates to the Mansion of Osiris, where the deceased was judged. These were often depicted, as here, in a mummified form, crouching and holding sharp knives. The demons were often shown with their heads twisted round behind them, or face on. Most had the heads of recognizable animals, often ones that were no threat in the living world, such as rams or hares. Others, like the double snake-headed demon, were creatures of fantasy. Another demon gatekeeper was the upright snake, with human arms and legs. This individual was the last guardian who stood at the doorway of the judgement chamber. The other scene on this papyrus shows the deceased woman, Taminiu, receiving cool water from Nut, appearing as a sycamore goddess. Her ba, the small human-headed bird, is at her feet. Behind her is the goddess Maat, whose head is replaced by the feather that is her emblem. Height: 28 cm (full sheet)

Papyrus from the Book of the Dead of Any From Thebes, Egypt 19th Dynasty, around 1250 BC Vignettes showing agricultural scenes These vignettes (small scenes that illustrate the text) accompany Spell 110 of Any's Book of the Dead. Spell 110 is essentially a series of addresses to deities who dwell in the 'next world', specifically the Field of Offering and Field of Rushes. The deceased was expected to undertake agricultural work in the Field of Rushes.| The vignette schematically renders areas of land surrounded by water. Any is shown offering to three deities of the ennead (group of nine gods) at the top, and then paddling his boat across the Lake of Offerings. Any is also shown worshipping the 'Western Falcon' and the 'Heron of Plenty'. He is shown reaping, winnowing and ploughing below. The boat of Wennefer (a name for the god Osiris), shown with a head of a snake, is moored on the edge of the water at the bottom. Length: 70 cm (frame) Width: 42.2 cm (frame)

Papyrus from the Book of the Dead of Padiamenet

From Egypt Third Intermediate Period, around 1000 BC The head baker of the estate of Amun This is the only known sheet of the papyrus from the Book of the Dead of Padiamenet, who was the head baker of the estate of Amun. The 'estate of Amun' is a very wide-ranging term which covers the physical and economic areas controlled in association with the cult. This can include areas outside the cult centre in Thebes. Books of the Dead usually begin with an introductory hymn to the sun god, Re, and/or a hymn to Osiris, accompanied by a vignette of the deceased before one of the deities. This vignette shows Padiamenet burning incense for Osiris. Some food (bread and onions) and lotus flowers stand as offerings on the table, while underneath stand two jars, one of which is a wine jar with a lotus bud and stalk coiled around it. The use of the colour blue is very striking. Osiris' blue robe is particularly unusual, since by convention he usually wears white or red. Blue food offerings are also unconventional. Blue, like green, is a colour associated with new life and rebirth, which is probably the intended symbolism here. Length: 100 cm (frame) Width: 28 cm (frame)

Papyrus from the Book of the Dead of Nakht From Thebes, Egypt Late 18th Dynasty, 1350-1300 BC Nakht and his wife worshipping Osiris Nakht was a royal scribe and overseer of the army ('general') at the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty (about 1550 1295 BC). His Book of the Dead is a beautifully illustrated example. Chapter 15 of the Book of the Dead is a collection of hymns loosely associated with the worship of the sun-god at the setting of the sun. The mixture is so diverse that it can also include the worship of Osiris, god of the dead and keeper of the Underworld. This sheet shows the wonderful scene of Nakht and Tjuiu, his wife, adoring Osiris and Maat, who represents the established order of things. The scene also includes a single-storey house and a garden. This picture is often taken as visual evidence for how ancient Egyptians lived, but an Egyptian representation is rarely what it seems; pictorial elements nearly always have hidden meanings, particularly in a papyrus intended for guidance in the Afterlife. The house is probably there as an expression of the deceased's wish to return to earth. In fact, Spell 132 of the Book of the Dead expressly refers to this. The pool is also symbolic of rebirth and resurrection, with other scenes showing the ba spirits of the deceased drinking from pools, or the tree-goddess pouring water for the dead in the area of the pool. Height: 36 cm