Ohts (grammar: Lecture 4)

OHTs (Grammar: Lecture 4)

Post-Modifiers (cont’d) • • •

come after the head noun give further information about the head noun can be prepositional phrases, finite clauses, or non-finite clauses

e.g.

the girls with long hair the girls who are sitting over there the girls sitting over there

Do Exercise 4.1, 4.2 Relative Clauses •

are one common type of post-modifiers

e.g.

the girls who are sitting over there the gash which needed medical attention

Restrictive and Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses •

Restrictive relative clauses (defining relative clauses) restrict or help to define the meaning of the head.

e.g.

•

The man whom (who) you met is my uncle. The woman that you want to speak to has left. The woman to whom you want to speak has left. The girl who has long hair is called Mary.

Non-restrictive relative clauses (non-defining relative clauses) give additional information but do not restrict or define the noun.

e.g.

My uncle, who is 64, still plays squash. The girl, who has long hair, is called Mary. He met Mary, who invited him to a party. (cf. and she invited...) Here is John Smith, whom (who) I mentioned the other day.

Do Exercise 4.3

Common Errors in the Use of Relative Clauses: What’s wrong? • • • • • •

This is the book John took it to the library. This is the plastic stuff on which the students wrote the sentences on. This is the plastic stuff which the students wrote the sentences. The child who sitting in the corner has been very naughty. The child is sitting in the corner has been very naughty. The boy was arrested by the police was called John

Sources of Errors: Learning to Use Relative Clauses • • • •

Interlanguage development L1 Interference / transfer Automatic use restricted by teaching methods Lacking attention to different forms (form-confusion)

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Appositives • • •

have the same reference as the noun phrases they modify can be phrases or clauses If the appositive is a clause, it is normally introduced by the word that (not which), but the word that does NOT function as a relative pronoun.

e.g.

My sister, Helen Wilson, will travel with me. Paul Peterson, a rock and alpine climber, was the first to volunteer. The belief that no one is infallible is well-founded. I agree with the old saying that absence makes the heart grow fonder.

Do Exercises 4.4 & 4.5 Coordination of noun phrases Noun 1 & Noun 2: Determiners: Pre-modifers: Post-modifiers:

e.g., the books and the stationery e.g., the books and stationery in the room e.g., the beautiful paintings and sculpture e.g., the beautiful paintings and sculpture which are stored in the attic…

Problems with Noun Phrases in Coordination e.g. frustrated and desperate men • frustrated men and desperate men • men who are both frustrated and desperate old men and women their cats and other pets

• women and old men • old men and old women • other pets and their cats • their cats and their other pets

Do Exercises 4.6, 4.7, 4.8

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Structure of the Verb Phrase (aux 1) (aux 2) (aux 3) (aux 4) head Main Verb the base form • is what we find in dictionary entries : laugh, mention, play -s form • adds to the base form an ending in -s : laughs, mentions, plays -ing participle • adds to the base form an ending in -ing: laughing, mentioning, playing -ed form • adds to the base form an ending in -ed: laughed, mentioned, played

Do Exercise 4.9 The Sequence of Auxiliaries Are the following acceptable verb phrases? will may go should been going will be going have being done

can should do will is go have been eaten can be being done

[1] modal auxiliary, followed by base form e.g. may phone, can call, shall do [2] perfect have, followed by -ed participle e.g. have phoned, has called, have done [3] progressive be, followed by -ing participle e.g. was phoning, is calling, are doing [4] passive be, followed by -ed participle e.g. was phoned, is called, are done

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•

If we choose to use auxiliaries, they must appear in the following sequence :

(modal) (perfect auxiliary have) auxiliary be) head

(progressive auxiliary be) (passive

e.g. will call will be phoning have been phoned has been phoning can be phoned can be being done will have been being done

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Finite Verb Phrases • •

A finite verb is a verb that carries a contrast in tense, and may be marked for person and number (of the subject). In a finite verb phrase, the first or only verb is finite, and the other verbs are non-finite.

e.g.

We play football every day. He drinks water every day. I am doing my homework. She will go to church tomorrow.

Tenses: • Denoting the time at/in which a situation being described occurs. • past, present, future Past (time) Present (now) -ed (as the most common Zero marker marker) used to would

Future (upcoming) Added with • The suffix ~s • An auxiliary, e.g., will, shall • Progressive form of ‘verb-tobe’, i.e., ~ing

Start Here [Week 5] He showed me the book. (past) He shows me the book. (present) He will show me the book. (future) He is going to show me the book. (future) He is to show me the book Person markers: first persons, second person, third persons He talks fast. (third person, singular) They talk_ very fast. (third person, plural) You talk_ very fast. (second person, singular/plural) We talk_ very fast. (first person, plural)

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I talk_ very fast. (first person, singular Non-Finite Verb Phrases • In a non-finite verb phrase, all verbs are non-finite. • There are three types of non-finite verb phrases, the to infinitive, the -ing participle, and the -ed participle. • Non-finite verb phrases normally do not occur as the verb phrase of an independent sentence. That is, they are always embedded in sentences which carry finite verbs, also called main verbs. • They don’t normally carry any person, tense and number markers e.g.

He was [main, finite] afraid to predict [non-finite] the next day's weather. I am happy to see you. Having stayed in their house, I can remember how frequently they quarrelled. Walking along the beach, I saw John. The new system, described in a recent report, provides criteria for evaluating scientific priorities. Written on bamboo tablets, the texts are mainly lists of ....

Aspect Referring to the way how a speaker or a writer sees the TIME of a situation being described by the verb • Usually the time is viewed IN RELATION TO the present • Two basic aspects: progressive and perfect •

Progressive Represented by the structure of:

I am reading a book. We are all singing. You are eating my noodles. I will soon finish reading the book.

Verb-to-be + an ~ing participle The situation is in progress. The aspect suggests that the situation will soon cease at some We are singing now and will stop point now or in the near future. doing it when dinner starts.

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Perfect Present Perfect Aux have + an ~ed participle The situation occurred sometime ago and it leads to the present situation. The situation occurred sometime ago and may extend to the present.

I have read the book. We have sung a song. You have eaten my noodles. I have lost my wallet. [That is why] I need to borrow some money from you. They have been at odds with each other form a long time. [They still don’t talk to each other much.]

The extension is stressed.

I have always told you to stay away from him.

The situation is considered to recur I have phoned him every day since sometime now. he fell sick. Tense + aspect An aspect can be coupled with a tense (or viewed vice versa). Past perfect (in a past context) I had told you before we talked to The action took place in a past-time the manager. frame. I’m basically telling a past story. I was washing the dishes when the I’m telling a story which took place phone rang. at home at some point in the past. Present perfect (in a present frame) I have told you. That’s why I am I’m describing what I’m doing at throwing away the clothes. this moment. This present moment is somehow related to a past action. But, the focus is on the present.

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Future perfect (in a future context) We will have arrived in Rome by I am describing an action which by then. We will do something my estimation will be finished at a there in the City. particular point in future time. That action may have some implication on a subsequent action in a future point in time. Basically, we are talking about the future. Common problems • Why are students always confused when they use the two aspects of past perfect and present perfect? • What impact does the following rule have on students’ learning of tenses: ‘Use the perfect tense when you see the word ‘recently’ used in the sentence’? Is this a prescriptive or a descriptive rule? What is wrong with the teaching of this rule?

Do Exercises 4.11, 4.12 Mood • refers to distinctions in the form of the verb that express the attitude of the speaker toward/about the situation/event described by the verb. • Finite verb phrases have three moods: indicative, imperative and subjunctive. Indicative Mood • is subdivided into declarative, interrogative and exclamative moods Declarative Mood e.g. I love you. You are happy. Interrogative Mood e.g. Do you like chocolates? Have you finished? What do you like?

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Exclamative Mood e.g. What a lively day it is! What a heavy coat you are wearing! Imperative Mood • has the base form e.g.

Do this. Stop them. Go.

Subjunctive Mood • is subdivided into present subjunctive and past subjunctive, although the difference between the two forms is not one of tense Present Subjunctive • has the base form • is used in that-clauses after the expression of such notions as demand or request e.g.

We demand that he (should) (not) take the witness stand. I accept your wish that my secretary omit this discussion from the minutes I move that the meeting be adjourned.

Past Subjunctive • is used chiefly to convey that the speaker is not sure that the situation will happen or is happening e.g.

If I were you, I would leave. I wish you were here. If he were to be appointed, I would leave.

Do Exercises 4.21 & 4.22 Passive & Active Construction of Verb Phrases I am shocked by the news. He was told the story. They have been helped. Verb construction vs verb-turned-adjectives I was shocked when I heard the news. (passive adjective) 10

I am excited. (passive adjective) The book interests me a lot. It is really an interesting book. (active adjective)

Do Exercises 4.14, 4.15 & 4.16 What could some problems be with the choice of the passive & active forms of verb-as adjectives? I am interesting. I am very exciting.

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Start here [Week 6] Exercise 4.21 Item 3: Heaven forbid that we should interfere in the dispute. In terms of the mood: the form is realized in the present subjunctive mood because it is realized in the base form ‘forbid’ though the subject itself appears as a third person singular •

In terms of the choice of this mood: The sentence represents more of a request / a prayer to Heaven (as God). It is something close to Heaven please forbid that we should do this. •

Phrasal Verb • consists of a verb and a particle, which is an adverb in the form of a preposition, whose meaning can usually be taken literally • Phrasal verbs are subdivided into transitive phrasal verbs and intransitive phrasal verbs. Transitive Phrasal Verb • requires an object to complete the sentence • The particle can come before or after the object. • If the object is a pronoun, the particle normally comes after the object but it sometimes also appears after the object. e.g. All the students have handed in their essays. All the students have handed their essays in. 12

All the students have handed them in. Can I put away the dishes now? Can I put the dishes away now? Can I put them away now? Intransitive Phrasal Verb • does not require an object to complete the sentence e.g. I give up. The discussions went on for a long time. Their car broke down on the way to the airport. The pair broke up. Prepositional Verb • consists of a verb and one particle, which is also a preposition, whose meaning might not have an explicit literal implication • idiomatic use • The particle must come before the object. e.g. Peter is looking after them. (look them after x) I don't approve of your behaviour in this matter. (approve your beahviour of x) You must concentrate on your studies if you want a good result. What could be some common problems for most Chinese students? What could be some sources of the problems? Why?

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Structure of the Adjective Phrase (pre-modifiers) head (post-modifiers) e.g. very happy happy happy to see you very happy to see you

(pre-modifier + head) (head) (head + post-modifier) (pre-modifier+head + postmodifier)

Post-Modifiers of the Adjective Phrase • can be prepositional phrases, to infinitive clauses or that-clauses e.g. happy to see you (infinitive) happy that I can see you (a that-clause) afraid to do it afraid that it will kill me afraid of dogs (preposition) aware of the fact Do Exercises 4.25 & 4.27

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Structure of the Adverb Phrase How would you describe the possible structure of an adverb phrase? Use some of the meta-language you have learned so far. e.g. surprisingly very surprisingly surprisingly for her very surprisingly indeed

(pre-modifiers) head (post-modifiers) e.g. surprisingly (head) very surprisingly (pre-modifier + head) surprisingly for her (head + post-modifier) very surprisingly indeed (pre-modifier + head + post-modifier) • The pre-modifier needs to be another adverb • The post-modifier can be a prepositional phrase or another adverb

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Structure of the Prepositional Phrase How would you describe the structure of a prepositional phrase? e.g. through the window (through, through what?) to them (to, to what?) for the babies (for, for what?) from what I heard from where I live after speaking to you after listening to the story head + complement •

The prepositional complement is a noun phrase, wh clause or -ing clause

through the window to them for the babies from what I heard from where I live after speaking to you after listening to the story

Head + a noun phrase Head + a noun phrase Head + a wh-clause Head + an ~ing clause (i.e., a gerund + object of the gerund)

e.g.

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Functions of the Prepositional Phrase After learning about all different possible sentence constituents, can you still name a few functions of a prepositional phrase?

•

post-modifier of a noun

e.g. courses in history books about China work of John •

post-modifier of an adjective

e.g. aware of his drinking problem happy with the results sorry for hearing this afraid of dogs •

adverbial

e.g. In my opinion, people behave differently in crowds. In the afternoon, I met Jon.

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