Myreport_leadership In Curriculum Development.pptx

LEADERSHIP IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Prepared by Christine P. Lonoy PhD Education- Curriculum and Instruction University Of San Carlos, Cebu City, Philippines

BASIC TASKS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Curriculum development is a comprehensive activity that accomplishes the following: o facilitates analysis of purpose o designs a programme o implements a series of related experiences o aids in the evaluation of this process

In other words curriculum development is not merely the process of introducing new courses or updating courses but is a process involving some basic tasks. The basic tasks involved in the development of curriculum are i) Establishing the Philosophy ii) Assessing Needs iii) Formulating Goals and Objectives iv) Selecting Curriculum Experiences v) Organising Content vi) Selecting Appropriate Instructional Strategies vii) Evaluating Learning and Instruction

MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

o The success of our educational endeavours rests on careful planning,

without which disorder and chaos will result. o The need to plan effective curricula cannot be denied. o From such curriculum plans a model for curriculum development will emerge. o For the construction of a curriculum, thought has to be given to goals, content, learning experiences, methods and evaluation.

MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 1.Technical-Scientific Models  Taba's Model  Goodlad's Model  Hunkins's Developmental Model

Taba’s Model (The Rational Model)  Hilda Taba (1962) presented a model, also

known as "interactive model" or "Instructional Strategies Model", which mainly focuses on the planning of instructional strategies and considers it the basis of the curriculum design.  Her model includes five mutually interactive elements of teaching and learning system: (1) objectives, (2) contents, (3) learning experiences, (4) teaching strategies, and (5) evaluative measures.

Taba’s Model  Hilda Taba advocated that those who use

curriculum should be the curriculum designers as well.  She believed that teachers should create specific teaching-learning situations for their students.  They should adopt an inductive approach to teaching i.e. from specific to general rather than the traditional deductive approach, starting from general and building to the specifics.

Taba's grassroots model has seven steps as listed below, advocating a major role for teachers. These are Diagnosis of needs Formulation of Objectives

Selection of Content

Identify needs of the students for curriculum is to be planned Specify the objectives by which needs will be fulfilled. Select subject matter based on objectives and determine validity of the chosen content.

Organization of Content

Arrange the content in a particular sequence keeping in mind the maturity of learners, academic achievement, interests etc.

Selection of Learning Experiences

Facilitate interaction of learners with content through appropriate instructional methodology.

Organization of Learning Activities

• The learning activities be organized in a sequence depending both on content sequence and learner characteristics.

Evaluation

To assess the achievement of learning objectives, evaluation procedures need to be devised.

Taba’s Model  Her model gives due consideration to

external factors that may affect various components of a curriculum including the vicinity and community of school's location, the school district's educational policies, the goals, resources, and administrative strategies of the school, teachers' personal style and characteristics, the nature of the student population.

Weaknesses of Taba’s grassroots model:  The model has employed the concept of

participatory democracy to a highly technical, complex and specialized process, and this will not guarantee effective curricula.

 It takes for granted that teachers have the

time and expertise to engage in such extensive curricular activities. (Hunkins and Omstein, 1988.)

Goodlad Model  In this model the basis of formulating

educational aims is the analysis of values of the existing culture.

 These aims are translated into educational

objectives, which are stated in behavioural terms.

 Learning opportunities are provided based on

the learning objectives, for example providing courses or readings.

Goodlad Model  educational planners deduce specific educational

objectives from these learning opportunities and general objectives  From these objectives, the curriculum planners design and/or select organizing centers, which provide learning opportunities for a group of students or a student.  its various parts are inter-connected  Feedback and adjustment of the entire model result from analyzing the students performances and relating them to the values of the general society.

Hunkin's Developmental Model  This model permits those working with the model to adjust their decision making about curricular actions.  For instance, at the content selection stage if the curricularist

finds that no content exists for a particular student, they can go back to the beginning and rethink the curriculum or go to the curriculum diagnosis stage to recreate the learning objectives.

Hunkin's Developmental Model’s Seven (7) Stages curriculum conceptualization and legitimization

diagnosis content selection experience selection implementation

evaluation maintenance

2. Non-technical Non-scientific Models  Open Classroom Model  Wienstien and Fantini Model  Roger's Model of Interpersonal

Relations

Open Classroom Model  based on the Activity Curriculum

 The proponents of activity curriculum do not believe in planning any activity for the children.  In their view planning in advance could stifle the child's development.  This movement was encouraged by

William Kilpatrick at the time when learning was teacher dominated and learners were passive recipients of knowledge.

Open Classroom Model  According to the activity model, children learnt

by doing and were free to move around in the classroom.  Another popular supporter of the model is Herbert Kohl (I 969). o He believes that open classroom is a place

where learners can, "...make choices and pursue what interests them."  The teacher also finds that "the things that work best for him are the unplanned ones, the ones that arise spontaneously because of a student's suggestion or sudden perception."

Open Classroom Model  emphasizes freedom of the child from teacher control and from a rigid

curriculum.  The child should choose goals as per needs, interests and aptitudes and thus choose his own curriculum.  The model places great faith in the child's ability and advocates learner autonomy.

Weinstein and Fantini Model  This model is based on the belief that teachers generate new content and techniques by keeping the learner central to the whole process.  They can assess the relevance of the existing curriculum, content and the instructional methods employed.  Based on the assessment the curriculum is modified to meet the learner needs.

Weinstein and Fantini Model  also known as Humanistic Model  It links socio-psychological factors with

cognition and concerned with the group, as opposed to individuals as most students are taught in groups.  stresses to identify the learners demographic details and their concerns.  Through diagnosis, the teacher attempts to develop student-centered strategies for instruction to meet learners' concerns and organize contents around learners' concerns rather than on the demands of subject matter

Weinstein and Fantini Model  He further emphasizes that the content

should be organized according to the learners: life experiences, their attitudes and feelings, and the social context in which they live.  Teaching procedures should be developed for learning skills, content, and organizing ideas.  Teaching procedures should match the learning styles on their common characteristics and concerns.  Finally, the teacher evaluates the outcomes of the curriculum: cognitive and affective objectives.

Weinstein and Fantini Model  First step in the process of curriculum development is to identify the learner group. o Since learners are taught in groups, their

interests and characteristics form the basis of teaching.

Weinstein and Fantini Model  This is followed by identification of student

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concerns, and because of this the model is called non-scientific or non-technical. Concerns of the learner determine organization of content. More than demands of the subject matter they organize ideas and content based on learner needs. The sources of content could be - Learners‘ feelings, students' identity, experiences of a growing person, and students' knowledge of the social content. The type of content will determine the skills to be developed by the students.

Weinstein and Fantini Model  The last stage is the identification of teaching

procedures. o The model aims to develop feelings of self-worth in the learners after interaction with content and teachers. o It emphasizes enhancement of self-image of the learner and instills in them a confidence and belief in themselves

Roger's Model of Interpersonal Relations  Carl Rogers (1979) has developed a model for

changing human behaviour which can be used for curriculum development. o In this model the emphasis is on human experiences rather than content or learning activities. o He believes that by interacting in a group,learners can solve their problems. They express themselves honestly and explore each other's feelings.

Roger's Model of Interpersonal Relations  Rogers contends that the group experience

"permits individuals...to know themselves and each other more fully than is possible in the usual social or working relationships; the climate of openness, risk taking and honesty generates trust", which permits each participant to "test out and adopt more innovative and constructive behaviours."  In short, the model promotes curriculum change by changing the participants involved in curriculum development“.

Tyler’s Model (The Objectives Model) Tyler’s model for curriculum designing is based on the following questions: o What educational purposes should the school

seek to attain? o What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes? o How can these educational experiences be effectively organised? o How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

Tyler’s Model Tyler (1949) work shows an inclination toward Skinner's behaviorism (1957) and John Dewey's progressive education (1963) as he says, "Since the real purpose of education is not to have the instructor perform certain activities but to bring about significant changes in the students' pattern of behaviour, it becomes important to recognize that any statements of objectives of the school should be a statement of changes to take place in the students". (Tyler 1949: 44).

His model is also labeled as "Product Model" as some researchers considered his thoughts were heavily influenced by 'scientific management' which is also associated with his name.

Tyler’s Model

Tyler’s Model The model is linear in nature, starting from objectives and ending with evaluation. In this model, evaluation is terminal. It is important to note that:  Objectives form the basis for the selection and organisation of learning experiences.  Objectives form the basis for assessing the curriculum.  Objectives are derived from the learner, contemporary life and subject specialist.

Wheeler’s Model  Wheeler’s model for curriculum design is an

improvement upon Tyler’s model.  Instead of a linear model, Wheeler developed a cyclical model.  The key elements of this model includes initial situation analysis, identification of aims and objectives, contents selection and organization, selection and organization of learning activities, and the assessment / evaluation process.  Evaluation in Wheeler’s model is not terminal. Findings from the evaluation are fed back into the objectives and the goals, which influence other stages.

Wheeler’s Model

Wheeler’s Model Wheeler contends that:  Aims should be discussed as behaviours referring to the end product of learning which yields the ultimate goals. One can think of these ultimate goals as outcomes.  Aims are formulated from the general to the specific in curriculum planning. This results in the formulation of objectives at both an enabling and a terminal level.  Content is distinguished from the learning experiences which determine that content.

Kerr’s Model Most of the features in Kerr’s model resemble those in Wheeler’s and Tyler’s models. However, Kerr divided the domains into four areas: • objectives, • knowledge, • evaluation, and • school learning experiences.

Kerr’s Model

Kerr’s Model What you should note about the model is that:  the four domains are interrelated directly or indirectly, and  objectives are derived from school learning experiences and knowledge. In Kerr’s model, objectives are divided into three groups: o affective o cognitive o psychomotor.

Kerr’s Model The model further indicates that knowledge should be : o organised, o integrated, o sequenced, and o reinforced.  Evaluation in Kerr’s model is the collection of

information for use in making decisions about the curriculum.  School learning experiences are influenced by societal opportunities, the school community, pupil and teacherrelationships, individual differences, teaching methods,

Kerr’s Model  Evaluation in Kerr’s model is the collection of

information for use in making decisions about the curriculum.  School learning experiences are influenced by societal opportunities, the school community, pupil and teacher relationships, individual differences, teaching methods, content and the maturity of the learners.  These experiences are evaluated through tests, interviews, assessments and other reasonable methods.  In his model, Kerr asserts that everything influences everything else and that it is possible to start an analysis at any point

APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Behavioral Approach  It is based on the Behavioral Principle  Goals and objectives are specified  Content and activities are arranged with

learning objectives  Learning outcomes are evaluated in terms of goals and objectives set at the beginning  Its main aim is to achieve efficiency

Change in behavior indicates the measure of accomplishment.

Managerial Approach  Became dominant in the 1950’s and 1960’s

 It is based on the following principles: o General Leader: He/She sets the policies and

priorities, establishes the direction change and innovation and planning and organising curriculum and instruction. o Instructional Leader o Curriculum Leader: He looks at the curriculum changes and innovations as they administer the resources and restructure the school infrastructure.

Managerial Approach: Role of Curriculum Leader  To help in the development of School’s     

educational goals. To plan curriculum with students, parents, teachers and other stakeholders. To design programs of study by grade levels. To help in the evaluation and selection of textbook. To assist teachers in the implementation of the curriculum. To develop standards for curriculum and instructional evaluation.

System Approach  The whole system is approached by system

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theory. The whole approach represents line-staff relationship of personnel and represent the way, how the decisions are made. It gives the equal importance to all levels: Administration Counselling Curriculum Instruction Evaluation.

Humanistic Approach  It is rooted in the progressive philosophy and

follows the child centred movements.  It considers the formal or planned curriculum and the informal or hidden curriculum.  It considers the whole child and believes that in curriculum the total development of the individual is the prime consideration.

CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION

Implementation - refers to what actually happens in practice as

compared to what was supposed to happen.

Curriculum implementation includes the provision of organized assistance to staff in order to ensure that the newly developed curriculum and the most powerful instructional strategies are actually delivered at the classroom level.

Curriculum Implementation There are two components of any implementation effort that must be present to guarantee the planned changes in curriculum and instruction succeed as intended: 1. Understanding the conceptual framework of

the content/discipline being implemented; and,

2. Organized assistance to understand the theory,

observe exemplary demonstrations, have opportunities to practice, and receive coaching and feedback focused on the most powerful instructional strategies to deliver the content at the classroom level.

Curriculum Implementation  The superintendent/principal is responsible

for curriculum implementation and for determining the most effective way of providing organized assistance and monitoring the level of implementation.  A curriculum framework will describe the processes and procedures that will be followed to assist all staff in developing the knowledge and skills necessary to successfully implement the developed curriculum in each content area.

Curriculum Implementation It is the responsibility of the superintendent/ principal to keep the board acquainted of the curriculum implementation activities, progress of each content area related to curriculum implementation activities, and to develop administrative regulations for curriculum implementation including recommendations to the board.

Curriculum Implementation The framework will, at a minimum, describe the processes and procedures for the following curriculum implementation activities to:  Study and identify the best instructional practices and materials to deliver the content;  Describe procedures for the purchase of instructional materials and resources;  Identify/develop exemplars that demonstrate the learning behaviors, teaching, and learning environment to deliver the content;

Curriculum Implementation  Study the current status of instruction in the

content area (how teachers are teaching);  Compare the desired and present delivery system, identify differences (gap analysis), and develop a plan for addressing the differences;  Organize staff into collaborative study teams to support their learning and implementation efforts (address the gaps);

Curriculum Implementation  Provide ongoing professional development

related to instructional strategies and materials that focuses on theory, demonstration, practice and feedback;  Regularly monitor and assess the level of implementation;  Communicate with internal and external publics regarding curriculum implementation;  Involve staff, parents, students, and community members in curriculum implementation decisions.

CURRICULUM EVALUATION

Curriculum Evaluation Defined …An attempt to toss light on two questions: o Do planned courses, programs, activities, and

learning opportunities as developed and organized actually produce desired results? o How can the curriculum offerings best be improved?

Bradley’s Effectiveness Model How can a developed curriculum be assessed and evaluated for effectiveness?  Bradley’s (1985) book Curriculum Leadership

and Development Handbook provides 10 key indicators that can be used to measure the effectiveness of a developed curriculum.  It is designed to help you identify your perceptions regarding the 10 indicators to appraise curriculum effectiveness in your school building or district.

Bradley’s Effectiveness Model for Curriculum Development Indicators

Bradley’s Effectiveness Model  The indicators for effective curriculum

development represent working characteristics that any complex organization must have in order to be responsive and responsible to its clients.  Further, the measurement can be oriented to meet the needs of any school district—from large to small—and it can focus on a specific evaluation of a district’s curriculum area, such as reading, language arts, math, or any content area designated.  The models (Tyler’s objectives-centered model; Stufflebeam’s context, input, process, product model; Scriven’s goal-free model; Stake’s responsive model, and Eisner’s connoisseurship model) give some support to Bradley’s effectiveness model.

Tyler’s Objectives-Centered Model It focuses attention on curricular strengths and weaknesses, rather than being concerned solely with the performance of individual students. It also emphasizes the importance of a continuing cycle of assessment, analysis, and improvement.

To Tyler, evaluation is a process by which one matches the initial expectation with the outcomes.

Tyler’s Objectives-Centered Model Steps: 1. Begin with the behavioral objectives that have

been previously determined. Those objectives should specify both the content of learning and the student behavior expected.

2. Identify the situations that will give the student

the opportunity to express the behavior embodied in the objective and that evoke or encourage this behavior.

Tyler’s Objectives-Centered Model Steps: 3. Select, modify, or construct suitable evaluation instruments, and check the instruments for objectivity, reliability, and validity. 4. Use the instruments to obtain summarized or appraised results.

5. Compare the results obtained from several instruments before and after given periods in order to estimate the amount of change taking place.

Tyler’s Objectives-Centered Model 6. Analyze the results in order to determine strengths and weaknesses of the curriculum and to identify possible explanations about the reason for this particular pattern of strengths and weaknesses. 7. Use the results to make the necessary modifications in the curriculum.

Tyler’s Objectives-Centered Model – Deficiencies  It does not suggest how the objectives themselves

should be evaluated.  It does not provide standards or suggest how standards should be developed.  Its emphasis on the prior statement of objectives may restrict creativity in curriculum development, and it seems to place undue emphasis on the preassessment and post-assessment, ignoring completely the need for formative assessment.

Stufflebeam’s Context, Input, Process, Product Model The Stufflebeam model provides a means for generating data relating to four stages of program operation:

 Context evaluation, which continuously

assesses needs and problems in the context to help decision makers determine goals and objectives;

 Input evaluation, which assesses alternative means for achieving those goals to help decision makers choose optimal means;

Daniel Stufflebeam’s Context, Input, Process, Product Model  Process evaluation, which monitors the processes both to ensure that the means are actually being implemented and to make the necessary modifications; and 

Product evaluation, which compares actual ends with intended ends and leads to a series of recycling decisions.

Daniel Stufflebeam’s Context, Input, Process, Product Model During each of these four stages, specific steps are taken: The kinds of decisions are identified.

The kinds of data needed to make those decisions are identified. Those data are collected. The criteria for determining quality are established. The data are analyzed on the basis of those criteria. The needed information is provided to decision makers.

Daniel Stufflebeam’s Context, Input, Process, Product Model Interesting Features  Its emphasis on decision making seems

appropriate for administrators concerned with improving curricula.  Its concern for the formative aspects of evaluation remedies a serious deficiency in the Tyler model.  Finally, the detailed guidelines and forms created by the committee provide step-bystep guidance for users.

Daniel Stufflebeam’s Context, Input, Process, Product Model Drawbacks  Its main weakness seems to be its failure to

recognize the complexity of the decisionmaking process in organizations.  It assumes more rationality than exists in such situations and ignores the political factors that play a large part in these decisions.  Also, as Guba and Lincoln (1981) noted, it seems difficult to implement and expensive to maintain.

Scriven’s Goal-Free Model Michael Scriven (1972) was the first to question the assumption that goals or objectives are crucial in the evaluation process. After his involvement in several evaluation projects where so-called side effects seemed more significant than the original objectives, he began to question the seemingly arbitrary distinction between intended and unintended effects. His goal-free model was the outcome of this dissatisfaction.

Scriven’s Goal-Free Model  In conducting a goal-free evaluation, the

evaluator functions as an unbiased observer who begins by generating a profile of needs for the group served by a given program (Scriven is somewhat vague as to how this needs profile is to be derived).

 Then, by using methods that are primarily

qualitative in nature, the evaluator assesses the actual effects of the program.

 If a program has an effect that is

responsive to one of the identified needs, then the program is perceived as useful.

Scriven’s Goal-Free Model Contribution  Scriven’s main contribution was to redirect the attention of evaluators and administrators to the importance of unintended effects—a redirection that seems especially useful in education. o

If a mathematics program achieves its objectives of improving computational skills but has the unintended effect of diminishing interest in mathematics, then it cannot be judged completely successful.

 Scriven’s emphasis on qualitative methods

also seemed to come at an opportune moment, when there was increasing dissatisfaction in the research community with the dominance of quantitative methodologies.

Scriven’s Goal-Free Model Drawbacks  Goal-free evaluation should be used to complement,

not supplant, goal-based assessments.  Used alone, it cannot provide sufficient information for the decision maker.  Some critics have faulted Scriven for not providing more explicit directions for developing and implementing the goal-free model; as a consequence, it probably can be used only by experts who do not require explicit guidance in assessing needs and detecting effects.

Stake’s Responsive Model Robert Stake (1975) made a major contribution to curriculum evaluation in his development of the responsive model, because the responsive model is based explicitly on the assumption that the concerns of the stakeholders—those for whom the evaluation is done—should be paramount in determining the evaluation issues.

Stake’s Responsive Model To emphasize evaluation issues that are important for each particular program, the responsive evaluation approach should be used. o It is an approach that trades off some measurement precision in order to increase the usefulness of the findings to persons in and around the program.

An educational evaluation is a responsive evaluation if (1) it orients more directly to program activities than to program intents; (2) responds to audience requirements for information; and (3) if the different value perspectives present are referred to in reporting the success and failure of the program.

Stake’s Responsive Model Stake recommends an interactive and recursive evaluation process that embodies these steps: ••The evaluator meets with clients, staff, and audiences to gain a sense of their perspectives on and intentions regarding the evaluation. ••The evaluator draws on such discussions and the analysis of any documents to determine the scope of the evaluation project. ••The evaluator observes the program closely to get a sense of its operation and to note any unintended deviations from announced intents.

Stake’s Responsive Model ••The evaluator identifies the issues and problems with which the evaluation should be concerned. For each issue and problem, the evaluator develops an evaluation design, specifying the kinds of data needed. ••The evaluator selects the means needed to acquire the data desired. Most often, the means will be human observers or judges. ••The evaluator implements the data-collection procedures. ••The evaluator organizes the information into themes and prepares “portrayals” that communicate in natural ways the thematic reports. The portrayals may involve videotapes, artifacts, case studies, or other “faithful representations.” ••By again being sensitive to the concerns of the stakeholders, the evaluator decides which audiences require which reports and chooses formats most appropriate for given audiences.

Stake’s Responsive Model Advantage - its sensitivity to clients o By identifying their concerns and being sensitive to

their values, by involving them closely throughout the evaluation, and by adapting the form of reports to meet their needs, the model, if effectively used, should result in evaluations of high utility to clients. - The responsive model also has the virtue of flexibility: The evaluator is able to choose from a variety of methodologies once client concerns have been identified. Weakness: - its susceptibility to manipulation by clients, who in expressing their concerns might attempt to draw attention away from weaknesses they did not want exposed.

Eisner’s Connoisseurship Model Elliot Eisner (1979) drew from his background in aesthetics and art education in developing his “connoisseurship” model, an approach to evaluation that emphasizes qualitative appreciation. The Eisner model is built on two closely related constructs: connoisseurship and criticism.

Eisner’s Connoisseurship Model Connoisseurship, in Eisner’s terms, is the art of appreciation—recognizing and appreciating through perceptual memory, drawing from experience to appreciate what is significant. It is the ability both to perceive the particulars of educational life and to understand how those particulars form part of a classroom structure.

Eisner’s Connoisseurship Model Criticism, to Eisner, is the art of disclosing qualities of an entity that connoisseurship perceives. In such a disclosure, the educational critic is more likely to use what Eisner calls “nondiscursive”—a language that is metaphorical, connotative, and symbolic. It uses linguistic forms to present, rather than represent, conception or feeling.

Educational Criticism of Eisner’s Connoisseurship Model has 3 aspects (1) The descriptive aspect is an attempt to

characterize and portray the relevant qualities of educational life—the rules, the regularities, the underlying architecture. (2) The interpretive aspect uses ideas from the social sciences to explore meanings and develop alternative explanations—to explicate social phenomena. (3) The evaluative aspect makes judgments to improve the educational processes and provides grounds for the value choices made so that others might better disagree.

Eisner’s Connoisseurship Model Contribution it breaks sharply with the traditional scientific models and offers a radically different view of what evaluation might be. - it broadens the evaluator’s perspective and enriches his or her repertoire by drawing from a rich tradition of artistic criticism. -

Weakness lack of methodological rigor, although Eisner has attempted to refute such charges. - the use of the model requires a great deal of expertise, noting the seeming elitism implied in the term connoisseurship. -

Developing an Eclectic Approach While the models proposed by the experts (Stake, Scriven, Eisner, and Worthen) differed in many of their details, several common emphases emerged in the approaches: o Study the context, o determine client concerns, o use qualitative methods, o assess opportunity cost (what other opportunities the student is missing by taking this course), o be sensitive to unintended effects, and o develop different reports for different audiences

Developing an Eclectic Approach By using these common emphases, along with insights generated from analyzing other models, it is possible to develop a list of criteria that can be used in both assessing and developing evaluation models. The criteria result in an eclectic approach to evaluation, one that draws from the strengths of several different models.