Mechanical Properties of Metals Stress (MPa)
500 CONTINUED
400 300 200 100
0 0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
Strain
Mechanical Properties • Stiffness Elastic Modulus or Young’s Modulus (MPa) • Strength Yield, Ultimate, Fracture, Proof, Offset Yield. Measured as stress (MPa) • Ductility Measure of ability to deform plastically without fracture Elongation, Area Reduction, Fracture Strain (no units or mm/mm) • Toughness, Resilience Measure of ability to absorb energy (J/m3). • Hardness Resistance to indentation/abrasion (Various scales, e.g.; Rockwell, Brinell, Vickers.)
Stress and Strain • In a simplistic sense, stress may be thought of as Load/Area. • Similarly, strain is the deformation of the component/original length. • A stress may be direct, shear, or torsional leading to corresponding deformations. • Stress cannot be measured directly, but deformation can be.
Direct Stress Examples Load, P ∆L/2
Lo
Area Ao
∆L/2
P
Engineering Stress
P S= Ao
∆L/2
Lo
∆L e= Lo
Area Ao
∆L/2
Engineering Strain
Direct Stress Tension
Load, P
P
Direct Stress Compression
Tension Test Measures P
Extensometer Measures ∆L
Typical Universal Testing Machine
Modern Materials Testing System Hydraulic Wedge Grips Specimen
Extensometer
ASTM Tension Test Specimen Ao=0.20 in2
0.505" Dia
2” Gauge Length
Lo
Raw Data Obtained Load, P (kN)
Total Elongation Uniform Deformation
X Maximum Load, Pmax Elastic Deformation
Elongation, ∆L (mm)
Load, Pf
Engineering StressStrain Curve Elongation
Engineering Stress, S=P/Ao
Sy
0.2% offset yield stress
(Ultimate)
E
Su
E Proportional Limit
Engineering Strain, e = ∆L/Lo)
Duke’s Quick Tip! • Express Load in Newtons (N) and Area in mm2 to get Stress in MPa. N 2 ≅ MPa mm
• Mechanical properties of metals are almost always given in MPa or ksi. • Imperial units: Load in kips (1000 lbf) & Area as in2 gives Stress in ksi (kips/in2) • 1000 psi = 1 ksi = 6.89 MPa
Hooke’s Law Elastic Deformation • Elastic deformation is not permanent; it means that when the load is removed, the part returns to its original shape and dimensions. • For most metals, the elastic region is linear. For some materials, including metals such as cast iron, polymers, and concrete, the elastic region is nonlinear. • If the behavior is linear elastic, or nearly linearelastic, Hooke’s Law may be applied:
S = Ee
• Where E is the modulus of elasticity (MPa)
Stress (MPa)
Modulus of Elasticity Stiffness 500 CONTINUED
400 300 200
∆S (300 − 0)MPa E= = = 2x105 MPa ∆e (0.015 − 0.0)
100 0 0.000 0.002 0.004
0.006 0.008 0.010
Strain
Atomic Origin of Stiffness dF E∝ dr ro Net Interatomic Force
Strongly Bonded
Weakly Bonded
Interatomic Distance
Shear Stress and Strain Shear Stress, τ
Shear Stress
Shear Strain,γ
G
Shear Strain
shear stress, τ = Shear Load / Area shear strain, γ = angle of deformation (radians) shear modulus, G = τ /γ (elastic region)
Elastic Properties of Materials • Poisson’s ratio: When a metal is strained in one direction, there are corresponding strains in all other directions. • For a uniaxial tension strain, the lateral strains are constrictive. • Conversely, for a uniaxial compressive strain, the lateral strains are expansive. • i.e.; the lateral strains are opposite in sign to the axial strain. • The ratio of lateral to axial strains is known as Poisson’s ratio, ν.
Poisson’s Ratio, ν ey ex ν =− =− ez ez For most metals, 0.25 < ν < 0.35 in the elastic range Furthermore:
E = 2G(1 + ν )
Plastic Deformation Elastic Plastic
Elastic Plastic
Sy
Sy
Elastic Plastic
Stress
Sy
0.002
Most Metals Al, Cu
0.002
Strain
Clad AlAlloys
0.002
Low carbon Steel
Microstructural Origins of Plasticity • Slip, Climb and Slide of atoms in the crystal structure. • Slip and Climb occur at Dislocations and Slide occurs at Grain Boundaries.
τ
τ
Elastic and Plastic Strain e = ee + e p
P (e,S)
Stress
S ee = E e p = e − ee Total Strain
Plastic
ep
The 0.2% offset yield stress is the stress that gives a plastic (permanent) strain of 0.002.
Strain
ee
Elastic
Elastic Recovery Loading
Reloading
Stress
Loading
Unloading Unloading
Strain
elastic strain
Strain
Ductility EL% & AR% • Elongation
EL% =
L f − Lo Lo
x 100
Lo
Lf
• Area Reduction
AR% =
Ao − A f Ao
x 100
Ao
Af
Ductile Vs Brittle Materials
Engineering Stress
• Only Ductile materials will exhibit necking. • Ductile if EL%>8% (approximately) • Brittle if EL% < 5% (approximately)
AX
B
X
C D
X
X
Brittle
Ductile
A & B
C & D
Engineering Strain
Toughness & Resilience • Toughness: A measure of the ability of a material to absorb energy without fracture. (J/m3 or N.mm/mm3= MPa) • Resilience: A measure of the ability of a material to absorb energy without plastic or permanent deformation. (J/m3 or N.mm/mm3= MPa) • Note: Both are determined as energy/unit volume
Engineering Stress, S=P/Ao
Toughness, Ut
Su
Sy
X ef
Ut = ∫ S de o
(S y + Su ) EL% ≈ 100 2 Engineering Strain, e = ∆L/Lo)
Engineering Stress, S=P/Ao
Resilience, Ur Su
Sy ey
Ur = ∫ S de o
≈
E
= ey
Sy e y 2 Sy 2 2E
Engineering Strain, e = ∆L/Lo)
X
Typical Mechanical Properties Metals in annealed (soft) condition
Material 1040 Steel 1080 Steel 2024 Al Alloy 316 Stainless Steel 70/30 Brass 6-4 Ti Alloy AZ80 Mg Alloy
Yield Stress (MPa) 350 380 100 210 75 942 285
Ultimate Stress (MPa) 520 615 200 550 300 1000 340
Ductility EL% 30 25 18 60 70 14 11
Elastic Modulus (MPa) 207000 207000 72000 195000 110000 107000 45000
Poisson’s Ratio 0.30 0.30 0.33 0.30 0.35 0.36 0.29