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List of Abbreviations Linguistic abbreviations & symbols C V v̆ * **
Consonant long vowel short vowel Reconstructed form non-existent form x Uncertain reconstruction ff. folio, and the following pages cf. confer, compare e.g. exempli gratia, for example id. idem, same as the previous sg. singular pl. plural m. masculine f. feminine ea état d'annexion el état libre […] Phonetic form /…/ Phonemic form <…> Orthographic form a Aorist p Perfect np Negative Perfect Berber Languages Auj. El-foq. Ghd. Kb. ma Mzab Ouar. pb pt Tashl. To. Zen. Zng.
Transcription For this thesis, I have standardised most orthographies. I write the schwa [ə] invariably as e. The Touareg and Ghadamès long [e] vowel, which must also be reconstructed for Proto-Berber, will be written <é>. I will write the palatal fricative, sometimes written as c, as <š>. Labialisation which is often written as is marked with . Emphatic consonants are written with a dot underneath: . I will write the voiced uvular fricative as <γ> and never as <ġ>. The Pharyngeal approximant [ʕ] is always written as <ε> and not as <ʿ>. For the Proto-Berber the Glottal Stop I will write <ʔ> rather than <ʾ>. For Ghadamès I follow the transcription put forth in Kossmann (1999b). The only change is that the schwa is not written as <ë> but simply as <e>. As the spirantisation in the languages surveyed in this thesis is generally predictable, I have not included a way to represent it in the transcription. Phonological analysis of Zénaga is currently quite difficult. Therefore, I employ the largely phonetic transcription presented in Taine-Cheikh (2008). In the next section, I will give a short introduction to the Zénaga transcription and its phonemic analysis. Due to the Paradisi's highly idiosyncratic spelling, I have kept the transcription of Aujila and El-foqaha as they are presented in Paradisi (1960) and Paradisi (1963) respectively, as I do not understand the material well enough to make a more accurate phonological analysis. As a rule, Berber words will be transcribed in italics. When I specifically go into the phonetics or phonemics of a word I will mark them with […] and /…/ respectively.
0.1 Zénaga Transcription & Historical Development Zénaga transcription has some peculiarities that are worth discussing, the spelling is for a large part phonetic rather than phonemic. In the next section, I will discuss the nature of this transcription and in which way this should be phonemically understood as far as it is currently understood. Zénaga is a radically different language from other Berber languages with several specific sound shifts from Proto-Berber. I will discuss some of the most prominent historical developments of Zénaga in section 0.1.2. vii
viii
TRANSCRIPTION
0.1.1 Transcription For a large part Zénaga transcription follows typical Berber transcriptions. Emphatic consonants such as ḍ are written with a dot below, and fricative consonants such as ḏ are written with a line below. Most of these consonants follow the regular phonetic pronunciation. There are two consonants whose phonetic realisation is quite different than the transcription suggests. These are z and ẓ which are pronounced [θ] and [θ̣]. These sounds are transcribed as such for their etymological origin rather than phonetic realisation. Taine-Cheikh employs several vowel signs to transcribe the Zénaga phonetics as accurately as possible. In Zénaga there seem to be seven phonemic vowels. The table below is an adaptation from Taine-Cheikh (2008: lxxiv) including the orthographical spellings used for different phonemes in Zénaga. Table 1: Vowel system of Zénaga Open Closed Front Back Short /a/ /i/ /u/ Ultra-short /ə/ <ə> Long /ā/ /ī/ /ū/ <ā> <ī> <ū>