Mam Saiqa.docx

Iqra dilawar BS.Applied Psychology Assignment: psychological Testing Submitted to : Ma’am Saiqa Govt.post graduate college (Raiwind)

Ability Tests An ability test is a test to check an individual’s ability to perform a certain kind of job. It usually tests the individual for certain skills or whether he is capable of acquiring those skills in the course of the job or through training.

Types of Intelligence 1. 2. 3. 4.

Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales Raven's Progressive Matrices Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Cattell Culture Fair III

Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales The Stanford-Binet test is a examination meant to gauge intelligence through five factors of cognitive ability. These five factors include fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing and working memory. Both verbal and nonverbal responses are measured. Each of the five factors is given a weight and the combined score is often reduced to a ratio known commonly as the intelligence quotient, or IQ.

Purpose The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale was originally developed to help place children in appropriate educational settings. It can help determine the level of intellectual and cognitive functioning in preschoolers, children, adolescents and adults, and assist in the diagnosis of a learning disability, developmental delay, mental retardation , or giftedness . It is used to provide educational planning and placement, neuropsychological assessment, and research . The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale is generally administered in a school or clinical setting.

Administration: procedure:

45 to 90 minutes

The test consists of 15 subtests, which are grouped into the four area scores. Not all subtests are administered to each age group; but six subtests are administered to all age levels. These subtests are: Vocabulary, Comprehension, Pattern Analysis, Quantitative, Bead Memory, and Memory for Sentences. The number of tests administered and general test difficulty is adjusted based on the test taker's age and performance on the sub-test that measures word knowledge. The subtest measuring word knowledge is given to all test takers and is the first subtest administered.

Origins of the Stanford-Binet Test The Stanford-Binet Test traces its roots to the Binet-Simon Scale, French device for identifying levels of intelligence. The Binet-Simon Scale was developed by Alfred Binet and his student Theodore Simon. French education laws were in flux at the time and Binet was approached by a governmental commission. The commission wanted a device to detect children that possessed notably belowaverage levels of intelligence for their age.

History The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale has a rich history. It is a descendant of the BinetSimon scale which was developed in 1905 and became the first intelligence test. The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale was developed in 1916 and was revised in 1937, 1960, and 1986. The present edition was published in 1986. The Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale is currently being revised and the Fifth Edition is expected to be available in the spring of 2003. Since the first publication in 1916, there have been four additional revised editions of the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales, the first of which was developed by Lewis Terman. Maud Merrill Masters Degree and Ph.D. under Terman and quickly became a colleague of his as they started the revisions of the second edition together. When Terman died in 1956, the revisions for the third edition were well underway, and Merrill was able to publish the final revision in 1960 (Roid & Barram, 2004).). Timeline  

April 1905: Development of Binet-Simon Test announced at a conference in Rome June 1905: Binet-Simon Intelligence Test introduced

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1908 and 1911: New Versions of Binet-Simon Intelligence Test 1916: Stanford–Binet First Edition by Terman 1937: Second Edition by Terman and Merrill 1973: Third Edition by Merrill 1986: Fourth Edition by Thorndike, Hagen, and Sattler 2003: Fifth Edition by Roid

The SB5 can be administered to individuals as early as two years of age. There are ten subsets included in this revision including both verbal and nonverbal domains.

SB-5) Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Fifth Edition BENEFITS SB-5 provides a highly reliable assessment of intellectual and cognitive abilities across the life span, based on a large normative sample. Early SB-5 provides a lower cost version of the SB-5 for preschool assessment

AGES 2 to 85+ years for SB-5, 2-0 to 5-11 years for full battery; 6-0 to 7-3 years for abbreviated battery for Early SB-5 ADMIN TIME 5 minutes per subtest FORMAT 10 individually administered subtests, many involving manipulatives

NORMS SB-5 is based on a representative sample of 4,800 individuals; co-normed with the Bender-Gestalt Visual-Motor Gestalt Test, 2nd Edition, and linked to the WoodcockJohnson Tests of Achievement. Early SB-5 is based on a representative sample of 1,800 child

Stanford–Binet Fifth Edition (SB5) classification

IQ Range ("deviation IQ")

IQ Classification

145–160

Very gifted or highly advanced

130–144

Gifted or very advanced

120–129

Superior

110–119

High average

90–109

Average

80–89

Low average

70–79

Borderline impaired or delayed

55–69

Mildly impaired or delayed

40–54

Moderately impaired or delayed

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is an IQ test designed to measure intelligence and cognitive ability in adults and older adolescents. published *February 1955 by David Wechsler, as a revision of the Wechsler– Bellevue Intelligence Scale, released in 1939.

Standardization The WAIS-IV was standardized on a sample of 2,200 people in the United States. .

Age range : 16 to 90

Uses: intelligence tests may be utilized in populations with psychiatric illness or brain injury, in order to assess level of cognitive functioning, though some regard this use as controversia. * The WAIS-IV is a significant revision of the WAIS-III, even though many of the previous items were retained (Wechsler, 2008). The most significant changes include the addition of two

subtests, a simplified test structure, and an emphasis on index scores that provide a sharper demarcation of discrete domains of cognitive functions. The breakdown of subtests for the four index scores is as follows:    

Verbal Comprehension Index* Similarities Vocabulary Information Perceptual Reasoning Index* Block Design Matrix Reasoning Visual Puzzles Working Memory Index* Digit Span Arithmetic Processing Speed Index* Symbol Search Coding The Verbal Comprehension I

WAIS-IV Standardization The standardization sample was divided into 13 age bands: 16–17, 18–19, 20–24, 25–29, 30–34, 35– 44, 45–54, 55–64, 65–69, 70–74, 75–79, 80–84, 85– 90.

Reliability The reliability of the WAIS-IV is exceptionally good. Composite split-half reliabilities averaged across all age groups for the Index scores and IQ are: VCI .96, PCI .95, WMI .94, PSI .90, and Full Scale IQ 98.

Validity The developers of the WAIS-IV provide a number of different lines of evidence to support the validity of this instrument (Wechsler, 2008b). For example, WAIS-IV Full Scale IQ correlates strongly with global scores on other mainstream measures: .94 with the WAIS-III, .91 with the WISC-IV (for 16-year-olds in the overlapping age group), and .88 with the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-II.

WAIS     

Introduced in 1939 Developed as a reaction to perceived weaknesses with the Stanford-Binet Provides a number of different scores on areas such as verbal comprehension and working memory Created to be used with adults Only some of the subtests on the WAIS are timed

Versions of the WAIS There have been four different versions of the WAIS:    

WAIS (1955) WAIS-R (1981) WAIS-III (1997) WAIS-IV (2008)

The Current Version The current version of the WAIS was released in 2008 and includes ten core subtests as well as five supplemental subtests. The test provides four major scores:    

Verbal Comprehension Perceptual Reasoning Working Memory Processing Speed

Additionally, the WAIS-IV provides two overall summary scores:  

Full-Scale IQ General Ability Index

Raven's Progressive Matrices It is (often referred to simply as Raven's Matrices) or RPM is a nonverbal group test typically used in educational settings. It is usually a 60-item test used in measuring abstract reasoning and regarded as a non-verbal estimate of fluid intelligence. It is made of 60 multiple choice questions, listed in order of difficulty. Age range: 5—11 First introduced in 1938, . reliability coefficients of .80 to .93 reliability coefficients as low as .71 splithalf reliabilities in the range of .65 to .94

Versions The Matrices are available in three different forms for participants of different ability:

Standard Progressive Matrices: These were the original form of the matrices, first published in 1938

Colored Progressive Matrices: Designed for children aged 5 through 11 yearsof-age, the elderly, and mentally and physically impaired individuals.

Advanced Progressive Matrices: The advanced form of the matrices contains 48 items, presented as one set of 12 (set I), and another of 36 (set II).

StandardProgressive Matrices Plus – was published at the same time. This was based on the "parallel" version but, although the test was the same length, it had more difficult items in order to restore the discrimination .

The Advanced Progressive Matrices breaks down into two factors that may have separate predictive validities (Dillon, Pohlmann, & Lohman, 1981).

The first factor is composed of items in which the solution is obtained by adding or subtracting patterns (Figure 6.3a). Individuals performing well on these items may excel in rapid decision making and in situations where part–whole relationships must be perceived.

The second factor is composed of items in which the solution is based on the ability to perceive the progression of a pattern (Figure 6.3b). Persons who perform well on these items may possess good mechanical ability as well as good skills for estimating projected movement and performing mental rotations.

Aptitude Test: Ability tests are also called aptitude tests and are generally standardized. These tests can be used to test variety of skills – mental aptitude, problem solving, knowledge of a particular subject, reasoning ability, general intelligence and so on. An aptitude test is a systematic means of testing a job candidate's abilities to perform specific tasks and react to a range of different situations. The tests each have a standardised method of administration and scoring, with the results quantified and compared with all other test takers.

Different Types of Aptitude Test These are the most common types of aptitude test that you will encounter:     

Numerical reasoning tests. These tests require you to answer questions based on statistics, figures and charts. Verbal reasoning tests. A means of assessing your verbal logic and capacity to quickly digest information from passages of text. Intray exercises. A business-related scenario that assesses how well you can prioritise tasks. Diagrammatic tests. Tests that measure your logical reasoning, usually under strict time conditions. Situational judgement tests. Psychological tests that assess your judgement in resolving work-based problems.

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Inductive reasoning tests. Tests that identify how well a candidate can see the underlying logic in patterns, rather than words or numbers. Cognitive ability tests. A measurement of general intelligence, covering many categories of aptitude test. Mechanical reasoning tests. These assess your ability to apply mechanical or engineering principles to problems; they are often used for technical roles. Watson Glaser tests. Designed to assess a candidate's ability to critically consider arguments; often used by law firms. Abstract reasoning tests. Another name for inductive reasoning tests. Spatial awareness tests. These tests assess your capacity to mentally manipulate images, and are often used in applications for jobs in design, engineering and architecture. Error checking tests. An unusual type of aptitude test that focuses on your ability to identify errors in complex data sets.

Neuropsychological testing Neuropsychological tests are designed to examine a variety of cognitive abilities, including speed of information processing, attention, memory, language, and executive functions, which are necessary for goal-directed behavior. Purpose:   

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By testing a range of cognitive abilities and examining patterns of performance in different cognitive areas . neuropsychologists can make inferences about underlying brain function. Neuropsychological testing is an important component of the assessment and treatment of traumatic brain injury, dementia , neurological conditions, and psychiatric disorders. Neuropsychological testing is also an important tool for examining the effects of toxic substances and medical conditions on brain functioning. It also measures such areas as attention, problem solving, memory, language, I.Q., visual-spatial skills, academic skills, and social-emotional functioning.

Uses: Neuropsychological tests are specifically designed tasks used to measure a psychological function known to be linked to a particular brain structure or pathway. Tests are used for research into brain function and in a clinical setting for the diagnosis of deficits.

neuropsychological assessment Neuropsychological assessment is designed to provide insight into how a child: 

solves problems,  can remember information both in the short and long-term,  uses and understands language,  processes information both visually and orally, and  is able to use cognitive ability in a flexible manner. It is designed to provide parents, educators, and not only with what the child knows, but how the child thinks and arrives at solutions. It encompasses cognitive ability as well as emotional and behavioral regulation assessment. Age range: 3-10

Time taken: 2 and 5 hours to complete,

Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery (HRNB) The Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery (HRNB) and allied procedures is a comprehensive suite of neuropsychological tests used to assess the condition and functioning of the brain, including etiology, type (diffuse vs. specific), localization and lateralization of brain injury. Age Range

5--8

Purpose evaluate the brain-behavior functioning of individuals”

Uses Neuropsychological tests are specifically designed tasks used to measure a psychological function known to be linked to a particular brain structure or pathway. Tests are used for research into brain function and in a clinical setting for the diagnosis of deficits.

Measurement The HRNB consists of measures in six categories: (1) input; (2) attention, concentration, and memory; (3) verbal abilities; (4) spatial, sequential, and manipulatory abilities; (5) abstraction, reasoning, logical analysis, and concept formation; and (6) output Created by:

Ward Halsted Battery and his student Ralph Reitan in the early 1940.

Tests and Procedures of the Halstead-Reitan Test Battery Test Description Category Test* Measures abstract reasoning and concept formation; requires examinee to find the rule for categorizing pictures of geometric shapes Tactual Performance Test* Measures kinesthetic and sensorimotor ability; requires blindfolded examinee to place blocks in appropriate cutout on an upright board with dominant hand, then nondominant hand, then both hands; also tests for incidental memory of blocks

Speech Sounds Perception Test* Measures attention and auditory-visual synthesis; requires examinee to pick from four choices the written version of taped nonsense words Seashore Rhythm Test* Measures attention and auditory perception; requires examinee to indicate whether paired musical rhythms are same or different Finger Tapping Test* Measures motor speed; requires examinee to tap a telegraph keylike lever as quickly as possible for 10 seconds Grip Strength Measures grip strength with dynamometer; requires examinee to squeeze as hard as possible; separate trials with each hand Trail Making, parts A, B* Measures scanning ability, mental flexibility, and speed; requires examinee to connect numbers (part A) or numbers and letters in alternating order (part B) with a pencil line under pressure of time Tactile Form Recognition* Measures sensory-perceptual ability; requires examinee to recognize simple shapes (e.g., triangle) placed in the palm of the hand Sensory-Perceptual Exam* Measures sensory-perceptual ability; requires examinee to respond to simple bilateral sensory tasks, e.g., detecting which finger has been touched, which ear has received a brief sound; assesses the visual fields Aphasia Screening Test* Measures expressive and receptive language abilities; tasks include naming a pictured item (e.g., fork) repeating short phrases; copying tasks (not a measure of aphasia) included here for historical reasons Supplementary *WAIS-III, WRAT-3, MMPI-2, memory tests such as Wechsler Memory Scale-III or Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test.

(LNNB) is a standardized test that identifies neuropsychological deficiencies by measuring functioning on fourteen scales. It evaluates learning, experience, and cognitive skills. Created by: Charles Golden in 1981 Age Range: 8-12 years old Administration: 2-3 hours Reliability and validity the lowest test re-test reliability of the LNNB is a .77

Population: The Luria Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery (LNNB) was administered on a group of 40 schizophrenic patients, 30 brain damaged subjects and 30 normal controls. The schizophrenic patients performed better than brain-damaged but had poor performance in comparison to normal controls. The findings indicated high discriminative accuracy and clinical effectiveness of the LNNB in Indian population. Purpose: The purpose of early neuropsychological tests was simply to determine whether or not a person had a brain injury or brain damage.

History Luria's original method, released in 1966, was revised by Christensen in 1975 to describe the procedure more in-depth. This revision made possible a version that combined the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the procedures . In 1977 Charles Golden presented the Luria-South Dakota, a new version of the battery created at the University of South Dakota that combined Luria and Christensen’s works. To develop this version and ensure it covered everything from both Luria and

Christensen, Golden first created an exam that took approximately 18 hours to administer and contained nearly 2,000 procedures. Western Psychological Services created the current revision, the Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery. It was published in 1980 in the Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology and the International Journal of Neuroscience. Tests and Procedures of the LuriaNebraska Neuropsychological Battery Ability Scale: Tasks Included C1 Motor: Coordination, speed, drawing, complex motor abilities C2 Rhythm: Attend to, discriminate, and produce verbal and nonverbal rhythmic stimuli C3 Tactile: Identify tactile stimuli, including stimuli traced on the wrists C4 Visual: Identify drawings, including overlapping and unfocused objects; solve progressive matrices and other visuospatial skills C5 Receptive Speech: Discriminate phonemes and comprehend words, phrases, sentences C6 Expressive Speech: Articulate sounds, words, and sentences fluently; identify pictured or described objects C7 Writing: Use motor writing abilities in general; copy and write from dictation C8 Reading: Read letters, words, and sentences; synthesize letters into sounds and words C9 Arithmetic: Complete simple mathematical computations; comprehend mathematical signs and number structure C10 Memory: Remember verbal and nonverbal stimuli under both interference and noninterference conditions. C11 Intelligence: Reasoning, concept formation, andcomplex mathematical problem solving

Dysexecutive functioning test (DES) consists of a group of symptoms, usually resulting from brain damage, that fall into cognitive, behavioural and emotional categories and tend to occur together. A common pattern of dysfunction in executive functions, such as planning, abstract thinking, flexibility and behavioural control. It is thought to be Baddeley's hypothesized working memory system and the central executive that are the hypothetical systems impaired in DES . The syndrome was once known as frontal lobe syndrome, however dysexecutive syndrome is preferred because it emphasizes the functional pattern of deficits (the symptoms) over the location of the syndrome in the frontal lobe, which is often not the only area affected. Created by: Alan Baddeley Behavioral assessment

Publication Year: 1996 Age Range: 16 years to 87 years Administration: Individual - 40 minutes Type/Purpose of Test: This is a battery of six tests and two questionnaires designed to assess the effects of dysexecutive syndrome, a cluster of impairments associated with frontal lobe damage. It tests impairments that are high-level tasks such as, planning, organizing, initiating, problem-solving, setting priorities, attention, monitoring and adapting behavior. It was designed to test executive function in more complex real life situations compared to other assessments and thereby further able to predict everyday problems. Population: People ages 16-87 with neurological disorders affecting executive function. It was developed to be used with individuals with traumatic brain injury. It has also been used in a study for individuals with schizophrenia.

Executive Functions The executive functions of the brain provide the ability to respond to novel situations in an adaptive manner. Lezak, Howieson, and Loring (2004) propose that the executive functions consist of four components: • Volition • Planning • Purposive action

Effective performance Volition is the capacity for intentional behavior, the ability to conceptualize a goal. Planning is the identification of the steps needed to achieve the goal. Purposive action is the capacity to take action and sustain it in an orderly manner. Effective performance requires the ability to monitor one’s activitiesnot surprising, then, to find that the primary motor cortex is located in the frontal lobes—where plans and intentions are also formed.

Neurobehavioral Functioning Inventory (NFI) was designed to collect information on a wide spectrum of behaviors and symptoms commonly associated with brain injury. The NFI provides information regarding the frequency of difficulties allowing measurement of change over time. Two versions of the NFI are available,

one for completion by family members, another for completion by the person with the injury. Both versions address identical content areas. The responses of family members and the patient can be compared to identify differing perceptions.

Overview: Develop an effective treatment plan for patients with TBI Age Range: 17 to 80 years Completion Time: 30 minutes Norms: Percentiles, T Scores Publication Date: 1999

Tests and Procedures of the LuriaNebraska Neuropsychological Battery Ability Scale: Tasks Included C1 Motor: Coordination, speed, drawing, complex motor abilities C2 Rhythm: Attend to, discriminate, and produce verbal and nonverbal rhythmic stimuli C3 Tactile: Identify tactile stimuli, including stimuli traced on the wrists C4 Visual: Identify drawings, including overlapping and unfocused objects; solve progressive matrices and other visuospatial skills C5 Receptive Speech: Discriminate phonemes and comprehend words, phrases, sentences C6 Expressive Speech: Articulate sounds, words, and sentences fluently; identify pictured or described objects C7 Writing: Use motor writing abilities in general; copy and write from dictation C8 Reading: Read letters, words, and sentences; synthesize letters into sounds and words C9 Arithmetic: Complete simple mathematical computations; comprehend mathematical signs and number structure C10 Memory: Remember verbal and nonverbal stimuli under both interference and noninterference conditions. C11 Intelligence: Reasoning, concept formation, andcomplex mathematical problem solving.

Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) is a neuropsychological test of "setshifting", i.e. the ability to display flexibility in the face of changing schedules of reinforcement.

As such, the WCST allows you to assess your client’s strategic planning; organized searching; and ability to utilize environmental feedback to shift cognitive sets, direct behavior toward achieving a goal, and modulate impulsive responding. Created by: Berg and Grant in 1948 :

Personality tests A test, usually involving a standardized series of questions or tasks, used to describe or evaluate a subject's personality traits.

Personality testing refers to techniques that are used to accurately and consistently measure personality. Personality is something that we informally assess and describe every day. When we talk about ourselves and others, we frequently refer to different characteristics of an individual's personality. Psychologists do much the same thing when they assess personality but on a much more systematic and scientific level.

How Are Personality Tests Used? 

For assessing theories

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To look at changes in personality

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To evaluate the effectiveness of therapy

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Diagnosing psychological problems

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Screening job candidates Types of personality tests

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Projective personality tests

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Objective personality tests

Objective Personality tests:An objective test is a test that has right or wrong answers and so can be marked objectively. ... Objective tests are popular because they are easy to prepare and take, quick to mark, and provide a quantifiable and concrete result. For example. True or false questions based on a text can be used in an objective test.

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Minnesota multiphase personality inventory

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Sixteen personality factors Questionnaire

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The big five personality traits

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Eysenck personality Questionnaire

Projective personality tests:involve presenting the test-taker with a vague scene, object, or scenario and then asking them to give their interpretation of the test item. One well-known example of a projective test is the Rorschach Inkblot Test. 

Thematic Apprception Test(TAT)

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Rorschach Inkblot Test

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House_Tree_Person(HTP)

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Sentences completion tests

Thematic Apprception Test (TAT) :TAT is an example of a projective instrument— that is, it asks the subject to project his or her habitual patterns of thought and emotional responses onto the pictures on the cards— many psychologists prefer not to call it a "test," because it implies that there are "right" and "wrong" answers to the questions. They consider the term "technique" to be a more accurate description of the TAT and other projective assessments.

Purpose 

Individual

assessments The TAT is often administered to individuals as part of a battery, or group, of tests intended to evaluate personality. It is considered to be effective in eliciting information about a person's view of the world and his or her attitudes toward the self and others. As people taking the TAT proceed through the various story cards and tell stories about the pictures, they reveal their expectations of relationships with peers, parents or other authority figures, subordinates, and possible romantic partners. For example, the TAT was recently administered to a 24-year-old man in prison for a series of sexual murders. The results indicated that his attitudes toward other people are not only outside normal limits but are similar to those of other persons found guilty of the same type of crime.

The TAT can be given repeatedly to an individual as a way of measuring progress in psychotherapy or, in some cases, to help the therapist understand why the treatment seems to be stalled or blocked.  Research In addition to its application in individual assessments, the TAT is frequently used for research into specific aspects of human personality, most often needs for achievement, fears of failure, hostility and aggression, and interpersonal object relations. "Object relations" is a phrase used in psychiatry and psychology to refer to the ways people internalize their relationships with others and the emotional tone of their relationships. For example, one recent study compared responses to the TAT from a group of psychiatric inpatients diagnosed with dissociative disorders with responses from a group of non-dissociative inpatients, in order to investigate some of the controversies about dissociative identity disorder (formerly called multiple personality disorder). Who developed TAT? The Thematic Apperception Test was developed in the 1930s by the American psychologists Henry A. Murray and Christiana D. Morgan at Harvard University to explore the underlying dynamics of personality, such as internal conflicts, dominant drives, interests, and motives.

History:TAT was developed by the American psychologists Henry A. Murray and Christiana D. Morgan at Harvard during the 1930s to explore the underlying dynamics of personality, such as internal conflicts, dominant drives, interests, and motives. According to Melville scholar Howard

P Vincent, the TAT “came into being when Dr. Henry A. Murray, psychologist and Melvillist , adapted the implicit lesson of Melville’s [Moby Dick] “Doubloon” chapter to a new and larger creative, therapeutic purpose.” After World War II, the TAT was adopted more broadly by psychoanalysts and clinicians to evaluate emotionally disturbed patients. Later, in the 1970s, the Human Potential Movement encouraged psychologists to use the TAT to help their clients understand themselves better and stimulate personal growth.

Procedure:The TAT is popularly known as the picture interpretation technique because it uses a standard series of provocative yet ambiguous pictures about which the subject is asked to tell a story. The subject is asked to tell as dramatic a story as they can for each picture presented, including: 

what has led up to the event shown

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what is happening at the moment

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what the characters are feeling and thinking

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what the outcome of the story was

If these elements are omitted, particularly for children or individuals of low cognitive abilities, the evaluator may ask the subject about them directly. There are 31 picture cards in the standard form of the TAT. Some of the cards show male figures, some female, some both male and female figures, some of ambiguous gender, some adults, some children, and some show no human figures at all. One card is completely blank. Although the cards were originally designed to be matched to the subject in terms of age and

gender, any card may be used with any subject. Most practitioners choose a set of approximately ten cards, either using cards that they feel are generally useful, or that they believe will encourage the subject's expression of emotional conflicts relevant to their specific history and situation. 

Scoring Systems

The TAT is a projective test in that, like the Rorschach test, its assessment of the subject is based on what he or she projects onto the ambiguous images. Therefore, to complete the assessment, each narrative created by a subject must be carefully recorded and analyzed to uncover underlying needs, attitudes, and patterns of reaction. Although most clinical practitioners do not use formal scoring systems, several formal scoring systems have been developed for analyzing TAT stories systematically and consistently. Two common methods that are currently used in research are the:_ 

Defense Mechanisms Manual DMM. This assesses three defense mechanisms: denial (least mature), projection (intermediate), and identification (most mature). A person's thoughts/feelings are projected in stories involved.

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Social Cognition and Object Relations SCOR scale. This assesses four different dimensions of object relations: Complexity of Representations of People, Affect-Tone of Relationship Paradigms, Capacity for Emotional Investment in Relationships and Moral Standards, and Understanding of Social Causality. Psychometric properties of TAT:Murstein explained that different cards may be more or less useful for specific clinical questions and purposes, making the use of one set of cards for all clients impractical.

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Reliability

Internal consistency, a reliability estimate focusing on how highly test items correlate to each other, is often quite low for TAT scoring systems. Some authors have argued that internal consistency measures do not apply to the TAT. In contrast to traditional test items, which should all measure the same construct and be correlated to each other, each TAT card represents a different situation and should yield highly different response themes.Lilienfeld and colleagues countered this point by questioning the practice of compiling TAT responses to form scores. Both inter-rater reliability (the degree to which different raters score TAT responses the same) and test–retest reliability (to degree to which individuals receive the same scores over time) are highly variable across scoring techniques.test-retest reliability should not be expected.Gruber and Kreuzpointner (2013) developed a new method for calculating internal consistency using categories instead of pictures. 

Validity

The validity of the TAT, or the degree to which it measures what it is supposed to measure, is low. Jenkins has stated that “the phrase ‘validity of the TAT’ is meaningless, because validity is specific not to the pictures, but to the set of scores derived from the population, purpose, and circumstances involved in any given data collection." That is, the validity of the test would be ascertained by seeing how clinician's decisions were assisted based on the TAT. Evidence on this front suggests it is a weak guide at best. For example, one study indicated that clinicians classified individuals as clinical or non-clinical at close to chance levels (57% where 50% would be guessing) based on TAT data alone. 

Alternate considerations

Despite the conflicting information about the psychometric characteristics of the TAT, proponents have argued that the TAT should not be judged using traditional standards of reliability and validity. According to Holt, “the TAT is a complex method of assessing people, which does not lend itself to the standard rules of thumb about test standards [. . .]”. First, they noted that traditional views of reliability may limit the validity of a measure (such as occurs with multi-faceted concepts in which characteristics are not necessarily related to each other, but are meaningful in combination). Further, Cronbach's alpha, a commonly used measure of internal consistency, is dependent on the number of items in scale. For the TAT, most scales use only a small number of cards (with each card treated like an item) so alphas would not be expected to be very high. .

Rorschach Inkblot Test:Many people have heard of the famous Rorschach inkblot test in which respondents are asked to look at ambiguous inkblot images and then describe what they see. The test often appears in popular culture and is frequently portrayed as a way of revealing a person’s unconscious thoughts, motives, or desires. The Rorschach inkblot test is a type of projective psychological test created in 1921 by a Swiss psychologist named Hermann Rorschach. Often utilized to assess personality and emotional functioning, it is the second most commonly used forensic test after the MMPI-2. One 1995 survey of 412 clinical psychologists by the American Psychological Association revealed that 82% used the Rorschach inkblot test at least occasionally.

What

is

the Rorschach? The stimuli were generated by dropping ink onto a card and folding it. They are not, however, random: the ten cards in the current test were hand-selected out of thousands that Rorschach generated Projective Tests.

Administering the Rorschach The cards are shown twice

The first time responses are obtained; the second time they are elaborated The test administrator asks about: i.) Location: Where did the subject see each item? A location chart is used to mark location W = whole; D = Common detail; Dd = Unusual detail; DW = Confabulatory response ii.) Determinant: What determined the response? Form (F)? Perceived movement? Human (M); Animal (FM); Inanimate (m) Color (C); shading (T = texture) The test administrator asks about: iii.) Form quality: How well-matched is the response to the blot? F+ = good match; F = match; F- = poor match iv.) Content: What was seen? Human (H); animal (A); nature (N)? The test administrator also scores popularity/originality: How frequently is the percept seen? Norm books are available (i.e. Exner, 1974) [but not always well-received in clinical settingsc Psychometric properties of Rorschach inkblot test

The Rorschach is a psychometric tool that uses a series of inkblots shown to a subject, and elicits verbal responses as to what the individual sees in the images. It is administered by an examiner who asks questions and records answers. Based upon the subject responses, a set of variables can be determined, which are used to define their personality along a set of various axes.

Validity Validity depends on the ability of a test to measure the constructs that it is purported to measure (Wiener & Greene, 2008). Validity in this case can be evaluated by comparing the Rorschach with clinical data or with other established tests of personality. Weiner (2001), for example, stated that the Rorschach has a validity effect size “almost identical” to the MMPI (Weiner, 2001, p. 423). Groth-Marnat (2009, p. 391) has pointed out that results of validity studies on the Rorschach have been mixed, but are confounded by various factors including the “type of scoring system, experience of the scorer, and type of population.” Early studies produced validity scores of .40 to .50, but later studies found scores as low as 0.29. However, such studies were further confounded by variables such as age, number of responses, verbal aptitude, education, and other confounding factors that were not controlled. Reliability Reliability depends on the ability to achieve a given measurement consistently (Weiner & Greene, 2008). Viglione and Taylor (2003) specifically examined this issue using the Comprehensive System . They also reviewed 24 previously published papers, all reporting various inter-rater reliabilities. Most of these studies reported reliabilities in the range of 85% to 99%. Aside from inter-rater reliability, test-retest reliability is another important consideration.

Exner (as cited in Groth-Marnat, 2009, pp. 389-90) reported reliabilities from .26 to .92 over a 1year interval considering 41 variables; four of them were above .90, 25 between .81 and .89, and 10 below .75. However, the most unreliable variables were attributed to state changes. It was further noted that the most relied upon factors, ratios and percentages, were among the most reliable. Therefore, it can be concluded that the Comprehensive System can yield high reliability when used under the conditions applied in these studies.

History of Rorschach Inkblot Test :Rorschach was certainly not the first to suggest that a person's interpretation of an ambiguous scene might reveal hidden aspects of that individual's personality. He may have been inspired to create his famous test by a variety of influences. As a boy, Rorschach had a great appreciation for klecksography or the art of making images from inkblots. As he grew older, Rorschach developed a mutual interest in art and psychoanalysis. He even published papers analyzing the artwork of mental patients, suggesting that the art they produced could be used to learn more about their personalities. One game created in 1896 even involved creating inkblot monsters to use then as prompts for stories or verse. Alfred Binet had also experimented with the idea of using inkblots as a way to test creativity and originally planned to include inkblots in his intelligence tests. , Rorschach began to develop a systematic approach to using inkblots as an assessment tool.

Purpose The Rorschach technique is used to elicit information about the structure and dynamics of an individual's personality functioning. The Rorschach technique can also be used for specific diagnostic purposes. Some scoring methods for the Rorschach elicit information on symptoms related to depression, schizophrenia , and anxiety disorders. Also, the test can be used to screen for coping deficits related to developmental problems in children and adolescents. How Does the Rorschach Inkblot Test Work? In order to understand how the inkblot tests work, it is important to understand how what it consists of and how it is administered. 

The Rorschach test consists of 10 inkblot images, some of which are black, white, or gray and some of which are color.

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A psychologist or psychiatrist who has been trained in the use, scoring, and interpretation of the test shows each of the ten cards to the respondent. During the test, the subject is provided with each of the ten cards, one by one.

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The subject is then asked to describe what he or she thinks the card looks like.

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Test-takers are allowed to hold the cards in any position they may want, whether it is upside down or sideways.

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The respondents are free to interpret the ambiguous image however they want.

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They may also respond in any way that they want. They may say that they see one thing, several different things, or even nothing at all.

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Test-takers can focus on the image as a whole, on certain aspects of the image, or even on the white space that surrounds the image

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Once the subject has provided a response, the psychologist will then ask additional questions to get the subject to further elaborate on his or her initial impressions.

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The psychologist also rates the reactions on a large number of variables such as whether the subject looked at the whole image. These observations are then interpreted and compiled into a profile of the individual.

How Are Inkblot Interpreted? So what exactly do interpreters of the Rorschach test look for when they are analyzing responses to the inkblots? The actual content of the responses is one thing, but other factors are essential as well. Some of the things that interpreters are looking at include: 

How respondents describe the image. Certain responses are common on each card, so scorers include a code that identifies such responses.

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How long they take to respond. Taking a very long time before offering a response might indicate that the respondent is "shocked" by what they see.

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Factors known as determinants, which can include location, form, color, and shading, that generate a response.

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Extra or unrelated comments. Any additional comments that are made that are no part of the main response.

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The popularity or originality of the responses given. Some responses are quite common, while others may be much more unique. Highly atypical responses are notable since they might indicate disturbances in thought patterns.

Interpretations of the Inkblot Test The first card in the Rorschach test is a black and white symmetrical image that respondents frequently describe as a bat, butterfly, or moth. Seeing animal or human shapes is a common response to each of the 10 cards. The third inkblot, for example, is often described as being two human figures engaged in some type of interaction. Responses to this card are thought to provide information about how the individual interacts with other people. A relatively fast response might indicate being at ease with others and comfortable with social relationships. A delayed response, however, might reveal that the individual struggles with social ininteractions.

How Is the Inkblot Test Used as a Diagnostic Tool? While the Rorschach has long been a popular psychological test, its value has also been heavily questioned. Surveys have suggested that between 43 and 77 percent of clinical psychologists use the Rorschach as an assessment tool. However, one review concluded that the Rorschach test had little validity as a diagnostic instrument. Research suggests that certain responses to the inkblots might be indicative of schizophrenia and possibly bipolar disorder and schizotypal personality disorder. However, studies suggest that responses to the inkblot do not appear related to posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety disorders, conduct disorder, major depressive disorder, dependent personality disorder, narcissistic personality disorder, conduct disorder, or antisocial personality disorder.

House_Tree_Person Test

The house-tree-person test (HTP) is a projective personality test, a type of exam in which the test taker responds to or provides ambiguous, abstract, or unstructured stimuli (often in the form of pictures or drawings). In the HTP, the test taker is asked to draw houses, trees, and persons, and these drawings provide a measure of self-perceptions and attitudes. As with other projective tests, it has flexible and subjective administration and interpretation. "The House-Tree-Person Test (HTP) is a projective technique designed to determine the main personality traits of a person who performs it. It’s often used during job interviews and different kinds of evaluations."

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The dimensions of the drawing represent your level of self-esteem and confidence.

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Strokes and lines (their pressure, firmness, and solidity) indicate the level of determination and how comfortable you feel during a decision-making process. For

example, if you tend to draw the same line twice, it shows insecurity, dissatisfaction, and out-of-control perfectionism. 

Clarity represents harmony and flexibility.

1). The image of the house The house represents family relations — how you see and interpret home and family life. It says a lot about how you feel about family values in general and your family in particular.  Roof: represents the intellectual, fantasy, and spiritual life.  Chimney: the affective and sexual life. Smoke coming out of the chimney symbolizes internal tension.  Walls: the firmness and strengths of your personality.  Door and windows: relationship with the surrounding world, social context, level of integration. For example, a very large door shows that you’re very dependent.  Sidewalks: openness, access to your intimate family life.  Ground: stability and contact with reality.

2)The image of the tree The tree symbolizes the deepest and most unconscious aspects of your personality. It represents those things you usually keep to yourself. 

Crown: ideas, thoughts, self-concept. For example, crown density is directly connected with mental productivity.

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Branches: social contacts, aspirations, and level of satisfaction or frustration.

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Trunk: represents your sense of self, the intactness of your personality. If it’s curved, it means you’re flexible and adapt easily.

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Roots: related to your unconscious and instinctive inner world, reality testing, and orientation.

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Ground: contact with reality and stability. For example, its absence represents difficulties coping with reality. 3) The image of the person The person represents self-concept, your ideal self. It shows your attitude toward this world, how your social life and inner world coexist.  Head: intelligence, communication, imagination, sociability. For example, if the head is larger than the body, it means you have impressive intellectual aabilities  Hair: sexuality, virility, and sensuality.  Eyes: social communication and your perception of the world around you.  Mouth: sensuality, sexuality, and verbal communication. If the mouth on your picture is just a straight line, it means you’re verbally aggressive.  Nose: phallic symbol.  Hands: affectivity, aggressiveness.  Neck: impulse control.  Arms: adaptation and integration with the social world.  Legs: contact with reality, support, stability, and security.  Feet: sexuality and aaggressiveness.

Purpose

The primary purpose of the HTP is to measure aspects of a person's personality through interpretation of drawings and responses to questions. It is also sometimes used as part of an assessment of brain damage or overall neurological functioning. The HTP was developed in 1948, and updated in 1969. Tests requiring human figure drawings were already being utilized as projective personality tests. Buck believed that drawings of houses and trees could also provide relevant information about the functioning of an individual's personality. Psychometric properties of HTP Reliability and validity manual contains no information on reliability and validity. •Norms: •The standardization sample included 140 adults. No attempt was made to randomlyselect a stratified sample of subjects from thegeneral population. Twenty adults wereselected for each of seven intellectual levels(imbecile, moron, borderline, dull average,average, above average, and superior). Procedure

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Use three piece of plain white 8.5×11 ppape.

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Give the first and say, “Here I want you todraw a house as good as you can”, give the next sheet. “Draw as good a tree as youcan”, give the next sheet. “Draw as good aperson as you can”.(If a profile or head only,say, “Wait, I want you to draw a whole person, not just the head or profile).

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The child is told to draw(1)a house, (2) a tree,and(3) a person on white paper.

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The figure gives the therapist some indicationof how the child perceives himself or herself inthe world (the figure is usually considered tobe a reflection of the self).

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Administrator then use a Post-Drawing IInquir checklist(specific questions) to enable client to describe, define and interpret his/herdrawings.

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Client responses are organized under 8categories. 

8 categories for client responses:

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General observations

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Proportions

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Perspectives

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Detailing

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Non essential details

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Irrelevant details

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Line qualities

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Use of color

Drawing Analysis 

Drawings are interpreted using two “papaths intra-subjective and inter-subjective

 First path, intra-subjective, considers thecontent and quality of the three ddrawings also explores the depth of material behind the drawings.  Second path, inter-subjective, cconsider features indicative of a certain emotional tendency Time Factors And Considerations

 No time limit (is based on average time)  Paper given to client to draw on should beblank.  This is a projective not a diagnostic test  Not “standardized”  Can purchase supplemental interrogation from which derives an IQ score. Limitations  Poorly established reliability and validity.  Interpretation may be influence by clinician bias/prejudice Advantages  Good ice-breaker to use in preparation for  other tests.  Good for engaging reluctant clients.  Used for any ages over three.  Useful for non-verbal clients.  Useful for non-English-speaking clients.

Sentence Completion Test:Sentence completion tests are a class of semi-structured projective techniques. Sentence completion tests typically provide respondents with beginnings of sentences, referred to as "stems", and respondents then complete the sentences in ways that are meaningful to them. The responses are believed to provide indications of attitudes, beliefs, motivations, or other mental

states. Therefore, sentence completion technique, with such advantage, promotes the respondents to disclose their concealed feelings. This method is based on the idea that it will reveal more about thoughts, fantasies, and emotional conflicts than testing with direct questions (Weiner & Greene, 2008). History Hermann Ebbinghaus is generally credited with developing the first sentence completion test in 1897. Ebbinghaus's sentence completion test was used as part of an intelligence test.Simultaneously, Carl Jung's word association test may also have been a precursor to modern sentence completion tests. Moreover, in recent decades, sentence completion tests have increased in usage, in part because they are easy to develop and easy to administer. As of the 1980s, sentence completion tests were the eighty-fifth most widely used personality assessment instruments.Another reason for the increased usage of sentence completion tests is because of their superiority to other measures in uncovering conflicted attitudes. Some sentence completion tests were developed as a way to overcome the problems associated with thematic apperception measures of the same constructs. The beginning of using the formal sentence completion method for personality assessment was in 1928 with Arthur Payne. Payne used the tests for guidance purposes in asylums and institutions and to assess careerrelated personal traits (Schafer, Rotter, Rafferty, 1953). Alexander Tendler used the method to study emotional reactions. With his tests, all his sentences began with I and revealed something about annoyances, fears, aversions, like, interests, and attachments. It has never been validated that these tests can be used in emotional contexts (Schafer et al, 1953).

As opposed to Tendler and Payne, Amanda Rhode decided not to focus on specific aspects of personality, but use the measure to develop a general personality test. She developed the first validated personality measure of this kind and discussed abroad range of personal issues and experiences (Rhode, 1957). The purpose of the measure was to “reveal latent needs, sentiments, feelings, and attitudes which subjects would be unable or unwilling to recognize or to express in direct communication” (Weiner & Greene, 2008). Most sentence completion methods today were developed from the basis of Amanda Rhode’s test and theories. One of the most popular of these tests is the RISB, or Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank. The original version of the test was developed in 1950 by Rotter and Rafferty. The main objective of the test was to create a version of the sentence completion method that could be administered and scored easily to permit a widespread use. They also wanted to provide specific diagnostic criteria so the results of the exam could be obtained more quickly. However, the test was not intended to give a full view of personality, but more of a starting point for clinicians to take direction from. The current version of this test has three forms at different levels including High School, College, and Adult. The test is scored on a seven point scale with answers being tagged from a conflict (pessimism, hostility, hopelessness) to neutral (stereotypes, catchphrases, cliches) to positive (humor, optimism, acceptance) rating. It takes about 15 to 35 minutes to complete with scoring ranging in time depending on the familiarity with administering the test. This is the most popular form of the Sentence Completion Method used today (Hersen, 2003).

 Rotter Incomplete Sentence Completion Test(RISB)

 Sacks Sentence Completion Test(SSCT)

Rotter Incomplete Sentence Completion Test(RISB) The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank is a projective psychological test developed by Julian B. Rotter. It comes in three forms, for different age groups, and comprises 40 incomplete sentences in 20 minutes, usually only 1–2 words long such as "I regret ..." "Mostly girls...". The subject is asked to complete the sentence. Who developed? The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank is a projective psychological test developed by Julian Rotter and Janet E. Rafferty in 1950. Purpose The Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank is an attempt to standardize the sentence completion method for the use at college level. Forty stems are completed by the subject. These completions are then scored by comparing them against typical items in empirically derived scoring manuals for men and women and by assigning to each response a scale value from 0 to 6. The total score is an index of maladjustment. SENTENCE COMPLETION METHOD The sentence completion method of studying personality is a semi structured projectivetechnique in which the subject is asked to finish a sentence for which the first word or words aresupplied. As in other projective devices, it is assumed that the subject reflects his own wishes,desires, fears and attitudes in the sentences he makes.Historically, the incomplete

sentence method is related most closely to the word associationtest. In some test incomplete sentences tests only a single word or brief response is called for; themajor differences appears to be in the length of the stimulus. In the sentence completion tests,tendencies to block and to twist the meaning of the stimulus words appear and the responses may be categorized in a somewhat similar fashion to the word association method. Development of ISB The Incomplete Sentences Blank consists of forty items revised from a form used by Rotter and Willermann (11) in the army. This form was, in turn, a revision of blanks used by Shor (15), Hutt (5), and Holzberg (4) at the Mason General Hospital. In the development of the ISB, two objectives were kept in mind. One aim was to provide a technique which could be used objectively for screening and experimental purposes. It was felt that this technique should have at least some of the advantages of projective methods, and also be economical from the point of view of administration and scoring. A second goal was to obtain information of rather specific diagnostic value for treatment purposes. The Incomplete Sentences Blank can be used, of course, for general interpretation with a variety of subjects in much the same manner that a clinician trained in dynamic psychology uses any projective material. However, a feature of ISB is that one can derive a single over-all adjustment score. This over-all adjustment score is of particular value for screening purposes with college students and in experimental studies. The ISB has also been used in a vocational guidance center to select students requiring broader counseling than was usually given, in experimental studies of the effect of psychotherapy and in investigations of the relationship of adjustment to a variety of variables.

Advantages of RISB The general advantages of the sentence completion method can be summarized as follows. There is freedom of response. That is, the subject is not forced to answer yes or no or? to the examiner question. He may instead, in any way he desires. Some disguise in the purpose of the test is present. Although the subject made aware of general intend, what constitutes a good or bad answer is not readily apparent to most subjects. Group administration is relatively efficient. Most incomplete sentences tests can be given to a group of any size without apparent loss of validity. No special training is ordinarily necessary for administration. Interpretation depends on the examiner's general clinical experience, although the examiner does not need specific training in the use of this method. The method is extremely flexible in that new sentence beginnings can be constructed or tailor made for a variety of clinical, applied and experimental purposes Disadvantages of RISB Although susceptible to semi-objective scoring, it cannot be machine scored and requires general skill and knowledge of personality analysis for clinical appraisal and interpretation. There is not as much disguise of purpose as in other projective methods. Consequently, a sophisticated subject may be able to keep the examiner from knowing what he does not wish to reveal.

Insufficient material is obtained in some cases, particularly from illiterate, disturbed or uncooperative subjects. Application of the method as a group test also requires writing and language skills and has not yet been adequately evaluated for potential clinical usefulness for younger children.

Psychometric properties of RISB:1-Reliability Since the items on an incomplete sentence blank are not equivalent, the odd even technique for determining reliability is not applicable and would tend to give minimum estimate of internalconsistency. Therefore items on the ISB were divided into two halves deemed as nearlyequivalent as possible. This yielded a corrected split-half reliability of .84 when based on therecords of 124 male college students, and .83 when based on 71 female students.Inter-scorer reliability for two scorer trained by the authors was .91 when based on malerecords and .96 for female records. 2-VALIDITY The Incomplete Sentence Blank was validated on groups of subjects which did not include anyof cases used in developing the scoring principles and the scoring manuals. Scoring of the blankswas done “blindly” the scorer never knew whether the test blank was supposed to be that of amaladjusted or an adjusted subject.Validity data were obtained for the two sexes separately since the scoring manuals differ. Thesubjects include 82 females and 124 males who were classified as either adjusted or maladjustedi.e., as needing personal counseling or as not needing

such counseling.A cutting score of 135 provided a very sufficient of adjusted maladjusted students in the data collected above. 3-Norms A distribution of scores on the ISB for a representative college freshman population wasobtained by giving the Incomplete Sentences Blank to 299 entering freshman at OhioState University. A comparison between the median percentile ranks on the Ohio StatePsychological Examination of the sample and of the total freshman population showed adifference of approximately two percentile points. The agreement between corresponding firstand third quartile points was very close. It was interesting to find that the correlation coefficient between the Ohio State Psychological Examination scores and ISB scores for the selectedfreshman sample was only .11. This is in accord with a general feeling that a very littlerelationship would exist between intelligence and scores on the personality measures such as the RISB. Test Administration:-

Current Administration

The printed instructions are given on the page which state complete these sentences to express your real feelings. Try to do every one. Be sure to make a complete sentence.No further instructions are given except to repeat the printed instructions if necessary and to urge subjects tocomplete all the items. Administration to a group of any number of subjects is possible. Theapproximate average time for administration is twenty minutes. The RISB was administered on a female of 20 years of age. The test consisted of fortyitems which had to be completed by the subject. The test was administered in a class setting.Subject was seated comfortably on the chair. The room was well ventilated and well lighted. Theabove instructions were given to the subject before he started the test. The subject completed the test in 20 minutes. Use of scoring Manual The scoring sample in part || of this manual are given to facilitate the assignments of weight and responses. They are from ISB responses of 58 male and 53 female college students,ranging from extremely well adjusted person to those judged to be in need of psychotherapy.Since the scoring examples are illustrative and representative of common responses with nointent to list all possible sentence completions, a set of scoring principles will be presented.These principles are

intended to aid in determing the correct weight for a completion when avery similar statement cannot be found in the scoring examples.In order to provide the potential user of the ISB with “supervised” experience beforeattempting to score clinical or experimental records. The correct scoring for these records isgiven at the end. These examples will enable the clinician to check his scoring against that of theauthors. They may also use by a clinic supervisor to check the scoring ability of any student or general scorer.Sentence completion is used for illustrative purposes in the following discussion are taken almost entirely from manual. Omission response: Oversight reaction is assigned as those for which no answer is given or for which the musing is fragmented. Exclusion reaction no scoring is made. In the event that they are more than 20 exclusions, the paper is thought about unscramble. Conflict response: C is struggle reaction is those showing an undesirable or maladjusted outlook. These incorporate antagonistic vibe response, indication elicitation, misery and self-destructive wishes. Reaction go from C1 to C3.the numerical weight for the contention reaction are C1=4,C2=5,C3=6.C1 classification is identified with minor conflict,C2 is identified with genuine maladjustment and C3 is identified with disjoin maladjustment solid negative reaction. Positive response: P or positive response is those indicating a healthy or helpful frame of mind. These are evidence by humorous or flippant remarks, optimistic responses and acceptance reaction. The numerical weights for the positive response are P1=2,P2=1,P3=0.in the P1 class common responses are those which deal with positive attitude toward school,hobbies,sports interest in people. P2 are

those replies which indicate a generalized positive feeling toward people, good social adjustment, healthy family life.P3 is related good nature. Neutral response: N neutral reaction reactions are those which do not occur in to both of above classes. They are for the most part on a basic engaging level. Two general kind of reaction which represent an expansive offer of those that fall in unbiased classification. Nonpartisan reaction scored is 3. Independent scoring of item: Every reaction in is to be assessed freely of all other aside from. When it is obvious reference to a past articulation.Each response is to be scored and evaluated independently of all others, except when it is clear-cut reference to a previous statement. It is, of course, important in the scoring of any papers toavoid the halo effect as much as possible so that the measurement can be reliable. This is equallynecessary here for, if each response is not scored independently of all others, there is a tendencyto rate all responses in light of the over-all picture.In some cases a response refers directly to a previous item, and it would not be reasonable toscore it independently of the first. In such an instance, therefore, a previous response must beused in the evaluation of the later one. Sixteen personality factors Questionnaire (16PF):-

The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) is a self-report personality test developed over several decades of empirical research by Raymond B. Cattell, Maurice Tatsuoka and Herbert Eber. The 16PF provides a measure of normal personality and can also be used by psychologists, and other mental health professionals, as a clinical instrument to help diagnose psychiatric disorders, as well as help with prognosis and therapy planning. The 16PF instrument provides clinicians with a normal-range measurement of anxiety, adjustment, emotional stability and behavioral problems.It can also be used within other areas of psychology, such as career and occupational selection. History Cattell physical sciences background The 16PF Questionnaire was created from a fairly unusual perspective among personality tests. Most personality tests are developed to measure just the pre-conceived traits that are of interest to a particular theorist or researcher. The main author of the 16PF, Raymond B. Cattell, had a strong background in the physical sciences, especially chemistry and physics, at a time when the basic elements of the physical world were being discovered, placed in the periodic table, and used as the basis for understanding the fundamental nature of the physical world and for further inquiry. From this background in the physical sciences, Cattell developed the belief that all fields are best understood by first seeking to find the fundamental underlying elements in that domain, and then developing a valid way to measure and research these elements (Cattell, 1965).

Personality research author Schuerger stated that: "Cattell's goal in creating the 16PF Questionnaire was to provide a thorough, research-based map of normal personality.” When Cattell moved from the physical sciences into the field of psychology in the 1920s, he described his disappointment about finding that it consisted largely of a wide array of abstract, unrelated theories and concepts that had little or no scientific bases. He found that most personality theories were based on philosophy and on personal conjecture, or were developed by medical professionals, such as Jean Charcot and Sigmund Freud, who relied on their personal intuition to reconstruct what they felt was going on inside people, based on observing individuals with serious psycho-pathological problems. Cattell (1957)described the concerns he felt as a scientist: "In psychology there is an ocean of spawning intuitions and comfortable assumptions which we share with the layman, and out of which we climb with difficulty to the plateaus of scientific objectivity....Scientific advance hinges on the introduction of measurement to the field under investigation….Psychology has bypassed the necessary descriptive, taxonomic, and metric stages through which all healthy sciences first must pass….If Aristotle and other philosophers could get no further by sheer power of reasoning in two thousand years of observation, it is unlikely that we shall do so now.... For psychology to take its place as an effective science, we must become less concerned with grandiose theory than with establishing, through research, certain basic laws of relationship." Thus, Cattell's goal in creating the 16PF Questionnaire was to discover the number and nature of the fundamental traits of human personality and to develop a way to measure these dimensions.

At the University of London, Cattell worked with Charles Spearman who was developing factor analysis to aid in his quest to discover the basic factors of human ability. Cattell thought that could also be applied to the area of personality. He reasoned that human personality must have basic, underlying, universal dimensions just as the physical world had basic building blocks (like oxygen and hydrogen). He felt that if the basic building blocks of personality were discovered and measured, then human behavior (e.g., creativity, leadership, altruism, or aggression) could become increasingly understandable and predictable. Age range The 16PF test was designed for adults at least age 16 and older, but there are also parallel tests for various younger age ranges (e.g., the 16PF Adolescent Personality Questionnaire). The 16PF Questionnaire has been translated into more than 30 languages and dialects. Descriptors of Low Range

Primary Factor

Reserve, impersonal, distant, cool, reserved, impersonal,

Descriptors of High Range Warm, outgoing, attentive

Warmth

to others, kindly, easy going,

detached, formal, aloof

participating, likes people

(Sizothymia)

(Affectothymia)

s