Lexi 1

Unit 1

INTRODUCTION I. LEXICOLOGY, ITS SUBJECT MATTER AND

TASK The Linguistic organization of linguistic material: 3 main branches

- phonology - grammar - lexis (vocabulary)

Lexicology (Greek: = lexis (meaning) + logos (science, learning) = science/study of the word) A. TASK: Study & systematic description of vocabulary of a given language B. SUBJECT MATTER: The word, its structure, meaning & history

C. SUBJECT MATTER: The word, its structure, meaning & history 5 branches of lexicology: 1. word structure & formation: structure of the word & the way it is formed 2. semasiology/semantics: (lexical) meaning of word: types, change & development 3. phraseology: set/fixed expression (idioms, proverbs) 4. etymology: history, origin of words (whether words are native or borrowed) 5. lexicography: dictionary compiling (types of dictionary, selection & arrangement of words)

D. Approaches of lexicology 







General lexicology: treat vocabulary in general Special lexicology: treat the vocabulary of a given language Historical lexicology: discusses the vocabulary in diachronic aspect Descriptive lexicology: studies the vocabulary in synchronic aspect

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II. SIGNIFICANCE OF LEXICOLOGY In foreign language teaching 

    

build up student's vocabulary (select, group, analyze new words) distinguish between different styles of speech express more ideas within a limited vocabulary develop skills of using types of dictionaries test student's knowledge of vocabulary provide a better insight into various cultural aspects of target language

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III. LEXICOLOGY IN ITS RELATION TO PHONOLOGY, GRAMMAR & STYLISTICS

Contribution to lexicology from:  Phonology: condition of word unity & mark word limits, e.g. 'RED tape vs red 'TAPE lipservice  Grammar: grammatical form & function of a word affect its lexical meaning e.g. feel (link V) vs feel (trans. V)  Stylistics: same words of different styles bring about different meanings, e.g. hell (standard) vs hell (non-standard)

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IV. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE English vocabulary: composite, mixed: 2 main layers: 1. native: words of Anglo-Saxon origin foundation/basic stock: oldest, stable, polysemantic e.g. man, woman, door 2. borrowed: words of foreign origin e.g. chic, rendevouz 6

WORD STRUCTURE & FORMATION

A. WORD STRUCTURE 1. The morpheme : 1.1. Definition :  the minimal meaningful language unit.  not independent, occurs in speech only as part of word 1.2. The types of morphemes : 1.2.1. The root morpheme (mostly lexical morpheme/free) :  the primary element of the word  convey its essential lexical meaning  remains after removing all the other elements  cannot be analyzed any farther E.g. care heart careful hearten carefulness dishearten 7 carefully heartily

1.2.2. The affixational morpheme   

 

a. The grammatical morpheme (inflection or ending) used to create different forms of the same word carries the grammatical meaning only studied in grammar E.g. - s in books, pens, tables - ed in opened, arranged .... Inflectional paradigm : a complete set of forms of a word in an inflectional pattern . the system of grammatical forms characteristic of a word E.g. big, bigger, biggest (comparison) cats, cat’s tail opens, opened, opening 8

b. The derivational morpheme (lexicogrammatical morpheme)   



carrying both lexical and grammatical meaning. used to create new words studied in lexicology E.g. pre in prewar ; re in rearrange ; ness in happiness ; ly in fatherly Derivational paradigm : the system of derivational forms characteristic of a word E.g. fatherless, fatherhood, fatherly care, careful, careless, carefully

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THE DIVISION OF ENGLISH MORPHEMES MORPHEME ROOT

Free

AFFIXATIONAL

bound inflectional

derivational prefix

suffix

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2. The word 2.1. Definition:  a dialectical unity of form and content,  an independent unit of language to form a sentence by itself 2.2.The types of the words: a. Simple word : only consists of a root morpheme E.g. man, land, small, table, etc. b. Derived word: consists of a root with one or more derivational morphemes: nationalize E.g. hope+ful+ly read+able R+de.Af+de.Af R+de.Af c. Compound word: R+R (+ n de.Af)  has at least two roots, with or without derivational morphemes. E.g. noticeboard, lady killer, walkman, notebook

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Division of English words WORD

SIMPLE WORD WORD

(one root)

DERIVED WORD

COMPOUND

(root + n derivational) (root +n root)

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B. WORD FORMATION I. Definition: process of building new words from the already existing word according to a certain structural and semantic patterns and formulas II. Affixation: formation of new words with the help of affixes (prefix/suffix) II.1. Prefixation 1. Characteristic features  prefixes rarely form new parts of speech  some coincide with words mostly prep & adv E.g. over, out, up 2. Classification: 3 main groups :  negative meaning : unhappy, disease, misfortune, immoral  reversal or repetition of an action : undo, disconnect, remarriage  space and time relationship : pre/ postwar, overwork, 13 supermarket

II.2. Suffixation : 1. Characteristic features: -change the meaning of stems both lexically and grammatically E.g. (to) write → writer friend → friendly/friendship cloud → cloudy/cloudless - Suffixes have the peculiarities : + polysemy : -er in worker, doer, Londoner + homonym : -s in spectacles (eye glasses), colours (flag) 2. Classification : according to parts of speech:  - noun - suffixes : -er, - or, - ing, ness  - adjective - suffixes : -able, -ful, -ish, -like, etc  - verb - suffixes : -en, -ize , -ish  - adverb - suffixes: -ly, -ward, -wise 14

COMPOUNDING (word composition) 1. Definition : the building of a new word by joining two or more words. E.g. book keeper, well - known, (to) baby-sit 2. Characteristic features Components of a compound: - at least two root morphemes E.g. worldwide, ice - cream, downstairs, motherland R+R R+R R+R R+R - derived words or even other compound words. E.g. kindhearted, easy - going, greengrocer R + DE.W R + DE.W R + DE.W - or even other compound words E.g. [[stone age] CP + [cave dweller] CP] CP

- English compounds have two stems : + determinatum (head) : the second element, being the basic part in the compound, usually expressing a general meaning + E.g : film star, home - made, maidservant + determinant (dependent/modifier): the first element, being a determining part in the compound, premodifying the determinatum E.g. Wastepaper basket wastepaper determinant (dependent) , statesman, honeymoon

basket determinatum (head)

2.Criteria of compound words : 2.1. Phonological criterion : - a heavy stress on the first element, especially most of compound nouns. E.g. 'PICKpocket, 'BLACKboard, 'FILMstar - compound words which have double stress E.g. 'good 'egg, 'happy - go - 'lucky 2.2. Inseparability criterion - insertion of a word is impossible E.g. homemade, honeymoon, house keeper - sometimes, elements of a compound are separated in some cases E.g. Both cigar and cigarette smokers have to spend a lot

2.3. Semantic criterion - single idea : A + B = S E.g. make - up, brother - in - law, up - to - date - The meaning of the whole compound word is not the sum of the meanings of its components E.g. green -grocer (a person selling vegetables), honeymoon (vacation after wedding ceremony) , breakdown (a stoppage through accident) 2.4. Graphic/ spelling criterion if X: spelt with a hyphen or with no separation then X: a compound. E.g. notebook , fountainpen, take - in , teach - in old age (not compound) old - age pensioner (compound

3. Semi - affixes - have generalized lexical meaning and great ability to be combined with a great number of roots. E.g. half in half - done, half - broken, half - eaten well in well - fed, well - done, well - prepared man in postman, chairman, cabman - lose their grammatical independence, even their meaning - often used in combinations.

4. Classification of compound words : 4.1.Classification according to meaning: + Non - idiomatic compounds (Motivated): meanings easily deduced from the meaning of the components E.g. bookshelf, salesgirl, handshake, table - cloth + Idiomatic compounds (Non-motivated): no relationship between the meanings of the component; meanings cannot be deduced E.g. eye -wash (something said or done to deceive a person) fiddlesticks (nonsense, rubbish)

4.2. Classification according to componental relationships + Coordinate compounds : components: both structurally and semantically independent E.g. girl friend, Anglo - Saxon, oak - tree + Subordinate compounds : domination of one component (structural center) over the other (dependent). E.g. book keeper, baby sitter, wrist - watch, road building 4.3. Classification according to the part of speech : + Compound nouns : sitting room, blackboard + Compound adjectives: hot tempered, age - long + Compound verbs : to handwash, to baby-sit + Compound adverbs: whole heatedly, self -confidently + Compound prepositions : into, onto, inside

4.4. Classification according to compositional types : + Compounds formed by juxtaposition (i.e. without connecting elements) E.g. queen-bee, heart-broken, daytime + Compounds formed by morphological means (i.e. with vowel or consonant as a linking element) E.g. speedometer, statesman, bridesmaid + Compounds formed by syntactical means (i.e. group of words condensed into one word) E.g. merry - go - round, up - to - date + Compounds formed by both by morphological and syntactical means (i.e. phrases turned into compounds by means of suffixes and hyphen) : E.g. bottle -opener, heart - shaped, long - legged

5. Miscellanea of compounds : + Derivational compounds structural integrity is ensured by a suffix E.g. two - sided, broad - mended, honeymooner, pen holder + Reduplicative compounds : imitating sounds or repeating one of their components E.g. goody - goody , fifty - fifty, hush - hush, zig - zag , chit - chat + Faded compounds : compositional characteristic: "faded" & hardly recognizable . E.g. breakfast, cupboard, highway, Sunday, boatswain + Dead compounds : compositional characteristics: etymologically analysed & discovered E.g. husband , kidnap

SHORTENING 1. Characteristic features - highly productive, specifically in colloquial speech and advertisement - a good way of creating roots : can take endings. E.g. examination→ exam, laboratory → lab, television → TV, refrigerator → fridge 2. Types of shortening : 2.1 Acronyms : built from the initial letters of several words E.g. S.O.S : Save Our Souls BBC : British Broadcasting Corporation UNO : United Nations Organizations MP : Member of Parliament

Two special cases of acronyms : + Monograms : - two or more letters combined in one design - used in handkerchief, note - paper or in wedding invitation cards

N + Homonymy : based on the use of identical sounds of words letters E.g. U2 = ?, mobi 4Y = ? I. O .U = ?

2.2. Clipping : - shortening a word of two or more syllables (usually N and A) + Initial clipping : the first part of a word is clipped : E.g. telephone → phone, helicopter → copter + Final clipping : the last part of a word is clipped : E.g. Advertisement → ad , microphone → mike + Initio - final clipping : the first and the last part are clipped E.g. influenza → flu , detective → tec + Elliptico - conversional clipping (phrasal clipping) : E.g. music ular popA popN perm (from permanent ware), taxicab (from taxi meter - cab)

3. Blending : parts of words merge into one new word. E.g. breakfast and lunch br

+

unch

smoke and fog sm

+

og

transfer and resistor trans

+

istor

CONVERSION ZERO DERIVATION XA + ∅ → XB (A & B: different parts of speech) 1. Definition new word formed in a different part of speech without adding any element. E.g. workN → to workV , loveN → to loveV , waterN → to waterV 2. Characteristic features : - The difference between words in each pair is : + Morphological : new paradigm E.g. work - worked - working + Syntactic : new function E.g. He worked very hard + Semantic : completely new meaning E.g. act : a scene in a play to act : to do something - the most productive way of creating new words

3. Forms of conversion : a. Traditional conversion : commonly and traditionally used by the public, recorded in dictionaries b. Occasional conversion : - individual use of conversion in special situation, occasions, - to express one's idea vividly, humorously. E.g. package - to package, wireless - to wireless, holiday - to holiday c. Partial conversion: verb + ∅ → noun in verbal phrases like : "have, take, make + N" E.g. dance → to have a dance, progress → to make progress d. Substantiation : Adjective + ∅ → Noun E.g. deaf → the deaf ; rich → the rich poor → the poor ; old → the old

Back derivation/back formation : XA - Af→ X'B 1. Definition : subtracting a real or supposed affix from existing words. E.g. baby - sitter - er (Af) → to baby sit beggar - gar (Af) → to beg 2. Characteristic features - an opposite process to affixation : - fairly productive in building compound verbs from compound nouns E.g. to tape record (from tape recorder), to air condition (from air - conditioner)

SOUND IMITATION (ONNOMATOPOEIA) 1 Definition : (phonetical motivation) imitating sounds produced by actions, things and so on. 2 Classification : Word showing showing showing showing showing showing used animals actions actions noise of forceful move for themsel made by by man metallic motion ment of ves animals things water E.g.

the crow (from crow), the cuckoo (from cuckoo)

to moo, to mew, to purr, to roar, to howl, to neigh

babble clink, chatter tinkle giggle, grunt, grumble murmur

clash, crash, whack, whip, whisk.

flush, splash, babble

ABLAUT & STRESS SHIFTSOUND AND STRESS INTERCHANGE 1. Sound interchange go – went suppletion changing the root vowel or consonant form the old word. E.g. song → to sing / s ŋ / → /s I ŋ / breath → breathe / bre / → / bri: / 2. Stress interchange building the place of the stress on the old one. E.g. present → to present /’preznt/ → / pri’zent , accent → to accent / ‘ ksent/ → / ‘sent /

SEMASIOLOGY /SEMANTICS 1. Types of meaning: 1.1. Lexical meaning : - usually associated with real-world referents (e.g. entities, situations) 1.2. Grammatical meaning : - unites words with different lexical meanings into groups with their own grammatical features (with the presence of categorical markers). E.g. book, chair, boy, house : nouns red, good-looking, tired, talkative : adjectives 1.3. Notional Words & Function words: - notional words (whose lexical meaning is clear) name objects, actions, qualities, etc. - functional words (whose prevailing meaning is grammatical), e.g. particles, articles, prepositions, etc.

2. The components of lexical meaning : 2.1. The denotational meaning (denotation) - indicates or points out things, concepts, etc which is called referent & sense. E.g. wind - a phenomenon of nature a child - a young person from birth to the age full physical development, a table - an object significative denotation (sense): concept, abstract idea, e.g. love, happiness Denotation demonstrative denotation (referent): individual object, e.g. a table, that cat

2.2) The connotational meaning (connotation) - shows us how things, concepts, etc are indicated. It conveys the speaker's attitude, emotions and so on. E.g. - die, pass away, go to the west - child, kid - father, dad, daddy Connotation ingredients Semantic emotive shades charge E.g.

evaluation intensity

stylistic colouring

slang : like, love, magnificent governor magic, (father) ; worship, gorgeous, witchcraft, bookish : large, big, splendid, sorcery tremendous superb anticipate (to expect)

3. The types of lexical meaning Type of meaning Function denotes something

comprehension

Indirect meaning Direct meaning : (figurative/ (literal meaning) transferred meaning) directly

indirectly

not based on comparison or association with other things

based on comparison or association with other things

4. Motivation of words : the relationship between - structure and meaning, - sound and meaning, - direct and indirect meaning. Mophologic motivation morphologic structure of the word meaning mor. mor. sing + er: action + agent a person who sings

Phonetic motivation Semantic motivation phonetic structure of the word meaning sound-form & sound produced by object E.g. splash, boom, bang, ping-pong

co-existence of direct Meaning & indirect meaning or literal & Metaphor/figurative break break something break one's heart

5. Polysemy and semantic structure 5.1. Polysemy - a word has more than one meaning E.g. to take, to get, to set 5.2. Semantic structure : - formed by all the meaning of a word: + The first meaning: "the direct or primary" meaning + The other meanings: "secondary or derived" E.g. chance of luck (primary) fortune a large amount of money

a person's destiny or future

WORD MEANING Grammatical meaning Lexical meaning Denotation

Connotation

Significative Demonstrative Emotion Evaluation Intensity Stylistic color

6. The stylistic aspect of English vocabulary Neutral words (neither formal nor informal) he, I, table, woman, - used inE.g. all styles, all spheres of hand, humanwhite, life etc. E.g. - superb, terrific, bike, exam, kid (words) Colloquial informal, casual, lively, down-to-earth - why(spoken) on earth..., make sure, goodness gracious E.g: accommodation (room), donation (gift), assist (help) Bookish: * General: chiefly in formal speech, especially in writing E.g. a march Bookish Scientific/learned: monosemantic (neutral) Operation act performed by a surgeon & polysemantic (in different sciences): addition, subtraction naught (nothing), ere (before), lone (lonely) Standard E.g. Poetic & archaic words (poetry) , hapless (unhappy) Non-assimilated foreign: E.g. fiancé (French) cliché - borrowed from different languages. - retain their spelling and pronunciation E.g. birdslang: (girl), sub-standard cop (policeman), (father) General due governer to excessive informality Speech E.g.labslang/jargon (laboratory),: a(understandable buster (a bomb)to the members Non- a sucker: some social a person &professional who is easily groups deceived only) standard within Vulgar (dirty words)hell, bloody E.g. shut up, damn, chiefly - not generally used in public spoken E.g.Loch -Diabolical: express anger, annoyance, … or locality (Scottish) lakeadisagreement belong to = only definite territory

6. The stylistic aspect of English vocabulary Neutral words (neither formal nor informal) he, I, table, woman, - used inE.g. all styles, all spheres of hand, humanwhite, life etc. E.g. - superb, terrific, bike, exam, kid (words) Colloquial informal, casual, lively, down-to-earth - why(spoken) on earth..., make sure, goodness gracious E.g: accommodation (room), donation (gift), assist (help) Bookish: * General: chiefly in formal speech, especially in writing E.g. a march Bookish Scientific/learned: monosemantic (neutral) Operation act performed by a surgeon & polysemantic (in different sciences): addition, subtraction naught (nothing), ere (before), lone (lonely) Standard E.g. Poetic & archaic words (poetry) , hapless (unhappy) Non-assimilated foreign: - borrowed from different languages. - retain their spelling and pronunciation E.g. birdslang: (girl), sub-standard cop (policeman), (father) General due governer to excessive informality Speech E.g.labslang/jargon (laboratory),: a(understandable buster (a bomb)to the members Non- a sucker: some social a person &professional who is easily groups deceived only) standard within Vulgar (dirty words)hell, bloody E.g. shut up, damn, chiefly - not generally used in public spoken E.g.Loch -Diabolical: express anger, annoyance, … or locality (Scottish) lakeadisagreement belong to = only definite territory

ENGLISH WORD STANDARD Neutral

Bookish

NON-STANDARD Colloquial

Slang General

General Scientific Poetic-archaic

Vulgar

Dialectal

Special

non assimilated

7. Polysemy , homonymy and context 7.1. Context : a) Lexical context : lexical groups going with the polysemantic or homonymous word. E.g. "heavy" heavy X table load weight heavy wind rain X intensity b) Grammatical context : grammatical structure going with the polysemantic or homonymous word. E.g. I feel sad vs I’m feeling the overhead projector. S link feel C vs S Transitive feel Od E.g. to make somebody X do something ≈ to force/ to induce to make a good ≈ X wife to become

When linguistic context cannot help ? He put down his arms. Arm: Polysemantic word Polysemy c) Non - linguistic (situational context): - actual situations in which the word is used - help settle the problem of ambiguity. Part weapon of body He put down his arms.

ambiguity

Polysemy or Homonymy or ? E.g. I gave her a ring ana ornamental phone ? call band yesterday Solution? Modify the context Yesterday I gave her a ring andbut she the made promised lineofwas diamond to engaged wear it forever

7.2. Homonyms : a) Definition : words identical in pronunciation and / or spelling but different in meaning. E. g: sea-see tear-tear son-sun hear-here b) Characteristic features : - Most English homonyms are monosyllabic - Homonymy is a source of ambiguity c) Classification : + Homophones: words identical in pronunciation only E.g weight - wait right - write hour - our feet - feat

+ Homographs : words identical in spelling only E.g. tear t (v) - teart (n) windnd (v) - wind wa w (n) nd bow ba (v) - bowb (n) + Full homonyms : words identical in both pronunciation and spelling something that has happened E.g. case a box, a container d) Source of homonyms : + The break of polysemy : one word has acquired various meanings due to the development of language E.g. "flowers" and "flour": originally from one word "flour" + Phonetic and morphologic coincidence : E.g. I - eye ; bee -be

7.3. Polesemy versus homonymy : a) Semantic criterion : - polysemantic: there is a logical relationship between the meanings of a word E.g. horn of an animal an instrument run

to move with quick steps an act of running

- full homonyms: no logical relationship between the meanings of a word E.g. something that has happened case a question decided in the court of law a box, a container

b) Derivational criterion : only X or Y forms its own derivatives E.g. air - aircraft - airport c) Synonymy - based criterion : synonyms of X & Y have nothing in common E.g. back (n) - a part of body back (adv) - away from the front ball (n) - a round object used in games ball (n) - a gathering of people for dancing d) Combinability criterion : two or more meanings of X have different combining ability or different paradigms E.g. lie - lay - lain long - longer - longest lie - lied - lied to long - longed - have/has longed

8. Synonyms 8.1. Definition : phonetically and morphologically different words of the same part of speech, possessing similar denotation but differing in connotation, combinability, etc. look to appear E.g. to seem, to look, to to begin begin, to commence, to start totodie die, to pass away, to kick the bucket 8.2.) Characteristic features : - synonymic dominant, the most general, neutral word in a synonym group E.g. to help, help to aid, to assist

8.3) Classification : a) Semantic synonyms : differing in shades of meaning E.g. *nice, pretty, good looking, beautiful, attractive - to like, to love b) Stylistic synonyms : differing in stylistic aspects E.g. - to die- to pass away - girlfriend - bird c) Semantico - Stylistic synonyms : differing in both shades of meaning and stylistic aspect E.g. - to experience, to undergo, to sustain, to suffer - house - slack - slum

d) Phraseological synonyms : differing in their collocations E.g. - to say what X is communicated - to speak s.thing without X content - to do s.th as activity/ X work - to make sth as creation/ X construction e) Territorial synonyms : synonyms that belong to different countries E.g. - autumn (E) - fall (A) - autumn (Aus) 8.4) Sources of synonyms a) Borrowings : E.g. to gather (native) - to assemble (French) - to collect to end (native) - to finish (French) - to complete (Latin) b) Change of meaning:

c) The development of word formation : + Derivation and compounding E.g. - to abandon - to give up - trader - tradesman - arrangement - layout + Conversion E.g. - conversation - talk/chat - laughter - laugh + Shortening : E.g. - examination - exam - laboratory - lab

9. Antonyms 9.1. Definition : words of opposite meaning and of the same part of speech E.g. joy - sorrow increase - decrease 9.2. Characteristic features: + Usually adjectives denoting qualities, verbs denoting actions or state and abstract nouns have antonyms E.g. big - small buy - sell happiness - misery - Antonyms play an important role in the stock of English set expressions E.g. black and white ; far and near - A polysemantic word can have different antonyms E.g. on purpose ≠ by chance/ by accident

9.3) Classification : a) Root - word antonyms/ antonyms proper or absolute antonyms: completely different in sound - forms of different roots. E.g. love - hate ugly - good looking single - married b) Derivational antonyms : formed by derivation (words of the same root) E.g. logical - illogical careful - careless appear - disappear prewar - postwar

10. Semantic change 10.1. Semantic Narrowing of meaning (specialization) From a wide range of meaning, a word now has a narrow one (the meaning of a word to be less general, more specific) accident: any event, especially an unexpected one an unintended injurious or disastrous event (original meaning obsolete) deer: any four-legged beast members of the family Cervidae (original meaning obsolete; replaced by the French word animal) ledger: any book that lay permanently in the same place > an accounts book (original meaning obsolete) goal: aim or purpose > football goal (still polysemous)

Some specializations are motivated by the avoidance of synonymy, as in the case of deer, pig, cow, sheep specialized after beef, pork, and mutton (from French). E.g : hound: a dog of any breed a dog used in the chase; queen: any wife (of any men) a king's wife 10.2. Broadening of meaning/ Generalisation (semantic widening): Extension the meaning of a word to be more general, less specific you guys: male only male and female manage: to handle a horse to handle anything successfully (original meaning obsolete) A word has been extended its own meaning E.g. camp :temporary quarters of travelers, normads the place where troops are logged in tents

10.3. The so - called "degeneration" of meaning Pejoration (degradation) extending words to new meanings which convey negative attitudes. The meaning of a certain word becomes worse, less nice, lower in status E.g. "boor" : a villager , a peasant a clumsy or ill - bred fellow "knave" : boy swindler, rogue Negative attitudes towards certain groups can be reflected in semantic extensions which are intentionally insulting. E.g. addressing a grown man as boy to oppress (American South); this reflects negative cultural attitudes towards blacks. referring to women as bitches ‘female dog’ referring to homosexuals as queers ‘peculiar’ Negative attitudes towards certain groups can also lead people who oppose those negative attitudes to extend nondiscriminatory words to refer to members of those groups. they (pl) (sg.) (a gender-neutral way of expressing ‘he or she’) gay ‘happy’ ‘homosexual’ (also metonymy)

10.4. The so - called "elevation" of meaning The meaning of a word becomes " better, nicer, higher, in status E.g. minister: a servant, an attendant - head of a ministry. Bad → powerful

10.5. Figures of speech - deviations from or common forms of statement. - picturesque, vivid language appealing to imagination, - making for clearness and easy comprehension - Basic principles of popular figures of speech: similarity and association a) Metaphor : + Definition and characteristic features : - transference of names based on the association of similarity * The similarity of shape E.g. The head of a cabbage The teeth of a saw

* The similarity of position E.g. The foot of a mountain ; The leg of a table * The similarity of function: E.g. The head of the class The key of the mystery * The similarity of movement E.g. to worm * The similarity of colour E.g. orange, rose * The similarity of size E.g. elephantine * The similarity of behaviour or character E.g. a fox, a snake

* Names of the part of human body, names of animals are a great source of metaphor E.g. - The back of a book - She is a fox * Set expressions are based on names of animals as well E.g. crocodile tears * A number of proper names are used as metaphors E.g. - He is a Don Juan - She is a new Madonna * The transference of space relations on mental is sometimes a good source of metaphors : E.g. - to catch (to grasp) an idea. - to throw light upon - to get the hang of

+ Classification : * Living metaphor : unusual metaphorical sense in the creation and usage by an individual E.g. ".......... she lent wings to his imagination ..." (Jack London) * Faded metaphor : has lost its freshness due to long and traditional use E.g. - He is an Othello - Her voice is sweet * Dead metaphor no longer felt as a metaphor due to complete loss of direct meaning + Metaphor versus simile - Metaphor: direct comparison and simile: indirect one.

b) Metonymy + Definition and characteristic features : the transference of name based on association of contiguity (expressing something in terms of one of its attributes or something closely related to it). E.g. - The kettle is boiling - I want to have a word with you + The cases of metonymy * Names of containers are used for the things contained E.g. He drank twenty glasses * Names of parts of the body are used as symbols E.g. She has a good ear of music * Proper names are used as common names E.g. Champagne, burgundy, madeira

* Names of materials are used instead of the things made E.g. China (ware), Holland (linen) Morocco (leather) Concrete things are used instead of abstract things E.g. The White House, The Pentagon, Wall Street * A separate part is used instead of a whole thing and vice versa E.g. I used to live without a roof over my head. INSTITUTION FOR PEOPLE RESPONSIBLE The company laid off 50% of its workers. (company = leaders of the company) Singapore is supposed to call this morning. (Singapore= representative of a company in Singapore) The University will not agree to that. (University = leaders of the university.

CONTROLLER FOR CONTROLLED I was driving along and I hit a tree. (I = my car) Nixon bombed Hanoi. (Nixon = bombs ordered by Nixon) PRODUCER FOR PRODUCT Chomsky is on the top shelf. (Chomsky = book by Chomsky) He owns a Picasso. (Picasso = artwork by Picasso) I’d like to drive a Ford. (Ford = car made by Ford) PART FOR WHOLE The suits upstairs don’t like the idea at all. (suits = business people wearing suits) She’s not just another pretty face. (face = person) We need a hand here. (hand = person who can help)

Other examples of metonymy: He lives across the street. (across the street = at a place across the street) The ham sandwich at table four needs more coffee. (ham sandwich = customer with a ham sandwich) He walked through the door. (door = door frame) The buses are on strike. (buses = bus drivers) She’s in design. (design = the design profession) We need some good minds for this project. (good minds = intelligent people)

PHRASEOLOGY I. Definition & characteristic features 1.The study of set expressions (phraseological units), e.g. in high feather 2. Structural features completely or partially fixed grammatical structure and lexical components: stable. E.g. in high feather → *in tall feather but to kill two birds with one stone → I killed three birds with one stone

3. Semantic & stylistic features set expressions may be: + motivated (meaning can be deduced) + non-motivated (meaning cannot be deduced), e.g. to pull one's leg + Expressions of figures of speech: - metaphor: a dog in the manger - metonymy: a golden boot + Expressions based on alliteration and contrast, e.g. now or never... + Expressions based on synonymy, e.g. by leaps or bounds... + Expressions based on rhyme, e.g. by hook or by crook...

II. Classification: based on Phraseological fusions: completely non-motivated or idiomatic; cannot be literally translated into other languages, e.g. a nice kettle of fish 1.motivation Phraseological unities: partially motivated or partially idiomatic (general meaning can be deduced), e.g. to fish in trouble water Phraseological combinations/ collocation: clearly motivated; component used in direct meaning; retain complete semantic independence though limited in combinative power, e.g. as sweet as honey

like nouns, e.g. a skeleton in the cupboard 2. function like verbs, e.g. to make eyes at... like adjectives, eg. as meek as a lamb like prepositions, e.g. in consequence of like interjections, e.g. son-of-a-bitch !

III. Proverbs, idioms, quotations, clichÐs & sayings 1. Proverb: a short saying expressing popular wisdom, a truth or moral lesson, e.g. Two heads are better than one, no pains no gain - lexical components are constant, stable, e.g. tit for tat - meaning: figurative, ready-made units, e.g. make or mar - often elliptical, e.g. (so) may dishes (so) may diseases 2. Idiom: expression, short saying - meaning cannot be deduced from components - not instructive, moral in nature, e.g. kick the bucket, mum the words

3. Quotation: - expression from literature - gradually become part and parcel of the language, e.g. To err is human, Live now pay later, Life is but a sea of trouble 4. ClichÐs: quotation or saying so frequently used to become hackened and stale, e.g. stand shoulder to shoulder with..., pave the way to a bright new world

IV. Set expressions vs compound words Criteria to distinguish set expressions from compound words: - The divisibility of a set expression into separately structural elements - The structural integrity of a compound - Derivational ability - The spelling of some compounds: solid and hyphenated

ETYMOLOGY I. Basic assumptions on English vocabulary: - Mixed character - 2 main layers of English vocabulary: 1. Native words: Anglo-Saxon origin: 30% 2. Borrowed words: completely or partially assimilated: 70% - sound-form borrowings - semantic borrowings (English origin - foreign related meaning), e.g. red (revolutionary due to influence of French word rouge) - translation loans (material available in English patterns of other languages), e.g. wall newspaper: a literal translation loan from Russian - source vs origin: paper (borrowed from French but originated: Greek)

II. Assimilation of borrowings: The confirmation to the phonetical, graphical, grammatical and lexical rules of the receiving language According to degree of motivation: 2 groups 1. Completely assimilated words: - old borrowings, frequent and stylistically neutral E.g. cheese, wine, street (Latin) husband, fellow, happy (Scandinavian) table, face, finish (French)

2. Partially assimilated words: 2.1. Semantically non-assimilated words: -denote objects, notions peculiar to the original country, e.g. kimono, sheik 2.2. Grammatically non-assimilated words: - keep their original plural forms, e.g. crisis --- crises, index --- indices 2.3. Phonetically partially assimilated words: - stress on the final syllable, e.g. police, cartoon, machine, prestige - alien sounds, e.g. bourgeois, regime, memoir - whole different pattern, e.g. potato, opera, tomato, confetti 2.4. Graphically partially assimilated words E.g. cafÐ, clichÐ, fiancÐ, corps, ballet

III. Barbarisms (unassimilated borrowings) completely non-assimilated borrowed words in both oral and written forms E.g. coup d' Ðtat IV. Etymological doublets Two or more words of the same language derived by different routes from the same basic word, e.g. canal --- channel; hospital --- hotel (Latin - French doublets) V. International words: - have identity or similar sound forms and meaning - used in many languages - the majority in scientific terms, e.g. atomic, antibiotic, phenomenon...

VI. Causes in borrowings 1. Non-linguistic cause: contact between Britain and other countries through business, invasions, conquests... 2. Linguistic causes: The necessity to name new things, ideas, notions... -to replace group of words by a single word, e.g. campus - to enrich the expressive means of English

LEXICOGRAPHY I. Types of English dictionaries 1. General dictionaries: + Explanatory/ uni-lingual dic. focus on form, usage and meaning of words - treating words synchronically, e.g. Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English - treating words diachronically, e.g. Webster New International Dictionary + Bilingual / Translation dic. contain vocabulary items in one language and their equivalents in another language + Learner's dictionary e.g. Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English by A.S. Hornby (etal)

2. Specialized dictionaries: aim at covering a certain specific part of the vocabulary (synonyms, antonyms, terms, phraseology, pronunciation, etymology...) Dictionary of Scientific & Technical Terms NXB KH & KT - Technical dictionary NTC’s -English Idioms Dictionary Phraseological dictionaryRichard A. Spears NTC dictionary Daniel Jones CUP English- Pronouncing Dictionary - Etymological dictionary Electronic Dictionary Online Yahoo.com - Usage dictionary Language Activator Longman - Dictionary of word frequency - Dictionary of collocations Webster’s NewWorld Thesaurus Charlton Laird Prentice Hall Press - Dictionary of synonyms The Oxford Dictionary of Abbreviations Oxford - Dictionary of Abbreviations Dictionary of Proverbs Rosalind Fergusson The Penguin - Dictionary of Proverbs Dictionary of American Slang Robert L. Chapman Perennial Lib. - Dictionary of Slang