Lesson 1 And Lesson 2 Creative Writing

CREATIVE WRITING CREATIVE WRITING or PERSONAL WRITING This writing includes • what you see, feel and think • exploring your own views • expressing sensitive responses • recreating your own experiences It is important that you enjoy writing with imagination and feeling, that you write in a personal and uninhibited way. TIPS TO IMPROVE YOUR CREATIVE WRITING AVOID AND ELIMINATE 1.

in CONTENT (what you write about, your topic, your ideas)

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other people’s experience sentimentality (indulging the emotions excessively, tenderness, romance or sadness aroused in an exaggerated way, e.g. to be sentimental about the past) melodrama (extravagant action and emotion; overdramatic behaviour, taking things more seriously than is needed, e.g. calling the police because your child banged a door) and sensationalism (the use of sensational language, to arouse an intense emotional response) places you have never visited love drugs violent death tramps “ … and then I woke up; it was all a dream” explanation of the obvious moralizing conclusions (interpreting in a moral sense; trying to improve your teacher's/reader's morals) unsubstantiated generalizations abstractions - honesty, poverty

2.

in STYLE

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clichés and hackneyed expressions cliché - traditional form of thinking, feeling, acting, and expression • language (style, phrase and idiom) } can all be clichéd • subject matter } over-used • ideas } over-worked • attitudes }

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o o o o o o o o

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do not oversimplify one/you rhetorical questions used as an introduction slang fragments tense switches too many adjectives (ellipsis) … paragraphs too short or too long •

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THE "WHAT and “HOW” OF WRITING WHAT refers to the content Look inside yourself; discover your emotions and thoughts. HOW refers to your skills, the writer's tools, how the effect is achieved. Remember: Form and content are inextricably linked; what you write is affected by how you write it. TYPES OF COMPOSITIONS; FORM AND GENRE 1. tion.

Some kinds of writing requires you to debate with yourself the various sides of a ques-

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ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING

This requires an intelligent and logical debate on attitudes to a certain issue. This kind of writing requires logic, structure, and balanced emotion. You must know the subject well; consider both sides of the issue; argue sincerely; retain the interest of your reader; and arrive at some conclusion. 1.2

PERSUASIVE WRITING

This is writing with a message. You are trying to persuade someone to agree with your point of view. Example : Young people are always wrong 1.3

EXPOSITORY or EXPLANATORY WRITING

This kind of writing presents a point of view, or explains how to do or make something. 1.4

DISCURSIVE WRITING

This is writing which involves discussion based on argument and reason. 2

2. Writing which requires an ability to make attractive reading out of personal reminiscences, or of serious or semi-serious reflections (thoughts) about a topic. 2.1

NARRATIVE WRITING

This kind of writing also incorporates the short story. This kind of writing includes the following: • use of significant detail • believable characters • imaginative but controlled • climax or point of the story determines all the other details • no pointless succession of events 2.2

IMAGINATIVE WRITING

This kind of writing includes science fiction and fantasy writing. 2.3

REFLECTIVE WRITING

This kind of writing is characterized by quiet thought and contemplation. You may take your personal experiences, reminiscences, attitudes and feelings, and reflect in a serious, semi-serious or humorous fashion on a given topic. E.g. Water; Leisure; Christmas presents You should make the reader share your feelings, attitudes and responses. He/she must meet a real person in your writing. 2.4

DESCRIPTIVE WRITING

This includes descriptions of familiar scenes and characters. In this writing, avoid stock descriptions. If you have read it before, so has your teacher! Describe and react; include clear, colourful, often emotional. descriptions. Don't be excessive. This kind of writing includes a character sketch • small scenes • brief episodes •

The “HOW” of writing

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1.

STRONG VERBS

Strong verbs energize your writing - Steinbeck Here are three topics that you might like to use to practise this technique: o Hanging out washing on a windy day o Opening an umbrella on a windy day o A juggler 2.

DETAILS

Use plenty of DETAILS; details make the difference. 3.

PRECISION

“Precision” means the use of the right word in the right context. Be absolutely specific in the creation of setting. For example, do not talk about “trees” or “flowers”. Be specific. Use the names of trees and flowers. o o o o

Be specific. Provide sharply observed phenomena. Use vivid language. Think of the appearance dimension materials texture colour shape

REMEMBER: EVERY WORD COUNTS THE JOUBERT PARK HOTHOUSE As I entered the luke-warm house of glass, I stopped at a sudden appearance of brightly coloured flowers; there were yellow flowers, orange flowers, blue and red. It looked like a jungle scene from the movies. Vines of green moss hung from the ceiling; orchids sat blooming while "peace-in-the-home" ran across the rocks giving them a sense of a cushion. I walked slowly into the next chamber and my mouth gaped open to find old man's beard hanging everywhere; many varieties of orchid; the stone-age tree fern still growing with enthusiasm and other varieties of ferns shedding their spores into the air. The air was warm and damp as I entered a far bigger room with a pond in the middle; Banana trees grew, spreading their large fan-like leaves. More ferns grew there. Tall creepers climbed endlessly to reach the ceiling, and then grew laterally to show off their splendour. Tiny fish swam in the pond, enjoying the environment I envied. There were large palm trees and other smaller flowers. The third chamber made my nose tickle as the fragrance of many flowers floated unendingly into the air. The "peace-in-the-home" was like wallpaper as it once again grew along the stony path. To me this place was a paradise. I can see it in my dreams. I will build my own paradise like it and to finish it off I will add birds, parrots and cockatoos, and animals, monkeys and flying squirrels. Fritz Madel Grade 11 4

Suggested topic for you to use to practise: Autumn in the City Example of student writing: A corner of the garden, between the pond and the red-brick wall, is lush, though not colourful. It has the appearance of being carefully tended to create disarray. Smaller plants scramble over the juicy roots of established shrubs, but are defeated in this race by the dull brown beetle. The newly fallen rain trickles off waxed leaves, finally plopping onto the dark. rich soil below. The dripping is constant and soothing until the goldfish in the pond jerks after the shadow of a leaf, and the silence is disturbed. - Alison Ibach Grade 12

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FIGURES OF SPEECH and IMAGERY

IMAGERY Imagery refers to word pictures created by figurative or poetic language. We talk of one image, many images, or imagery (the collection of images). Imagery involves the use of: 1.

literal and figurative descriptions using one or more of the senses, sight (visual images), smell, (olfactory images), touch (tactile images), hearing (auditory images), taste (gustatory images), and images that create a sense of movement (kinesthetic images).

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figures of speech, especially similes and metaphors

In these ways, imagery adds meaning to an idea being discussed or clarifies feelings that are being expressed. In writing, imagery provides concentrated meaning. Aim at the achievement of vividness and clarity by the use of imagery. Example: ... he noticed the celandines, scalloped splashes of gold, on the side of the ditch. "I like them," he said, "when their petals go flat back with the sunshine. They seem to be pressing themselves at the sun. D.H. Lawrence: Sons and Lovers

Use COMPARISON, in particular SIMILES and METAPHORS. A SIMILE is a direct comparison between two generally unlike things or actions which have a common quality. A simile is usually introduced by the words "like", "as" or "than". Other comparative words that you may find: as ... as; as if ...; so; as ... so. The simile is used for vividness of expression. 5

A METAPHOR is a figure of speech where one thing is described as if it were something else. In his ‘Image pictures’, Ezra Pound (1885-1972) shows us how we can prune away unnecessary words, or useless words, or words that convey nothing new, words that obscure meaning, and ambiguous sentences. Examine this short poem: In a station of the metro The apparition of these faces in the crowd; Petals on a wet, black bough.

Ezra Pound Imagery provides more than what is seen. Examine what is suggested in the mind as a comparison. WORD PICTURES This evening I walked to the lake. The sun was shrinking into the horizon leaving stripes to fever the sky and hang in cloud tatters. The clouds tangled into the trees and were ripped and scratched and then clawed their way into darkness. Wraiths wailed at the lakeside and the willows lay faintinq in the water. It rippled and breathed, and ducks walked out on it against the darkening light. It was an omen-filled night but nothing would happen; the wraiths would still follow themselves and the ducks would sleep-quieten and the willows would be always unrecoverinq, and little would change. There have been other such nights. I walked, step by step, thinking that the memories clogged the air and hung on the trees like so many shadows. They are shadows that darken me and pull me down into their own nebulous dimension. Almost they form a tent and build on each other, stretching over the waters and climbing into the clouds. I thought of the girl I was one year ago. There's a picture of her in my mind that keeps returning. No, nothing would happen tonight. There have been other such nights. I walked home and slept. When I woke my room was dark. It was quiet with my sleeping. As I moved the shape of my cat leapt from my bed to a shelf. She sat licking and chewing the fur of her shoulder for a while. She could only reach this spot by contortion and so she stood out in a knotted silhouette against the glimmer of light from the doorway. I shrank down between my blankets and felt my pillows. They were soft and warm and I turned them to have some coldness to my cheek. - Karen Foxcroft Grade 10

There are other figures of speech which are often used in writing: PERSONIFICATION, ALLITERATION AND THE RHETORICAL QUESTION. Personification is a figure of speech where the writer talks about something that is not alive (plants, animals, or objects) as if it were a person (or sometimes an animal). We say this thing or animal is personified, e.g. The trees whispered. 6

Do NOT over-use personification, or use personification that is clichéd and hackneyed. A Rhetorical Question is a question that is asked to create an effect rather than to get an answer. An answer is not wanted, needed, or expected. Rhetorical questions are often used by • • •

politicians parents teachers

Think of real-life situations where you have heard rhetorical questions. Do NOT over-use rhetorical questions in your writing. Do not start an essay with a very obvious rhetorical question that simply makes the writer look foolish. Alliteration refers to the repetition of consonants or consonant sounds, usually at the beginning of two or more successive words or at the beginning of each stressed syllable in a line of poetry. 5.

The five SENSES

These are SIGHT HEARING TASTE TOUCH SMELL SIGHT Example:

A Full Moon The chubby Chinese face Grins at his stomach gleefully Sharon Wood

HEARING THE PEOPLE AROUND ME From the time I open my eyes in the morning, to the time I cuddle up in my bed, I am surrounded by noisy, boisterous people. Although company is better than isolation, it is totally exhausting! Every morning I innocently wake up to the sound of my two-year-old sister gurgling and grunting for attention; then my parents come into my room, and start to lecture me about how I always make a noise, and wake up my sister ... As soon as I miraculously arrive at school, I collide with a heatwave of gossip: "Grant is two-timing Wendy!"; "Adelino has bunked three consecutive weeks of English!"; "Aida has acquired a pimple on her left cheek!" and "Helen has developed a sexier way of swaying when she walks!" 7

In the girls' cloakroom, conversation revolves around beauty as they suffocate their faces with make-up. After going through the necessary fixing of their faces, the girls allow conversation to wander to the male sex where it stays for the rest of the day. In the boys' cloakroom, who owns the latest and fastest BMW 5 series is discussed, as well as which grinning terror discovered the most convincing way of bunking, or whose impertinence to the teachers was the most amusing and daring. - Carina da Cruz Grade 10

TASTE An ice cold glass standing a bitter dry wine; all clear and a thin frost, dripping, slowly down the stem and fingerprints in wetness clear against the light. Karen Foxcroft

TOUCH A cat at my back Behind me there's a curl of warmness with cold ears.

Karen Foxcroft SMELL DYLAN THOMAS’S DESCRIPTION OF SEASIDE SMELLS I can remember the smell of sea and seaweed, wet flesh, wet hair, wet bathing dresses, the warm smell as of a rabbity field after rain, the smell of pop and splashed sunshades, and toffee, the stable-and-straw smell of hot, tossed, tumbled, dug, and trodden sand, the swilland-gas-Iamp smell of Saturday night, though the sun shone strong, from the bellying beertents, the smell of vinegar on shelled cockles, winkle smell, shrimp smell, the dripping-oily back-street winter-smell of chips in newspapers, the smell of ships from the sun-dazed docks round the corner of the sand hills, the smell of the known and paddled-in sea... - Dylan Thomas's

Note that, as he composes this amusing list of smells, he succeeds in bringing home to us the sights and sounds as well. We can imagine them because the description of the smells draws them into our minds. DISCUSS the importance of the use of DETAIL in such a description. THE USE OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS IN WRITING Adjectives add life, energy and vitality to your writing. However, use a FEW well-chosen adjectives and adverbs. Use them SPARINGLY. 8

TOWARDS COLLEGE Dawn cracked open like a breaking shell. I dazedly opened the drapes and the sun came crashing through my window and my eyelids burst open. Dust particles danced in the golden rays seeping through the keyhole. I was tired, but the staggering train denied my forty minute sleep into town. The smoke cloud above the vast buildings, hovering, thrived upon human ignorance. I sighed. Great swarms of people buzzed out of the grey station. Newspaper sellers stood idly along the roadside shouting today's or yesterday' news - I don’t know; it's all the same anyway. A constant worry nibbled at my brain, but I tasted nothing. The streets were an ashen grey covered with blots of Coke cans, flaming red, and food wrappings and food. Beggars begged but no one saw their open tins rattling like a thousand snakes. "Rand a pack", shouted out a half-starving seller. Fumes groped at my throat as I crossed at a traffic light - the little red man accusingly pointed a finger at me. Pamphlets bloomed around me in their unnatural dye. The grey building - as most of them are - opened its jaw and casually invited me inside. - Michael Fernandes Grade 12

THE USE OF PERSONAL EXPERIENCE Write from your own experience; remember that nothing can replace personal understanding and experience. Choose a familiar subject and examine your own immediate environment. Then write with sincerity and honesty. Stand back from a subjective emotion so that the writing remains well controlled. Even if the experience is imaginary, you must put yourself centre stage, and think how you would react. Acquired knowledge must always have what Henry James called a sense of “felt life”. NOTE: reactions to events are more important than the events themselves THE COCOON I have always had a warm, close family life. My mother and father always had time for me. My dad helped me with sport and encouraged me to do well. My mother assisted me with schoolwork and helped me with schoolwork and helped me when I struggled in certain subject. She took me shopping and we had a great time enjoying each other's company. I was like a silkworm and my life was a cocoon. Then my mother was killed and the cocoon broke. I was on my own. My father continued to love me, yes, but he was very busy. I was almost lost. I didn't. know where to turn. My whole life fell apart in front of me and all I could do was stand and watch. My father tries so spin the cocoon again, out of love, and I am doing my best to help him. - Kim Cromhout Grade 9 9

TO SUM UP Use • • • • • • •

strong verbs the senses write from personal experience adjectives and adverbs sparingly imagery startling descriptions details

AIM CONSCIOUSLY AT ORIGINALITY IN STYLE AND STRUCTURE FORMING A CHECKLIST Make a note of the mistakes you make often. Write a list of the mistakes and the corrections. This list could include • • •

spelling punctuation grammatical mistakes

BEFORE you hand in a piece of writing, look over your checklist and proof-read your work to see how many mistakes you can find and correct. PLANNING or ORGANIZING Writing is a craft - it must be practised and absorbed. You need to plan so that your ideas can be ordered and structured effectively. TIPS FOR PLANNING gripping, exciting introduction conclusive ending unity of sentence content unity of paragraph content links between paragraphs variety of sentence beginnings variety of sentence length variety of sentence construction careful planning 10

EXERCISES 1.

Does the following provide a gripping, exciting introduction? The Desert The desert is a very lonely place. There are only large outcrops of rock and huge sand dunes to make up the country. Living in these rocks, and about the only animal in a desert is the rattlesnake.

Does the following provide a gripping, exciting introduction? FEAR The sun filtered through the tree and the water droplets which had formed on the elephant grass sparkled in the clear rays of sun that had found a passage through the trees. The rivers at the end of winter were dry and the kudu had moved inland away from the river. The leaves on the trees provided the animals with enough water and protein to live until the spring rains.

2.

Discuss how this paragraph provides a conclusive ending: Every human has a fear of one thing or another. Do not believe anyone who claims to be fearless; they are most probably afraid of fear itself. Even Asterix and Obelix, the indomitable Gauls in the comic series, are afraid: they’re afraid of the sky’ falling on their heads.

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Unity of sentence content: a good sentence has unity - it expresses one idea.

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Unity of paragraph content:

A paragraph should have only one idea also.

A change of idea, or even a change of emphasis requires a new paragraph. So you need to organize your thoughts BEFORE writing so your paragraphs flow properly. BUILDING A PARAGRAPH 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Brainstorm Choose a topic sentence. Position it. Links between sentences. Unity of paragraph. Length of paragraph Link to the next paragraph.

Note that Paragraphs are like links in a chain • Paragraphs must follow each other in a regular, logical sequence • The length and construction of a paragraph will vary according to the writer's purpose • Short paragraphs provide lightness of touch and are good for quick movement •

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• • •

Long paragraphs provide weight and dignity. An important topic can be given longer treatment. Use balance and proportion for your paragraphs according to your purpose VARIETY OF SENTENCE BEGINNINGS There are a number of patterns you might like to try: • • • • • • •

subject verb Begin with a word Begin with a phrase

- adjectival - adverbial Begin with a clause - adjectival - adverbial Begin with a prepositional phrase Begin with an infinitive Begin with a participle

EXERCISES Try these exercises: Complete each of the following sentences: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Yesterday, ... Slowly, ... Fatter than Garfield, ... With great concern, ... Whoever left the fridge door open, ... While I was napping, ... Over the roof, ... To leave your cat ... Hanging by his teeth, ... Crouched near the door, ... VARIETY OF SENTENCE LENGTH

Vary of sentence length is important. Avoid the tedium of too many ponderous long sentences or the choppy effect of too many short ones. Sentence variety: use length and inversion to achieve flow Use of the short sentence 1. often provides a good introduction to a piece of writing 2. used in conclusion, it can clinch an argument or give point to a reflection 3. A series of short sentences can increase tension and excitement 12

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Short sentences can achieve hustle, bustle.

Use of the long sentence 1. Long sentences are necessarily more reflective and should be used to develop narrative or cogent argument 2. Long sentences achieve peace and tranquillity 3. A symbol may be introduced, e.g. to typify loneliness, peace, quiet. Think about how to use a symbol such as a solitary bird. VARIETY OF SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION Avoid repetitive sentence patterning. Examples: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

The youth pedalled to Woolworths on his bicycle, his mind fixed on nothing. The balloon man whistled when he saw the children playing in the puddles. Although it is past midnight, my daughter is still studying. The bells chimed slowly but the old man turned away. The fridge clattered in a way which I was used to but which still annoyed me. If you walk into the road, it will not be my fault if a car hits you. Whenever the motorbikes roar past and shatter my sleep, I curse.

TRY THESE EXERCISES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

The teacher ..... into the classroom. On Fridays, ..............., which ... When ........... , the child screams. ................ and ............ Our uncle .............. which ......... when ................ Although ................., ...................... because ........

THE PROCESS of writing Follow this process: • • • • • •

Choose a topic Focus on the topic Brainstorm Revise Write Edit

Choose a topic about which you • can enjoy writing • know something • can write something original 13

Think carefully about the topic and the brainstorm, i.e., putting all the ideas down onto paper. Revise • •

the quality of ideas the number of ideas

Write, making sure that you have the right length. Edit: make • •

improvements corrections

FUNCTION AND REGISTER Always think carefully about your function - why are you writing? Try to do more than just write because the teacher said so. Think about having your work published in your school magazine or your class magazine, or pinned on the notice board. Try to get to the point where you write because you enjoy writing. Carefully consider your register - what language are you going to use? This choice depends on your audience - whom you are writing to. The purpose, audience and context of a piece of writing must be kept in mind. The audience determines what style, tone, and language you use. TONE refers to the attitude of the speaker insofar as this is expressed in words. TONE refers to the WAY something might be said; it refers to the tone of voice in which something is said. Before you write • • •

have a discussion exchange opinions do some fact-finding research

Then: • • • • • • • •

jot down your ideas relate ideas formulate ideas collect ideas develop the topic make discoveries while drafting arrange the ideas order the ideas

The PROCESS of writing 14

Here is a mnemonic to help you remember the main points to keep in mind when you are planning and writing: P - precision R - revision O - own experience C - comparisons E - evaluation S - senses S - strong verbs Remember: perhaps the most difficult thing is getting started - don't wait, doodle, let you mind wander. Instead, think, focus, let your thoughts turn around the topic; put pen to paper; stopping, reviewing, sharing. Make drafts; revise your work; encourage evaluation, comment, re-reading, re-ordering, re-drafting. Focus on the coherence of your writing. Don’t forget a gripping, lively opening sentence. Do not worry about making mistakes; errors are part of learning to write effectively. Read your work to someone or ask someone to read your writing. The purpose and advantages of proper drafting, editing and polishing of written work is to help you grow as a writer. EXERCISE PLAN an essay on one of the above topics. Choose a topic where you have something to say, where you are interested and enthusiastic. Do not lose spontaneity. Experiment to keep your writing lively: ALWAYS find out how long the composition is meant to be BEFORE you begin to plan! PARAGRAPHS Paragraphs are for the benefit of the reader. Use different sentence and paragraph structures for different purposes. THE TOPIC SENTENCE or key sentence In the topic sentence the reader is given the main point of the paragraph. This can be a sentence or part of a sentence. It contains the main idea of what the paragraph is about. All the other sentences are related to this topic sentence. Remember, there must be unity of thought. 15

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The topic sentence can be the first sentence, and the paragraph amplifies, qualifies or supports it. The rest of the paragraph illustrates and expands the topic sentence.

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Less often, the writer will make a number of points, and keep the reader waiting to find out what they all lead up to. In the last sentence, the writer will state the point he has been leading up to.

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Sometimes the topic sentence is in the middle, with some preparation at the beginning, and some rounding off afterwards.

EXAMPLES *

The topic sentence comes first: I was born in a small house in a township on the eastern side of Johannesburg. The house had only two rooms: the living room, which included the kitchen, and the bedroom. There was little space for the five children, and an over-worked mother who kept us all together.

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The topic sentence comes last: Near the fire sat a middle-aged man with a smooth face, and a large head. Next to him was a thin woman who rested her aching feet on a battered tin. To her right, a young man sat staring into the flames, a frown on his face. These were my only living relatives.

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The topic sentence comes in the middle: I expect to pass through this world but once. Any good therefor that I can do, or any kindness that I can show to any fellow-creature, let me do it now. Let me not defer or neglect it, for I shall not pass this way again. R.L. Stevenson

Here the middle sentence states that the writer wants to do now all the good and kindness he can. He prepares for this statement by giving a reason in the opening sentence. He rounds it off with another reason in the concluding sentence. WAYS TO DEVELOP THE TOPIC SENTENCE We can develop the topic through - example or illustration - definition - comparison or contrast 16

- details - cause and effect - repetition - supporting facts - explanations EXERCISES A.

TOPIC SENTENCES

Read the following paragraph.

Underline the topic sentence.

The Molefe yard, where Martha lived, was also home to more than twenty other people. It served a row of five rooms, each about fourteen feet by twelve feet in size. When it rained, the yard was as muddy as a cattle kraal, and the smell of beer, thrown out by the police on their raids, combining with the stench of the lavatories, was nauseating. The Marabi Dance Modikwe Dikobe Here is a paragraph without a topic sentence.

Supply one.

Roberta was the eldest. Of course, Mothers never have favourites, but if their Mother had had a favourite, it might have been Roberta. Next came Peter, who wished to be an Engineer when he grew up; and the youngest was Phyllis, who meant extremely well. The Railway Children E. Nesbit B.

LINKING SENTENCES

Remember that each sentence must have one complete thought. Sentences can be linked through conjunctions. Examples of conjunctions: when which who if

although

because since what

when until although that

BUT In a paragraph sentences must be linked to each other. How can we do this? The correct use of logical connectors is very important in your writing. Connectors and referents achieve coherence (e.g. relative pronouns and words such as "however", "furthermore", "thus", etc) For practice, let us look at a paragraph together, and underline the link words. This was the first train the children saw on that railway which was in time to become so very dear to them. They did not guess then how they would grow to love the railway, and how soon 17

it would become the centre of their new life, nor what wonders and changes it would bring to them. They only shivered and sneezed and hoped the walk to the new house would not be long. Peter's nose was colder than he ever remembered it to have been before. Roberta's hat was crooked, and the elastic seemed tighter than usual. Phyllis's shoe-laces had come undone. The Railway Children E. Nesbit Use these link words to join the following sentences:

in so doing

The farmer's wife gave a great yawn. She looked up at the beams of the cellar over her head. Use this link word to join the following sentences: however She saw an old chopper stuck in one of the beams. It was a broken old rusty chopper. Fill in the spaces using the link words given below to create a fluent paragraph: of the two meanwhile

at the same time

_____________, through the agency of Whymper, Napoleon was engaged in complicated negotiations with Frederick and Pilkington. The pile of timber was still unsold. ____________ _______________, Frederick was the more anxious to get hold of it, but he would not offer a reasonable price. _______________________ there were renewed rumours that Frederick and his men were plotting to attack Animal Farm and to destroy the windmill, the building of which had aroused furious jealousy in him. Animal Farm George Orwell Now do the same yourself, i.e., find the link words: Underline the words that link these sentences. Teachers who have marked examinations know that they have to make quick decisions about more than one possible answer to a question. This also happens when teachers mark final matric examinations. In this village, the truly great man is no longer a warrior. Rather he is the one whose skills provide security for his family. Underline the link words in the following paragraph. What makes a good music video? What techniques should the director employ? What visuals are the most dynamic and exciting today? In an age of electronic media, these are questions of crucial importance to the ambitious rock star. Several videos have foundered while others have achieved billion dollar sales. How to avoid the problems of the former and capitalize on the success of the latter is what occupies the current rock star's thoughts.

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Here is a paragraph of short jerky sentences. Rewrite the paragraph so that the sentences flow well. Supply the conjunctions, and the link words. The walk was dark and muddy. The children stumbled a little on the rough road. Once Phyllis absently fell into a puddle. They picked her up. She was damp and unhappy. There were no gas-lamps on the road. The road was uphill. The cart went at a slow pace. They followed the gritty crunch of its wheels. Their eyes got used to the darkness. They could see the mound of boxes swaying dimly in front of them. adapted from The Railway Children by E. Nesbit Suggestion: The walk was dark and muddy. The children, as a result, stumbled a little on the rough road. Once Phyllis absently fell into a puddle. When they picked her up, she was damp and unhappy. Then, there were no gas-lamps on the road and it was uphill. The cart went at a slow pace. They followed the gritty crunch of its wheels. When their eyes got used to the darkness, they could see the mound of boxes swaying dimly in front of them.

LINKS BETWEEN PARAGRAPHS Example: In a very little while the animals had destroyed everything that reminded them of Mr Jones. Napoleon had led them back to the store-shed and served out a double ration of corn to everybody, with two biscuits for each dog. Then they sang "Beasts of England" from end to end seven times running, and after that they settled down for the night and slept as they had never slept before. But they woke at dawn as usual, and suddenly remembering the glorious thing that had happened, they all raced out to the pasture together. .... Animal Farm George Orwell Example to show the links between paragraphs: KEEPING A LOW PROFILE Going into the world is a hazard in that we are vulnerable to criticism and rejection. We seek yet seldom find, a world where harmonious interaction is manifested in all spheres of life – be it academic, social and emotional. This is why we recoil and become reclusive when the first stab of pain strikes. At such time, keeping a low profile and letting a wave of solitude engulf us is too great a temptation for us to resist. It does not even have to be physical seclusion …

C.

CONCLUDING SENTENCES 19

Underline the concluding sentence in the following paragraph. Terrified, the animals waited. It was impossible now to venture out of the shelter of the buildings. After a few minutes the men were seen to be running in all directions. Then there was a deafening roar. The pigeons swirled into the air, and all the animals, except Napoleon, flung themselves flat on their bellies and hid their faces. When they got up again, a huge cloud of black smoke was hanging where the windmill had been. Slowly the breeze drifted it away. The windmill had ceased to exist! Animal Farm George Orwell Supply a concluding sentence for the following paragraph. As I am writing this, I am crossing the Indian Ocean aboard a 9,5 m yacht. What am I doing here? Sometimes there can be a CLINCHER SENTENCE.

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In it, the main idea is repeated or rephrased, to emphasize or sum up the main idea. It should be used sparingly for maximum effect. "Now, comrades, what is the nature of this life of ours? Let us face it: our lives are miserable, laborious and short. We are born, we are given just so much food as will keep the breath in our bodies, and those of us who are capable of it are forced to work to the last atom of our strength; and the very instant that our usefulness has come to an end we are slaughtered with hideous cruelty. No animal in England knows the meaning of happiness or leisure after he is a year old. No animal in England is free. The life of an animal is misery and slavery: that is the plain truth." Animal Farm by George Orwell D.

DETAILS

Eliminate unnecessary details from the following paragraph. After two years, I was offered a position with a leading magazine as their promotions executive. The magazine was read by over one million people. By now I had married a man ten years older than me, who believed women should not work after marriage. Many men still believe this, even today. There was the inevitable clash of wills, as I had decided that I wanted to be a career woman. There are more and more career women as women become independent, and as money does not stretch as far as it used to. We split up, and I decided to travel. Hong Kong is an amazing city. E.

DEVELOPING THE PARAGRAPH by

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EXAMPLES and ILLUSTRATIONS To succeed at work today you must know what your job is. If, for example, you discover your job description is "Executive Manager", you can sit around doing crossword puzzles until retirement. adapted from Dave Barry Cosmopolitan 1987

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DEFINITIONS What is Osteoporosis? It is Greek for porous bones. Osteoporosis is the medical name for the reduction of bone tissue to a level at which spontaneous fractures occur.

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COMPARISONS and CONTRASTS It might be useful to compare the modern meeting to a funeral, in the sense that you have a gathering of people who are wearing uncomfortable clothing and would rather be somewhere else. The major differences: (1) usually only one or two people get to talk at a funeral; and (2) most funerals have a definite purpose (to say nice things about a dead person) and reach a definite conclusion (the person is put into the ground). Meetings, however, generally drone on until the legs of the highest-ranking person fall asleep. 21

Dave Barry *

Cosmopolitan 1987

DETAILS You will certainly not be able to complain that life is dull or uneventful this month. You will find yourself attending parties, and a champagne breakfast. There is also disco dancing till dawn. The series of planets moving through the most sensitive area of your horoscope predict outdoor games, and healthy exercise. Keep your suitcase packed for last-minute trips.

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SUPPORTING FACTS Anita Brookner is the great specialist of isolated, lovelorn women, excluded from the scrimmage of family life yet somehow unable to enjoy their freedom. Her new novel, A Friend from England, is narrated by Rachel, a single woman who is absorbed into the life of a couple. We learn little about Rachel herself since the point of the book is her fascinated observation of the Livingstones. The life of this genteel and deeply devoted pair centres on each other, and on their comfortable home. Victoria Glendinning from Cosmopolitan 1987 UNUSUAL BATTLE

The hot incandescent blob glides across the heavens and, as it nears its end. it creates the most remarkable colours. Streaks of orange, yellow, red, purple, and pink intermingle to form a kaleidoscope of colours dominated by a fiery orange. The sun is dragged behind some mountains which seem to be welded to the sky. In desperation, the sun gives off its final rays which filter through the web of palm and oak trees onto the darkening land. Darkness slowly eats away at the light as it hungrily moves along. Once the last beams have melted away, a new source of light appears. It is a shimmering crescent in the darkening sky. The beautiful moon has won. But not for long. - Sanjay Naran - Grade 10

In the early dawn, I hear the shuffling of legs as people walk by, leaving for work. Not very far from home there is a railway station. where iron wheels grate on iron rails as the train grinds along. The traffic leaving the location heading for the city can be amazing. The mini-buses honk their hooters at pedestrians passing by. They screech their tyres as they stop to pick up a passenger and screech their tyres once more as they accelerate to catch up with the next passenger. The streets turn smoky as the rubber burns on the tarmac and, watching from afar, I would notice that the vehicles make a snake-like motion as they zoom their way to the city. However, the blurring sound made by this convoy takes some time getting used to. - Glen Mthimkulu -Grade 12 WHITE NIGHTS It is winter time. One of the most exciting seasons of the year. Christmas is coming. To stay at this time in. Bavaria is the best decision one could make. Our house is on top of a little hill and overlooks the valley. The atmosphere is so pleasant that one can hardly put it into words. I am sitting in my favourite big French window. The family is relaxed and everybody is resting. The house is full of the smell of Christmas cookies. The cinnamon and fresh apple smell floats through the rooms. I've got a hot cup of tea in my hand and am looking through the window. There is a full moon. Everything is so bright, and I can see the whole valley very clearly. The" enormous moon, surrounded by his companion stars, dominates the sky, as the mountain is the dictator of the valley. The immense stone power observes the valley. He is also surrounded by his companions: the houses. The whole valley is protected by nature. Everything seems to be so peaceful. The snowflakes are snowing down. Millions are coming down with a lightness like feathers. The rhythm

in their speed is calm and monotonous. Nothing changes their duty to fall down on earth. The snowflakes give a dappled illusion like in an Impressionist painting. When they lie down on the earth they look like little mirrors which reflect the light of the moon, glittering like diamonds. The earth looks so rich. All the uglinesses which are caused by human beings are hidden away because of the snow. Even the disgusting factory which is new in this valley looks like a creamy cake with a candle - the chimney - on top of it. In the valley everything is peaceful. I can see the lights in the windows and the smoke coming out of chimneys. Surely all the people are also making their Christmas preparations? I hope because it is Christmas time that people are more friendly to each other, and that the atmosphere inside the houses is no longer harmful. The footsteps in the snow are reflected peculiarly. The shadows are much darker and it looks as if an army troop has walked over the garden. You can't see it when it is daylight. The street which comes up the hill looks like a black enormous snake creeping up to the houses. The very old oak tree cuts the picture of the valley into half. On the one side everything is so clear and on the other side the naked branches split the houses and the mountain's foot. The oak tree looks like a forgotten broom somebody stuck into the snow. It is a pity that I cannot put this picture onto the paper. It is too beautiful and too impressive to describe. - Veronica von Pfetten-Arnbach -

The Roman philosopher, Epictetus, said: If you want to be a good writer, write.

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