Later Waste

Stephen Hawking NASA StarChild image of Stephen Hawking, 1999 Born

8 January 1942 (age 67) Oxford, England

Residence

England

Nationality

British

Fields

Applied mathematician Theoretical physicist University of Cambridge

Institutions

Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics

Alma mater Doctoral advisor Other academic advisors

University of Oxford University of Cambridge Dennis Sciama Robert Berman Bruce Allen Fay Dowker Malcolm Perry Bernard Carr

Doctoral students

Gary Gibbons Harvey Reall Don Page Tim Prestidge Raymond Laflamme Julian Luttrell Black holes

Known for

Theoretical cosmology Quantum gravity

Influences Notable awards

Dikran Tahta Prince of Asturias Award (1989) Copley Medal (2006) Signature

Stephen William Hawking, CH, CBE, FRS, FRSA (born 8 January 1942) is a British theoretical physicist. Hawking is the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge (but intends to retire from this post in 2009),[1] a Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge and the distinguished research chair at Waterloo's Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics.[2] He is known for his contributions to the fields of cosmology and quantum gravity, especially in the context of black holes. He has also achieved success with works of popular science in which he discusses his own theories

and cosmology in general; these include the runaway best seller A Brief History of Time, which stayed on the British Sunday Times bestsellers list for a record-breaking 237 weeks.[3] Hawking has a neuro muscular dystrophy that is related to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a condition that has progressed over the years and has left him almost completely paralysed. Hawking's key scientific works to date have included providing, with Roger Penrose, theorems regarding singularities in the framework of general relativity, and the theoretical prediction that black holes should emit radiation, which is today known as Hawking radiation (or sometimes as Bekenstein-Hawking radiation).[4] He is a worldrenowned theoretical physicist whose scientific career spans over 40 years. His books and public appearances have made him an academic celebrity. He is an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts,[5] and a lifetime member of the Pontifical Academy of Science. [6]

Contents [hide] •

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1 Biography o

1.1 Research fields

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1.2 Losing an old bet

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1.3 The Final Frontier

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1.4 Illness

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1.5 Media appearances

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1.6 Religious views

2 Recognition o

2.1 Acclaim

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2.2 Distinctions

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2.3 Awards and honours

3 Selected publications o

3.1 Technical

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3.2 Popular

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3.3 Children's fiction

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3.4 Films and series

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4 See also

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5 References

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6 Further reading

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7 External links

[edit] Biography Stephen Hawking was born to Dr. Frank Hawking, a research biologist, and Isobel Hawking, a political activist.[citation needed] He had two younger sisters, Philippa and Mary and an adopted brother, Edward.[7] Though Hawking's parents were living in North London, they moved to Oxford while Isobel was pregnant with Stephen, desiring a safer location for the birth of their first child (London was under attack at the time by the Luftwaffe).[8] According to one of Hawking's publications, a German Wehrmacht V-2 missile struck only a few streets away.[9] After Stephen was born, the family moved back to London, where his father headed the division of parasitology at the National Institute for Medical Research.[7] In 1950, Hawking and his family moved to St Albans in Hertfordshire where he attended St Albans School from 1950 to 1953. (At that time, boys could attend the Girls school until the age of 10.[10]) From the age of 11, he attended St Albans School, where he was a good, but not exceptional, student.[7] When asked later to name a teacher who had inspired him, Hawking named his Mathematics teacher, Dikran Tahta.[11] He maintains his connection with the school, giving his name to one of the four houses and to an extracurricular science lecture series. He has visited to deliver one of the lectures and has also granted a lengthy interview to pupils working on the school magazine, The Albanian. Hawking was always interested in science.[7] He enrolled at University College, Oxford with the intent of studying mathematics, although his father would have preferred he go into medicine. Since mathematics was not offered at University College, Hawking instead chose physics. His interests during this time were in thermodynamics, relativity, and quantum mechanics. His physics tutor, Robert Berman, later said in the New York Times Magazine: It was only necessary for him to know that something could be done, and he could do it without looking to see how other people did it. [...] He didn't have very many books, and he didn't take notes. Of course, his mind was completely different from all of his contemporaries.[7] Hawking was passing, but his unimpressive study habits resulted in a final examination score on the borderline between first and second class honours, making an "oral examination" necessary. Berman said of the oral examination: And of course the examiners then were intelligent enough to realize they were talking to someone far more clever than most of themselves.[7] After receiving his B.A. degree at Oxford University in 1962, he stayed to study

astronomy. He decided to leave when he found that studying sunspots, which was all the observatory was equipped for, did not appeal to him and that he was more interested in theory than in observation.[7] He left Oxford for Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he engaged in the study of theoretical astronomy and cosmology. Almost as soon as he arrived at Cambridge, he started developing symptoms of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (known colloquially in the USA as Lou Gehrig's disease), a type of motor neuron disease which would cost him almost all neuromuscular control. During his first two years at Cambridge, he did not distinguish himself, but, after the disease had stabilized and with the help of his doctoral tutor, Dennis William Sciama, he returned to working on his Ph.D.[7] He revealed that he did not see much point in obtaining a doctorate if he were to die soon. Hawking later said that the real turning point was his 1965 marriage to Jane Wilde, a language student.[7] After gaining his Ph.D., Stephen became first a Research Fellow, and later on a Professorial Fellow at Gonville and Caius College. Hawking was elected as one of the youngest Fellows of the Royal Society in 1974, was created a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1982, and became a Companion of Honour in 1989. Hawking is a member of the Board of Sponsors of The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Hawking's achievements were made despite the increasing paralysis caused by the ALS. By 1974, he was unable to feed himself or get out of bed. His speech became slurred so that he could only be understood by people who knew him well. In 1985, he caught pneumonia and had to have a tracheotomy, which made him unable to speak at all. A Cambridge scientist built a device that enables Hawking to write onto a computer with small movements of his body, and then have a voice synthesizer speak what he has typed. [12]

Jane Hawking (née Wilde), Hawking's first wife, cared for him until 1991 when the couple separated, reportedly due to the pressures of fame and his increasing disability. They had three children: Robert (b. 1967), Lucy (b. 1969), and Timothy (b. 1979). Hawking married his nurse, Elaine Mason (who was previously married to David Mason, the designer of the first version of Hawking's talking computer), in 1995. In October 2006, Hawking filed for divorce from his second wife.[13] In 1999, Jane Hawking published a memoir, Music to Move the Stars, detailing her own long-term relationship with a family friend whom she later married. Hawking's daughter, Lucy, is a novelist. Their oldest son, Robert, emigrated to the United States, married, and has one child, George Edward Hawking. Reportedly, Hawking and his first family were reconciled in 2007.[14]

[edit] Research fields Hawking's principal fields of research are theoretical cosmology and quantum gravity. In the late 1960s, he and his Cambridge friend and colleague, Roger Penrose, applied a new, complex mathematical model they had created from Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity.[15] This led, in 1970, to Hawking proving the first of many singularity

theorems; such theorems provide a set of sufficient conditions for the existence of a singularity in space-time. This work showed that, far from being mathematical curiosities which appear only in special cases, singularities are a fairly generic feature of general relativity.[16] He supplied a mathematical proof, along with Brandon Carter, Werner Israel and D. Robinson, of John Wheeler's "No-Hair Theorem" – namely, that any black hole is fully described by the three properties of mass, angular momentum, and electric charge. Hawking also suggested that, upon analysis of gamma ray emissions, after the Big Bang, primordial mini black holes were formed. With Bardeen and Carter, he proposed the four laws of black hole mechanics, drawing an analogy with thermodynamics. In 1974, he calculated that black holes should thermally create and emit subatomic particles, known today as Hawking radiation, until they exhaust their energy and evaporate.[17] In collaboration with Jim Hartle, Hawking developed a model in which the universe had no boundary in space-time, replacing the initial singularity of the classical Big Bang models with a region akin to the North pole: One cannot travel north of the North Pole, as there is no boundary there. While originally the no-boundary proposal predicted a closed universe, discussions with Neil Turok led to the realisation that the no-boundary proposal is also consistent with a universe which is not closed. Hawking's many other scientific investigations have included the study of quantum cosmology, cosmic inflation, helium production in anisotropic Big Bang universes, large N cosmology, the density matrix of the universe, topology and structure of the universe, baby universes, Yang-Mills instantons and the S matrix, anti de Sitter space, quantum entanglement and entropy, the nature of space and time, including the arrow of time, spacetime foam, string theory, supergravity, Euclidean quantum gravity, the gravitational Hamiltonian, Brans-Dicke and Hoyle-Narlikar theories of gravitation, gravitational radiation, and wormholes. At a George Washington University lecture in honour of NASA's 50th anniversary, Prof. Hawking theorised on the existence of extraterrestrial life, "primitive life is very common and intelligent life is fairly rare."[18]

[edit] Losing an old bet Main article: Thorne-Hawking-Preskill bet Hawking was in the news in July 2004 for presenting a new theory about black holes which goes against his own long-held belief about their behaviour, thus losing a bet he made with Kip Thorne and John Preskill of Caltech. Classically, it can be shown that information crossing the event horizon of a black hole is lost to our universe, and that thus all black holes are identical beyond their mass, electrical charge and angular velocity (the "no hair theorem"). The problem with this theorem is that it implies the black hole will emit the same radiation regardless of what goes into it, and as a consequence that if a pure quantum state is thrown into a black hole, an "ordinary" mixed state will be returned. This runs counter to the rules of quantum mechanics and is known as the black hole information paradox.

Hawking had earlier speculated that the singularity at the centre of a black hole could form a bridge to a "baby universe," a term coined by Canadian Astrophysicist Chad Bryden, into which the lost information could pass; such theories have been very popular in science fiction. But according to Hawking's new idea, presented at the 17th International Conference on General Relativity and Gravitation, on 21 July, 2004 in Dublin, Republic of Ireland, black holes eventually transmit, in a garbled form, information about all matter they swallow: The Euclidean path integral over all topologically trivial metrics can be done by time slicing and so is unitary when analytically continued to the Lorentzian. On the other hand, the path integral over all topologically non-trivial metrics is asymptotically independent of the initial state. Thus the total path integral is unitary and information is not lost in the formation and evaporation of black holes. The way the information gets out seems to be that a true event horizon never forms, just an apparent horizon.[19] Having concluded that information is conserved, Hawking conceded, awarding Preskill a Total Baseball, The Ultimate Baseball Encyclopedia. Thorne, however, remained unconvinced of Hawking's proof and declined to contribute to the award.[20] Another older bet – about the existence of black holes – was described by Hawking as an "insurance policy" of sorts. To quote from his book A Brief History of Time: This was a form of insurance policy for me. I have done a lot of work on black holes, and it would all be wasted if it turned out that black holes do not exist. But in that case, I would have the consolation of winning my bet, which would win me four years of the magazine Private Eye. If black holes do exist, Kip will get one year of Penthouse. When we made the bet in 1975, we were 80% certain that Cygnus was a black hole. By now, I would say that we are about 95% certain, but the bet has yet to be settled. —Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time (1988)[3] According to the updated 10th anniversary's edition of A Brief History of Time, Hawking has conceded the bet, "to the outrage of Kip's liberated wife," due to subsequent observational data in favour of black holes.

[edit] The Final Frontier At the 50th Anniversary of NASA, Hawking gave a keynote speech on the final frontier exhorting and inspiring the space technology community on why we (the human race) explore space. At the celebration of his 65th birthday on 8 January, 2007, Hawking announced his plan to take a zero-gravity flight in 2007 to prepare for a sub-orbital spaceflight in 2009 on Virgin Galactic's space service. Billionaire Richard Branson pledged to pay all expenses for the latter, costing an estimated £100,000.[21] Stephen Hawking's zero-gravity flight in a "Vomit Comet" of Zero Gravity Corporation, during which he experienced weightlessness eight times, took place on 26 April 2007.[22] He became the first quadriplegic to float in zero-gravity. This was the first time in 40 years that he moved freely, without his wheelchair. The fee is normally US$3,750 for 10–15 plunges, but Hawking was not required to pay the fee. A bit of a futurist,[23] Hawking was quoted

before the flight saying: Many people have asked me why I am taking this flight. I am doing it for many reasons. First of all, I believe that life on Earth is at an ever-increasing risk of being wiped out by a disaster such as sudden nuclear war, a genetically engineered virus, or other dangers. I think the human race has no future if it doesn't go into space. I therefore want to encourage public interest in space.[24] In an interview with the British newspaper telegraph, he suggested that space was the Earth's long term hope. [25]

[edit] Illness Hawking on 5 May 2006, during the press conference at the Bibliothèque nationale de France to inaugurate the Laboratory of Astronomy and Particles in Paris and the French release of his work God Created the Integers. Hawking is severely disabled by motor neuron disease, likely a variant of the disease known as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (or ALS). Most neuromuscular specialists believe he has Spinal Muscular Atrophy type IV. Hawking's illness is markedly different from typical ALS in the fact that his form of ALS would make for the most protracted case ever documented. A survival for more than 10 years after diagnosis is uncommon for ALS; the longest documented durations are 32 and 39 years and these cases were termed benign because of the lack of the typical progressive course.[26] When he was young, he enjoyed riding horses and playing with other children. At Oxford, he coxed a rowing team, which, he stated, helped relieve his immense boredom at the university. Symptoms of the disorder first appeared while he was enrolled at Cambridge; he lost his balance and fell down a flight of stairs, hitting his head. Worried that he would lose his genius, he took the Mensa test to verify that his intellectual abilities were intact.[27] The diagnosis of motor neuron disease came when Hawking was 21, shortly before his first marriage, and doctors said he would not survive more than two or three years. Hawking gradually lost the use of his arms, legs, and voice, and is now almost completely paralysed. During a visit to the research centre CERN in Geneva in 1985, Hawking contracted pneumonia, which in his condition was life-threatening as it further restricted his already limited respiratory capacity. He had an emergency tracheotomy, and as a result lost what remained of his ability to speak. He has since used an electronic voice synthesizer to communicate. The DECtalk DTC01 voice synthesizer he uses, which has an American accent, is no longer being produced. Asked why he has still kept it after so many years, Hawking mentioned that he has not heard a voice he likes better and that he identifies with it. Hawking is said to be looking for a replacement since, aside from being obsolete, the synthesizer is both large and fragile by current standards. In Hawking's many media appearances, he appears to speak fluently through his

synthesizer, but in reality, it is a tedious drawn-out process. Hawking's setup uses a predictive text entry system, which requires only the first few characters in order to autocomplete the word, but as he is only able to use his cheek for data entry, constructing complete sentences takes time. His speeches are prepared in advance, but having a live conversation with him provides insight as to the complexity and work involved. During a Technology, Entertainment, & Design Conference talk, it took him seven minutes to answer a question.[28] He describes himself as lucky despite his disease. Its slow progression has allowed him time to make influential discoveries and has not hindered him from having, in his own words, "a very attractive family."[29] When Jane was asked why she decided to marry a man with a three-year life expectancy, she responded, "Those were the days of atomic gloom and doom, so we all had a rather short life expectancy." Wikinews has related news: Scientist Stephen Hawking rushed to hospital in ambulance On 20 April 2009, Cambridge University released a statement saying that Hawking was "very ill" with a chest infection, and was admitted to Addenbrooke's Hospital.[30][31] The following day, it was reported that his new condition is "comfortable" and he should make a full recovery.[32]

[edit] Media appearances Main article: Stephen Hawking in popular culture Hawking has appeared as himself on many television shows. For example, he has played himself on a Red Dwarf anniversary special, played a hologram of himself on the episode "Descent" of Star Trek: The Next Generation, appeared in a skit on Late Night with Conan O'Brien, and appeared on the Discovery Channel special Alien Planet.[33] He has also played himself in several episodes of The Simpsons and Futurama. When he was portrayed on episodes of Family Guy, the voice was actually done by a speech synthesizer on a Macintosh computer, according to DVD Commentary. He has also appeared in an episode of the Dilbert cartoon. His name is mentioned in the song "White & Nerdy" by "Weird Al" Yankovic. His actual synthesiser voice was used on parts of the Pink Floyd song "Keep Talking" from the 1994 album The Division Bell, as well as on Turbonegro's "Intro: The Party Zone" on their 2005 album Party Animals, Wolfsheim's "Kein Zurück (Oliver Pinelli Mix)". As well as being fictionalised as nerdcore hip hop artist MC Hawking, he was impersonated in duet with Richard Cheese on a cover of "The Girl Is Mine". In 2008, Hawking was the subject of and featured in the documentary series Stephen Hawking, Master of the Universe for Channel 4. He was also portrayed in the movie "Superhero Movie" by Robert Joy and in Dark Angel TV Series as Logan's geek colleague. In September 2008, Hawking presided over the unveiling of the 'Chronophage' Corpus Clock (time eating) clock at Corpus Christi College Cambridge.[34] In 2008, Hawking appeared in a commercial for the Discovery Channel. His appearance can be seen at the 53 second mark of this youtube video – Boom De YaDa.

[edit] Religious views Hawking has repeatedly used the word 'God' (in metaphorical meanings)[35] to illustrate

points made in his books and public speeches. Having been described as an atheist by various people, including his former wife Jane,[36][37] Hawking has stated that he is "not religious in the normal sense" and he believes that "the universe is governed by the laws of science. The laws may have been decreed by God, but God does not intervene to break the laws."[38] Dr. "Fritz" Shaefer categorized his beliefs as either "agnostic or deist," stating that, "He is an agnostic or deist or something more along those lines. He's certainly not an atheist and not even very sympathetic to atheism." [39]

[edit] Recognition [edit] Acclaim On 19 December 2007, a unique statue of Professor Stephen Hawking by renowned late artist Ian Walters was unveiled at Centre for Theoretical Cosmology, Cambridge University.[40] In May 2008 the statue of Hawking was unveiled at the African Institute for Mathematical Sciences in Cape Town. The Stephen W. Hawking Science Museum in San Salvador, El Salvador is named in honor of Stephen Hawking, citing his scientific distinction and perseverance in dealing with adversity.[41] Stephen Hawking Building in Cambridge, opened on 17 April 2007. The building belongs to Gonville and Caius College and is used as an undergraduate accommodation and conference facility.[citation needed] There is also a Stephen Hawking building in Winchester, at the Westgate school. [citation needed]

[edit] Distinctions Hawking's belief that the lay person should have access to his work led him to write a series of popular science books in addition to his academic work. The first of these, A Brief History of Time, was published on 1 April 1988 by Hawking, his family and friends, and some leading physicists. It surprisingly became a best-seller and was followed by The Universe in a Nutshell (2001). Both books have remained highly popular all over the world. A collection of essays titled Black Holes and Baby Universes (1993) was also popular. His most recent book, A Briefer History of Time (2005), co-written by Leonard Mlodinow, aims to update his earlier works and make them accessible to an even wider audience. He and his daughter, Lucy Hawking, have recently published a children's book focusing on science that has been described to be "like Harry Potter, but without the magic." This book is called George's Secret Key to the Universe and includes information on Hawking radiation. Hawking is also known for his wit; he is famous for his oft-made statement, "When I hear of Schrödinger's cat, I reach for my pistol." This was a deliberately ironic paraphrase of "Whenever I hear the word culture... I release the safety-catch of my Browning", from the play Schlageter (Act 1, Scene 1) by German playwright and Nazi Poet Laureate Hanns Johst. His wit has both entertained the non-specialist public and helped them to understand complex questions. Asked in October 2005 on the British daytime chat show Richard & Judy, to explain his assertion that the question "What came before the Big Bang?" was meaningless, he compared it to asking "What lies north of the North Pole?" Hawking has generally avoided talking about politics at length, but he has appeared on a

political broadcast for the United Kingdom's Labour Party. He supports the children's charity SOS Children's Villages UK.[42] He takes an agnostic position on matters of religion.[38][43]

[edit] Awards and honours •

1975 Eddington Medal

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1976 Hughes Medal of the Royal Society

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1979 Albert Einstein Medal

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1982 Order of the British Empire (Commander)

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1985 Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society

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1986 Member of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences

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1988 Wolf Prize in Physics

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1989 Prince of Asturias Awards in Concord

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1989 Companion of Honour

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1999 Julius Edgar Lilienfeld Prize of the American Physical Society[44]

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2003 Michelson Morley Award of Case Western Reserve University

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2006 Copley Medal of the Royal Society[45]

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2009 Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian honor in the United States[46]

[edit] Selected publications [edit] Technical •

Singularities in Collapsing Stars and Expanding Universes with Dennis William Sciama, 1969 Comments on Astrophysics and Space Physics Vol 1 #1

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The Nature of Space and Time with Roger Penrose, foreword by Michael Atiyah, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-691-05084-8

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The Large Scale Structure of Spacetime with George Ellis, 1973 ISBN 0521099064

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The Large, the Small, and the Human Mind, (with Abner Shimony, Nancy Cartwright, and Roger Penrose), Cambridge University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-52156330-5 (hardback), ISBN 0-521-65538-2 (paperback), Canto edition: ISBN 0-

521-78572-3 •

Information Loss in Black Holes, Cambridge University Press, 2005

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God Created the Integers: The Mathematical Breakthroughs That Changed History, Running Press, 2005 ISBN 0762419229

[edit] Popular •

A Brief History of Time, (Bantam Press 1988) ISBN 055305340X

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Black Holes and Baby Universes and Other Essays, (Bantam Books 1993) ISBN 0553374117

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The Universe in a Nutshell, (Bantam Press 2001) ISBN 055380202X

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On The Shoulders of Giants. The Great Works of Physics and Astronomy, (Running Press 2002) ISBN 076241698X

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A Briefer History of Time, (Bantam Books 2005) ISBN 0553804367

Footnote: On Hawking's website, he denounces the unauthorised publication of The Theory of Everything and asks consumers to be aware that he was not involved in its creation.

[edit] Children's fiction These are co-written with his daughter Lucy. •

George's Secret Key to the Universe, (Random House, 2007) ISBN 9780385612708

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George and the Cosmic Treasure Hunt, (Random House, 2009)

[edit] Films and series •

A Brief History of Time (film)

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Stephen Hawking's Universe

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Horizon: The Hawking Paradox[47]

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Masters of Science Fiction

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Stephen Hawking: Master of the Universe

A list of Hawking's publications through the year 2002 is available on his website.

r Dame Jane Goodall Dr. Jane Goodall at Hong Kong University on 24 October 2004 Born

3 April 1934 (age 75)

Residence

England, Tanzania

Nationality

British

Fields

Biologist, Primatologist, Conservationist

Alma mater Doctoral students Known for

University of Cambridge none. Study of chimpanzees, conservation

Notable awards

DBE (2004)

Religious stance

Christian

Dame Jane Goodall, DBE (born Valerie Jane Morris Goodall on 3 April 1934) is an English UN Messenger of Peace, primatologist, ethologist, and anthropologist. She is well-known for her 45-year study of chimpanzee social and family interactions in Gombe Stream National Park, Tanzania, and for founding the Jane Goodall Institute.

Contents [hide] •

1 Early life and studies

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2 Personal life

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3 Professional accomplishments

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4 Environmentalism

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5 Criticism

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6 Honours

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7 Animal welfare activism

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8 Awards

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9 Publications o

9.1 Books

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9.2 Children's books

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9.3 Films

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10 In popular culture

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11 See also

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12 References

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13 External links

Early life and studies Jane Goodall was born in London, England in 1934. As a child she was given a lifelike chimpanzee toy named Jubilee by her father. Goodall was not very interested in animals until her father brought her the stuffed animal. Today, the toy still sits on her dresser in London. After the divorce of her parents when Goodall was 12 years old, she moved with her mother to Bournemouth, England. Goodall's interest in animals prompted notable anthropologist Louis Leakey to hire her as his assistant and secretary. He invited her to accompany him and his wife, Mary Leakey, to dig at Olduvai Gorge in eastern Africa. He asked Goodall to study the chimpanzees of Gombe Stream National Park (then known as 'Gombe Stream Chimpanzee Reserve'). She arrived at Gombe accompanied by her mother in July 1960. Leakey arranged for her to return to the United Kingdom where she earned a doctorate in ethology from Darwin College, the University of Cambridge in 1964. Along with Dian Fossey, famous for living with gorillas, and Biruté Galdikas, who advanced studies in orangutans, Goodall was one of three women dubbed "Leakey's Angels".

Personal life Goodall has been married twice. On 28 March 1964 she married aristocratic wildlife photographer Baron Hugo van Lawick at Chelsea Old Church, London, becoming Baroness Jane van Lawick-Goodall. The couple had a son, Hugo Eric Louis, affectionately known as 'Grub', who was born in 1967. They divorced in 1974. In 1975 she married Derek Bryceson (a member of Tanzania's parliament and the director of that country's national parks) and they remained married until his death in 1980. Jane and her younger sister, Judy, both suffer from prosopagnosia, a neurological condition which impairs the recognition of human faces. [1]

Professional accomplishments Orphaned by poachers, young chimpanzees are raised by volunteers and researchers at the Tchimpounga Sanctuary (part of the Jane Goodall Institute) in the Republic of the Congo. Goodall is best known for her study of chimpanzee social and family life. She began studying the Kasakela chimpanzee community in Gombe Stream National Park, Tanzania

in 1960.[2] In 1977, Goodall established the Jane Goodall Institute (JGI), which supports the Gombe research, and she is a global leader in the effort to protect chimpanzees and their habitats. With nineteen offices around the world, the JGI is widely recognized for innovative, community-centered conservation and development programs in Africa and a global youth program, Roots & Shoots, which currently has over 8,000 groups in over 100 countries. Today, Goodall devotes virtually all of her time to advocacy on behalf of chimpanzees and the environment, traveling nearly 300 days a year. Goodall is also a board member for the world's largest chimpanzee sanctuary outside of Africa, Save the Chimps in Fort Pierce, Florida. Goodall was instrumental in the study of social learning, primate cognition, thinking and culture in wild chimpanzees, their differentiation from the bonobo, and the inclusion of both chimpanzee species, and the gorilla, as Hominids. One of Goodall's major break-throughs in the field of primatology was the discovery of tool-making among chimpanzees during her study. Though many animals had been clearly observed using 'tools', previously, only humans were thought to make tools, and tool-making was considered the defining difference between humans and other animals. This discovery convinced several scientists to reconsider their definition of being human. [3]

Goodall also set herself apart from the traditional conventions of the time by naming the animals in her studies of primates, instead of assigning each a number. Numbering was a nearly universal practice at the time, and thought to be important in the removal of one's self from the potential for emotional attachment to the subject being studied. Among those that Goodall named during her years in Gombe were: •

David Greybeard, a grey-chinned male who first warmed up to Goodall.[4]

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Goliath, a friend of David Greybeard, originally the alpha male named for his bold nature.

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Mike, who through his cunning and improvisation displaced Goliath as the alpha male.

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Humphrey, a big, strong, bullysome male.

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Gigi, a large, sterile female who delighted in being the "aunt" of any young chimps or humans.

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Mr. McGregor, a belligerent older male.

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Flo, a motherly, high-ranking female with a bulbous nose and ragged ears, and her children, Figan, Faben, Fifi, and Flint.[5][6]

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Frodo, Fifi's second eldest child, an aggressive male who would frequently attack Jane and who once killed and began to eat a human infant.[7]

Environmentalism

Jane Goodall's involvement in tropical forests and conservation has led her to be actively involved in a number of environmental issues, and to found the Roots & Shoots youth group. She has also endorsed the Forests Now Declaration, calling for new market based mechanisms to protect tropical forests. She is a patron of the Optimum Population Trust.

Criticism Some primatologists have suggested flaws in Goodall's methodology which may call into question the validity of her observations. Goodall used unconventional practices in her study, for example, naming individuals instead of numbering them[clarification needed]. At the time numbering was used to prevent emotional attachment and loss of objectivity. Many standard methods are aimed at helping observers to avoid interference and the use of feeding stations to attract Gombe chimpanzees is, in particular, thought by some to have altered normal foraging and feeding patterns as well as social relationships.[8] It has been suggested that higher levels of aggression and conflict with other chimpanzee groups in the area were a consequences of the feeding, which could have created the "wars" between chimpanzee social groups described by Goodall. Thus, some regard Goodall's observations as distortions of normal chimpanzee behavior.[9] Goodall herself (on several occasions) acknowledged that feeding contributed to aggression within and between groups: "I didn't see aggression to start with. There's no question that chimpanzees become more aggressive as a result of crowding, as a result of competition for food." (J. Goodall) "It's very hard to look back with hindsight and say oh well I would have done it differently. If I had gone to Gombe and had access to information about the effect of feeding bananas on wild chimpanzees I wouldn't have done it". (J. Goodall) However, Goodall has also said that the effect was limited to alteration of the intensity and not the nature of chimpanzee conflict and further that feeding was necessary for the study to be effective at all. Some recent studies such as the study by Crickette Sanz in the Goualougo Triangle (Congo) or by Prof. Christophe Boesch in the Tai Forest (Ivory Coast) have not shown the aggression observed in the Gombe studies.[10] "So far, we haven't seen any abnormal levels of aggression. We've never seen chimps killing other chimps. We haven't seen highly elevated territorial disputes. If I had to guess, I wouldn't expect to see it". (C. Sanz) "I have not seen this kind of killing in Tai Forest. This violence is not always present". (C. Boesch) However, not all primatologists agree that the studies are flawed; for example, Jim Moore provides a critique of Margaret Powers' assertions[11] and some studies of other chimpanzee groups have shown similar aggression to Gombe even in the absence of feeding.[12] Despite the early theories of this aggression being somewhat artificial, it is now known that chimpanzees kill and even eat other chimpanzees in the wild[citation needed].

Honours Jane Goodall has received many honors for her environmental and humanitarian work, as well as others. She was named a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire in a ceremony held in Buckingham Palace in 2004. In April 2002, Secretary-General Kofi Annan named Dr. Goodall a United Nations Messenger of Peace. Her other honors include the Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement, the French Legion of Honor, Medal of Tanzania, Japan's prestigious Kyoto Prize, the Benjamin Franklin Medal in Life Science, the Gandhi-King Award for Nonviolence and the Spanish Premio Príncipe de Asturias. She is also a member of the advisory board of BBC Wildlife magazine. In 2002, the Canadian city of Greater Sudbury, Ontario dedicated a walking trail, highlighting some of the city's efforts to rehabilitate environmental damage from the local mining industry, to Goodall. [13] On 7 July 2007 Goodall presented at Live Earth. In April 2008, Jane was awarded the Montana State University Medal for Global and Visionary Leadership.

Animal welfare activism Jane Goodall is an animal welfare activist and is the former president of Advocates for Animals, an organization based in Edinburgh, Scotland, that campaigns against the use of animals in medical research, zoos, farming and sport. In May 2008, Goodall controversially described Edinburgh Zoo's new primate enclosure as a "wonderful facility" where monkeys are "are probably better off [than those] living in the wild in an area like Budongo, where one in six gets caught in a wire snare, and countries like Congo, where chimpanzees, monkeys and gorillas are shot for food commercially." [14] This was in conflict with Advocates for Animals' position on captive animals, who stated "She's entitled to her opinion, but our position isn't going to change. We oppose the keeping of animals in captivity for entertainment." [15] In June 2008 Goodall confirmed that she had resigned the presidency of the organisation which she had held since 1998, citing her busy schedule and explaining, "I just don't have time for them." [16]

Awards •

1980: Order of the Golden Ark, World Wildlife Award for Conservation

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1984: J. Paul Getty Wildlife Conservation Prize

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1985: Living Legacy Award from the International Women's League

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Society of the United States; Award for Humane Excellence, American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals

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1987: Ian Biggs' Prize

•

1989: Encyclopaedia Britannica Award for Excellence on the Dissemination of Learning for the Benefit of Mankind; Anthropologist of the Year Award

•

1990: The AMES Award, American Anthropologist Association; Whooping Crane Conservation Award, Conoco, Inc.; Gold Medal of the Society of Women Geographers; Inamori Foundation Award; Washoe Award; The Kyoto Prize in Basic Science

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1991: The Edinburgh Medal

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1993: Rainforest Alliance Champion Award

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1994: Chester Zoo Diamond Jubilee Medal

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1995: Commander of the Order of the British Empire, presented by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II; The National Geographic Society Hubbard Medal for Distinction in Exploration, Discovery, and Research; Lifetime Achievement Award, In Defense of Animals; The Moody Gardens Environmental Award; Honorary Wardenship of Uganda National Parks

•

1996: The Zoological Society of London Silver Medal; The Tanzanian Kilimanjaro Medal; The Primate Society of Great Britain Conservation Award; The Caring Institute Award; The Polar Bear Award; William Proctor Prize for Scientific Achievement

•

1997: John & Alice Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement; David S. Ingells, Jr. Award for Excellence; Common Wealth Award for Public Service; The Field Museum's Award of Merit; Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement; Royal Geographical Society / Discovery Channel Europe Award for A Lifetime of Discovery

•

1998: Disney's Animal Kingdom Eco Hero Award; National Science Board Public Service Award; The Orion Society's John Hay Award

•

1999: International Peace Award; Botanical Research Institute of Texas International Award of Excellence in Conservation, Community of Christ International Peace Award

•

2001: Graham J. Norton Award for Achievement in Increasing Community Livability; Rungius Award of the National Museum of Wildlife Art, USA; Roger Tory Peterson Memorial Medal, Harvard Museum of Natural History; Master Peace Award; Gandhi/King Award for Non-Violence

•

2002: The Huxley Memorial Medal, Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland; United Nations "Messenger of Peace" Appointment

•

2003: Benjamin Franklin Medal in Life Science; Harvard Medical School's Center for Health and the Global Environment Award; Prince of Asturias Award for Technical and Scientific Achievement; Dame of the British Empire, presented by His Royal Highness Prince Charles; Chicago Academy of Sciences' Honorary

Environmental Leader Award •

2004: Nierenberg Prize for Science in the Public Interest; Will Rogers Spirit Award, the Rotary Club of Will Rogers and Will Rogers Memorial Museums; Life Time Achievement Award, the International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW); Honorary Degree from Haverford College

•

2005: Honorary doctorate degree in science from Syracuse University

•

2005: Presented with Discovery and Imagination Award

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2006: Received the 60th Anniversary Medal of the UNESCO and the French Légion d'honneur.

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2007: Honorary doctorate degree in commemoration of Linnaeus from Uppsala University

•

2007: Honorary doctorate degree from University of Liverpool

•

2008: Honorary doctorate degree from University of Toronto

For a complete list of Dr. Jane Goodall's awards and honors, view her Curriculum Vitae [2] on the Jane Goodall Institute website.

Publications Source: http://www.janegoodall.org/jane/pub.asp

Books •

1969 My Friends the Wild Chimpanzees Washington, DC: National Geographic Society

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1971 Innocent Killers (with H. van Lawick). Boston: Houghton Mifflin; London: Collins.

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1971 In the Shadow of Man Boston: Houghton Mifflin; London: Collins. Published in 48 languages.

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1986 The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior Boston: Bellknap Press of the Harvard University Press. Published also in Japanese and Russian. R.R. Hawkins Award for the Outstanding Technical, Scientific or Medical book of 1986, to Bellknap Press of Harvard University Press, Boston. The Wildlife Society (USA) Award for "Outstanding Publication in Wildlife Ecology and Management".

•

1990 Through a Window: 30 years observing the Gombe chimpanzees London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson; Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Translated into more than 15 languages. 1991 Penguin edition, UK. American Library Association "Best" list among Nine Notable Books (Nonfiction) for 1991.

•

1993 Visions of Caliban (co-authored with Dale Peterson, Ph.D.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. New York Times "Notable Book" for 1993. Library Journal "Best Sci-Tech Book" for 1993.

•

1999 Brutal Kinship (with Michael Nichols). New York: Aperture Foundation.

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1999 Reason For Hope; A Spiritual Journey (with Phillip Berman). New York: Warner Books, Inc. Translated into Japanese.

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2000 40 Years At Gombe New York: Stewart, Tabori, and Chang.

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2000 Africa In My Blood (edited by Dale Peterson). New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.

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2001 Beyond Innocence: An Autobiography in Letters, the later years (edited by Dale Peterson). New York: Houghton Mifflin Company

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2002 The Ten Trusts: What We Must Do To Care for the Animals We Love (with Marc Bekoff). San Francisco: Harper San Francisco

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2005 Harvest for Hope: A Guide to Mindful Eating New York: Warner Books, Inc. ISBN 0-446-53362-9

Children's books •

1972 Grub: The Bush Baby (with H. van Lawick). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

•

1988 My Life with the Chimpanzees New York: Byron Preiss Visual Publications, Inc. Translated into French, Japanese and Chinese. Parenting's Reading-Magic Award for "Outstanding Book for Children," 1989.

•

1989 The Chimpanzee Family Book Saxonville, MA: Picture Book Studio; Munich: Neugebauer Press; London: Picture Book Studio. Translated into more than 15 languages, including Japanese and Kiswahili. The UNICEF Award for the best children's book of 1989. Austrian state prize for best children's book of 1990.

•

1989 Jane Goodall's Animal World: Chimps New York: Macmillan.

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1989 Animal Family Series: Chimpanzee Family; Lion Family; Elephant Family; Zebra Family; Giraffe Family; Baboon Family; Hyena Family; Wildebeest Family Toronto: Madison Marketing Ltd.

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1994 With Love New York / London: North-South Books. Translated into German, French, Italian, and Japanese.

•

1999 Dr. White (illustrated by Julie Litty). New York: North-South Books.

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2000 The Eagle & the Wren (illustrated by Alexander Reichstein). New York: North-South Books.

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2001 Chimpanzees I Love: Saving Their World and Ours New York: Scholastic

Press •

2004 Rickie and Henri: A True Story (with Alan Marks) Penguin Young Readers Group

Films •

1963 Miss Goodall and the Wild Chimpanzees National Geographic Society

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1975 Miss Goodall: The Hyena Story The World of Animal Behavior Series

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1984 Among the Wild Chimpanzees National Geographic Special

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1988 People of the Forest with Hugo van Lawick

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1990 Chimpanzee Alert in the Nature Watch Series, Central Television

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1990 Chimps, So Like Us HBO film nominated for 1990 Academy Award

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1990 The Life and Legend of Jane Goodall National Geographic Society.

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1990 The Gombe Chimpanzees Bavarian Television

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1995 Fifi's Boys for the Natural World series for the

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1996 Chimpanzee Diary for BBC2 Animal Zone

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1997 Animal Minds for BBC

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2000 Jane Goodall: Reason For Hope PBS special produced by KTCA

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2001 Chimps R Us PBS special Scientific Frontiers.

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2002 Jane Goodall's Wild Chimpanzees (IMAX format), in collaboration with Science North

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2005 Jane Goodall's Return to Gombe for Animal Planet

In popular culture David Greybeard Sculpture at Animal Kingdom •

Goodall is honored by the Walt Disney Company with a plaque on the The Tree of Life at Walt Disney World's Animal Kingdom theme park, alongside a carving of her beloved David Greybeard, the original chimp who approached Goodall during her first year at Gombe.[3] The story goes that when she was invited to visit the developing Animal Kingdom park as a consultant and saw the Tree of Life, she didn't see a chimp as part of the tree. To rectify this situation, the Imagineers added the carving of David Graybeard and the plaque honoring her at the entrance to the It's Tough to be a Bug! show.

•

Cartoonist Gary Larson once drew a cartoon in his The Far Side newspaper comic that showed two chimpanzees grooming. One finds a human hair on the other and inquires, "Conducting a little more 'research' with that Jane Goodall tramp?" The Jane Goodall Institute thought this to be in bad taste, and had their lawyers draft a letter to Larson and his distribution syndicate, in which they described the cartoon as an "atrocity." They were stymied, however, by Goodall herself, who revealed that she found the cartoon amusing. Since then, all profits from sales of a shirt featuring this cartoon have gone to the JGI.

•

Dr. Goodall also appeared and lent her voice as herself in the animated TV series The Wild Thornberrys.

•

The protagonist in Jonathan Safran Foer's second novel, Extremely Loud and Incredibly Close, asks Goodall for a recommendation, to which she responds with a gentle rejection.

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In The Simpsons episode "Simpsons Safari", a character loosely based on Goodall is a research scientist in charge of a Chimpanzees refuge who is secretly forcing them to mine diamonds for her benefit.

•

On her album "Street Angel" Stevie Nicks pays tribute to Jane Goodall with the track "Jane".

•

In the movie George of the Jungle, Beatrice Stanhope sits next to Ape the Gorilla and says "I feel just like Jane Goodall", to which Ape replies "Ma'am, I have known Jane Goodall, and you certainly aren't Jane Goodall".

James D. Watson James D. Watson Born

April 6, 1928 (age 81) Chicago, Illinois, U.S.

Residence

U.S., UK

Nationality

United States

Fields

Molecular biology

Institutions

Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory

Alma mater

University of Chicago, Indiana University

Doctoral advisor Known for

Salvador Luria DNA structure, Molecular biology

Notable awards

Nobel Prize (1962)

Religious stance

None (Atheist)[1][2]

James Dewey Watson (born April 6, 1928) is an American molecular biologist, best known as one of the co-discoverers of the structure of DNA. Watson, Francis Crick, and Maurice Wilkins were awarded the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material".[3] He studied at the University of Chicago and Indiana University and subsequently worked at the University of Cambridge's Cavendish Laboratory in England where he first met his future collaborator and personal friend Francis Crick. In 1956 he became a junior member of Harvard University's Biological Laboratories until 1976, but in 1968 served as Director of Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory on Long Island, New York and shifted its research emphasis to the study of cancer. In 1994 he became its President for ten years, and then subsequently served as its Chancellor until 2007, when he was forced into retirement by controversy over several comments about race and intelligence. Between 1988 and 1992 he was associated with the National Institutes of Health, helping to establish the Human Genome Project. He has written many science books, including the seminal textbook The Molecular Biology of the Gene (1965) and his bestselling book The Double Helix (1968) about the DNA Structure discovery.

Contents [hide] •

1 Biography

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2 The Double Helix

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3 Genome project

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4 Awards and decorations

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5 Career

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6 Honorary degrees received

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7 Professional and honorary affiliations

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8 Political activism

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9 Controversies o

9.1 Use of King's College results

o

9.2 Statement claiming links between race and intelligence

o

9.3 Other statements

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10 See also

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11 References

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12 Further reading

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13 Multimedia

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14 External links

[edit] Biography Watson was born in Chicago, Illinois, on April 6, 1928, to the son of a businessman, also named James Dewey Watson, and Margaret Jean Mitchell.[4] His father was of Scottish descent (both Dewey and Watson being Scottish surnames).[5] His mother's father Lauchlin Mitchell, a tailor, was from Glasgow, Scotland, and her mother, Lizzie Gleason, was the child of Irish parents from Tipperary.[6] Watson was fascinated with bird watching, a hobby he shared with his father.[7] Watson appeared on Quiz Kids, a popular radio show that challenged precocious youngsters to answer questions.[8] Thanks to the liberal policy of University president Robert Hutchins, he enrolled at the University of Chicago at the age of 15.[9] After reading Erwin Schrödinger's book What Is Life? in 1946, Watson changed his professional ambitions from the study of ornithology to genetics.[10] He earned his B.S. in Zoology from the University of Chicago in 1947. In his autobiography, Avoid Boring People, Watson describes the University of Chicago as an idyllic academic institution where he was instilled with the capacity for critical thought and an ethical compulsion not to suffer fools who impeded his search for truth, in contrast to his description of his later work at Harvard University.[11] He was attracted to the work of Salvador Luria. Luria eventually shared a Nobel Prize for his work on the Luria-Delbrück experiment, which concerned the nature of genetic mutations. Luria was part of a distributed group of researchers who were making use of the viruses that infect bacteria, called bacteriophages. Luria and Max Delbrück were among the leaders of this new "Phage Group", an important movement of geneticists from experimental systems such as Drosophila towards microbial genetics. Early in 1948 Watson began his Ph.D. research in Luria's laboratory at Indiana University and that

spring he got to meet Delbrück in Luria's apartment and again that summer during Watson's first trip to the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (CSHL).[12] The Phage Group was the intellectual medium within which Watson became a working scientist. Importantly, the members of the Phage Group had a sense that they were on the path to discovering the physical nature of the gene. In 1949 Watson took a course with Felix Haurowitz that included the conventional view of that time: that proteins were genes and able to replicate themselves.[13] The other major molecular component of chromosomes, DNA, was thought by many to be a "stupid tetranucleotide", serving only a structural role to support the proteins. However, even at this early time, Watson, under the influence of the Phage Group, was aware of the Avery-MacLeod-McCarty experiment, which suggested that DNA was the genetic molecule. Watson's research project involved using X-rays to inactivate bacterial viruses.[14] He gained his Ph.D. in Zoology at Indiana University in 1950 (at age 22). Watson then went to Copenhagen in September 1950 for a year of postdoctoral research, first heading to the laboratory of biochemist Herman Kalckar.[7] Kalckar was interested in the enzymatic synthesis of nucleic acids, and wanted to use phages as an experimental system. Watson, however, wanted to explore the structure of DNA, and his interests did not coincide with Kalckar's.[15] After working part of the year with Kalcker, Watson spent the remainder of his time in Copenhagen conducting experiments with microbial physiologist Ole Maaloe, then a member of the Phage Group.[16] The experiments, which Watson had learned of during the previous summer's Cold Spring Harbor phage conference, included the use of radioactive phosphate as a tracer to determine which molecular components of phage particles actually infect the target bacteria during viral infection.[15] The intention was to determine whether protein or DNA was the genetic material, but upon consultation with Max Delbrück,[15] they determined that their results were inconclusive and could not specifically identify the newly labeled molecules as DNA.[17] Watson never developed a constructive interaction with Kalckar, but he did accompany Kalckar to a meeting in Italy where Watson saw Maurice Wilkins talk about his X-ray diffraction data for DNA.[7] Watson was now certain that DNA had a definite molecular structure that could be solved.[18] In 1951 the chemist Linus Pauling published his model of the protein alpha helix, a result that grew out of Pauling's relentless efforts in X-ray crystallography and molecular model building. After obtaining some results from his phage and other experimental research conducted at Indiana University, Statens seruminstitute (Denmark), Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, and the California Institute of Technology, Watson now had the desire to learn to perform X-ray diffraction experiments so that he could work to determine the structure of DNA. That summer, Luria met John Kendrew and arranged for a new postdoctoral research project for Watson in England.[7]

Diagram showing the key structural components in the chemical structure of DNA. The actual 3D structure is shown at DNA. Watson and Crick proceeded to deduce the double helix structure of DNA which they submitted to the journal Nature and was subsequently published on April 25, 1953.

The discovery was made on February 28, 1953; the first Watson/Crick paper appeared in Nature on April 25,1953. Sir Lawrence Bragg, the director of the Cavendish Laboratory, where Watson and Crick worked, gave a talk at Guys Hospital Medical School in London on Thursday, May 14, 1953 which resulted in an article by Ritchie Calder in The News Chronicle of London, on Friday, May 15, 1953, entitled "Why You Are You. Nearer Secret of Life." The news reached readers of The New York Times the next day; Victor K. McElheny, in researching his biography, "Watson and DNA: Making a Scientific Revolution", found a clipping of a six-paragraph New York Times article written from London and dated May 16, 1953 with the headline "Form of `Life Unit' in Cell Is Scanned." The article ran in an early edition and was then pulled to make space for news deemed more important.(The New York Times subsequently ran a longer article on June 12, 1953). The Cambridge University undergraduate newspaper Varsity also ran its own short article on the discovery on Saturday, May 30th, 1953. Bragg's original announcement of the discovery at a Solvay conference on proteins in Belgium on 8 April 1953 went unreported by the press! Watson subsequently presented a paper on the double helical structure of DNA at the 18th Cold Spring Harbor Symposium on Viruses in early June 1953, six weeks after the publication of the Watson/Crick paper in Nature; many at the meeting had not yet heard of the discovery. The 1953 Cold Harbor Symposium was the first opportunity to see the model of the DNA Double Helix. Watson, Crick, and Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962 for their research on the structure of nucleic acids.[3] Some regret that Rosalind Franklin did not live long enough to share in the Nobel Prize.[20] Watson mentions in his autobiography, Avoid Boring People, that he was refused a $1,000 raise in salary after winning the Nobel Prize.[11] [19]

In 1968, Watson married Elizabeth Lewis and became the Director of Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. Between 1970 and 1972 Watson's two sons were born and by 1974 the young family made CSH their permanent residence. Watson served as the Laboratory's Director and President for 35 years, and later assumed the role of Chancellor. In October 2007 Watson resigned as a result of controversial remarks about race made to the press. Watson has one son who has schizophrenia.[21]

[edit] The Double Helix DNA model built by Crick and Watson in 1953, on display in the Science Museum (London). In 1968 Watson wrote The Double Helix, one of the Modern Library's 100 best nonfiction books. The account is the sometimes painful story of not only the discovery of the structure of DNA, but the personalities, conflicts and controversy surrounding their work. Controversy attended the publication of the book. Harvard professor Richard Lewontin wrote that the book had "debased the currency of his [Watson's] own life", and molecular biologist Robert L. Sinsheimer described Watson's portrayal of science as a "clawing

climb up a slippery slope, impeded by the authority of fools, to be made with cadged data ... with malice toward most, and charity toward none." [11] It was originally to be published by Harvard University Press, but after objections from both Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins, among others, Watson's home university where he had been a member of the biology faculty since 1955, dropped the book and it was instead published by a commercial publisher, an incident which caused some scandal. Watson's original title was to have been "Honest Jim," in part to raise the ethical questions of bypassing Rosalind Franklin to gain access to her X-ray diffraction data before they were published. If all that mattered was beating Pauling to the structure of DNA, then Franklin's cautious approach to analysis of the X-ray data was simply an obstacle that Watson needed to run around. Wilkins and others were there at the right time to help Watson and Crick do so. The Double Helix changed the way the public viewed scientists and the way they work.[22] In the same way, Watson's first textbook, The Molecular Biology of the Gene, set a new standard for textbooks, particularly through the use of concept heads—brief declarative subheadings. Its style has been emulated by almost all succeeding textbooks. His next great success was Molecular Biology of the Cell, although here his role was more that of coordinator of an outstanding group of scientist-writers. His third textbook was Recombinant DNA, which used the ways in which genetic engineering has brought much new information about how organisms function. The textbooks are still in print.

[edit] Genome project In 1989, Watson's achievement and the success led to his appointment as the Head of the Human Genome Project at the National Institutes of Health, a position he held until April 10, 1992.[23] Watson left the Genome Project after conflicts with the new NIH Director, Bernadine Healy. Watson was opposed to Healy's attempts to acquire patents on gene sequences, and any ownership of the "laws of nature." Two years before stepping down from the Genome Project, he had stated his opinion on this long and ongoing controversy which he saw as an illogical barrier to research; he said, "The nations of the world must see that the human genome belongs to the world's people, as opposed to its nations." He left within weeks of the 1992 announcement that the NIH would be applying for patents on brain-specific cDNAs.[24] In 1994, Watson became President of CSHL. Francis Collins took over the role as Director of the Human Genome Project. Watson became the second person[25] to publish his fully sequenced genome online[26], after it was presented to him on May 31, 2007 by 454 Life Sciences Corporation[27] in collaboration with scientists at the Human Genome Sequencing Center, Baylor College of Medicine. "'I am putting my genome sequence on line to encourage the development of an era of personalized medicine, in which information contained in our genomes can be used to identify and prevent disease and to create individualized medical therapies,' said CSHL Chancellor Watson."[28]

[edit] Awards and decorations •

Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research[29]

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Lomonosov Medal

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Lotos Club Medal of Merit

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Benjamin Franklin Medal for Distinguished Achievement in the Sciences[30]

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Mendel Medal

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National Biotechnology Venture Award

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National Medal of Science[33]

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New York Academy of Medicine Award

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Charles A. Dana Award

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Copley Medal of the Royal Society

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Eli Lilly Award in Biochemistry

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Fellow of the New York Academy of Sciences

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Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine[34]

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Gairdner Award

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Othmer Medal

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Heald Award

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Presidential Medal of Freedom[35]

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Honorary Knight Commander in the Order of the British Empire[31] (K.B.E. (Hon.)

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Research Corporation Prize

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University of Chicago Alumni Medal[9]

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University College London Prize

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University Medal at SUNY Stony Brook

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John Collins Warren Prize of the Massachusetts General Hospital

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John J. Carty Gold Medal of the National Academy of Sciences

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Kaul Foundation Award for Excellence

•

Liberty Medal[32]

On Saturday, October 20 1962 the award of Nobel prizes to John Kendrew and Max Perutz, and to Crick, Watson, and Wilkins was satirised in a short sketch in the BBC TV programme That Was The Week That Was with the Nobel Prizes being referred to as 'The Alfred Nobel Peace Pools'; in this sketch Watson was called "Little J.D. Watson" and "Who'd have thought he'd ever get the Nobel Prize? Makes you think, doesn't it".

[edit] Career At Harvard University, starting in 1956, Watson achieved a series of academic promotions from Assistant Professor, to Associate Professor to full Professor of Biology. He championed a switch in focus for the school from classical biology to molecular biology, stating that disciplines such as ecology, developmental biology, taxonomy, physiology, etc. had stagnated and could only progress once the underlying disciplines of molecular biology and biochemistry had elucidated their underpinnings, going so far as to discourage their study by students. He left the school in 1976.[11] Watson joined the staff of Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory in 1968. In a retrospective summary of his accomplishments there, Bruce Stillman, the laboratory's president said,

"Jim Watson created a research environment that is unparalleled in the world of science." It was "under his direction [that the Lab has] made major contributions to understanding the genetic basis of cancer." Generally in his roles as Director, President, and Chancellor, Watson led CSHL to its present day mission, which is "dedicat[ion] to exploring molecular biology and genetics in order to advance the understanding and ability to diagnose and treat cancers, neurological diseases, and other causes of human suffering." In October, 2007, Watson was suspended following criticism of views on race and intelligence attributed to him, and a week later, on the 25th, he retired at the age of 79 from Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory from what the lab called "nearly 40 years of distinguished service",[36] In a statement, Watson attributed his retirement to his age, and circumstances that he could never have anticipated or desired.[37] In January 2007, Watson accepted the invitation of Leonor Beleza, president of the Champalimaud Foundation, to become the head of the foundation's scientific council, an advisory organ. He will be in charge of selecting the remaining council members.[38] As of 2008, Watson is the Institute advisor for the newly-formed Allen Institute for Brain Science [39]. The Institute, located in Seattle, Washington, was founded in 2003 by Philanthropists Paul G. Allen and Jody Allen Patton as a 501(c)(3) nonprofit corporation and medical research organization. A multidisciplinary group of neuroscientists, molecular biologists, informaticists, engineers, mathematicians, statisticians, and computational biologists have been brought together to form the scientific core of the Allen Institute. Utilizing the mouse model system, these fields have joined together to investigate expression of 20,000 genes in the adult mouse brain and to map gene expression to a cellular level beyond neuroanatomic boundaries. The data generated from this joint effort is contained in the publicly available Allen Brain Atlas application located at www.brain-map.org. Upon completion of the Allen Brain Atlas, this consortium of scientists will pursue additional questions to further our understanding of neuronal circuitry and the neuroanatomic framework that defines the functionality of the brain. Watson is the only living pioneer in early DNA research; dead pioneering scientists include Rosalind Franklin, Maurice Wilkins, and James Watson's former colleague Francis Crick.

[edit] Honorary degrees received •

D.Sc., University of Chicago, 1961

•

D.Sc., Indiana University, 1963

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L.L.D., Notre Dame University, 1965

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D.Sc., Long Island University (C.W. Post), 1970

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D.Sc., Rockefeller University, 1980

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D.Sc., Clarkson College, 1981

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D.Sc., SUNY at Farmingdale, 1983

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M.D., Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1986

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D.Sc., Rutgers University, 1988

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D.Sc., Bard College, 1991

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D.Sc., Adelphi University, 1972

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D.Sc., Brandeis University, 1973

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D.Sc., Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1974

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D.Sc., Hofstra University, 1976

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D.Sc., Harvard University, 1978

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D.Sc., University of Stellenbosch, S. Africa, 1993

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D.Sc., Fairfield University, 1993

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D.Sc., University of Cambridge, United Kingdom, 1993

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Dr.h.c., Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic, 1998

[edit] Professional and honorary affiliations American Academy of Arts and Sciences

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American Association for Cancer Research

Danish Academy of Arts and Sciences

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National Academy of Sciences

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American Philosophical Society

•

•

American Society of Biological Chemists

Oxford University (Newton-Abraham Visiting Professor)

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Presidential Medal of Freedom[35]

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Atheneum (London)

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Royal Society (London)

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Cambridge University (Honorary Fellow, Clare College)

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Russian Academy of Sciences

• •

[edit] Political activism During his tenure as a professor at Harvard, Watson participated in several political protests: •

Vietnam War: While a professor at Harvard University, Watson, along with "12 Faculty members of the department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology" including one other Nobel prize winner, spearheaded a resolution for "the immediate withdrawal of U.S. forces' from Vietnam."[40]

•

Nuclear proliferation and environmentalism: In 1975, on the "thirtieth anniversary of the bombing of Hiroshima," Watson along with "over 2000 scientists and engineers" spoke out against nuclear proliferation to President Ford in part because of the "lack of a proven method for the ultimate disposal of radioactive waste" and because "The writers of the declaration see the proliferation of nuclear plants as a major threat to American liberties and international safety because they say safeguard procedures are inadequate to prevent terrorist theft of commercial reactor-produced plutonium."[41]

[edit] Controversies

James Watson (February, 2003) Watson's sometimes abrasive and aggressive personality (once described by E. O. Wilson as "the most unpleasant human being I had ever met"[11]) has made him the subject of several controversies; the controversy over his book The Double Helix was merely one such example. In his autobiography, Avoid Boring People, he describes his academic colleagues as "dinosaurs", "deadbeats", "fossils", "has-beens", "mediocre", and "vapid". [11]

[edit] Use of King's College results An enduring controversy has been generated by Watson and Crick's use of DNA X-ray diffraction data collected by Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling. The controversy arose from the fact that some of Franklin's unpublished data was used by Watson and Crick in their construction of the double helix model of DNA.[42] Franklin's experimental results provided estimates of the water content of DNA crystals and these results were consistent with the two sugar-phosphate backbones being on the outside of the molecule. Franklin personally told Crick and Watson that the backbones had to be on the outside. Her identification of the space group for DNA crystals revealed to Crick that the two DNA strands were antiparallel. The X-ray diffraction images collected by Gosling and Franklin provided the best evidence for the helical nature of DNA. Franklin's experimental work thus proved crucial in Watson and Crick's discovery. Watson and Crick had three sources for Franklin's unpublished data: 1) her 1951 seminar, attended by Watson, 2) discussions with Wilkins, who worked in the same laboratory with Franklin, 3) a research progress report that was intended to promote coordination of Medical Research Council-supported laboratories. Watson, Crick, Wilkins and Franklin all worked in MRC laboratories. Prior to publication of the double helix structure, Watson and Crick had little interaction with Franklin. Crick and Watson felt that they had benefited from collaborating with Wilkins. They offered him a co-authorship on the article that first described the double helix structure of DNA. Wilkins turned down the offer, a fact that may have led to the terse character of the acknowledgment of experimental work done at King's College in the eventual published paper. Rather than make any of the DNA researchers at King's College co-authors on the Watson and Crick double helix article, the solution that was arrived at was to publish two additional papers from King's College along with the helix paper. Biographer Brenda Maddox suggested that because of the importance of her work to Watson and Crick's model building, Franklin should have had her name on the original Watson and Crick manuscript.[43] Franklin may have never known the extent to which her unpublished data had helped in the double helix discovery. According to one critic, unprotected by libel laws, Watson's portrayal of Franklin in The Double Helix was negative, giving the appearance that she was Wilkins' assistant and was unable to interpret her own DNA data.[44] In his book The Double Helix, Watson described being intimidated by Franklin and that they were unable to establish constructive scientific interactions during the time period

when Franklin was doing DNA research. In the book's epilogue, written after Franklin's death, Watson acknowledges his early impressions of Franklin were often wrong, that she faced enormous barriers as a woman in the field of science even though her work was superb, and that it took years to overcome their bickering before appreciating Franklin's generosity and integrity. A review of the handwritten correspondence from Franklin to Watson, located in the archives at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, reveals that the two scientists later had exchanges of constructive scientific correspondence. In fact, Franklin consulted with Watson on her Tobacco Mosaic Virus RNA research. Franklin's letters begin on friendly terms with "Dear Jim", and conclude with equally benevolent and respectful sentiments like "Best Wishes, Yours, Rosalind". Each of the scientists published their own unique contributions to the discovery of the structure of DNA in separate articles, and all of the contributors published their findings in the same volume of Nature. These classic molecular biology papers are identified as: Watson J.D. and Crick F.H.C. "A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid" Nature 171, 737-738 (1953),[19] Wilkins M.H.F., Stokes A.R. & Wilson, H.R. "Molecular Structure of Deoxypentose Nucleic Acids" Nature 171, 738-740 (1953),[45] Franklin R. and Gosling R.G. "Molecular Configuration in Sodium Thymonucleate" Nature 171, 740-741 (1953).[46] Franklin did not receive a Nobel Prize for her important contribution because the Nobel Prize is not awarded posthumously.[47] The wording on the DNA sculpture (which was donated by Watson) outside Clare College's Memorial Court, Cambridge, England is: On the base: •

"These strands unravel during cell reproduction. Genes are encoded in the sequence of bases."

•

"The double helix model was supported by the work of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins."

On the helices: •

"The structure of DNA was discovered in 1953 by Francis Crick and James Watson while Watson lived here at Clare."

•

"The molecule of DNA has two helical strands that are linked by base pairs Adenine - Thymine or Guanine - Cytosine."

The aluminium sculpture stands fifteen feet high. It took a pair of technicians two weeks to build it. For the artist responsible it was an opportunity to create a monument that brings together the themes of science and nature; Charles Jencks, Sculptor said "It embraces the trees, you can sit on it and the ground grows up and it twists out of the ground. So it's truly interacting with living things like the turf, and that idea was behind it and I think it does celebrate life and DNA". Tony Badger, Master of Clare, said: "It is wonderful to have this lasting reminder of his achievements while [James Watson] was at Clare and the enormous contribution he and Francis Crick have made to our understanding of life on earth."

[edit] Statement claiming links between race and intelligence Watson signing autographs after a speech at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory on April 30, 2007. See also: Race and intelligence On October 14, 2007, a biographical article written by one of Watson's former assistants[48], Charlotte Hunt-Grubbe, appeared in the Sunday Times Magazine in anticipation of his soon to be released, in the UK, memoir Avoid Boring People: Lessons from a Life in Science.[48] Watson was quoted as saying he was "inherently gloomy about the prospect of Africa" as

“

all our social policies are based on the fact that their intelligence is the same as ours — whereas all the testing [IQ and Standardized testing] says not really.[48]

”

Hunt-Grubbe stated that Watson's "hope" was "everyone is equal" but quoted him as having said "people who have to deal with black employees find this not true." Furthermore, she suggested that Watson believed "you should not discriminate on the basis of colour" by quoting him as having said

“

there are many people of colour who are very talented, but don’t promote them when they haven’t succeeded at the lower level.[48]

”

Watson was then attributed as having written

“

there is no firm reason to anticipate that the intellectual capacities of peoples geographically separated in their evolution should prove to have evolved identically. Our wanting to reserve equal powers of reason as some universal heritage of humanity will not be enough to make it so.[48]

”

The quotes attributed to him drew attention and criticism from press in several countries and were widely discussed on CNN[49], the BBC[50], several papers[51], peers and by civil rights advocates.[52] The common perception was that of Watson claiming a link between race and intelligence with the BBC stating that "[Watson] claimed black people were less intelligent than white people".[50] In his book, the origin of the final written quote, Watson does not directly mention race as a factor in his hypothesized divergence of intellect between geographically isolated populations.[53] On October 18, The Science Museum in London cancelled a talk that Watson was scheduled to give the following day,[50] stating that they believed Watson's comments had "gone beyond the point of acceptable debate." On the same day the Board of Trustees at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory suspended Watson's administrative responsibilities, stating that

“

this action follows the Board’s public statement yesterday disagreeing with the comments attributed to Dr. Watson in the October 14, 2007 edition of The Sunday Times U.K.[54]

”

that they "vehemently disagree with...and are bewildered and saddened" by.[51] Francis Collins, director of the National Human Genome Research Institute, a position inherited from Watson, said

“

I am deeply saddened by the events of the last week...in the aftermath of a racist statement...that was both profoundly offensive and utterly unsupported by scientific evidence.[51]

”

On October 19, Watson issued an apology, stating that he was "mortified" and "cannot understand how I could have said what I am quoted as having said."[55][56] He also claimed to

“

understand why people, reading those words, have reacted in the ways they have ... To all those who have drawn the inference from my words that Africa, as a continent, is somehow genetically inferior, I can only apologize unreservedly. That is not what I meant. More importantly from my point of view, there is no scientific basis for such a belief.[57]

”

Clarifying his position further, Watson explained

“

I have always fiercely defended the position that we should base our view of the world on the state of our knowledge, on fact, and not on what we would like it to be. This is why genetics is so important. For it will lead us to answers to many of the big and difficult questions that have troubled people for hundreds, if not thousands, of years. ...Since 1978, when a pail of water was dumped over my Harvard friend E O Wilson for saying that genes influence human behaviour, the assault against human behavioural genetics by wishful thinking has remained vigorous. But irrationality must soon recede ... science is not here to make us feel good. It is to answer questions in the service of knowledge and greater understanding. ...We do not yet adequately understand the way in which the different environments in the world have selected over time the genes which determine our capacity to do different things. The overwhelming desire of society today is to assume that equal powers of reason are a universal heritage of humanity. It may well be. But simply wanting this to be the case is not enough. This is not science. To question this is not to give in to racism. This is not a discussion about superiority or inferiority, it is about seeking to understand differences, about why some of us are great musicians and others great engineers.[56][57]

Despite Watson's expressed belief in the importance of scientific inquiry into the relationship between heredity and intelligence, a number of news sources reported that Watson was "retracting" his earlier statements on this topic. For example, the journal Nature reported

”

“

Watson has apologized and retracted the outburst... He acknowledged that there is no evidence for what he claimed about racial differences in intelligence.[58]

”

Nature went on to say that the controversy and cancellations potentially could suppress scientific inquiry by geneticists who are studying the differences between different human population groups.[58] Medical Hypotheses (not peer-reviewed) went further, saying that "The unjustified ill treatment meted out to Watson therefore requires setting the record straight about the current state of the evidence on intelligence, race, and genetics.", and summarised evidence that apparently supports his position, declaring "These are facts, not opinions and science must be governed by data. There is no place for the “moralistic fallacy” that reality must conform to our social, political, or ethical desires."[59] Despite the apology and subsequent attempt to clarify his position the controversy continued. He returned to the US and Cold Spring Harbor on the 19th October putting his further engagements in doubt. The University of Edinburgh formally retracted an invitation to the "DNA, Dolly and Other Dangerous Ideas: The Destiny of 21st Century Science" Enlightenment Lecture on October 22.[60] Watson resigned from Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory on October 25.[49][61] Watson cited reasons for his retirement other than the controversy, though did refer to it.

“

Closer now to 80 than 79, the passing on of my remaining vestiges of leadership is more than overdue. The circumstances in which this transfer is occurring, however, are not those which I could ever have anticipated or desired.[62]

”

On December 9, 2007, a Sunday Times article[63] reported a claim by deCODE Genetics that 16% of Watson's DNA is of African origin and 9% is of Asian origin. deCODE's methods were not reported and details of the analysis were not published. According to deCODE's Kari Stefansson, the analysis relied on an error-ridden version of Watson's full genome sequence, and Stefansson "doubts [. . .] whether the 16 percent figure will hold up"[64] In 2008 Watson was interviewed by Henry Louis Gates regarding his views on race, intelligence, and other controversial subjects.[65] In 2006 during an interview with Charlie Rose and E. O. Wilson, Watson stated that some people want to believe that evolution stopped 100,000 years ago. He stated that he did not agree with this view and that human differences are not trivial.[66]

[edit] Other statements •

Watson has repeatedly supported genetic screening and genetic engineering in public lectures and interviews, arguing that stupidity is a disease and the "really stupid" bottom 10% of people should be cured.[67] He has also suggested that beauty could be genetically engineered, saying "People say it would be terrible if we made all girls pretty. I think it would be great."[67]

•

He has been quoted in The Sunday Telegraph as stating: "If you could find the gene which determines sexuality and a woman decides she doesn't want a

homosexual child, well, let her."[68] The biologist Richard Dawkins wrote a letter to The Independent claiming that Watson's position was misrepresented by The Sunday Telegraph article, and that Watson would equally consider the possibility of having a heterosexual child to be just as valid as any other reason for abortion, to emphasise that Watson is in favor of allowing choice.[69] •

On the issue of obesity, Watson has also been quoted as saying: "Whenever you interview fat people, you feel bad, because you know you're not going to hire them."[70]

•

Watson also had quite a few disagreements with Craig Venter regarding his use of EST fragments while Venter worked at NIH. Venter went on to found Celera genomics and continued his feud with Watson through the privately funded venture. Watson was even quoted as calling Venter "Hitler."[71]

•

While speaking at a conference in 2000, Watson had suggested a link between skin color and sex drive, hypothesizing that dark-skinned people have stronger libidos.[70][72] His lecture, complete with slides of bikini-clad women, argued that extracts of melanin — which give skin its color — had been found to boost subjects' sex drive. "That's why you have Latin lovers," he said, according to people who attended the lecture. "You've never heard of an English lover. Only an English patient." [73]