L1537c01.pdf

CHAPTER

1

Oil Spills: Why Do They Happen and How Often? Major oil spills attract the attention of the public and the media. In recent years, this attention has created a global awareness of the risks of oil spills and the damage they do to the environment. However, oil is a necessity in our industrial society, and a major sustainer of our lifestyle. Most of the energy used in Canada and the United States is for transportation that runs on oil and petroleum products. According to trends in energy usage, this is not likely to decrease much in the future. Industry uses oil and petroleum derivatives to manufacture such vital products as plastics, fertilizers, and chemical feedstocks, which will still be required in the future. In fact, the production and consumption of oil and petroleum products are increasing worldwide and the threat of oil pollution is increasing accordingly. The movement of petroleum from the oil fields to the consumer involves as many as 10 to 15 transfers between many different modes of transportation including tankers, pipelines, railcars, and tank trucks. Oil is stored at transfer points and at terminals and refineries along the route. Accidents can happen during any of these transportation steps or storage times. Obviously, an important part of protecting the environment is ensuring that there are as few spills as possible. Both government and industry are working to reduce the risk of oil spills, with the introduction of strict new legislation and stringent operating codes. Industry has invoked new operating and maintenance procedures to reduce accidents that lead to spills. Intensive training programs have been developed to reduce the potential for human error. There are also many deterrents to oil spills, including government fines and the high cost of cleanup. In Canada, it costs an average of $20 to clean up each litre of oil spilled. In the United States, these costs average about $100 per litre spilled. The average cost of cleanup worldwide ranges from $20 to $200 per litre, depending on the type of oil and where it is spilled. Cleaning up oil on shorelines is usually the most expensive cleanup process.

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Photo 1

The Amoco Cadiz sinking off the coast of France in 1978. (International Maritime Organization)

How Often Do Spills Occur? Oil spills are a frequent occurrence, particularly because of the heavy use of oil and petroleum products in our daily lives. About 260,000 tons of oil and petroleum products are used in Canada every day. The United States uses about 10 times this amount and, worldwide, about 10 million tons are used per day. Most domestic oil production in Canada is from approximately 50,000 oil wells in Alberta and Saskatchewan. There are 22 oil refineries in Canada, 5 of which are classified as large. Canada imports about 130,000 tons of crude oil or other products per day but exports about 220,000 tons per day, mostly to the United States. In the United States, more than half of the approximately 2.6 million tons of oil and petroleum products used per day is imported, primarily from Saudi Arabia, Canada, and Venezuela. About 40% of the daily demand in the U.S. is for automotive gasoline and about 15% is for diesel fuel used in transportation. About 40% of the energy used in the United States comes from petroleum, 35% from natural gas, and 24% from coal. Spill statistics are collected by a number of agencies in Canada and the United States. In Canada, provincial offices collect data and Environment Canada maintains a database of spills. In the United States, the Coast Guard maintains a database of spills into navigable waters, while state agencies keep statistics on spills on land that are sometimes gathered into national statistics. The Minerals Management Service (MMS) in the United States maintains records of spills from offshore exploration and production activities. ©2000 by CRC Press LLC

Photo 2

Most oil spillage occurs on land and comes from a variety of facilities, including refineries such as this one. (Environment Canada)

It can sometimes be misleading to compare oil spill statistics, however, because different methods are used to collect the data. In general, statistics on oil spills are difficult to obtain and any data set should be viewed with caution. The spill volume or amount is the most difficult to determine or estimate. For example, in the case of a vessel accident, the exact volume in a given compartment may be known before the accident, but the remaining oil may have been transferred to other ships immediately after the accident. Some spill accident data banks do not include the amounts burned, if and when that occurs, whereas others include all the oil lost by whatever means. Sometimes the exact character or physical properties of the oil lost are not known and this leads to different estimations of the amount lost. Reporting procedures vary in different jurisdictions and organizations, such as government or private companies. Minimum spill amounts that must be reported according to federal regulations in Canada and the U.S. vary from 400 to 8000 L, depending on the product spilled. Spill statistics compiled in the past are less reliable than more recent data because few agencies or individuals collected spill statistics before about 1975. The number of spills reported also depends on the minimum size or volume of the spill. In both Canada and the United States, most oil spills reported are more than 4000 L (about 1000 gallons). In Canada, there are about 12 such oil spills every day, of which only about one is spilled into navigable waters. These 12 spills amount to about 40 tons of oil or petroleum product. In the United States, there are about 25 spills per day into navigable waters and an estimated 75 spills on land.

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Photo 3

The Kirki leaks oil after losing its bow section. (Oil Spill Response Limited)

Despite the large number of spills, only a small percentage of oil used in the world is actually spilled. Oil spills in Canada and the United States are summarized in Figures 1 and 2 in terms of the volume of oil spilled and the actual number of spills. In terms of oil spills, it can be seen from these figures that there are certainly differences between the two countries. There are more spills into navigable waters in the United States proportionately than in Canada because more oil is imported by sea and more fuel is transported by barge. In fact, the largest volume of oil spilled in water in the U.S. comes from barges, while the largest number of spills comes from vessels other than tankers, bulk carriers, or freighters. In Canada, most spills take place on land and this accounts for a high volume of oil spilled. Pipeline spills account for the highest volume of oil spilled. In terms of the actual number of spills, most oil spills happen at petroleum production facilities, wells, production collection facilities, and battery sites. On water, the

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Figure 1

Summary of typical annual Canadian spills.

greatest volume of oil spilled comes from marine or refinery terminals, although the largest number of spills is from the same source as in the U.S. — vessels other than tankers, bulk carriers, or freighters. The sources of oil spills, the types of oil spilled into the sea, and the causes of spills from any type of ship or vessel worldwide are shown in Figure 3. Half of the oil spilled in the seas is the runoff of oil and fuel from land-based sources, usually from wastewater. Much lubricating oil finds its way into wastewater, which is often discharged directly into the sea. About 24% of oil spilled into the sea comes from the transportation sector, which includes tankers, freighters, barges, and other vessels. Natural sources of oil constitute about 11% of the input. Natural sources include

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Figure 2

Summary of spills into navigable waters in U.S. (typical annual spills).

the many natural “seeps” or discharges from oil-bearing strata on the ocean floor that reach the surface. Atmospheric sources constitute 13% of oil pollution in the sea. This pollution is the result of hydrocarbons in the air from a variety of sources and causes such as inefficient combustion. Much of the material is re-precipitated onto land and subsequently ends up in the sea. As shown in Figure 3, most oils spilled into the sea worldwide are fuels (48%) and then crude oils (29%). Fuels consist primarily of Bunker oils and intermediate fuel oils (IFO) which consist of Bunker oils mixed with fuels such as diesel. Figure 3 also shows that grounding is the leading cause of oil spills from vessels (26%),

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Photo 4

Spills from pipelines constitute a large amount of spillage on land and near shore. (Oil Spill Response Limited)

followed by collision at 22%. Some other accidental causes of oil spills are explosion/fire (9%), ramming (9%), and sinking (7%), with human error (5%) and mechanical failure (2%) causing the least number of spills. A list of the largest oil spills in the last 30 years is provided in Table 1. Data are derived from Environment Canada, the Oil Spill Intelligence Report, the general literature on oil spills, the United States Coast Guard, and industry associations such as the International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation (ITOPF) and the American Petroleum Institute (API). The spills are listed according to their volume, beginning with the largest spill to date — the release of oil during the Gulf War in 1991. There have been several large oil spills from pipelines, storage tanks, and blowouts at production wells. People often have the misconception that oil spills from tankers are the primary source of oil pollution in the marine environment. While it is true that most of the large spills are from tankers, it must be recognized that these spills still make up less than about 5% of all oil pollution entering the sea. The sheer volume of oil spilled from tankers and the high profile given these incidents in the media have contributed to this misconception. In fact, as stated earlier, half of the oil spilled in the seas is the runoff of oil and fuel from land-based sources rather than from accidental spills. In conclusion, it is important to study spill incidents from the past to learn how the oil affected the environment, what cleanup techniques worked and what improvements can be made, and to identify the gaps in technology. Photographs of many of the incidents listed in Table 1 appear throughout this book as examples of oil behaviour and cleanup techniques. ©2000 by CRC Press LLC

Figure 3

Statistical summary of sources of oil into the seas worldwide.

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Photo 5

The IXTOC well blowout in Mexican waters is the second largest spill recorded to date. (Environment Canada)

Photo 6

Rapid action to remove remaining oil can prevent further loss as was the case during the Exxon Valdez incident. (Foss Environmental)

©2000 by CRC Press LLC

Table 1

Major Spills

No.

Year

Month/ Day

1 2 3

1991 1979 1979

Jan 26 Jun 5 Jul 19

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

1992 1993 1983 1978 1988 1991 1980 1967 1972 1980 1981 1971 1994 1977 1979 1976 1969 1978 1993

23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

Ship/Incident

Country

Location

Tons (X103)

Kuwait Mexico Off Tobago

Sea Island Gulf of Mexico Caribean Sea

800 470 300

Mar 2 Feb 4 Aug 6 Mar 16 Nov 10 Apr 11 Aug 11 Mar 18 Dec 19 Feb 23 Aug 20 Dec 7 Oct 25 Feb 23 Nov 15 May 12 Feb 11 May 25 Jan 5

Gulf war IXTOC blowout Atlantic Empress/Aegean Captain Oil well blowout Oil platform blowout Castillo de Bellver Amoco Cadiz Odyssey Haven Oil well blowout Torrey Canyon Sea Star Irene’s Serenade Storage tanks Texaco Denmark Pipeline rupture Hawaiian Patriot Independentza Urquiola Julius Schindler Pipeline rupture Braer

Uzbekistan Iran South Africa France Off Canada Italy Libya England Oman Greece Kuwait Belgium Russia Off USA Turkey Spain Portugal Iran United Kingdom

300 270 260 235 145 140 140 130 125 120 110 107 105 100 100 100 100 100 85

1979 1975 1992 1985 1996 1989 1971 1970 1991 1978 1975

Jul 6 Jan 29 Dec 3 Dec 6 Feb 15 Dec 19 Feb 27 Mar 20 May 28 Dec 11 May 13

Storage tanks Jakob Maersk Aegean Sea Nova Sea Empress Kark 5 Wafra Othello ABT Summer Fuel storage tank Epic Colocotronis

Nigeria Portugal Spain Iran United Kingdom Morocco South Africa Sweden Off Angola Rhodesia United States

Fergana Valley Nowruz field Saldanha Bay Brittany North Atlantic Genoa inland Land’s End Gulf of Oman Pylos Shuaybah North Sea Usinsk West of Hawaii Bosporus Strait La Coruna Azores Ahvazin Shetland Islands Forcados Oporto La Coruna Persian Gulf Milford Haven Atlantic Ocean Atlantic Ocean Vaxholm Atlantic Ocean Salisbury West of Puerto Rico

34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43

1960 1978 1992 1974 1983 1978 1965 1983 1968 1974

Dec 6 Jun 12 Apr 17 Nov 9 Jan 7 Dec 31 May 22 Dec 9 Jun 13 Aug 9

Sinclair Petrolore Fuel storage tank Katina P Yuyo Maro 10 Assimi Andros Patria Heimvard Peracles GC World Glory Metula

Brazil Japan South Africa Japan Oman Spain Japan Qatar South Africa Chile

44 45

1975 1970

Jan 13 Jun 1

British Ambassador Ennerdale

Japan Seychelles

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Sendai Indian Ocean Tokyo Ras al Had Bay of Biscay Hokkaido Persian Gulf Indian Ocean Straits of Magellan Iwo Jima Indian Ocean

85 80 75 75 72 70 70 70 70 65 60 60 60 60 54 53 50 50 48 48 47 46 46

Table 1

Major Spills (Continued)

No.

Year

Month/ Day

46

1994

Oct 21

Thanassis A

Hong Kong

47

1978

Dec 7

Tadotsu

Indonesia

48 49

1968 1974

Feb 29 Dec 18

Mandoil Storage tank

United States Japan

50

1979

Aug 26

Patianna

51

1972

Jun 11

Trader

United Arab Emirates Greece

52 53

1989 1980

Mar 24 Dec 29

54 55 56 57 58 59

1988 1973 1978 1976 1978 1996

Apr 22 Jun 10 Dec 14 Feb 6 Oct 19 Mar 7

Exxon Valdez Juan Antonio Lavalleja Athenian Venture Napier Storage tank St. Peter Pipeline rupture Unknown tanker

60 61 62 63

1979 1977 1977 1986

Nov 1 Jan 17 Feb 7 Oct 3

64

1972

Jan 28

Burmah Agate Irene's Challenge Borag Abkatun Production well blowout Golden Drake

65 66

1979 1970

Apr 28 Dec 28

Gino Chryssi

67 68 69

1970 1968 1971

May 5 Feb 8 Mar

Polycommander Pegasus Texaco Oklahoma

70

1969

Nov 25

Panocean

71 72 73 74 75 76

1977 1976 1976 1986 1977 1979

May 27 Apr 25 Jul 28 Apr 27 Dec 16 Aug 16

77

1976

Dec 30

Caribbean Sea Ellen Conway Cretan Star Storage tank -Texaco Venpet & Venoil Ioannis Angelicoussis Grand Zenith

78

1969

Nov 25

Keo

79

1997

Oct 15

Evoikos

North West Atlantic North West Atlantic Singapore

80

1982

Nov 26

Haralabos

Eygpt

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Ship/Incident

Country

United States Algeria Off Canada Chile United States Colombia Turkey Mexico United States Pacific Ocean Taiwan Mexico North West Atlantic France North West Atlantic Spain North Atlantic North West Atlantic Taiwan East Pacific Algeria Indian Ocean Panama South Africa Angola

Location South China Sea Straits of Malacca Oregon Mizushima refinery Dubai Mediterranean Sea Valdez, AK Arzew Atlantic Ocean Off west coast Puerto Rico Pacific Ocean Mardin Bay of Campeche Galveston Chilung Bay of Campeche

Tons (X103) 46 44 43 39 38 37 37 37 37 36 36 36 35 35 35 35 34 34 34

Brittany

33 33

Vigo North Atlantic

32 32 32

North West Pacific

32

Arzew Bahia las Minas Malongo

32 31 31 30 30 30 30 30

Straits of Singapore Ras Gharib

29 27

Table 1

Major Spills (Continued)

No.

Year

Month/ Day

81

1977

Mar 22

82 83 84

1979 1972 1980

Jan 8 Apr 1 Jan 17

85 86 87

1976 1977 1993

88 89 90

Ship/Incident

Country Norway

Dec 15 Oct 28 Jan 21

Offshore Platform — Ekofisk Bravo Betelgeuse Guiseppe Guiljetti Funiwa #5 well blowout Argo Merchant Al Sabbiyah Maersk Navigator

1983 1989 1994

May 15 Dec 29 Jan 24

Bellona Aragon Cosmos A.

Sweden Portugal Hong Kong

91 92

1967 1972

Oct 1 Jun 22

Offshore pipeline Storage tank

USA USA

93

1981

Mar 29

Cavo Cambanos

Spain

94 95 96 97 98

1977 1975 1967 1975 1993

Aug 10 Jan 12 Sep Apr 4 Mar 6

Turkey South Africa

99 100

1968 1976

Nov 3 Feb 16

USSR 1 Master Stathios R.C. Stoner Spartan Lady Omsk-Irkutsk pipeline Spyros Lemos Nan Yang

101 102

1967 1985

Oct Nov 6

103 104

1991 1983

Jul 21 Nov 26

105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112

1970 1980 1968 1980 1966 1979 1970 1983

Apr 17 Jan 16 May 5 Mar 7 Feb 25 Mar 2 Jan 31 Nov 17

113 114 115

1976 1976 1965

116 117 118 119 120

1970 1981 1969 1976 1990

Giorgio Fassio Ray Richley well blowout Kirki PNOC Basilan

North Sea

Tons (X103) 27

Ireland Bantry Bay North East Atlantic Nigeria off Forcados

27 27 26

USA Japan Indonesia

26 25 24

USA Russia Spain Hong Kong Angola USA Australia Philipines

Jun 30 Oct 4 Aug 30

Silver Ocean Salem Andron Tanio Ann Mildred Brovig Messiniaki Frontis Gezina Brovig Storage tank - Shell refinery Al Dammam LSCO Petrochem Arsinoe

Greece USA Philipines

Nov 1 Nov 21 Jan 28 May 26 Jun 8

Marlena Globe Assimi Oil well blowout Storage tank Mega Borg

Italy Lithuania USA USA USA

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Location

South Africa Senegal South Africa France Germany Greece USA Singapore

Nantucket, MA Philippine Sea Strait of Malacca Gothenburg Madeira South China Sea Off Louisiana Schuylkill River, Pa Mediterranean Sea Bosporus Strait Indian Ocean North Pacific Atlantic Ocean West Siberia Vigo South China Sea Atlantic Ocean Ranger, TX Cervantes South China Sea Durban Atlantic Ocean Cape Town Brittany North Sea Crete Puerto Rico Puleu Bukom Agiol Theodoroi Off Louisiana South China Sea Sicily Klaipeda Santa Barbara Hackensack, NJ Gulf of Mexico

24 24 23 22 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 19 19 18 18 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 15 15 15 14 14 13 13

Table 1

Major Spills (Continued)

No.

Year

Month/ Day

121

1971

Dec 2

122 123 124 125

1966 1999 1975 1980

Oct Dec 12 Mar 26 Oct 2

126

1984

127

Ship/Incident

Country

Oct 31

Laban Island well blowout Malmohus Erika Tarik Ibn Ziyad Offshore platform Hasbah 6 Puerto Rican

1975

Jan 6

Showa Maru

Malaysia

128 129 130 131 132

1983 1987 1971 1987 1979

Jan 7 Jun 23 Jun 1 Jul 29 Jan 1

USA France USA USA Venezuela

133 134 135 136 137

1978 1978 1988 1989 1974

Feb 8 Jan 9 Oct 10 Oct 4 Oct 10

Storage tank Fuyoh Maru Santa Augusta Blue Ridge Corpoven well blowout Storage tank Brazilian Marina Century Dawn Pacificos Trojan

138

1977

Nov 2

139 140

1979 1975

Apr 5 Nov 12

141 142 143

1978 1974 1978

Dec 25 Sep 25 Jan 31

144 145 146 147

1990 1996 1972 1990

Jun 20 Nov 23 Aug 21 Aug 6

148 149

1984 1970

Jul 30 Feb 10

150

1972

Sep 6

151 152 153

1978 1970 1970

May 6 Feb 4 Dec 1

154

1987

155 156

1994 1972

Matsushima Maru No. 3 Fortune Olympic Alliance Kosmas M. Eleftheria Storage tank transfer loss Storage tank Storage tank Oswego Guardian Sea Spirit

Location

Tons (X103)

Iran

Persian Gulf

13

Tanzania France Brazil Saudia Arabia

Dar Es Salaam Bay of Biscay Rio de Janeiro Persian Gulf

13 12 12 12

USA

San Francisco, CA Strait of Malacca Newark Bay, NJ Le Havre Virgin Islands Off Florida El Tigre

12

USA Brazil Singapore South Africa Philipines Japan Singapore United Kingdom Turkey Sierra Leone USA Russia Czech Republic South Africa Gibralter

Los Angelos San Sebastiao Singapore Strait Indian Ocean South China Sea Philippine Sea

English Channel Asbas Atlantic Ocean Arthur Kill, NJ

12 11 11 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 9

USA USA

Nefteyugansk Litinov Indian Ocean Straits of Gibralter Cameron, LA Louisiana

Canada

Nipisi, Alberta

9

United Kingdom Canada USA

Norfolk Nova Scotia Louisiana

9 8 8

Oct 10

Alvenus Oil well blowout Chevron Main Pass Pipeline rupture Nipisi Eleni V Arrow Offshore platform Shell #26 Yum II/Zapoteca

Mexico

8

Mar 2 Jan 1

Oil well blowout General MC Meiggs

Uzbekistan USA

Bahia de Campeche Fergana Valley Juan de Fuca, WA

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9 9

8 8

Table 1

Major Spills (Continued)

No.

Year

Month/ Day

157

1992

Jun 1

158 159 160 161

1977 1985 1990 1968

Oct 29 Apr Jun 28 Mar 3

162 163 164 165 166

1983 1993 1972 1974 1989

Sep 27 Oct 1 Oct 25 Apr 7 Jan 16

167

1990

Dec 27

168 169 170 171 172 173 174

1997 1976 1980 1979 1997 1966 1973

Jan 18 Oct 14 Nov 22 Mar 15 Jan 2 May 15 Aug 8

175

1974

Feb 13

Ship/Incident Komineft Vozey pipeline Al-Rawdatain Southern Cross Chenki Ocean Eagle Sivand Frontier Express Barge Ocean 80 Sea Spirit UMTB American Barge 283 Kuybyshev-Perm pipeline Bona Fulmar Boehlen Georgia Kurdistan Nakhodka Fina Norvege Trinimar 327 well blowout Sea Spray

Country

Location

Tons (X103)

Russia

Izhma

8

Italy Algeria Eygpt USA

8 8 8 8

United Kingdom Korea USA USA USA

Genoa Skikda Suez Canal San Juan, Puerto Rico Humber Estuary Yellow Sea Arthur Kill, NJ Los Angeles Off Alaska

8 7 7 7 7

Russia

Cormova

7

France France USA Canada Japan Italy Venezuela

Dover Strait Atlantic Ocean Louisiana Nova Scotia Japan Sea Sardinia Guiria

7 7 7 6 6 6 6

Vietnam

South China Sea

6

Some Oil Spill Facts • About 10 million tons of oil and petroleum products are used worldwide each day. Despite the large number of oil spills, however, only a small percentage of oil used is actually spilled. • While most of the large oil spills in the marine environment are from tankers, these spills make up less than about 5% of all oil pollution entering the sea. Most oil pollution in the oceans comes from the run-off of oil and fuel from land-based sources rather than from accidental spills. • In Canada, about 12 spills of more than 4000 L are reported each day, of which only about one spill is into navigable waters. In the U.S., about 25 such spills occur each day into navigable waters and about 75 occur on land. • 30 to 50% of oil spills are directly or indirectly caused by human error, with 20 to 40% of these caused by equipment failure or malfunction. • The average cost of cleaning up oil spills worldwide varies from $20 to $200 per litre of oil spilled.

©2000 by CRC Press LLC

Photo 7

Photo 8

Oil and oiled weeds are shown here, a result of the Persian Gulf War spill, the largest spill recorded to date. (Oil Spill Response Limited)

The Haven burns off the coast of Italy. (Oil Spill Response Limited)

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Photo 9

Tugboats surround the Sea Empress — grounded and leaking oil — in an attempt to refloat the stricken tanker at high tide off the coast of England. (Oil Spill Response Limited).

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Photo 10

The tanker Burmah Agate catches fires after colliding with another ship. (International Maritime Organization).

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