Invertebrates_2ed_-_brusca_e_brusca.pdf

INVERTEBRATES

SECOND EDITION 2003

Richard C. Brusca Gary J. Brusca

2

Clade 2

Clade 1

3

4

6

Illustration Credits

Table of Contents Photographs: Chapter 3 A common land snail, Helix sp. Courtesy of

G. McDonald. Siliceous spicules from a demosponge, Tethya aurantia. Courtesy of L. Friesen. Chapter 8 Acontiate anemones, Metridium farcimen. Courtesy of L. Friesen. Chapter 12 A rhabditid hookworm, Necator arnericanus. 0A. M. Siegelman/Visuals Unlimited. Chapter 13 A polychaete worm, Chaetopterus variopedatus. Courtesy of L. Friesen. Chapter 16 A Costa Rican land crab. Courtesy of L. Friesen. Chapter 17 Mating damselflies, Argia vivida. Courtesy of L. Friesen. Chapter 20 The pismo clam, Tivela stultorum. Courtesy of L. Friesen. Chapter 23 Lightbulb tunicates, Clavelina hunstmani. Courtesy of L. Friesen. Chapter 24 Eye-to-eye with a mantis shrimp (Crustacea: Stomatopoda). Courtesy of L. Friesen. Chapter 6

Opener: The ctenophore Lampocteis cruentiventer; G. Matsumoto/OMBARI. 1.1 : All after Jenkins, in Lipps and Signor 1992. 1.3A,D-H: By Marianne Collins, from S. J. Gould's Wonderful Life, W. W. Norton, 1989. 1.5A,C-F: By the authors. 1SB: 0Painet.

Chapter 1

Opener: Nudibranchs (Flabellina telja) on a gorgonian; courtesy of A. Kerstitch. 2.3A: From Margulis 1981. 2.38: After Hadzi 1963. 2.3C: From Hyman 1940.

Chapter 2

Opener: A caridean shrimp, Gnafhophyllum panamense; courtesy of A. Kerstitch. 3.1 : Courtesy of J. DeMartini. 3.1 B: 0P. W. Johnson/BPS*. 3.3B: 0S. K. Webster/

Chapter 3

BPS. 3.3C-E: Courtesy of G. McDonald. 3.3F: By the authors. 3.4B,C: Courtesy of 0. Feuerbacher. 3.9A: Courtesy of R. Emlet. 3.98: Courtesy of P. Bergquist. 3.7C: After Brusca and Brusca 1978. 3.8F,C: From Brusca and Brusca 1978. 3.9C: By the authors. 3.9D: Courtesy of G. McDonald. 3.10A: From Brusca and Brusca 1978. 3.1OB: After Sherman and Sherman 1976. 3.10C: From Lutze and Wefer 1980. 3.10D: Courtesy of G. McDonald. 3.10E: Courtesy of P. Fankboner. 3.13A,B: Courtesy of G. McDonald. 3.13C: Courtesy of J. Haig. 3.13D: From Sanders 1963. 3.14A: After Fauchald and Jumars 1979. 3.14B: Courtesy of G. McDonald. 3.14C: Courtesy of K. Banse. 3.1 5: Courtesy of G. G. Warner. 3.16A,B: After Fauchald and Jumars 1979. 3.16C: By the authors. 3.1 7A,B: Courtesy of G. "BPS = Biological Photo Service

McDonald. 3.1 7C: Courtesy of C. DiGiorgio. 3.1 7E: By the authors. 3.18: Courtesy of P. Fankboner. 3.1 9A-C: Courtesy of P. Fankboner. 3.19D,C: Courtesy of A. Kerstitch. 3.19E: After Caldwell and Dingle. 3.19F: Courtesy of T. Case. 3.19H: Courtesy of D. Perry. 3.22B: After Mercer 1959. 3.22D: From Jurand and Selman 1969. 3.23A: After Wilson and Webster 1974. 3.23B: After Goodrich 1945. 3.23D: After Snodgrass 1952. 3.26A: Courtesy of G. McDonald. 3.26B: By the authors. 3.26C: Courtesy of P. Fankboner. 3.26D-C: After Barnes 1980. 3.26H: 0P. J. Bryant/BPS. 3.28A: After Kuhll938.3.28B: After Gibson 1972. 3.28C: Photo by S. Riseman. 3.30: Courtesy of L. Friesen. 3.31B: After Prosser and Brown 1961. 3.31C: Courtesy of T. and M. Eisner (top); 0P. J. Bryant/BPS (bottom). 3.32A: After Wells 1968. 3.34A: 0J. Morin. 3.34B: Courtesy of M. K. Wicksten. 3.34C: By the authors. 3.34D: Courtesy of G. McDonald. Opener: Sea urchin (Lytechinus pictus) embryo, 2-cell stage; 0RMF/Visuals Unlimited. 4.1 3C: After Hyman 1940. 4.14: After Butschli. 4:15A: Modified from Pearse et al. 4.15C: After Hollande 1952 [Trait&de Zoologie V, 111. 4.15D,C,H: After Hyman 1940. 4.15E: After various sources. 4.15F: After Frenzel 1892. 4.29: After Jagersten 1955. 4.20: After Goodrich 1946.

Chapter 4

Chapter 5 Opener: Courtesy of D. Lipscomb and K. Kivimaki. 5.1A: 0P. W. Johnson/BPS. 5.1 B: 0Alfred Owczarzak/BPS. 5.1C: Courtesy of D. Lipscomb and K. Kivimaki. 5.1 D: 0J. Solliday/BPS. 5.1 E: 0M. Kreutz/micro*scope (http:/ /www.mbl.edu/microscope). 5.1 F: 0D. Patterson and M. Farmer/micro*scope. 5.1C: Courtesy of M. G. Schultz/Centers for Disease Control. 5.1 H: 0A. M. Siegelman/Visuals Unlimited. 5.1 I: Courtesy D. Lipscomb and K. Kivimaki. 5.1J:00. R. Anderson/micro*scope. 5.2: Modified from Sleigh 1989. 5.3E: Courtesy of D. Lipscomb. 5.4A: Courtesy of B. S. C. Leadbeater. 5.4B: 0G. F. Leedale/Biophoto Associates. 5.4C: Courtesy of G. Brugerolle. 5.4D: Courtesy of K. Vickerman. 5.5: After Raikov 1994.568: Courtesy of L. Tetley. 5.6C: 0M. Bahr and D. Patterson/ micro*scope.5.8: From Bricheux and Brugerolle 1987. Courtesy of G. Brugerolle. 5.9A: After Chen 1950. 5.9B: 0D. Patterson/micro*scope. 5.1 1B: After Brugerolle et al. 1979. 5.1 1C: Courtesy of L.Tetley and K. Vickerman. 5.13A: 0E. B. Small/BPS. 5.1 3B-D: Courtesy of D. Lipscomb and K. Kivimaki. 5.13E: 0P. W. Johnson/BPS. 5.13F: Courtesy D. Lipscomb. 5.1 3C: 0M. Kreutz/micro*scope. 5.15:A,B: After Sleigh 1973. 5.15C: Redrawn from Grelll973, after Parducz 1954. 5.15H: Redrawn from Grelll973. 5.1 7A: 0G. Antipa. 5.1 7B: 0M. Kreutz/micro*scope (http:/ /www.mbl.edu/ microscope). 5.18: After Sleigh 1973a. 5.19B,C,D: Redrawn from Grell 1983, after Bardele and Grell 1967. 5.20A Courtesy

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ILLUSTRATION CREDITS

of D. Lipscomb and K. Kivimaki. 5.20B: From Lynn and Didier 1978, courtesy D. Lynn. 5.20C: 0M. Kreutz/ micro*scope. 5.22: 0R. Brons/BPS. 5.23A,B: Redrawn from Grell 1973, after Grell 1953. 5.23C,D: Redrawn from Grell 1973, after Mugge 1957. 5.23E: After Grelll973.5.24B: After Marquardt and Demaree 1985.5.24C: Courtesy of D. Lipscomb and K. Kivimaki. 5.25: After Grell 1973. 5.26: After Miller et al. 1985. 5.27A: After Mackinnon and Hawes 1961. 5.278: 0P. W. Johnson/BPS. 5.27C: 0T. Hazen/Visuals Unlimited. 5.28A: After Grell 1973. 5.28B: After Spector 1984, from a drawing by J. Holt. 5.29A,C: Courtesy of D. Lipscomb and K. Kivimaki. 5.29B: 0D. Wrobel/BPS. 5.30: After Sleigh 1989.5.31A,B: 0The Natural History Museum, London. 5.31 C: 0M. Geisen/The Natural History Museum, London. 5.32B: 0D. Patterson/micro*scope. 5.32C: Courtesy of D. Lipscomb and K. Kivimaki. 5.32D: 0D. Patterson/ micro*scope.5.32F: 0D. Patterson and A. Laderman/ micro*scope.5.33: After Grell 1973. 5.34C: 0Robert Brons/ BPS. 5.358: Redrawn from Grelll973, from film E-1643 by Netzel and Heunert 1971. 5.36A: 0J. Solliday/BPS. 5.368: From Grelll973, after Haeckel. 5.36C: 0R. Brons/BPS. 5.36D: Courtesy of D. Lipscomb and K. Kivimaki. 5.37: After Margulis and Schwartz 1988, from a drawing by L. Meszoly. 5.38B: 0M. Schliwa/Visuals Unlimited. 5.39A: After Sleigh 1973. 5.39B: Redrawn from Grell 1973, after Hollande and Enjumet 1953. 5.40A 0R. Brons/BPS. 5.40B: 0D. Caron/ micro*scope. 5.41 0D. Patterson/microscope. 5.42 Redrawn from Grell 1973, after Myers 1943. 5.43B: After Grelll980. 5.43C: After Schmidt and Roberts 1989, from a drawing by William Ober. 5.44: After Sleigh 1989. 5.45A,C: After Grell 1973.5.45B: After Sleigh 1989.5.46A: Courtesy of D. Lipscomb and K. Kivimaki. 5.46B: 0Carolina Biological Supply Co./Visuals Unlimited. 5.46C: 0RMF/Visuals Unlimited. 5.47A: Redrawn from Grell 1973, after Kudo and Daniels 1963.5.47B: Courtesy of D. Lipscomb and K. Kivimaki. 5.48: 0D. Patterson and M. Farmer/micro*scope. 5.49: 0D. Patterson/micro*scope (http:/ /www.mbl.edu/ microscope). 5.50:Courtesy of D. Lipscomb and K. Kivimaki. 5.51 :After Sleigh in House 1979, modified from Margulis 1970. Chapter 6 Opener: Close-up of a sponge in Channel Islands National Park, CA; 0J. Mondragon. 6.1A: 0D. Wrobel/BPS 6.1B: 0 S. K. Webster/BPS. 6.1C: Courtesy of A. Kerstitch. 6.1 D: By the authors. 6.1 E: 0D. W. Fawcett/Visuals Unlimited. 6.1 F: From Bergquist 1978. 6.1C: 0J. Mondragon. 6.1 H: 0Robert Brons/BPS. 6.2A: After Hartman 1963. 6.2B: After Bergquist 1978. 6.2C,D: After Reiswig 1975. 6.3: From Bayer and Owre 1968.6.4A: From Bayer and Owre 1968.6.4B: After Sherman and Sherman 1976.6.4C: 0R. Brons/BPS. 6.5: From Bergquist 1978. 6.6A: After Bergquistl978. 6.6B: After Reiswig 1979.6.7A-D,I: After Connes et al. 1971.6.7E,C: From Bayer and Owre 1968.6.7F: After Barnes 1980.6.7H: After Brill 1973. 6.8A-C: After Bergquist 1978. 6.8D: After Hyman 1940. 6.9A: After Bergquist 1978. 6.9B,C: From Bergquist 1978. 6.1 OA,C: In part from Bergquist 1978; Photo of asterose microscleres by B. Beaumont, courtesy of P. Bergquist. 6.1 OB-D: After Hyman 1940. 6.1 OF: After Hartman 1969. 6.10C: Courtesy of P. Bergquist. 6.1 1: Photos courtesy of J. Vacelet. 6.1 2A: From Bayer and Owre 1968. 6.1 2B,C: After Hyman 1940.6.1 3A,B: After Brien and Meewis 1938.6.1 3C: From Reiswig 1970. 6.13D: From Reiswig 1976. 6.14 After Hyman 1940. 6.1 5 A After Hyman 1940.6.1 5B: After Bergquist 1978.6.15C: After Levi 1956.6.15D: From Bergquist 1978.6.16B-F: From Bayer and Owre 1968.6.1 7A: 0D. J. Wrobel/BPS. 6.20: After Bergquist 1978. Chapter 7 Opener: The placozoan Trichoplax adkaerens; 0R. Brons/BPS. 7.1A,B: 0R. Brons/BPS. 7.1C: Adapted from Grell. 7.1 D: Redrawn from McConnaughey 1963. 7.1 E: After Lapan and Morowitz 1972. 7.1 F,C: After Atkins 1933. 7.2B: After Lapan and Morowitz 1972. 7.3A: Redrawn from Hyman 1940. 7.3B,C: After Lapan and Morowitz 1972. 7.3D: Redrawn from McConnaughey 1963; after Nouvell948. 7.5: After Hyman 1940. 7.6: Redrawn from Hyman 1940. 7.7: Redrawn from Hyman 1940.

Chapter 8 Opener: The sea pen PfiZosarcus undulatus; courtesy of A. Kerstitch. 8.1A: 0R. Campbell/BPS. 8.1B: 0R. Brons/ BPS. 8.1 C,D: Courtesy of L. Friesen. 8.1 E,C,I: 0D. J. Wrobel/BPS. 8.1 F: 0H. W. Pratt/BPS. 8.1 H: By the authors. 8.1J: 0J. Mondragon. 8.1 K: Courtesy of G. McDonald. 8.2: From Bayer and Owre 1968.8.3: From Bayer and Owre 1968. 8.4: From Bayer and Owre 1968.8.5A-E: From Bayer and Owre 1968.8.6A: After Bayer and Owre 1968, with modification to mouth area. 8.8A-C,E,F: From Bayer and Owre 1968. 8.8D,C: 0J. Morin. 8.8H: From Alvarifio 1983. 8.81: 0D. J. Wrobel/BPS. 8.9: From Bayer and Owre 1968.8.10: From Fields and Mackie 1971.8.1 1A-E: From Bayer and Owre 1968. 8.1 1F: Courtesy of A. Kerstitch. 8.1 1C,H: 0J. Morin. 8.1 2A,B,D: From Bayer and Owre 1968.8.1 2C: By the authors. 8.1 2E: Courtesy of G. McDonald. 8.14A: From Bayer and Owre 1968.8.14B: After Barnes 1987.8.15: After Larson 1976. 8.16: Courtesy of F. Bayer and W. R. Brown, Smithsonian Institution. 8.1 7: After Cairns 1981.8.18: From Bayer and Owre 1968.8.19: After Mackie and Passano 1968.8.20: From Bayer and Owre 1968.8.21 B: After Hyman 1940.8.21 D: From Dunn and Bakus 1977.8.21 E: Courtesy of C. Birkeland. 8.22: 0D. J. Wrobel/BPS. 8.23: After Sherman and Sherman 1976. 8.24A: From Holstein and Tardent. 8.24B-E: From Mariscal 1974.8.25: After Mariscal, in Muscatine and Lenhoff 1974. 8.26A-D: From Hamner and Dunn 1980.8.26E: Courtesy of C. Birkeland. 8.27A: 0D. J. Wrobel/BPS. 8.27B: Courtesy of C. Birkeland. 8.28: After Russell-Hunter 1979. 8.29A, B: Courtesy of D. Fautin. 8.30: From Cairns and Barnard 1984.8.31A: After Bayer and Owre 1968. 8.31 B: Courtesy of J. Smith. 8.31 C: 0D. J. Wrobel/BPS. 8.32A: After Wells 1968.8.32B: After Barnes 1987.8.32C: From Bayer and Owre 1968.8.33: From Mariscal 1974.8.34A,B: After Hyman 1940. 8.34C,D,F: From Bayer and Owre 1968.8.34E: After Conant 1900.8.35: From Bayer and Owre 1968.8.36: From Stretch and King 1980. 8.37: From Bayer and Owre 1968.8.39: From Bayer and Owre 1968.8.40A,C: 0Robert Brons/BPS. 8.40B,D: Courtesy of S. Keen and B. Cameron. 8.41A,B: From Bayer and Owre 1968. 8.41 C: After Calder 1982. 8.42A: 0D. J. Wrobel/BPS. 8.428: From Bayer and Owre 1968. Chapter 9 Opener: The lobate ctenophore Bolinopsis; 0J. Morin. 9.1A,B,E,F,C: 0D. J. Wrobel/BPS. 9.1 C,D: G. Matsumoto/O MBARI. 9.1 H: 0J. Morin. 9.2B,C,F,L: After Harbison and Madin 1983.9.2E,K: After Mayer 1912.9.2C: After Komai 1934.9.2H: After Bayer and Owre 1968.9.3A: From Bayer and Owre 1968. 9.5: After Hyman 1940. 9.6A: After Bayer and Owre 1968. 9.6B: After Franc 1978.9.6C-E: Courtesy of P. Fankboner. 9.7: From Mills and Miller 1984. 9.8A: After Komai 1922.9.8B: After Hyman 1940.9.9A: After Hyman 1940.9.9C: From Bayre and Owre 1968.9.10: After Hyman 1940.9.11: After Hyman 1940. Chapter 10 Opener: Courtesy of L. Friesen. 10.1A: 0P. J. Bryant/BPS. 10.1 B: 0M. Hooge. 10.1C: 0S. K. Webster/BPS. 10.1D: From the photo collection of Dr. James P. McVey, NOAA Sea Grant Program. 10.1 E: 0J. Solliday/BPS. 10.1F: 0 R. Brons/BPS. lO.lC,H: 0J. Morin. 10.1 I: Courtesy of L. Friesen. 10.3A,E: Courtesy of L. Friesen. 10.4B: After Brown 1950. 10.4C: After Hyman 1951. 10.5A: After C. Bedini and F. Papi, in Riser and Morse 1974. 10.5B: After Bayer and Owre 1968. 10.6A: After Sherman and Sherman. 10.7A: After L. T. Threadgold, 1963, Q. J. Microsc. Sci. 104. 10.7B: After Barth and Broshears 1982. 10.8A: After Schelll982. 10.8B,C: After Marquardt and Demaree 1985. 10.8D: Courtesy of J. DeMartini. 10.9A,B: Redrawn from Hyman 1951. 10.9C-E: Courtesy of J. DeMartini. 10.9F: Courtesy of L. Friesen. 10.10: After Hyman 1951. 10.1 1A-D: After Russell-Hunter 1979. 10.1 1E: After Hyman 1951. 10.1 1F: 0M. Hooge. 10.12: After Bayer and Owre 1968. 10.13B-D: After Hyman 1951. 10.14 After Hyman 1951. 10.15: After Hyman 1951. 10.16: From Bayer and Owre 1968.10.1 8A-F: From Bayer and Owre 1968. 10.18C: Courtesy of R. Hochberg. 10.19: After Hyman 1951. 10.20: After Hyman 1951. 10.21A: From Bayer and Owre, after Ivanov 1955. 10.21C: After Hyman 1951. 10.22A: After von Graaf 1904-08. 10.22B,C: From Bayer and Owre 1968. 10.23A: After Boolootian and Stiles 1981. 10.23B: After Hyman 1951,

ILLUSTRATION CREDITS

drawn by Hyman from a photograph in Kato 1940. 10.24 From Bayer and Owre 1968, after Kato 1940. 10.25A: From Bayer and Owre 1968, after Kato 1940. 10.25B: From Bayer and Owre 1968. 10.26: After Hyman 1951. 10.28B: After Barnes 1980, from Smyth and Clegg 1959. 10.28C: After Noble and Noble 1982. 10.29B: Courtesy of J. DeMartini. 10.30A: After Olsen 1974. 10.30B: Adapted from Smyth 1977. 10.31C,D: Courtesy of J. DeMartini. 10.32A: After Marquardt and Demaree 1985. 10.32B: After Noble and Noble 1982. 10.34A: After Ax 1963. 10.34B: After Karling 1974. 10.34C: After Barnes 1980. Opener: The nemertean Baseodiscus mexicanus; Courtesy of 0. Feuerbacher. 11.1A, B: courtesy of P. Fankboner. 11.1C: Courtesy of G. McDonald. 11.1D: 0J. Morin. 11.1 E,F: From Bayer and Owre 1968. 11.1C: After Gibson 198213. 11.2A,B: After Hyman 1951. 11.2C: From Bayer and Owre 1968; after Coe 1943. 11.3: After Gibson 198213. 11.4: Courtesy of S. Stricker. 11SA-D: After Russell-Hunter 1979, based on papers by R. Gibson. 11S E : After Gibson 1982b. 11SF-H: Courtesy of S. Stricker. 11.6: After Gibson 1982b. 11.7: After Hyman 1951. 11.8: After Hyman 1951. 11.9: After Hyman 1951. 1l.lOB,C: From Bayer and Owre 1968. 11.10D: After Hyman 1951. 11.11: After Coe 1934. 11.12: After Hyman 1951. 11.13: After Hyman 1951. 11.14 After Hyman 1951. 11.15A,C: Redrawn from Gibson 1972. 11.15B: After Gontcharoff 1961.

Chapter 11

Chapter 12 Opener: 0R. Brons/BPS. 12.1A-D: After Nogrady 1982. 12.1E: 0R. Brons/BPS. 12.6: After Hyman 1951. 12.8: 0 R. Hochberg. 12.9B,C: After Hyman 1951. 12.9D: After Hummon 1982. 12.9E: OM. Hooge. 12.9F: 0R. Hochberg. 12.11: After Hyman 1951. 12.12A,B: After Higgins 1951. 12.12C: After Hyman 1951. 12.12D: 0R. Hochberg. 12.13: After Hyman 1951. 12.14: After Hyman 1951. 12.15A: 0J. D. Eisenback/BPS. 12.15B: Courtesy of J. DeMartini. 12.15C,D: After Hyman 1951. 12.15E: Redrawn from Meglitsch 1972. 12.15F: 0M. Hooge. 12.15C: 0R. Hochberg. 12.16D: After Hyman 1951.12.16E:Adapted from Lee and Atkinson 1977. 12.17A,C,E: After Hyman 1951. 12.1 7D: After Noble and Noble 1982. 12.17F: After Pennak 1953. 12.18A-C: Based on Sassar and Jenkins 1960. 12.19A: After Hyman 1951. 12.20A: Redrawn from Meglitsch 1972. 12.20B,C: Modified from Hyman 1951. 12.20D: After Noble and Noble 1982. 12.21A,B: From Sherman and Sherman 1976. 12.21C: After Barnes 1980. 12.21D: After Hyman 1951. 12.22: Modified from Boveri 1899. 12.24A: 0A. M. Siegelman/Visuals Unlimited. 12.25A: 0R. Calentine/Visuals Unlimited. 12.25B-F: Adapted from Hyman 1951.12.26A-C: Redrawn from Hyman 1951. 12.26H: Redrawn from Meglitsch 1972. 12.27A: After Hyman 1951. 12.27B: After Storch et al. 1995. 12.27D,E: Redrawn from photographs in Calloway 1982. 12.28B: After Hyman 1951. 12.28C: Redrawn from Hyman 1951, after Lang. 12.29B,C: After Hyman 1951. 12.291): After Noble and Noble 1982, from Cable and Dill. 12.29E: After Yamaguti 1963. 12.31A: After Nielson 1964. 12.31B(left): 0D. J. Wrobel/BPS. 12.31B (right): 0R. Brons/BPS. 12.31C: Courtesy of K. Wasson. 12.31D: After Hyman 1951. 12.32: After Hyman 1951. 12.33A: Courtesy of K. Wasson. 12.33B-D: After Nielson 1971. 12.34 After Sterrer 1982. 12.35A-F: After a sketch supplied by Robert Higgins. 12.35B-D: From Higgins and Kristensen 1986. 12.35E: Courtesy of R. Kristensen. 12.36: From Funch and

Kristensen 1995, photos 0R. Kristensen. Opener: The polychaete Aphrodita refulgida; courtesy of A. Kerstitch. 13.1A: 0C. R. Wyttenbach/BPS. 13.1B: 0A. Yen. 13.1C: 0J. Solliday/BPS. 13.2A,B: Courtesy of L. Friesen. 13.2C: Courtesy of A. Kerstitch. 13.2D: 0S. K. Webster/BPS. 13.2E,C,H: 0J. Morin. 13.2F: Courtesy of A. Kerstitch. 13.2K: G. Matsumoto/O MBARI. 13.2L: 0M. Hooge. 13.3A,B: Courtesy of D. Zmarzly. 13.4C,E,F: After Pennak 1953. 13.5A: After Mann 1962. 13.5B-F: After Stuart 1982. 13.5D: After Barnes 1980. 13.61-4: Redrawn from Smith and Carlton 1975. 13.7A: Redrawn from Meglitsch 1972. 13.7D: 0R. Hochberg. 13.8A: After Sherman and Sherman 1976, from Storer and Usinger 1957. 13.9A: After Kaestner 1967. 13.9B: After Mann

Chapter 13

899

1962. 13.10: Redrawn from Russell-Hunter 1979. 13.11A: From Brusca and Brusca 1978. 13.11B: After Nicoll931. 13.11C: After Barnes 1980. 13.1 1D: After Benham, In Harmer and Shipley (eds.) 1895-1909, Cambridge Natural History, Vol. 2. 13.11E: 0J. Morin. 13.11C: By the authors. 13.11H: 0D. J. Wrobel/BPS. 13.12A-D: After Russell-Hunter 1979, adapted from Gary and Lissmann 1938. 13.12E: After Russell-Hunter 1979. 13.13: After Russell-Hunter 1979, adapted from Gary and Lissmann 1938. 13.14A: From Brusca and Brusca 1978. 13.14B: Redrawn from 1980. 13.15A,B: After Barnes 1980. 13.15C-E: After Dales 1955. 13.15F: After Carlton and Smith. 13.15C: After Kaestner 1967. 13.16A,B: After Newell 1970. 13.16C: After Borradaile et al. 1958. 13.1 7A: After Brusca and Brusca 1978. 13.17B: After Eisig 1906. 13.188: Redrawn from Barnes 1980, after Dales 1967. 13.18C: Redrawn from Barnes 1980. 13.18D,E: Redrawn from Meglitsch 1972. 13.19A,B: Redrawn from Jamieson 1981, after Van Gansen 1963. 13.19C,D: Redrawn from Barnes 1980. 13.20A,B: Redrawn from Barnes 1980. 13.20C: After Mann 1962. 13.22A: After Edwards and Lofty 1972. 13.22B: Redrawn from Edwards and Lofty 1972, after Grove and Newell 1962. 13.23A: Redrawn from Barnes 1980. 13.23B: After Mann 1962. 13.24A,B: After Goodrich 1946. 13.24C: After Thomas 1940. 13.25: After Edwards and Lofty 1972. 13.26A: After Mann 1962. 13.26): 0 R. K. Burnhard/BPS. 13.27C,H: Redrawn from Meglitsch. 13.28: From P. J. Mill 1976, Structure and Function of Proprioceptovs in the Invertebrates, Halsted Press [Wiley],NY; courtesy of D. A. Dorsett, with the permission of Methuen and Co., Ltd. 13.29A,B,E: After Fauvel et al. 1959. 13.29C,D: After Hermans and Eakin 1974. 13.29F: Redrawn from Barnes 1980.13.31: After Mann 1962. 13.32A,C: Redrawn from Meglitsch 1972. 13.32B: After Russell-Hunter 1979. 13.32D-F: Redrawn from Barnes 1980, after Fauvel et al. 1959. 13.33: After Anderson 1973. 13.34B-F: After Smith 1977. 13.346: 0M. Hooge. 13.35B,C: After Blake 1975. 13.36A,B: After Edwards and Lofty 1972. 13.36D,E: After Barnes. 13.36F-H: After Edwards and Lofty 1972, after Tembe and Dubash 1961. 13.361: After Brinkhurst and Jamieson 1972. 13.36): 0R. K. Burnhard/BPS. 13.37C: After Barnes 1980. 13.37D: After Barnes 1980, from Nagao 1957. 13.38A: After Southward 1984. 13.38C: After Ivanov 1952. 13.3813: After Southward 1969. 13.386: Courtesy of R. Hessler. 13.39A,B: After Ivanov 1962. 13.39C: After Ivanov 1957. 13.39D: After Hyman 1959, after Jagersten 1957. Chapter 14 Opener: The sipunculan Sipuncula nudus, 0J. Morin. 14.1A: 0R. Humbert/BPS. 14.1B: Courtesy of A. Kerstitch. 14.1C,D: After Hyman 1959. 14.2A: Redrawn from Hyman 1959. 14.2B: After Fischer 1952. 14.3A-D,F: All redrawn from Hyman 1959. 14.3E: After Stehle 1953. 14.4: After Hyman 1959. 14.5A-D: After Hyman 1959. 14.5E-K: Courtesy of M. Rice. 14.6A: After Barnes 1980. 14.6B: After Fischer 1946. 14.6C: After MacGinitie and MacGinitie 1968. 14.6D: Courtesy of L. Friesen. 14.7A: After Barnes 1980. 14.7B: After a drawing by W. K. Fischer. 14.7C,D: Courtesy of Ohta, from Ohta 1984. 14.8A: After Barnes 1980. 14.8C: After Meglitsch 1972. 14.8D-C: Courtesy of M. Apley. 14.9:

Courtesy of M. Apley. Opener: An Arizona scorpion, as it appears under a "black (ultraviolet) light; 0A. Morgan. 15.1A,C-D: Photos by the authors. 15.1B: Courtesy of M. Hooge. 15.1E: Courtesy of G. McDonald. 15.1F: Courtesy of L. Friesen. 15.1C: 0J. N. A. Lott/BPS. 15.2A,B: After Ramskold and Hou 1991. 15.2C: After Could 1989. 15.3A: Courtesy of H. Ruhberg. 15.3B,C: Courtesy of U. Sellenschio and H. Ruhberg. 15.4A: After Manton 1977. 15.7A,B: After Borradaile and Potts 1961. 15.7C: After Manton 1977. 15.7D: After Barth and Broshears 1982. 15.8A: After Borradaile and Potts 1961. 15.8B-H: After Anderson 1973. 15.9A: From Kristensen 1982. 15.9B: From Kristensen and Hallas 1980. 15.9C: From Kristensen 1984. 15.9D,E: From Kristensen and Higgins 1984. 15.10A: From Kristensen 1984. 15.1OB: Courtesy of R. Kristensen. 15.1OC: After Morgan and King 1976. 15.12: After Morgan and King 1976. 15.13: After Kristensen 1981. 15.14: After Morgan 1982. 15.20: After Manton 1977. 15.22C: Photo by the authors. 15.22D: From Foelix 1982, reprinted with the permission of

Chapter 15

900

ILLUSTRATiON CREDiTS

Harvard University Press. 15.26B,C: After Barnes 1980. 15.26D: Courtesy of J. DeMartini. 15.27B: After Parry, i n Waterman 1960. 15.28D: From Derby 1982. 15.28F: After Foelix 1982, with the permission of Harvard University Press. 15.29A: After Pearse et a1 1987. 15.31A,B: After Snodgrass 1952. 15.31C,E: After Stormer 1949. 15.31D,F: After Bergstrom 1973. 15.31C: 0J. N. A. Lott/BPS. 15.31H: 0B. J. Miller/BPS. 15.33A,B: Redrawn from Manton 1977, after Cisne 1975. 15.33C,D: Redrawn from Manton 1977, after Whittington 1975. 15.33F: Redrawn from Manton 1977. Opener: Courtesy of E. Peebles. 16.1A,D,E,F,C,M: Courtesy of A. Kerstitch. 16.1B,I,P: By the authors. 16.1C: Courtesy of 0.Feuerbacher. 16.1H: Courtesy of L. Friesen. 16.lJ:Photo by D. Williams, courtesy of J. Yager. 16.1K,R,S: Courtesy of G. McDonald. 16.1 L: 0T. Adams/Visuals Unlimited. 16.1N: From Boxshall and Lincoln 1987. 16.10: Courtesy of P. Fankboner. 16.1Q: Courtesy of S. Weeks. 16.1T Courtesy of J. Olesen. 16.1 U: Courtesy of C. Holliday. 16.3B: Courtesy of J. Olesen. 16.3C: After Heard and Gocke 1982, Gulf Res. Rpts. 7: 157-162. 16.3D,F: Courtesy of F. Schram. 16.4B: Courtesy of N. Rabet. 16.4)-L: From Martin et al. 1986, Zool. Scripta 15: 221-232. 16.4M: Courtesy of J. Olesen. 16.5C,D: Courtesy of T. Haney. 16.7A: Courtesy of A. Kerstitch. 16.7C: Courtesy of R. Caldwell. 16.8C: After Abele and Felgenhauer, in Parker 1982. 16.9A,B,E: After Abele and Felgenhauer, in Parker 1982. 16.1ON: Courtesy of E. Spivak. 16.11H: Courtesy of A. Baeza. 16.12A,C: Courtesy of E. Peebles. 16.12F: Courtesy of J. Corbera. 16.13A,B: Redrawn from McLaughlin 1980. 16.13C: Courtesy of J. Olesen. 16.13D: Courtesy of M. Spindler. 16.14A,C, D, F, H: Drawn by F. Runyon. 16.14): Courtesy of G. McDonald. 16.15A,B: After Bowman and Gruner 1973. 16.15C: From a drawing by T. Haney. 16.15D,E: Courtesy of E. Peebles. 16.15F: Courtesy of T. Haney. 16.15): After Lava1 1972. 16.15K: Courtesy of E. Peebles. 16.16A,D: After Zullo, i n Parker 1982. 16.161: Courtesy of J. Hseg. 16.1 7A,B: After Boxshall and Lincoln 1983. 16.17C,D: From Boxshall and Lincoln 1987, courtesy of G. Boxshall. 16.18A: Courtesy of J. Olesen. 16.18H: Courtesy of E. Peebles. 16.181: Courtesy of M. Dojiri. 16.18K: After McLaughlin 1980. 16.18L: Courtesy of G. McDonald. 16.20A,B,E(b-s): Courtesy of D. J. Horne. 16.20C,D,E(a): Courtesy of A. Cohen 16.22F: Photo by D. Williams, courtesy of J. Yager. 16.23B: 0 K. Sandred/Visuals Unlimited. 16.24B,C: From Schembri 1982. 16.241): From Abele 1985. 16.25: After Hseg and Lutzen 1985, and Oeksnebjerg 2000; courtesy of J. T. Hseg. 16.26A-F: From Hseg 1985. 16.266,l: Courtesy of J. T Hseg. 16.261-1: From Glenner and Hareg 1995. 16.27A,D-C: After McLaughlin 1980. 16.27H: After Kaestner 1970. 16.271: After Warner 1977. 16.28E-1: After Kaestner 1970. 16.30A: After Laverack 1964, Comp. Biochem. and Physiol. 13: 301-321. 16.30C: After Cohen 1955, J. Physiol. 130: 9. 16.30D: After Kaestner 1970. 16.31: Micrographs courtesy of B. Felgenhauer. 16.321): 0R. Walters/Visuals Unlimited. 16.32F: Courtesy of C. Holliday. 16.326: Courtesy of C. McLay. 16.33C: After Cameron 1985. 16.331: From Harvey et al. 2002. 16.35: Courtesy of D. Waloszek.

Chapter 16

Opener: Photo by S. Prchal. 17.1A,B,C,H,K,O,P: 0 P. J. Bryant/BPS. 17.1C: 0 R. A. Wyttenbach/BPS. 17.1D: Courtesy of Bridget Watts. 17.1E: 0R. Humbert/BPS. 17.1F: Photo by M. Picker. 17.1I: Photo by P. J. Bryant/BPS. 17.1J: Courtesy of the Centers for Disease control. 17.1L: Courtesy of Scott Bauer/USDA ARS. 17.1M: 0Painet. 17.1N: Photo by M. Picker. 17.1Q: Photo by G. McDonald. 17.1R: Photo by S. Prchal. 17.4: After Lawrence et al., in CSIRO 1991, based on Snodgrass 1935. 17.7: After Chapman 1982. 17.8: After Snodgrass 1952. 17.1 2: Photos by S. Prchal. 17.14: After Anderson and Weis-Fogh 1964. 17.18: After Snodgrass 1944. 17.19D-C: Photos by S. Prchal. 17.20B: After Wigglesworth 1965. 17.21B: After Sherman and Sherman 1976. 17.229: After Wigglesworth 1965. 17.22C: After Chapman 1971. 17.23A: After Snodgrass 1935. 17.238: After Clarke 1973. 17.23D: Photo by S. E. Hendrixson. 17.24 From Allen and Brusca 1978, Can. Entomol. 110: 413433. 17.25: After Fretter and

Chapter 17

Graham 1976. 17.26: After Clarke 1973. 17.29: After Slifer et al. 1959, J. Morphol. 105: 145-191. 17.30: After Michelsen 1979. 17.31: After Blaney 1976. 17.32: Photos by S. Prchal. 17.33: After Snodgrass 1935. 17.34: After Anderson 1973. 17.35A: After Chapman 1971, after Southwood and Leston, Land and Water Bugs of the British Isles, 1959, Warne and Co., London. 17.35C: Photo by S. Prchal. 17.36A: After Chapman 1971, after Urquhart 1960. 17.36B: After Ross 1965. 17.36C: Photos by S. Prchal. 17.37A: After B. Rodendorf, ed., 1962, ArthropodaTracheata and Chelicerata, in Textbook of Paleontology, Academy of Sciences, U.S.S.R. 17.37B: After Snodgrass 1952. 17.37C: After R. J. Wooten 1972, Paleontology 15: 662. 17.38: After Kristensen 1991. Opener: 0R. A. Wyttenbach/BPS. 18.1A: Photo by the authors. 18.1 B: 0 R. A. Wyttenbach/BPS. 18.1C,E: Photo by S. Prchal. 18.1D: 0 R. K. Burnard/BPS. 18.1F,C: After Snodgrass 1952. 18.2B,C: After Beck and Braihvaite 1968. 18.2D,E: After Snodgrass 1952. 18.2F,H: After Manton 1965. 18.2C: After Anderson 1996, Atlas of Invertebrate Anatomy, Univ. New South Wales Press. 18.21: After Lewis 1981. 18.3A-D: After Russell-Hunter 1969. 18.3E: After Manton 1965. 18.2F: After Barth and Broshears 1982. 18.4A: After Kaestner 1969. 18.4B,C: After Lewis 1981. 18.5: After Lewis 1981. 18.6: After Lewis 1981. 18.7: After Grenacher 1880, Arch. Mikrosk. Anta. Entwmech. 18: 415467. 18.8: After Lewis 1981, based on Tichy 1973, Zool. Jahrb. Anat. 91: 93-139. 18.9: After Rilling 1968, in Grosses Zoologisches Praktikum, Part 13b, Fischer, Stuttgart. 18.10A,C: After Lewis 1981. 18.10D: Photo by S. Prchal.

Chapter 18

Opener: The golden web spider Nephila clavipes; Photo by C. Hogue, LACM. 19.1C: 0 B. J. Miller/BPS. 19.2C: 0 Fred Bruemmer/DRK Photo. 19.3A: After Savory 1977. 19.3C: From Barnes 1980, after Craig and Faust 1971. 19.3C: From Barnes 1980, after Baker and Wharton 1952. 19.3H: 0 R. Brons/BPS. 19.4A,F: From Barnes 1980, after Millot et al. 1949 and other sources 19.4B,D,L: Photo by S. Prchal. 19.4H: 0 P. J. Bryant/BPS. 19.4J:0 R. Humbert/BPS. 19.4N: Photo by G. Bodner. 19.5A-C: From Gertsch 1979 and Foelix 1982, reprinted with permission of Harvard University Press. 19SD,F,J,K: Photos by R. F. Foelix. 19.5C: 0B. J. Miller/BPS. 19.5H,I: 0 P. J. Bryant/BPS. 19.5L,M: After Kaestner 1969. 19.5N: Photo by M. Hedin. 19.50: Courtesy of W. Maddison and G. Bodner. 19.6A: Photo S. Prchal. 19.7A: From Foelix 1982, after Peters 1955. 19.7C: From Foelix 1982, after Peters 1967. 19.7D,F: Photos by R. Foelix. 19.8A-E: After Foelix 1982, Gertsch 1979, and others. 19.9A,B: Photos by R. F. Foelix. 19.9C: 0 M. Keasey/ASDM. 19.10: After Root and Bowerman 1978. 19.11: After Foelix 1982. 19.12A: From Foelix 1982, after slow-motion pictures by Parry and Brown 1959. 19.12C: From Foelix 1982, after Frank 1957. 19.12D: From Foelix 1982, after Foelix 1970b. 19.12E: Photo by R. F. Foelix. 19.13: From Foelix 1982, reprinted with permission of Harvard University Press. 19.15A: Photo by R. F. Foelix. 19.15B-E,C: From Foelix 1982, after various other sources. 19.151,J:Photos courtesy of W. Maddison and G. Bodner. 19.16A: From Foelix 1982, after Millot et al. 1949. 19.16B: After Foelix 1982. 19.16C: Photo by R. F. Foelix. 19.16D: 0 P. J. Bryant/BPS. 19.17A: After Barnes 1980. 19.17B,C: After Foelix 1982. 19.18B: After Foelix 1982. 19.18C,D: Photos by R. F. Foelix. 19.20A,E: Photos by R. F. Foelix. 19.20B: From Foelix 1982, after Gauorner 1965. 19.20C: From Foelix 1982, after Barth 1971. 19.20D: After Foelix and Chu-Wang 1973, photo by R. F. Foelix. 19.21B,C: From Foelix 1982 after Hoffman 1971. 19.21D-F: Photos by R. F. Foelix. 19.22A: After Fage 1949. 19.23A: From Foelix 1982, after Melchers 1964. 19.23B: From Foelix 1982, after Osaki 1969. 19.23C,D,F: After Foelix 1982. 19.23E: From Barnes 1980, after Millot et al. 1949. 19.25A,B: From Foelix 1982, after von Helversen 1976. 19.25C: From Foelix 1982, after Bristowe 1958. 19.25D,F,H: After Foelix 1982. 19.256: After Bristowe 1958. 19.27A: From Foelix 1982, after Lauters 1966. 19.27B,C: From Foelix 1982, after Holm 1940. 19.27D: From Meglitsch 1972, after Bristowe 1958. 19.27E: Photo by S. Prchal. 19.27F: Courtesy of D. Maddison and G. Bodner. 19.27C,H: From

Chapter 19

ILLUSTRATION CREDITS

Foelix 1982, reprinted with permission of Harvard University Press. 19.271,J,K: From Foelix 1982, after Vachon 1957. 19.28A,C: After Hedgpeth 1982. 19.28B: After a sketch by J. W. Hedgpeth. 19.28D: After Schram and Hedgpeth 1978. 19.28E: After Wyer and King 1974. 19.28F: 0F. Awbrey/ Visuals Unlimited. 19.29A: After Fage 1949 and other sources. 19.29B: After Schram and Hedgpeth 1978. 19.29C: Original drawing by J.W. Hedgpeth, from a photo of a live specimen in an aquarium. 19.30A,C: After Fage 1949. 19.30B: After Schram and Hedgpeth 1978. 19.30D: After Hedgpeth 1982. Opener: By the authors. 20.1A: Courtesy of W. Jorgensen. 20.1 B,F: By the authors. 20.1 C,E: 0K. Lucas/BPS. 20.1 D,C,I,J,K: Courtesy of G. McDonald. 20.1 H: Courtesy of L. Friesen. 20.1 L,M: Courtesy of P. Fankboner. 20.1 N,O: D. J. Wrobel/BPS. 20.1 P: Courtesy of A. Kerstitch. 20.2A-C: After Hyman 1967. 20.2H,I: After Scheltema and Morse 1984. 20.3A,B,D,E: After Lemche and Wingstrand 1959. 20.3C: 0W. Jorgensen. 20.4C: Courtesy of G. McDonald. 20.5A: After Hyman 1967.20.5B,C: After Fretter and Graham 1962. 20.6B: After Fretter and Graham 1962. 20.7A,C: After Hyman 1967. 20.78: By the authors. 20.7E: Courtesy of J. King. 20.7F,C: From Brusca and Brusca 1978.20.7H: 0J. Mondragon. 20.7J: Courtesy of A. Kerstitch. 20.71: By the authors. 20.8A: From Brusca and Brusca 1978. 20.1 1D: Courtesy of J. King. 20.12B: After Lane 1960. 20.1 2C: After Winkler and Ashley 1954. 20.1 2E-C: Courtesy of A. Kerstitch. 20.16A,H,I: From Brusca and Brusca 1978. 20.16B: Courtesy of G. McDonald. 20.17: 0 K. Lucas/BPS. 20.18A-D: After Lang 1900, Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie der wirbellosen Thiere 3: 1-509. 20.18E: After Morton 1979. 20.18F: After Barnes 1980. 20.19A,B: Modified after Miller 1974. 20.19C: Courtesy of G. McDonald. 20.19D: Courtesy of L. Friesen. 20.19E: After Hyman 1967. 20.20A-D: After Trueman 1966. 20.21A: 0D. J. Wrobel/BPS. 20.22A: 0D. J. Wrobel/BPS. 20.22B: By the authors. 20.22C: Courtesy of G. McDonald. 20.24A: After Solem 1974. 20.24B: After Hyman 1967. 20.24C: After McLean 1962, Proc. Malac. SOC.London 35: 23-26. 20.25A,C,E,F: After Fretter and Graham 1962. 20.25B,D: After Hyman 1967.20.26: Courtesy of C. DiGiorgio. 20.27: Courtesy of A. Kerstitch. 20.28: After Barnes 1980.20.29: After Fretter and Graham 1962. 20.30A: After Yonge and Thompson 1976.20.30B-D: After Reid and Reid 1974. 20.31 C-I: Courtesy of S. Hendrixson. 20.32A-E: After Hyman 1967. 20.32F: After Bullough 1958. 20.33B: After Hyman 1967. 20.35A: After Cox in Moore (ed.) 1960. 20.35B: After Pearse et al. 1987. 20.36: After Fretter and Graham 1962. 20.378: 0J. N. A. Lott/BPS. 20.37C: By the authors. 20.38: Modified from Fretter and Graham 1962. 20.39: After Hyman 1967. 20.40A,C: After Cox, in Moore (ed.) 1960. 20.40B: After Fretter and Graham 1962. 20.42A: After Wells 1963. 20.42B: After Winkler and Ashley 1954. 20.42D: After Russell-Hunter 1979. 20.43: After Hyman 1967. 20.44F: 0H. W. Pratt/BPS. 20.45: After Hadfield, in Giese and Pearse 1979. 20.46: After Yonge, in Moore (ed.) 1960; after Hyman 1967. 20.47A After Fretter and Graham 1962. 20.47B,C: After Hyman 1967. 20.47D: After Cameron and Redfern 1976.20.50A: After Sherman and Sherman 1976. 20.508: After Hadfield, in Giese and Pearse 1979. 20.50C: After Hyman 1967. 20.51A,B: Redrawn from Hyman 1967, after Werner 1955, Helg. Wissensch. Meeresuntersuchungen, 5. 20.51 C: Redrawn from Hyman 1967, after Dawydoff 1940. 20.51 E: After Brusca 1975. 20.52: After Fretter and Graham 1962. 20.54: After Scheltema 1993.

Chapter 20

Chapter 21 Opener: The ectoproct Flustvellidvu; 0J. Morin. 21.1A-C: Redrawn from Hyman 1959. 21.1 D: 0D. J. Wrobel. 21.1 E,F: 0P. Wirtz. 21.2: Redrawn from Hyman 1959.21.3A: After Hyman 1959. 21.3B-D: After Zimmer 1967. 21.4A: After Hyman 1959. 21.4B,C: After Dawydoff and Grass6 1959. 21 SA: After Pennak 1978. 21SB: Redrawn from Barnes 1980. 21SC: Redrawn from Hyman 1959. 21SD: Courtesy of G. McDonald. 21SE: 0R. Brons/BPS. 21.6A,C-I: After Ryland 1970. 21.6B: 0H. W. Pratt/BPS. 21.6C: 0K. Lucas/BPS. 21.6D: 0C. Wyttenbach/BPS. 21.6E: 0R. Brons/BPS. 21.F: After Barnes 1980. 21.7: 0J. Bailey-Brock. 21.8: After Ryland 1970. 21.9: After Ryland 1970. 21.1 OA: After Barnes 1980.

901

21.1OB,C,D-I: Redrawn from Meglitsch 1972. 21.lOJ: After Ryland 1970. 21.1 1A,B: Redrawn from Ryland 1970. 21.1 1C: After Hyman 1959. 21.1 2A: After Winston 1978. 21.1 2B-D: After Winston 1979. 21.1 3: After Gordon 1975. 21.14A: After Cook, in Larwood (ed.) 1973. 21.14B: Redrawn from Hyman 1959, after Toriumi 1941. 21.14C: Redrawn from Hyman 1959, after Brien 1953. 21.1 5:After Ryland 1970. 21.16: After Woollacott and Zimmer 1975. 21.1 7A: After Ryland 1970. 21.1 78: After Hyman 1959. 21.1 7C: After Woolacott and Zimmer 1971.21.18A: 0D. J. Wrobel/BPS. 21.18B: 0J. Morin. 21.18C,C: After Rudwick 1970. 21.18D-F: After Hyman 1959. 21.18H: Courtesy of J. DeMartini. 21.19A: After Williams and Rowell, in Moore 1965. 21.19B: After Anderson 1996. 21.1 9C: Redrawn from Hyman 1959, after Williams 1956. 21.19D: After Rudwick 1970. 21.20: Redrawn from Rudwick 1970. 21.21 : Redrawn from Rudwick 1970. 21.22A,B: Redrawn from Hyman 1959. 21.22C: Redrawn from Rudwick 1970, after Percivall944.21.22D: After Hyman 1959. 21.22E: Redrawn from Hyman 1959, after Percival 1944. 21.22F: After Meglitsch 1972. Opener: 0D. J. Wrobel/BPS. 22.1A: Courtesy of L. Friesen. 22.1 B: J. N. A. Lott/BPS. 22.1 F,L,O,P: Photos by the authors. 22.1 C: 0D. J. Wrobel/BPS. 22.1 D: Courtesy of P. Fankboner. 22.1E: Courtesy of G. McDonald. 22.1C: After Baker et al. 1986. 22.1 H: Courtesy of P. Fankboner. 22.1 I: Courtesy of A. Kerstitch. 22.1): Photo by M. Wicksten. 22.1 K: Courtesy of L. Friesen. 22.1 M: 0D. J. Wrobel/BPS. 22.1 N: Courtesy of G. McDonald. 22.1 Q: Courtesy of S. Ohta. 22.3B,C,C,H,K: After Hyman 1955. 22.3D,E: After Baker et al. 1986. 22.4A: After Barnes 1980, modified from Nichols 1962. 22.4B: From Ellers and Telford 1984, courtesy of M. Telford. 22.4C: From Turner 1984, photograph courtesy of R. Turner. 22.4D: From Emlet 1982, photographs courtesy of R. Emlet. 22.4E: After Campbell 1983. 22.4F: After Chia and Amerongen 1975. 22.4C,H: After Barnes 1980. 22.41,): Modified from Russell-Hunter 1979. 22.5C,E: After Clark 1977. 22.5 D,F: After Hyman 1955. 22.56: After Baker et al. 1986. 22.6A,B: After Hyman 1955. 22.6C,D: After Clark 1977. 22.6E: Photo by J. Mondragon. 22.7A,B: After Nichols 1962. 22.7C: After Cuenot 1948. 22.8A: After Nichols 1962. 22.8D: Photo by the authors. 22.9A,B: After Nichols 1962. 22.9C: After Barnes 1980. 22.9D: After Pentreath 1970. 22.9E: After Warner and Woodley 1975. 22.9F: Courtesy of G. McDonald. 22.1 1A: After Nichols 1962. 22.1 1B,C,E: After Barnes 1980. 22.1 1D: After Hyman 1955. 22.1 1F: Courtesy of P. Fankboner. 22.1 1C: After Cu6not 1948. 22.12A: After Nichols 1962. 22.12B: After Cuenot 1948.22.1 2C: Courtesy of P. Fankboner. 22.1 2D: 0D. J. Wrobel/BPS. 22.1 2E: From Costelloe and Keegan 1984, courtesy of J. Costelloe, used with permission of Springer-Verlag. 22.1 2F: Photo by J. Mondragon. 22.1 2G: Courtesy of A. Kerstitch. 22.1 2H: After Barnes 1980, from a photograph by I. Bennett. 22.1 3A: After Ubaghs 1967. 22.1 3B: After Herreid et al. 1976. 22.14A: After Barnes 1980. 22.14B: After Cuenot 1948. 22.14C,D,E: Redrawn from Shick 1983 after the following original sources: C, after Phelan 1977 and Smith 1978; D, after Fenner 1973; E, after Smith 1980. 22.15: After Cuenot 1948. 22.16A,C: After Cu6not 1948.22.16B: Redrawn from Hyman 1955. 22.1 7C: From Emlet 1982, photo courtesy of R. Emlet. 22.1 7H: Courtesy of and copyright by M. Apley. 22.18: Redrawn from Meglitsch 1972, after Dawydoff 1948. 22.1 9A: After Barnes 1980. 22.19B,C: After Paul and Smith 1984. 22.1 9D,E,H,I: After Nichols 1962. 22.1 9F: Redrawn from Barnes 1980, from Kesling in Moore (ed.) 1967. 22.1 9C: Redrawn from Cu6not 1948. 22.19): After Hyman 1955. 22.21A: After Paul and Smith 1984.

Chapter 22

Opener: Courtesy of L. Friesen. 23.1A: Courtesy of E. Thuesen and R. Bieri. 23.1 B: 0C. R. Wyttenbach/BPS. 23.1 C: Courtesy of K. M. Halanych. 23.1 D: 0J. Mondragon. 23.1 E: By the authors. 23.1 F: Courtesy of G. McDonald. 23.1C: 0R. Brons/BPS. 23.2A,B: After Barnes 1980. 23.2C,F,I: After Hyman 1959. 23.2D: After Feigenbaum 1978. 23.2E: After Meglitsch 1972. 23.21-1: After Burfield 1927. 23.3: Courtesy of E. Theusen and R. Bieri. 23.4: Courtesy of M.

Chapter 23

902

ILLUSTRATION CREDITS

Terazaki and C. B. Miller. 23.5: After Hyman 1959. 23.6A: After Sherman and Sherman 1976. 23.6B: Courtesy of J. Williams. 23.6C,D,J: After Hyman 1959. 23.6E: After BurdonJones 1952. 23.6F,C: After Lester 1985. 23.6H: After Pechenik 1985. 23.61: After Meglitsch 1972. 23.78,C: After Hyman 1959. 23.8: After Burdon-Jones 1956.23.9: After Hyman 1959. 23.1 0: After Lester 1985. 23.1 1: After Lester 1985. 23.1 2A: After Hyman 1959. 23.1 2B: After Meglitsch 1972. 23.1 2C: After Burdon-Jones 1952. 23.1 3A: 0G. Corsi and B. Corsi/Visuals Unlimited. 23.1 3B: Courtesy of L. Friesen. 23.1 3C: 0D. W. Gotshall/Visuals Unlimited. 23.1 30: Courtesy of L. Friesen. 23.1 3E: 0L. S. Roberts/Visuals Unlimited. 23.1 3F: After Romer 1956. 23.1 36,K: 0C. R. Wyttenbach/BPS. 23.1 31,J: By the authors. 23.1 3L,M: After Barnes, 1980, after photographs by Monniot and Monniot 1975.23.13N: D. J. Wrobel/MBARI 1995.23.14A By the

authors. 23.14E: 0D. J. Wrobel. 23.14F: Courtesy of J. King. 23.146: After Pechenik 1985. 23.141-1: After Alldredge 1976. 23.1 5C: After Berrilll935. 23.1 5D: After Grasse 1948. 23.1 5E: After Van Name 1945.23.1 5F:After Thorne and Thorndyke 1975. 23.16A: After Brien, in Grasse 1948. 23.1 7A,C: After Seeliger, in Grass6 1948. 23.1 7B: After Cloney and Torrence 1982. 23.18B: Photo courtesy of L. Friesen. 23.18B: After McFarland et al. 1985. 23.18D: After Romer 1956. 23.29: Adapted from Romer 1956. Opener: A polychaete worm on a sponge inhabited by a symbiotic zoanthid cnidarian; courtesy of A. R. Picciolo, NOAA. 24.2: From Nielsen 2001, after various sources. 24.3: After Nielsen 2001, after various sources. 24.4: From Nielsen 2001, after various sources.

Chapter 24

Index

Numbers in boldface signify definitions of the listed terms; page numbers followed by n indicate fGo&otes.

abdA gene, 18,481 abdB gene, 481,884 abdomen, 515,550 Hexapoda, 606-607 abductors, 55 aboral canal, 278 aboral (entoneural) system, 825 aboral surface, 44 Abra cadabra, 26n abyssal plain, 10,12 abyssopelagic zone, 10 Acaenoplax, 762 Acantkamoeba, 156,158 Acantkaria, 162 Acantkaster, 65, 815 Acantkaster planci, 803,815 acanthella, 371 Acantkina, 65 Acan tkobdel la, 399 Acantkobdella peledina, 394,397,409 Acanthobdellida, 394 Acantkobotkrium, 295 Acanthocephala (acanthocephalans), 9,338,368-371 Acantkocepkalus, 369 Acantkockitona, 749 Acanthochitonida, 703 Acan tkocyst is, 163 Acant kocyt kereis, 549 Acantkopleura, 752 acanthopodia, 158 acanthor larva, 371 Acari, 654,656-659 Acariformes, 654 accessory boring organ (boring gland), 735 accessory digestive gland, 859,861 accessory glands, 87,624,625,647 acetabulum, 294,295 Acetes, 527 Ackelia eckinata, 692, 695 acicula, 396,398 acidiphiles, 3 Acineta, 141 Acmaea, 709 Acoela, 286

acoelomate grade, 48 acontia/acontium, 227-228,245 acorn barnacles (Cktkamalus anisopoma), 513 acraspedote, 235-236 Acrobeles, 355 Acroechinoidea, 805 acron, 478 Acropora palmata (Caribbean elkhorn coral), 220 acrorhagi (marginal spherules), 246 Acrothoracica, 516 Actiniaria, 224 Actinopkrys, 161,164 Actinopoda, 124,161-165 characteristics, 161 nutrition, 163-164 reproduction, 164-165 support and locomotion, 162-163 Actinoptychus, 155 Actinopyga, 823 Actinospkaerium, 163,164 Actinostola, 240 Actinotrocka, 772 Actinotrocka brackiata, 772 actinotroch larvae, 778 actinula larvae, 255 Actinulida, 223 aculeus, 665 Adamsia, 247 Adamson, 352 adaptation, 15,106 adapta tionist paradigm, 15-1 6 adductors, 55, 723 adelphophagy, 761 Adenophorea (Aphasmida), 352 adhesive papillae, 864 adhesive sac, 791 adhesive tubes, 346 adoral zone of membranelles (AZM), 136,139 adradial canals, 278 Adrianov, A. V., 381 Adula, 732 advanced (derived) character states, 31

aedeagus, 607 Aedes, 593 Aedes aegypti, 593 Aedes albopictus, 593 Aegidae, 37 Aegina, 277,278 Aegina citrea, 278 Aequorea, 253,254 Aequorea macrodactyla, 253,254 aesthetascs, 571 aesthetes, 723,752,754 aestivation, 13 afferent branchial arteries, 867 afferent ctenidial vessels, 744,745 afferent nerve, 77 afferent vessels, 775,776 African relapsing fever (”tick fever”), 659 agametes, 215,216 Agassiz, Louis, 808 Agauopsis auzendei, 659 Agelas, 181, 198 Agelenidae, 654 agglutinated tests, 166 Aglaophenia, 85 Aglaura, 256 Agleja (Navanax), 752 Agra vation, 26n Agroeca brunnea, 691 Aguinaldo, A. M. A., 381,485,499, 765,883 A k a ha, 26n Ahlrichs, W., 381 AIDS, 146 Aiptasia, 245 Akera, 750 Alaurina, 303 albumin gland, 755,756 Alciopidae, 391 Alcippe, 540 Alcyonacea, 224 Alcyonidium, 791 Alcyonium, 234 Alcyonium verilli, 781 Alexandrium spp., 150 alkaliphiles, 3

904

INDEX

allelochemicals, 201 Allogramia, 166 Allopora, 230,239 Allopora californica, 408 Alma emini, 416 Almidae, 393 Aloha, 26n alpha level of systematics, 27 alpha tocopherol, 345 Alpheus, 528,559 alternating tripod sequence, 607 alveolar membrane system, 135 Alveolata, 124,135 Alvinella pompejana ("Pompeii worm,'), 408 Amanita phalloides, 26n Amanita vaginata, 26n Amaroucium, 859 Amaurobius, 668 Amblypygi, 654,659-660 ambulacra, 806 ambulacral grooves, 806 arnbulacral surfaces,804,806 amebas. See also Rhizopoda (amebas) anatomy of, 156 naked, 156,157-158 testate, 156,157 amebic dysentery, 158 American lobsters (Homarus americanus), 511,529 American trypanosomiasis (Chagas' disease), 133, 593, 613 Amerongen, H., 817 amictic ova, 344, 345 ammonia, 66 ammonites, 703n ammonotelic animals, 66 Amoeba, 122 nutrition in, 159 pseudopodia in, 158 reproduction in, 160 Amoeba proteus, 155,157,158 amoeboid locomotion, 10 amphiblastula larvae, 199,200 amphidial nerve, 357,358 amphidial pouch, 357,358 &nphidinium, 152 Amphidiscophora, 182 amphids, 357,358 Amphionidacea (amphionids), 515, 526-527 reproductive features, 556-557 Amphionides, 527 Amphionides reynaudii, 526 Amphipholis squamata, 215 Amphipoda, 516,537-540 Amphiporus, 324, 327, 328 Amphiporus bimaculatus, 325 Amphiporus forrnidabilis, 325 Amphitrite, 407 Amphiura, 811 Amplexidiscus, 245 Amplexidiscus senestrafer, 245 ampulla(e), 239, 356, 810, 811, 864 anabiosis, 470 anagenesis (microevolution), 15-16,18 anal canals, 278 anal commissure, 329

anal cone, 372,373,815 Analges, 658 anal lacuna, 327 anal pores, 278 anal (posterior) plates, 720 anal somite, 551 anal vesicles, 455, 456 anamorphic development, 578,648 Anaphe, 489 Anaspidacea, 515 Anaspides, 524 ancestor-descendant relationships (genealogy),31,32 morphological similarity/ dissimilarity vs.,35-37 ancestral character states, 32 ancestral (primitive) character states, 31 ancestrula, 778, 789 Anchistropus, 522 Anderson, D., 2,42,503 Androctonus, 665 Androctonus australis, 672, 673 androdioecy, 574 anecdysis, 487 Anelosimus, 675 Anelosimus eximius, 668 angiosperms, appearance of, 7 animalcules, 338 Animalia. See Metazoa (Animalia) animals origin of, 5-6 segmental identity in, 4 animal-vegetal axis, 94 anisogamy, 128 anisomyarian condition, 731 Annelida (segmented worms), 9, 387443 bauplan, 395-433 body forms, 395-397 body wall and coelomic arrangement, 397400 circulation and gas exchange, 413-417 digestive system, 410-413 excretion and osmoregulation, 417420 feeding, 405410 nervous system and sense organs, 420425 regeneration and asexual reproduction, 425427 sexual reproduction and development, 427433 support and locomotion, 400405 cladogram, 37 classification, 388-394 comparison of onychophorans, tardigrades, arthropods and, 464-465 phylogeny, 438440 Pogonophoridae, 434438 taxonomic history, 388 annelid cross, 97 annuli, 395 Annulonemertes, 326 Anodonta, 742 anogenital tagmata (terminalia), 607

Anomalocaris, 8, 505 Anomalodesmata, 714 Anomma wilverthi, 590 Anomura, 515,529 Anopheles, 146, 147, 600 Anopla, 321 Anoplocotyloides papillata, 294 Anostraca ,514,519 distinguishing features, 552-553 reproductive features, 556-557 Antarctic krill (Euphausiasuperba),511 Antedon brooding, 827,828 locomotion, 813 oral surface, 815 antennae, 395,463,515,550 insect, 604 antenna1 (maxillary) glands, 71,491, 492,568,569 antennary nerves, 570 antennary segment, 642 antennulary nerves, 570 antennules ,515,550 anterior artery, 744, 745 anterior cardinal veins, 866,867 anterior end, 44 anterior lobe, 797 anterior region, 397 Anthomedusae (Gymnoblastea or Athecata), 223,236 Anthopleura, 246,258 Anthopleura elegantissima, 246,247,260 An t hopleura xan thogrammica,249 Anthothoe, 245 Anthozoa, 220,223-224 polypoid form, 226-233 reproduction, 258-260 skeletons, 238-239 Anthuridea, 516 Antipatharia, 225 antiplectic metachrony, 138 antizoea larvae, 577,579 aperture, 166, 722, 724 Aphasmida (Adenophorea), 352 Aphelenchus, 356 aphotic zone, 10,12 Aphragmophora, 841 Aphrocallistes vastus, 187 Aphrodita ("sea mouse,,), 391,411 Aphroditidae, 391 apical cells, 213 apical ciliary tuft, 428,429 apical complex, 145 apical field, 340 apical sense organ, 428 Apicomplexa (apicomplexans), 123, 124,145-148,149 characteristics, 146 nutrition, 146-147 reproduction and life cycles, 147-148,149 support and locomotion, 146 Apis dorsata, 592n Apis mellifera, 592, 617 Apis mellifera scutellata, 592 Aplacophora, 703 Apley, Martyn, 457 Aplidium, 856-857

INDEX

Aplysia, 750, 756 Aplysilla, 200 Aplysina archeri, 198 Apodacea, 806 apodemes, 478 Apodida, 806 apomorphy, 31,32-34 Aponomma ecinctum, 658 apophyses, 685,686 apopyle, 184 appendage buds, 626,649 appendage hypothesis, 629 appendages, Arthropoda, 479-482 Appendicularia (Larvacea), 855 appositional eyes, 494,495 apterous gene, 630 apterous wings, 606 Apusomonas proboscidea, 128 aquiferous system, 182-183 sponge, 183-188 Aquipecten, 753 Arabellidae, 389 Arabidopsis, 883 arabinosides, 202 Arachnida, 654,656-666 Arachnocampa luminosa, 615 Arachnosphaera oligacantha, 161 Araneae, 654,661-663 Araneidae, 654 Araneomorphae, 654 Araneus, 667,671 humidity receptor in, 682 palpal organ of, 685 spinnerets of, 668 Araneus diadematus, 662,669,688 Araneus gemma, 676 Arbacia, 820 Arbacia punctulata, 58 Arca vivipara, 759 Arcella, 156, 157, 158, 160 Archaea (Archaebacteria), 1-2,3 refugial lifestyle, 2-3 archaeocyathan, 205 archaeocytes, 190,191,197 Archaeogastropoda, 703-707,709 Archaeognatha (Microcoryphia), 594, 595 Archaeopulmonata, 712 archenteric pouching, 101 archenteron, 99 archetype, 42 Architecture, animal. See also bauplan body cavities, 8-9 body size, 6-8 body symmetry, 3-6 cellularity, 6 circulation, 31-33 circulatory systems, 31-32 hearts and other pumping mechanisms, 33 internal transport and, 31 excretion and osmoregulation, 26-31 nitrogenous wastes and water conservation, 26-27 osmoregulation and habitat, 27-28 structures for, 28-31 feeding mechanisms, 16-26

carnivory and scavenging, 23-25 chemoautotrophy, 26 deposit feeding, 21-22 dissolved organic matter (DOM), 25-26 herbivory, 22-23 intracellular and extracellular digestion, 16-17 suspension feeding, 18-21 gas exchange, 33-37 gas transport, 34-37 structures for, 33-34,35 germ layers, 8 hormones and pheromones, 44 locomotion, 9-12 nervous systems and sense organs, 3744 bioluminescence, 42 body plans and, 4244 independent effectors, 42 invertebrate sense organs, 37-42 reproduction, 4448 asexual, 4546 parthenogenesis, 48 sexual, 46-47 support, 9,12-16 Architeuthis, 715-717 Archosauria, 36 Arctic ice cap, 9 Arctonoe, 407,409 Arctonoe vittata, 817 Arendt, D., 884 Arenicola, 391 burrowing movements, 401 digestive system, 410 excretion and osmoregulation, 418 feeding, 406 gas exchange, 437 locomotion, 402 nuchal organ, 423 trochophore larva, 430 Arenicolidae, 389 areoles, 363,364 Argiope, 667, 669 Argonauta, 724,758,759 Argulus, 543,557 Argulus foliaceus, 544 Argus persicus, 659 Argyroneta aquatica, 672 Argyronetidae, 654 A rgyro theca, 797 arista, 622 Aristotle, 93, 107, 222,338 Aristotle’s lantern, 818 armored (thecate) dinoflagellates, 151 arolium, 598 arrow worms. See Chaetognatha (arrow worms) artery(ies) anterior, 744,745 branchial, 867 intestinal, 867 segmental, 867 arthrobranchs, 527 arthrodial membranes (articular membranes), 482,483 Arthropoda, 9,35,461-510. See also under specific taxa

905

bauplan and arthropodization, 476497 appendages, 479482 body wall, 478479 circulation and gas exchange, 72, 489491 digestive system, 489 excretion and osmoregulation, 491492 growth, 485488 nervous system and sense organs, 492495 reproduction and development, 495-497 support and locomotion, 482485 characteristics, 475 classification, 476 comparison with annelids, onychophorans, and tardigrades, 464-465 evolution, 499-506 emerging views of arthropod relationships, 503-506 evolution within Arthropoda, 500-503 molecular phylogenetics, 505 neurological features, 504-505 origin, 499-500 paleontological data, 505-516 Hox gene function, 17 taxonomic history, 475476 terrestrial success, 14 trilobites, 497499,500 arthropodization, 477 articles (podites), 480 articulamentum, 723,752 articular membranes (arthrodial membranes), 482,483 Articulata theory, 499, 793 Artomonema, 353-354 Asaphus, 498 Asbestopluma, 194, 195 Ascaris amphid, 358 cross section, 354 intestinal epithelium, 356 reproductive systems, 359 tripartite lip, 355 Ascaris lumbricoides, 338 Ascaris suum, 352 ascending arm, 738,740 Ascetospora, 124,173 Aschelminthes, 338 Ascidiacea, 855 social, 856, 857 solitary, 856, 857 Ascoglena, 131 asconoid condition, 183,186 ascophoran cheilostomates, 785, 786 ascopore, 785,786 Ascorhynchus, 694 Ascothoracida, 516,540 Ascothorax ophiocentenis, 540 ascus (compensation sac), 448, 785, 786 Asellota, 516 asexual reproduction, 4 5 4 6 Annelida, 425427

906

INDEX

Chordata, 862 Ctenophora, 280 Echinodermata, 826 ectoproct, 789-790 Nemertea, 331 Platyhelminthes, 303 sponges, 196-197 Aslia, 821 Aslia lefevrei, 822 aspidobranch (bipectinate) condition, 744 Aspidochirotacea, 806 Aspidochirotida, 806 Aspidogastrea, 288 Aspidophorus, 346 Aspidosiphoniformes, 447 Aspidosiphon parvulus, 451 Asplanchna, 340,342-345 Astacidea, 515,529 Astacus, 490 Asterias, 816, 825 Asterias rubens, 825 Asterina, 815 Asterina gibbosa, 827 Asteroidea, 804,810-812,815-817 Asteronyx, 806-807 Astropecten, 816 Astropecten armatus, 803 A s t rophy ton murica turn, 817 astropyle, 162 Astrorhiza, 166 astrorhizae, 205 Astrosoma agassizii, 817 asulcal, 227 asymmetrical animals, 43/44 Athalamida, 165,166 Athecata, 223 athecate hydroid, 232 athecate (naked) dinoflagellates, 151 Athous haemorrhoidalis, 608 athrocytes, 374 Atkinson, J., 2,42 Atlantic "red beard" sponge (Microciona prolifera), 184, 191 atokous animals, 428 Atolla, 252,255 atractophore, 170 A t r a x robustus, 675 atria (auricles), 744, 745 atrial dilator muscles, 784 atrial (excurrent) siphon, 857, 859 atrial sphincter, 784 Atrina, 730 atriopore, 865,866 atrium, 617, 618, 645, 679, 865,866 atrium (cloaca1water chamber), 857 atrium (spongocoel), 183 attachment Acanthocephala, 369-370 Platyhelminthes, 294-295 Atubaria, 849,850,852,853 Atubaria heterolopha, 850 Atwood, H. L., 571 A t y a , 572 Atypicae, 654 A t y p u s , 673,675 Aulactinia incubans, 260 Aurelia (moon jelly), 241,258

ephyrae, 255 life cycle, 259 rhopalium, 252 scyphistoma, 258 swarming, 246 auricles, 274,301,302, 821 auricular groove, 274,276 Australeremus cooki, 560 Austrodecus palauense, 691 Austrognatharia kirsteueri, 376 autapomorphy, 32 author, 26 autogamy, 128,145 autotomy, 826 autozooids, 233,781 Aves, 36 avicularia, 783 Ax, Peter, 313,315,338,375,381 axial cell, 212 axial gland, 823,824 axial sinus, 823,824 axial skeletons, 236 Axiothella rubrocincta (bamboo worm), 403 A x i u s vivesi, 513 axoblasts, 213 axocoels, 828, 830 axopodia, 161,162,163 axostyle, 170 Aysheaia, 463 Aysheaia pedunculata, 463 Aysheaia prolata, 463 AZM (adoral zone of membranelles), 136,139 Babcock, R., 260 bacteria luminous, 17 symbiosis in, 14-15 tetrodotoxin-secreting, 17 Baer, Karl von, 42 Ba humbugi, 26n Baker, A. N., 804,812,817 balancers, 279 Balanoglossus, 849,853, 854 Balanoglossus clavigerus, 849 Balanophyllia elegans, 243 Balantidium coli, 135,141 Balanus galeatus, 574 bamboo worm (Axiothella rubrocincta), 403 banana slug, 75 Bankia, 732 Banta, W. C., 785 Barentsia, 372 Barentsiidae, 373 Barlow, R. B., Jr., 680 Barnea, 732 Barnes, 503 baroception, 79 barophiles, 3 Barrington, E. J. W., 1,41,45, 84,85 Bartlett, 503 Bartsch, I., 659 basal body (kinetosome, blepharoplast), 50 basal groups, 882-883 basal plate, 238

basement membrane, 479 Baseodiscus, 328 Baseodiscus mexicanus, 319 Basipodella, 542 Basipodella atlantica, 542 Basommatophora, 712 basopinacocytes, 188 Bateson, 840 Bathycyasis consagensis (cup coral), 234 Bathynella, 525 Bathynellacea, 515 Bathynomus, 534 Bathynomus giganteus, 531 bathypelagic zone, 10 Batillipes, 473 Batillipes noerrevangi, 471,474 Batman, 26n bauplan, 1-3,4143,225-260,806-830. See also under spec@ phyla Bdelloidea, 340 Bdellonemertea, 322,324,329,335 Bdelloura, 291, 296 Bdelloura candid, 292 beard worms. See Pogonophoridae Beebe, William, 461 beef tapeworm (Taenia saginata), 291, 313,314 Beklemischev, W. N., 476,581 Bely, A. E., 830 Beneden, Edouard van, 209 benthic boundary layer, 12 benthic cold seep communities, 12 benthic organisms, 12 benthic zone, 10 Berg, G., 326 Bergh, R. S., 114 Berghia, 741 Berglund, A., 427 Bergquist, P. R., 187, 188,201,202 Berlese, organ of, 624 Beroe, 270,271,273,276 Beroe forskali, 270 Beroe ovata, 278 Beroida, 271,273 beta level of systematics, 27 Bierne, J., 332 bilaterally symmetrical animals, 4-6 protosome and deuterostome origins and, 877-878 bilaterogastrea, 112,114 binary fission, 128 binomen, 24,25 binomial nomenclature, 24 binominal nomenclature, 25 Binyon, J., 825 biochemical agents, sponge, 201-202 biodiversity. See diversity bioerosion, 203 biogenetic law (law of recapitulation), 107 biological classification, 24 biological nomenclature, 24-27 biological species definition (genetical species concept), 26 bioluminescence, 82,253 biominerals, 53 Bipalium, 286,295

INDEX

bipectinate (aspidobranch) condition, 744 bipectinate plan, 738 biradial symmetry, 43 biramous limbs, 480,481 birds, 35-36 Birgus, 568 Birgus latro, 513 Birstenia, 436 Bivalvia (Pelecypoda; Lamellibranchiata), 712 bivium, 808 bladder, 299,300 bladder worm (cysticercus), 313 Blair, J. E., 883 Blake, D. B., 804 Blaps mortisaga, 148 blastea, 109 blastema, 426 blastocoelom, 49 blastocoelomate grade, 48 Blastocoelomate phyla, 337-386 blastocoelomate condition, 338 circulatory system, 72 p hylogenetic considerations, 381-382 taxonomic history, 338 blastocoel (primary body cavity), 98 blastoderm, 468,469,649 syncitial, 625 blastomeres, 94 blastopore, 99 blastostyle, 232 blastozooids, 862 blastula, 98 blastula larvae (coeloblastula larvae), 199,200 Blattodea, 594,596 blepharoplast (basal body, kinetosome), 50 blind (incomplete) gut, 57 blood, 71 Bmp-4 gene, 869,884 Bod0 caudatus, 134 bodonids, 131 body cavity(ies), 8-9 formation, 100-102 phoronid, 775-776 Pogonophoridae, 434436 Rotifera, 341 body forms, Annelida, 395-397 body plans, nervous systems and, 4244 body size, 6-8 body whorl, 722,724 Bolbosoma, 369 Boloceroides, 240,258 Bolteniopsis, 856-857 Bombus, 592n Bombyx, 489 Bond, C., 183 Bonellia, 216,451,456 Bonellia viridis, 453, 455 bonellin, 451 book lungs, 74,490-491,663,665 Boophilus annulatus, 659 Boore, J. L., 505,884 Borchiellini, C., 883

boring gland (accessory boring organ), 735 Borlase, W., 321 Bothria, 295 bothridia, 295 Bothrioplana, 301 Botryllus, 85, 857, 862, 863 Bot ryocrin us, 806-807 botryoidal tissue, 400 Boury-Esnault, 194 Bowen, I. D., 298 Bowerbankia, 780, 781, 784, 785 Bowerman, R. F., 670 Bowmanella braziliensis, 533 Boxshall, G. A., 542 brachial axis, 795 brachial food groove, 795 brachial lobes, 749-750 brachial valve, 793, 794 brachiole, 833 Brachiopoda, 9,792-798 body wall and coelom, 793-795 characteristics, 793 circulation and gas exchange, 796 classification, 793 eggs and embryos, 94-102 excretion, 796 life cycles, 102-1 06 lophophore, feeding, and digestion, 795-796 mixed, 103 nervous system and sense organs, 796 ontogeny-phylogeny relationship, 106-108 origin of Metazoa, 108-116 reproduction and development, 796-798 support, 793-795 brachypterous wings, 606 Brachyura, 515,529 bract, 233 branchiae, 413414 branchial arteries, afferent, 867 branchial chambers, 565,568,569 branchial (gill) pores, 848, 849, 852 branchial hearts, 747 branchial region, 848, 849 branchial sac, 851,852 Branchinecta, 521 Branchinecta gigas, 519 Branchiobdellida, 394 branchiopericardial vessel, 678 Branchiopoda, 514,519-522 distinguishing features, 552-553 reproductive features, 556-557 Branchiostoma, 353, 854, 866 Branchiostoma lanceolatum, 865 Branchipus schaefferi, 521 Branchiura, 393,516,542-543,544-545 circulation and gas exchange, 416 reproductive features, 556-557 Brandenberger, J. L., 302 Bredocaris, 582 brevetoxins, 151 Briareum, 260 Bridge, D., 263 broadcast spawning, 86

907

broad fish tapeworm

(Diphyllobothrium latum), 313,314 Brown, R. H. J., 654 brown bodies, 788 Brownell, P. H., 672 Brumeister, C., 702 Bryozoans (Ryland), 771 buccal cavity, 326 buccal cirri, 865, 866 buccal diverticulum (stomochord), 847,851 buccal field, 340 buccal funnel, 379 buccal ganglia, 749,750 buccal tube, 342,775,776,851 buccal tube feet, 812 Buccinum, 734 budding, 128 propagative, 862 survival, 862 Bugula, 781,783,791 Bugula neritina, 787, 790, 791, 792 bulbous pharynx, 296,297 Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature, 25 Burgess Shale deposits, 8 Burns, John, 1975 bursae, 824 Bursovaginoidea, 376 Buthus, 672,686 Buthus martensi, 665 Biitschli, O., 110 byssal threads, 730,731 byssus gland, 731 ”by-the-wind sailor” (Velella), 220, 233,246 Bythotreptos, 522 Caecosagitta macrocephala, 841 Caenorhabditis elegans, 351,574,883 Calabozoidea, 516 calamistrum, 667, 668 Calanoida, 516 Calanus, 490 Calcarea, 182 calcareous body skeletons, 6 calcareous tests, 166 Calcaronea, 182 calciferous glands, 411,412 Calcinea, 182 Caligus, 544 Calliactis, 234, 245, 248 Callianassa (mud shrimp), 532, 559 Callinectes, 487 Callinectes sapidus, 577 Calliostoma, 729 Callipallene brevirostris, 694-695 Callipodida, 639 Callistochiton viviparous, 755 Callopora, 786 Callyspongia vaginalis, 817 Calman, W. T., 523 calotte, 365 Calycophorae, 233 calymma, 162 Calyptoblastea, 223 calyptopis, 579 calyx, 373 Camallanus, 357

908

INDEX

”Cambrian explosion,” 6 Cambropackycope clarksoni, 582 camera1 fluid, 733 Cameron, C. B., 869 campaniform sensilla, 493 Campbell, A. C., 808 Camptostroma, 832, 833-834 Camptostroma roddyi, 831 Canadaspis, 8 Cancellaria cooperi, 736 Cancelloidokytodermogammarus (Loveninsuskytodermogammarus) loveni, 26n Cancer, 530 Cancer magister, 324, 575 Candona, 549 Cannery Row (Steinbeck),801 cannibalism, 65 Cannon, 16 Cannon, H. G., 558 ”cannonball jellyfish” (Stomolopkus meleagris), 259 cap, 758 cap cells, 69 capillary ceca, 775,776 capitate tentacles, 228 Capitellida, 389 capitulum, 658 Caprella, 538 Caprellidea, 516 capsule cells, 213 capsule (mucous) gland, 755,756 captacula, 741 carapace, 515,550 carbonic anhydrase, 76 carcinoecium, 247 Carcinonemertes, 324, 331 Carcinonemertes errans, 324 Carcinoscorpius, 656 Carcinus, 540 Carcinus maenas, 561n cardia, 787 cardiac stomach, 561,568,816,817 cardinal veins, 866,867 Caribbean elkhorn coral (Acropora palmata), 220 Caridea, 515,528 caridoid escape reaction, 552 Carinaria, 710 Carinina, 328, 331 Carinoma, 326 Carle, K. J., 785 carnivores, 58 carnivory, 23-25 Carpenter, G. H., 504n carrier cell (transfer choanocyte), 198, 199 caruncle, 422 Carybdea, 252 Case, J. F., 841 Cassiopea, 250,252 Caswell, H., 105 Catenulida, 286 caudal appendage, 365,366 caudal fin, 865,866 caudal lobes, 363,364 caudal organ, 348 caudal rami, 551

Caullery, M., 434 Caulorampkus, 787 Caulorampkus spiniferum, 787 ceca capillary, 775, 776 gastric, 615, 616 cecal coccidiosis, 146 cecal portal vein, 866, 867 cecal vein, 866, 867 cell(s) sponge cell aggregation, 191 sponge cell types, 188-191 cell-cell communication, 4 cell fates, problem of, 98 cell rosettes, 278, 279 cells (of insect wings), 608 cellularity, 6 Celtia, 549 cement body, 758 cement (lipoprotein) layer, 478,479 Cenozoic era (65 mya-present), 7-9 Centipedes. See Myriapoda Central Atlantic Magmatic Province, 7 central cells, 187 central disc, 806 central nervous system, 83 central sinus, 851, 852 central stomach, 787 centric diatoms, 154 centrolecithal eggs, 94 Centropyxis, 158 Centruroides, 639 Centruroides exilicauda, 672 cephalic (anterior) plates, 720 cephalic glands, 330 cephalic lacuna, 327 cephalic lobe, 434,435 cephalic shield (head shield), 550 cephalic slits, 330 cephalic tentacles, 752 cephalization, 45, 83 Cepkalobaena tetrapoda, 546 Cepkalobellus, 358 Cepkalobothrium, 294 Cephalocarida, 514,518,519 distinguishing features, 552-553 reproductive features, 556-557 Cephalochordata, 9,855,8644367,868 bauplan, 865-868 body wall and coelom, 865 circulation and gas exchange, 867 feeding and digestion, 865-867 nervous system and sense organs, 867 reproduction and development, 867,868 support and locomotion, 865 phylogeny, 868-870 Cepkalodiscus, 840, 849, 850, 852, 853, 854 cephalon, 497,498, 550 Cephalopoda (Siphonopoda), 714-715 coloration and ink, 754-755 eyes in, 81 cephalosome (cephalothorax), 515, 546,550 Cepkalotkrix, 327 Ceractinomorpha, 182

ceras/cerata, 736,742, 747 Ceratium, 122, 150,152 cercaria, 309,312 cerci, 607 cerebral canal, 330-331 cerebral ganglion/ganglia, 83, 749, 750,862 cerebral organ(s), 330,450 cerebral vesicle, 867 Cerebratulus, 320,323,328 cerebropleural ganglia, 749 Ceriantharia, 225 Ceriantipatharia, 225 Ceritkidea califarnica, 309 Cestida, 271,273 Cestoda, 288,290-291 anatomy, 290-291 body wall, 93 eating and digestion, 98-99 excretion and osmoregulation, 300 life cycles, 14 nervous system and sense organs, 302-303 sexual reproduction, 12-13 support, locomotion, and attachment, 94-95 Cestodaria, 288 Cestodes, 291 Cestum, 270,271,273 chaetae, 395,396 Ckaetoderma loveni, 706 Ckaetoderma productum, 706 Chaetodermomorpha (Caudofoveata), 703,706 Chaetognatha (arrow worms), 9, 839-847 bauplan, 841-847 body wall, 841-842 circulation and gas exchange, 845 excretion, 845 feeding and digestion, 842-844 nervous system and sense organs, 845 reproduction and development, 845-847 support and movement, 841-842 characteristics, 841 classification, 841 phylogeny, 868-870 taxonomic history, 839-840 Chaetonotida, 346 Ckaetonotus, 346,347 Chaetopterida, 389 Chaetopteridae, 389 Ckaetopterus, 391 circulation and gas exchange, 414 feeding, 60,407,408,454 regeneration, 425 Chagas’ disease (American trypanosomiasis), 133, 593, 613 Challengeron wyvillei, 161 chambered hearts, 73 Chaos, 158 Chaos chaos, 26n characters, 28-29 convergent, 29 character state polarity analysis, 34 character states, 30

INDEX

advanced (derived), 31,32 changes in, 34 primitive (ancestral), 31,32 Ckarnia, 6 Ckarniodiscus, 6 Ckaronia, 815 cheeks, 497,498 Cheilostomata, 779 chelicerae, 653,657, 660,661,662 Chelicerata, 654,656 Cheliceriformes, 9,476, 653-699 bauplan, 666-691 circulation and gas exchange, 678-679 digestive system, 676-677 excretion and osmoregulation, 679-680 feeding, 672-676 locomotion, 670-672 nervous system and sense organs, 680-683 reproduction and development, 683-691 spinnerets, spider silk, and spider “webs,” 667-670 characteristics, 654 classification, 654-655 phylogeny, 696-697 taxa, 656-666 Ckelifer cancroides, 661, 664 chelifores, 693 Ckeliplana, 286, 297 Ckelonibia, 542 chemical coordinators, 84 chemical sensitivity, general, 80 chemoautotrophy, 66 chemolithotrophs, 3n chemoreceptors, 80 Chia, F. S., 428, 727, 817 chilaria, 656, 657 Chilognatha, 639 Ckilomonas, 172 Chilopoda, 639,640,647-648 Chinese golden carp (Macropodus opercularis), 312 Ckironex (sea wasp), 244 Ckiropsalmus, 244 chitin, 5n, 54 chitinous structures, 5 Cklamydomonas, 173 Cklamydomonas pulsatilla, 68 Cklamydomonas reinkardtii, 172 Cklamydopkorus, 157 chloragogen cells, 412 chloragogenous tissue, 412-413 Cklorkydra, 249 chlorocruorins, 76 Chlorophyta, 122,124,172,173 choanocyte chambers (flagellated chambers, radial canals), 184 choanocytes, 183,188,189 choanoderm, 183 Choanoflagellata, 124, 173 Chondrophora, 223,233 Ckondrosia, 191 Ckonopeltis, 543 Chordata (chordates), 3,9,854-870 cephalochordates, 864-867,868 characteristics, 857

classification, 855 derived character states, 31 phylogeny, 868-870 taxonomic history, 840-841 Ckordeuma, 648 Chordeumatida, 639 ckordin gene, 869,884 chordoid larva, 381 Ckordotes, 365 chordotonal organs, 621 thorion, 625 chromatophores, 754 Ckromodoris, 704, 705 chromosomal nuclei, 129 Ckryptockiton stelleri, 722 Ckrysaora, 255 Cktkamalus anisopoma (acorn barnacles), 513 Chuang, S. H., 796 cibarial muscles, 612 cibarium, 612 Cidaris, 819 Cidaroidea, 805 cilia, 50-52 simple, 137 ciliary cone apparatus, 251 ciliary eyes, 82 ciliary fans, 844 ciliary loop (corona ciliata), 841 ciliary-mucous mechanism, 60 ciliary muscles, 81 ciliated furrows (ciliated grooves), 279,280 ciliated organs, 419,420 Ciliated Protozoa, The (Corliss), 137 ciliates. See Ciliophora (ciliates) ciliate-to-acoel hypothesis, 313 ciliature compound, 137 oral, 137 somatic, 137 Ciliophora (ciliates), 122,123, 124, 135-145 characteristics, 137 hypotrich, 139 nutrition, 139-142 reproduction, 142-145 support and locomotion, 135-139 Cimex kemipterus, 613 Cimex lectularius, 613 cinclides, 245 Cinderella, 26n cingulum, 340,342 Ciona, 857,859 Circinalium, 863 circular muscles, 239, 240 circulation, 31-33, 299 hearts and other pumping mechanisms, 33 internal transport and, 31 circulatory system, 31-32, 71 circumapical field, 340 circumoral canal, 810 circumoral field, 340 circumoral nerve ring, 826 Cirolanidae, 35,37 Cirratulida, 389 Cirratulidae, 389 cirri, 395,541, 542, 558, 813

909

Cirripedia, 516,540-542 cirrus, 87, 304, 574 cirrus sac, 307, 308, 312 clades, 31, 33 cladistic analysis extension to other disciplines, 37-38 steps in, 34-35 cladistics (phylogenetic systematics), 15,32-34 traditional systematics vs., 35-37 Cladocera, 515,522 cladogenesis, 16,35 cladogram(s), 32, 34 of annelids, 37 computer-assisted construction, 34 as explicit phylogenetic hypotheses, 34-35 of living vertebrates, 36 speciation and, 36 testing, 35 Cladorkiza, 194 clam shrimps, 522 Clark, A. H., 338,373 Clark, R. B., 112,114,115,337 classification, biological, 24 conflicting, 35-37 constructing, 31-38 subordinated (hierarchical), 37 Clatkria, 187 Clatkrina, 183, 199 clava, 473 Clavelina, 857, 862 Clavella adunca, 544 clavoscalids, 377,378 cleaner shrimps, 15 cleavage, 94 determinate, 98 equal, 94 equatorial, 95 holoblastic, 94 indeterminate, 98 latitudinal, 95 longitudinal (meridional), 94 orientation of cleavage planes, 94-95 radial, 95-98 spiral, 95-98 Clement, P., 343 Cleveland, L. R., 171 Clibinarius, 248 Clinoa, 203 Clinocardium, 705, 730 Clio, 710 clitellar region, 397 Clitellata, 392 clitellum, 397,430-432 cloaca, 342, 474, 860 cloacal irrigation, 456 cloacal water chamber (atrium), 857 Cloney, R. A., 864 Clonorckis (Opisthorckis) sinensis, 290 closed circulatory systems, 71 closed mitosis, 128, 129 Clubionidae, 654 Clypeaster, 821 Clypeaster rosaceus, 814 clypeolabrum, 603,604 clypeus, 604, 642 Cnemidocarpa, 840

910

INDEX

cnidae (nematocysts), 152,219, 242-244,243 structure and function, 242 Cnidaria, 5,6,9,219-268 bauplan, 225-260 body wall, 226-236 circulation, 72,250 cnidae (nematocysts), 242-244 defense, interactions, and symbiosis, 246-250 excretion, 250 feeding and digestion, 244-246 gas exchange, 250 locomotion (movement), 239-242 medusoid form, 233-236,237 nervous system and sense organs, 250-253 osmoregulation, 250 polypoid form, 226-233 reproduction and development, 253-260 support, 236-239 bioluminescence, 253 characteristics, 222 classification, 223-225 phylogeny, 261-264 regeneration, 253 roles in folklore, 246 taxonomic history, 222-223 toxins of, 244 cnidoblasts, 242 cnidocil, 242 cnidocyte(s), 226, 242 cnidoglandular band, 245 cnidosacs, 736 coastal marshlands, 13 coccidians, 145-148 coccoliths, 154 cochineal, 598 cocoon, 432,433 Codonophilus, 536 Codosiga, 173 Coe, W. R., 321 coeloblastula, 98 coeloblastula larvae (blastula larvae), 199,200 coelogastrula, 99 coelom (eucoelom), 48. See also under specific phyla formation, 101-1 02 coelomic channels, 447,448 coelomic condition, origin of, 112-116 coelomocytes, 776 coelomoducts, 70-71 Coeloplana, 279, 280,282 Coelosphaera hatchi, 184 coenenchyme, 220n Coenobita, 568 coenosarc, 232 coenosteum, 239 Cohen, 2 Cohen, A. C., 574 Cohen, J., 42 Colacium, 129,131 Coleoidea (Dibranchiata), 714-715 Coleoptera, 594,599 Coleps, 137 collagens, 3

collar, 188, 239,365, 366,402,403, 784, 848,849 Collembola, 594-595 collenchyma, 22012 collenchyme, 22012 collencytes, 188 Collin, R., 728 Collisella scabra, 735 colloblasts, 276,277 collophore, 594 collum, 641,642 colonial theory, 109 colony(ies), 85 definitions of the term, 785 Ectoprocta, 781,782 coloration, cephalopod, 754-755 Colossendeis, 691, 695 Colossendeis australis, 693 Colossendeis colossea, 695 Colossendeis scotti, 693 Colpidium, 135, 141 columella, 238, 722, 724 comb jellies. See Ctenophora comb plates (ctene), 274,275,276 comet, 826 commensalism, 15 comminator muscles, 819 common cardinal veins, 866,867 common descent, recency of, 32 comparative biology, 23 compasses, 821 compensation sac (ascus), 448,785, 786 compensation system, 448 competent larva, 104 complete mesenteries, 227,229 complete metamorphosis (holometabolous development), 626-627,628 complex eyes, 80 complex lensed ocelli, 494 compound ascidians, 856,857 compound ciliature, 137 compound cirri, 739 compound eyes, 80,494 compound plates, 808 conchin, 718 Conchoderma, 540 condyles, 482,483 cone snail, 65 conglobation (enrollment), 497,498 conjugants, 143 conjugation, 128,143 Conklin, E. G., 873 connecting ducts, 685,686 Conniff, R., 410 Conocoryphe sulzeri, 498 Conocyema, 214 Conocyema polymorpha, 214 Conopeum seurati, 781 continental edge, 10,12 continental shelf, 10,12 continental slopes, 10,12 contractile cells, 188-190 contractile hypothesis, 244 contractile vacuoles (water expulsion vesicles), 29, 68, 125 contractile vessels, 72, 73

Conus, 65,704,705,735 Conus purpurescens, 736 convergence, 28,30,248 convergent characters, 29 convergent evolution, 29-30 Convoluta, 301 co-option (gene recruitment), 29 Copepoda, 516,544-545,546-547, 556-557 copepodite, 578 coprophagy, 62 copulatory apparatus, 307,308 copulatory bursa, 304,624,625,755, 756 copulatory organ, 547 coracidium, 313 coral, 85 coral bleaching, 250 Corallanidae, 37 Corallimorpharia, 225 corallite, 238 Corallium, 236 corallum, 238 coral reefs, 9 cor frontale, 563 Corliss, J. O., 123, 137, 174 cormidia, 233,253 cornea (corneal lens), 81,494 corneagen cells, 494 Corolla, 710 Corona, 339,340 corona, rotifer, 340-341 corona ciliata (ciliary loop), 841 coronal muscles, 240 Coronatae, 225 Coronula, 540 Coronula, 542 corpora allata, 619,620 corpora cardiaca, 488,619,620 cortex, 135,137,183-184 Corymorpha, 233 Corynactis californica, 243,251 Corynosoma, 369 costa, 170 Costello, D. I?, 98 Cotylaspis, 290 coxa, 480,606 coxal glands, 491 coxal plates, 534,536 coxal sac, 619 Crania, 792, 796 cranium, 749 craspedote, 235 Crassostrea virginica, 739 Craterostigmomorpha, 639 Crenobia, 301 Crepidula, 756, 757, 760 Crepidula fornicata, 757 Cretaceous period, 7 cribellum, 667, 668 Cribrilaria, 782 cribrimorph ectoprocts, 785 Criconema, 352 Crinoidea, 804,812,814-815 Cristatella, 779-780 Cristatella mucedo, 780 Crithidia, 135 crocodilians, 35-36

INDEX

crop, 411,412, 615,616,644, 743, 744 cross fertilization, mutual, 87 Crustacea, 9,476,511-587 bauplan, 550-579 circulation and gas exchange, 563-568,569 development, 576-579 digestive system, 561-563 excretion and osmoregulation, 568-570 feeding, 555,557-561 life cycle, 564-565 locomotion, 551-557 nervous system and sense organs, 570-573 reproduction, 556-557,573-576 characteristics, 514 classification, 514-5 17 comparison of distinguishing features among classes, 552-553 diversity, 513 isopod, 37 pentastomid, 7 phylogeny, 579-582 synopses of taxa, 517-550 cryptobiosis, 470 Cryptochiton stelleri (giant gumboot chiton), 75,720 cryptocyst, 785,786 Cryptodonta. See Solemyida Cryptolithodes (umbrella crab), 532 Cryptomonada, 124,172 Cryptomonas, 172 Cryptops, 643,645 Cryptosporidia, 146 Cryptosula pallasiana, 789 Cryptotethya crypta, 202 crystalline cone, 494 crystalline cone cells, 494 crystalline cone stalk, 494 crystalline style, 743, 744 ctene (comb plates), 274,275,276 ctenidia, 717,718 plicate, 747 ctenidial vessels, afferent, 744,745 Ctenizidae, 654 Ctenocepha 1ides can is, 599 Ctenocephalides felis, 599, 614 Ctenocheilocaris, 543 Ctenodiscus, 806-807 Ctenophora (comb jellies), 9, 269-283 bauplan, 274-281 circulation, 279 excretion, 279 feeding and digestion, 276-279 gas exchange, 279 general anatomy of major groups, 272-273 nervous system and sense organs, 279-280 osmoregulation, 279 reproduction and development, 280-281 support and locomotion, 274-276 characteristics, 271 classification, 271-274 phylogeny, 281-282 taxonomic history, 271

ctenophore-polyclad theory, 313 Ctenoplana, 273,282 Ctenostomata, 779 cubomedusae, 237 Cubozoa, 225,258 Cucmaria minata, 822 Cucullanus, 354 cucullus, 664 Cucumaria, 821,822 Cucumaria crocea, 828 Cucumaria planci, 806-807 Cuenot, 16 Culcita, 815 Culex, 593,600,614 Cumacea, 516,532-534 cup coral (Bathycyasis consagensis), 234 Cupiennius, 682 Cupuladria, 781 Cuspidaria, 739 Cuspidaria rostrata, 739 cutaneous gas exchange, 74 cuticle, 54,478479 cuticular lens, 682,683 cuticulin layer, 478,479 Cutler, E. B., 447 Cuvier, Georges, 180,286,321,388, 447,475,476,499,702 Cuvierian tubules, 822,823 Cyamus, 538 Cyamus erraticus, 538 Cyamus monodontis, 538 Cyamus scammoni, 513 Cyanea, 246,255 Cyanobacteria, 5 Cyclestheria, 521,522 Cyclestheria hislopi, 522 Cyclestherida, 515 Cycliophora, 9,378-381 cyclomorphism, 521,522 cyclomorphosis, 471 Cyclopoida, 516 Cyclorhagida, 349 Cydippida, 271,273 cydippid larvae, 280,281 cymbium, 685 Cymothoidae, 35,37 cyphonautes, 791 Cyprinotus, 549 cypris adductor muscle, 540 cypris larva, 540,562,576, 579 cyrtocyte (solenocyte), 69,347 Cyrtograpsus angulatus, 530 Cyrtophora moluccensis, 668 cystacanth, 371 cysticercus (bladder worm), 313 cystid, 779,780 Cystisoma, 513, 531 Cystonectae, 233 cysts, 470 Cythere1loidea, 549 cytokinesis, 128 cytopharynx, 139 cytoproct, 125 cytostome, 125 Dactylochirotida, 805-806 Dactylogyrus vastator, 310 dactylopores, 239

911

dactylostyles, 239 dactylozooids, 232 Dahl, E., 581

Dahlella caldariensis, 523 Dalyellioida, 288 Daphnia, 521 dart sac, 757 Darwin, Charles, 18,23,25 Darwinula, 549 Davis, G. E., 511,514,519,527,540 DDT, 146 Dearborn, J. H., 817 DeBary, H. A., 14 de Blainville, 447, 702, 772 Decapoda. See Teuthoida (Decapoda) Deccan Traps, 7 Decolopoda, 694 Decolopoda australis, 692 defense, cnidarian, 246-250 definitive (primary) host, 14,106 dehiscent wings, 596 Deibel, D., 860 Deiopea, 273 delamination, 99 Demodex, 658 Demodex brevis, 659 Demodex canis, 659 Demodex folliculorum, 659 Demospongiae, 182 Dendraster, 806-807,821,829 Dendraster excentricus, 803, 820, 821, 830 Dendrobranchiata, 515,527 dendrobr anchiate gills, 527 Dendrochirotacea, 805-806 Dendrochirotida, 806 Dendrocystites, 831 dendrogram, 30-31. See also cladogram(s) Dendy, Arthur, 180 dengue, 593 dental sac, 819 Deoterthron, 513 deposit feeders, 21-22, 58 Derby, C. D., 571 derived characteristics, shared, 38 derived character states, 31,32 Dermacentor, 658 Dermacentor andersoni, 659 dermal gills (papulae), 824 dermal membrane, 187 dermal pores (ostia), 183,184,489, 490,616,617,644,739,740 Dermaptera, 594,596-597 Dermasterias imbricata, 817 Dero, 393,416 Derobrachus, 628 Derocheilocaris, 543, 544 Derocheilocaris ingens, 543 descending arm, 738,740 ”descent with modification,” 24 Deshayes, gland of, 741 Desmoscloex, 352 Desor, E., 333,335 Desor larva, 333 determinate cleavage, 98 detorted gastropods, 725, 726 detritivores, 58

912

INDEX

Deuterostomes. See also Chaetognatha (arrow worms); Chordata (chordates); Echinodermata; Hemichordata; Lophophorates evolution, 880-882 origins, 877-878 phylogeny, 868-870 protostomes vs., 113,114-115 representative, 840 deutocerebrum, 492,493,570 development, 93-119 eggs and embryos, 94-102 life cycles, 102-106 mixed, 103 ontogeny-phylogeny relationship, 106-108 developmental canalization, 42 developmental polymorphism, 344-345 developmental studies, 34 Devescovina, 171 dextrotropic direction, 95 D’Hondt, J.-L., 879 Diadematacea, 805 Diadumene, 240,245,258 diagonal rhythm sequence, 670,671 Diamus montanus, 599 diapause, 13,579 diaphragm, 783 Diaplauxis hatti, 147 diaplectic metachrony, 138 Diaptomus, 513 Diastylis, 533 diatoms, 153,154 Diaulula, 710, 711 Diazona, 859 Dibranchiata. See Coleoidea Dickinsonia, 5, 6 dicondylic joint, 482 Dicrotendipes thanatogratus, 26n Dictyota, 558 Dicyema, 209,211,212 dicyemids, 212-214 Didemnum, 861 Didinium, 138, 139, 140 diductor muscles, 795,796 Dientamoeba fragilis, 170, 171 Difflugia, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160 Digenea, 288 digestion/digestive system. See also feeding; nutrition extracellular, 56-57 extracorporeal, 56 intracellular, 56 digestive cecum/ceca, 489,741,742,743 Digonata, 340 dilator muscles, atrial, 784 Dimas tigella, 134 dimorphic life cycle, 219 dimyarian condition, 730 Dinan, L., 884 Dinobrion, 122 Dinoflagellata, 122,123,124,148-152 characteristics, 149 nutrition, 151-152 osmoregulation, 151 reproduction, 152 support and locomotion, 151

Dinomischus, 8 Dinophilus, 388n Dinopidae, 655 Dinopis, 673 dioecious animals, 87 Diopatra, 406 Dipkyllobothrium, 295 Dipkyllobothrium latum (broad fish tapeworm), 313,314 dipleurula larva, 868 diploblastic animals, 48 Diplogaster, 356 Diplomonadida, 124,167-169 Diplopoda, 639,648 diplosegments, 637,641 Diplosoma, 861 Diplostraca, 514,522 distinguishing features, 552-553 reproductive features, 556-557 Diplura, 594,595 Dipluridae, 654 Diptera, 594,599-600 Dipteropel tis, 543 Dipylidium, 295 direct deposit feeders, 61-62 direct development, 103 direct eye, 81 direct fission, 253 direct flight muscles, 609,610 direct ocelli, 80 Discinisca, 792 discoblastula, 99 disjugal furrow, 656 Disperella, 782 disphotic zone, 12 dissolved organic matter (DOM), 25-26,65 Distal-less (Dll) gene, 29,481482, 579, 604,606,884 distal screening pigments, 494,495 Distaplia occidentalis, 864 divergence, 30 diversity in freshwater habitats, 14 hexapod, 591-592 of known extant species, 9 molluscan, 704-705 symbiosis and, 15 vertebrate, 7 DNA, transposable elements (TEs) in, 16-17 docoglossate radulae, 735 Dodecaceria, 425,427 Dodecolopoda, 694 Dodson, E. O., 217 Dohle, W., 504 Doliolum, 858 Dolops, 542, 543 Dolychisme, 26n domains, 3 DOM (dissolved organic matter), 25-26,65 dormancy, 13 dorsal aortae, 866, 867 dorsal end, 44 dorsal epibranchial ridge, 851 dorsal lamina, 859, 861 dorsal longitudinal muscles, 609,610

dorsal organs, 572 dorsal sac, 823,824 dorsal vessel, 415-416 dorsoventral muscles, 609, 610 Dorylaimus, 356 doublets (microtubules), 50 d p p gene, 869,884 Draculoides bramstokeri, 26n dragline, 671 Drake Passage, 7 Drepanophorus, 328 Drosophila, 18,502,621-622 Drosophila melanogaster, 16,17, 883 Dugesia, 286, 302, 303 Dunagan, T. T., 369 Dunham, P. J., 574 duplex walls, 785 dycyemid rhombozoan, 111 Dynamics in Metazoan Evolution (Clark), 112,337 dynein arms, 50 dysentery, amebic, 158 Eakin, R. M., 82,302 ecdysiotropin, 488 ecdysis, 477, 485 ecdysone, 485,487 Ecdysozoa hypothesis, 500,883-884 Echinacea, 805 Echinarachnius parma, 808, 820 E chinaster graminicol us, 824 Echiniscoides, 470 E chiniscoides sigismund i, 470 Echiniscus, 471,473 Echinocardium, 825 Echinococcus, 291 Echinococcus granulosus, 291 Eckinocyamus pusillus, 821 Eckinoderes, 349 Echinodermata, 5,9,801-837 bauplan, 806-830 body wall and coelom, 808-810 circulation and gas exchange, 823-824 excretion, 823-824 feeding and digestion, 814-823 nervous system and sense organs, 825-826 osmoregulation, 825 reproduction and development, 826-830 support and locomotion, 813-8 14 water vascular system, 810-812 characteristics, 805 classification, 804-806 phylogeny, 830-834 taxonomic history, 803-804 Echinoidea, 805,812,818-821 Echinosquilla guerinii, 525 Echinothurioidea, 805 Echinus, 811 Echiura, 5,9,28,451457 body wall and coelom, 453 characteristics, 453 circulation and gas exchange, 455-456 classification, 453 excretion and osmoregulation, 456

INDEX

feeding and digestion, 454 nervous system and sense organs, 456 phylogeny, 457 reproduction and development, 456457 support and locomotion, 453454 taxonomic history, 452 Echiuroinea, 453 Echiurus, 453,455,456 ectoderm, 48 ectognathous mouth appendages, 595 ectognathous mouthparts, 604 ectomesoderm, 100 ectoneural (oral) system, 825 ectoparasites, 14,106 ectoplasm, 50 Ectoprocta, 9,778-792 bauplan, 779-792 body wall and coelom, 373, 783-785 circulation and gas exchange, 788 excretion, 788 lophophore, feeding, and digestion, 785-788,789 muscles and movement, 783-785 nervous system and sense organs, 788-789 reproduction and development, 789-792 zooid interconnections, 785,786 characteristics, 779 classification, 779 colonies, 781,782 Edgecombe, G. D., 504 Ediacara, 6 Ediacaran epoch, 5-6 Ediacaran fauna, 5 Edmonds, S. J., 447 Edwardsia, 260 edwardsia stage, 260 Ef-lz (elongation factor 1-alpha) gene, 879,883,884 EF-2 (elongation factor) gene, 884 effector, 77 efferent branchial arteries, 867 efferent ctenidial (branchial) vessels, 744,745 efferent nerve, 77 efferent "ring" vessel, 776 efferent vessels, 775, 776 egg, 94 egg capsules, 756 egg nauplius, 578 Ehlers, U., 286,293,302,313,315,316, 382 Ehrenberg, 772 Eifelocrinus, 831 18s rDNA gene, 882-884 Eimeria, 146 Eisenia, 430 Eisenia foetida, 412 ejaculatory duct, 87 ejaculatory organ, 758 Elasipodida, 806 Eldredge, N., 2, 19,42 Electra, 786, 790 Eledone, 742

Eleodes, 624 elephantiasis (lymphatic filariasis), 362,593,613 Eleutheria, 241 Eliot, T. S., 873 elongation factor 1-alpha (Ef-I)gene, 879,883,884 elongation factor (EF-2) gene, 884 Elphidium, 165, 167 elytra, 608 Embata, 342 Embioptera (Embiidina), 594,597 Embletonia, 742 embolus, 685-686 Embryology and Evolution (Conklin), 873 embryonic development, 94-102 blastula types, 98-99 cell fate problem, 98 cleavage, 94-98 gastrulation and germ layer formation, 99-100 Hox gene functions in, 17 mesoderm and body cavities, 100-102 embryophore, 313 embryo sacs, 790 Emeraldella, 497 Emerita, 59,532, 559,560 Emiliania huxleyi, 155 Encope, 806-807 end bulb, 774 Endeavouria, 295 endites, 480, 550,554 endocrine hormones, 84 endocrine system, 84 endocuticle, 478,479 endocytosis, 56,159 endoderm (entoderm), 48 Endolimax nana, 156 endoparasites, 14, 106 endophallus, 607 endopinacocytes, 183,188 endoplasm, 50 endopod, 480,481,515,550,554 endopolyogeny, 128 endoskeletons, 14, 53 endostyle (hypobranchial groove), 857,858,859,861,865-866 engrailed (en)gene, 478,496,499,884 engrailed expression, segmental, 879 Enopla, 322 enrollment (conglobation), 497,498 Entamoeba, 161 Entamoeba coli, 156,157 Entamoeba gingivalis, 156 Entamoeba hartmanni, 158 Entamoeba histolytica, 156,157,158, 160 Entamoeba moshkovskii, 158 Enterobius verrnicularis, 361 enterocoel theory, 114 enterocoely, 101 Enteropneusta, 847 entoderm (endoderm), 48 Entognatha, 594-595 entognathous mouth appendages, 594 entomesoderm, 100 entomology, 593

913

entoneural (aboral) system, 825 Entoprocta (entoprocts), 9,371-375 body wall, 373 characteristics, 373 circulation and gas exchange, 374, 788 classification, 373 excretion, 374 feeding and digestion, 373-374 nervous system, 374 reproduction and development, 374-375 support and movement, 373 entosaccal coelom, 784 Entosiphon, 130,131,132 Enypniastes, 803 Ephelota gemmipara, 144 Ephelota gigantea, 142 ephemeral pools (vernal pools), 13, 14n Ephemeroptera, 594,595-596 ephippium, 521,522 Ephydatiafluviatilis, 194, 198 Ephyra, 222 ephyrae, 255,258 Epiactis, 240 Epiactis prolifora, 245 epibenthic forms, 12 epiboly, 99 epibranchial groove, 866 epicardial sacs, 862 Epicaridea, 516 epicone, 151 epicoxa, 629 epicuticle, 478,479 epidemic broadcast spawning, 103 epidermal lamella, 364,365 epidermal papillae, 718-719 epidermis, 478,479 epifauna, 12 epigastric furrow, 662,663 epigynum, 663,685,686 Epimenia, 762 Epimenia verrucosa, 706 epimorphic development, 578,648 epipelagic zone, 10 epiphysis, 819 epiplasm (cortex), 135,137,183-184 epipodial tentacles, 752 epipods, 480,481 epistome, 773 epitheca, 151 epithelial sense organs, 424 epitheliomuscular cells, 226 epitoke, 428 epitokous individual, 428 epitoky, 428 Epitonium scalare, 704, 705 Epizoanthus, 247 equal cleavage, 94 equatorial cleavage, 95 Eremobates, 661 Ergasilus pitalicus, 544 Erofircata, 691 Erpobdella, 420, 433 errant animals, 12 Erwin, Terry, 26n, 590 erythrocytes, 76

914

INDEX

Esckerickia coli, 156 Eschscholtz, 271,840 esophagus, 326,615,616 Essig, Edward, 637 estuaries, 13 etching cells, 203 Eteone, 430 Etkmolaimus, 356 Euapta, 61,803 Eubacteria, 1-2, 3 Eucalanus, 571 Eucarida, 515,526,556-557 Eucestoda, 289 Euchinoidea, 805 Eucklanis, 343 Eucklora rubra (Haeckelia rubra), 248, 278 eucoelom. See coelom (eucoelom) eucoelomate grade, 48 Eucomonympka, 171 eucone eyes, 620,621 Eudistylia, 75,403 Eudorina, 173 eudoxids, 233 Euglena, 81,122,129,130,131,132, 135 Euglena spirogyra, 128 Euglenida (euglenids), 122,123, 124, 129-1 31 characteristics, 130 nutrition, 131,132 reproduction, 131,132 support and locomotion, 130-131 euglenoid movement (metaboly), 130 Eukyperamoeba, 158 eukaryotes, 1,2,3,4 eukaryotic cell, symbiogenic origin of, 17 Eukroknia, 845,846 Eukrohnia batkypelagica, 846 Eukroknia fowleri, 846 Eulamellibranchia (Heterodonta), 712-71 4 Eulimnadia texana, 574 eulittoral zone, 10 Eumalacostraca, 515,524-540 distinguishing features, 552-553 reproductive features, 556-557 Eunice, 421 Eunicida, 389 Eunicidae, 389 Euoplometopus (Hawaiian regal lobster), 513 Eupentacta, 821, 823 Euphausiacea, 515,526,556-557 Eupkausia superba (Antarctic krill), 511, 526 Euphoria, 26n Euplectella (Venus’s flower basket),, 181,187,202 Euplotes, 136,139,140, 145 Euproops, 684 euproops larva (”trilobite larva”), 684 euryhaline animals, 68 Eurylepta californica, 286 Eurypterida, 654,656 Eurypterus, 655,656 Eurypterus remipes, 655 Euryspongia, 181

E urystomella, 780 Eusarsiella, 549 Euspongia, 191 eutely, 212n, 341 euthyneury, 725 Euzonus, 415 Evadne, Podon, 522 evisceration, 823 evolution, 15-19. See also phylogeny(ies) convergent, 29-30 divergence, 30 invertebrate, 4-9 macroevolution, 15,16-19 microevolution, 15-16,18 nucleotide, 34 parallel, 29-30 radiation, 30 evolutionary convergence, 28,30 evolutionary developmental biology, 884-885 evolutionary reversal, 30 evolutionary species concept, 26 evolutionary trees, 30-31 exconjugants, 143-144 Excorallana, 536 excretion, 26-31 nitrogenous wastes and water conservation, 26-27 osmoregulation and habitat, 27-28 structures, 28-31 excurrent (atrial) siphon, 857, 859 excurrent canals, 185 exhalant (dorsal) chamber, 738, 744 exhalent canals, 185 exites, 480481, 550 exocuticle, 478,479 exocytosis, 57,244 exopod, 480,481,515,550,554 exosaccal cavity, 784 exoskeleton, 15, 53,476477 explicit phylogene tic hypo theses, 34-35 explosive cells, 563 explosive radiation, 37 extensors, 54-55 externa, 542, 561,562 extinction, 15, 18 anthropogenic, 27 mass, 5n,7,16 extinction rate, 4n extracellular digestion, 56-57 extracorporeal digestion, 56 Extradenticle (Exd) gene, 481, 606 extranuclear mitosis, 128 extrapallial space, 723 extremophiles, 3 extrinsic muscles, 480 extrusomes, 126-127 exumbrella, 235 exuvium, 487 eyes appositional, 494,495 ciliary, 82 complex, 80 compound, 80,494 direct, 81 eucone, 620,621

maxillopodan, 540 median (naupliar), 571,573 secondary, 682,683 stalked, 495, 550 eye spots, 80,127

Fabricia, 422 Facetotecta, 516,542 facets, 494 facultative (opportunistic) symbionts, 14 families, 24 family-level taxa, 26-27 family tree, 34 Fasciola hepatica, 286, 293,308 fate maps, 98 Fauchald, K., 387,389 Faussek, V., 114 Fecampia, 296 feeding mechanisms, 16-26. See also digestion/digestive system; nutrition carnivory and scavenging, 23-25 chemoautotrophy, 26 deposit feeding, 21-22 dissolved organic matter (DOM), 25-26 herbivory, 22-23 intracellular and extracellular digestion, 16-17 suspension feeding, 18-21 female atrium, 304 femur, 606 fenestrae, 128 Fenner, D. H., 824 Ferguson, J. C., 810,812,824 Ferrari, F. D., 817 fertilization, 86 fertilization ducts, 685, 686 fibrils, 191 fiddler crab (Uca princeps), 513 Field, K. G., 505,882 filamentous branch, 499 filariasis, 359 filarids, 359-362 Filibranchia (Pteriomorphia), 712 filiform tentacles, 228 Filograna implexa, 391 filopodia (”rhizopodia”), 158 Filospermoidea, 376 first maxillary segment, 642 first walking legs, 693 fishes, agnathan, 7 fission, direct, 253 fissiparity, 826 Fissurella, 709 fixing muscles, 448,449 flabella, 656 Flabellifera, 516 Flabellina, 710 Flaccisagitta kexaptera, 844 flagellated chambers (choanocyte chambers, radial canals), 184 flagellation, heterokont, 154 flagellum/flagella, 5-12,480, 603 flame bulbs, 69 flatworms. See Platyhelminthes flexors, 54-55

INDEX

Flight in insects, 608-610 origins, 629-630 Flood, P. R., 860 Florichisme, 26n Florida Everglades, 13 Floscularia, 339,340 flosculi, 343 flukes, 290 anatomy, 290 body wall of, 293 excretion and osmoregulation, 299-300 feeding and digestion, 298-299 nervous system and sense organs, 302-303 reproduction in, 307-312 support, locomotion and attachment in, 294 Flustra, 781 Flustrellidra, 787 Foelix, R. F., 670, 681 foliacious limbs (phyllopodia), 480, 481,551 food groove, brachial, 795 food vacuole, 56-57,125 foot, 717,718 Foraminif era, 165-1 67 force-sensitive organs, 493 forcipate mastax, 341,342 Forcipulatida, 804 forcipules (prehensors), 641,644 forebrain, 421,422 foregut, 489 forepart, 434,435 forewings, 595 fork-tailed katydid (Scudderiafurcata), 80 Formica exsectoides, 590 fossil record(s), 4. See also ph ylogeny(ies) Burgess Shale deposits, 8 character state analysis using, 34 Ediacaran, 5 Lower Cambrian Chengjiang, 6-7 founder effect, 16 Fourtner, 482,485 frame webs, 673,674 Francour, P., 823 Franke, H. D., 427 Franz, D., 827 Fredericella, 785 Frenzel, J., 111, 112,210 fresh water adaptations, 106 freshwater habitats, 13-14 Frey, 803 frontal glands, 330 frontal membrane, 785,786 frontal plane, 45 frontal processes, 572 frontal sense organ, 330,331 frontal surface, 785, 786 frontal tract, 785 frustule, 154 Fry, W. G., 691 Funch, P., 338,379,380,381 fungi, 2 funiculus, 785,786

funnel (infundibulum, stomach), 275, 278 funnel (siphon), 732 furcilia, 579 furcula, 595 Fustiaria, 705 gaits, 485

Galeodes arabs, 661 gall, 614 gametes, 86 gametic nuclei, 143 gamma level of systematics, 27 Gammaridea, 516 gamonts, 128 Ganesha, 273 Ganeshida, 271,273 Garcia-Fernandez, J., 884 Gardiner, S. L., 357,434,438 Garey, J. R., 382 Garstang, W., 107,429, 727,869 Garypus, 664 gas exchange, 33-37,73 gas transport, 34-37 structures, 33-34,35 gastral groove, 626,649 gastral plate, 828 gas transport, 34-37 Gastraxonacea, 224 gastrea, 109 gastric ceca, 615, 616 gastric glands, 342 gastric mill (gizzard), 411,412, 561, 568,615,644, 741 gastric ring, 823, 824 gastric shield, 743, 744 Gastrodes parasiticurn, 281 gastroneuron, 115 Gastrophilus, 76 Gastropoda, 703-712 gastropores, 239 gastrostyles, 239 Gastrotricha, 9,345-348 body wall, 346-347 characteristics, 345 circulation, 347 classification, 346 excretion, 347 feeding and digestion, 347 gas exchange, 347 nervous system and sense organs, 347 osmoregulation, 347 reproduction and development, 347-348 support and locomotion, 346-347 gastrovascular cavity, 227 gastrozooid, 232 gastrula, 99 gastrulation, 99 Gegenbaur, 286,772 Gelyelloida, 516 gemmules, 196,197 genealogical kinship (relatedness), 24 genealogy (ancestor-descendant relationships), 31,32 morphological similarity / dissimilarity vs., 35-37

915

gene order, 884-885 genera (genus), 24 general chemical sensitivity, 80 general sensory cells, 251 gene recruitment (co-option), 29 genes evolutionary developmental biology and, 884-885 orthologous, 29 paralogous, 29 gene sequencing, 34 genetical species concept (biological species definition), 26 genetic drift, 16 genital atrium (vulva), 648 genital canals, 826 genital chamber, 624,625, 686 genitalia, 607 genital operculum, 684 genital plates, 827 genital region, 848,849 genital segment, 647-648 genital sinuses, 826 genital wings, 848,849 Geodia mesotriaena, 202 Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, E., 869 Geonemertes, 329 Geophilomorpha, 639 Geoplana, 292 Geoplana mexicana, 302 georeceptors, 79 Gephyrea, 28 Gephyreaster swifti, 241 germarium, 304 germinal disc, 625-626,649 germinal zone, 358 germ layers, 48,93,99-100 germovitellaria, 304,344 giant fibers, 421,422 giant gumboot chiton (cryptochiton stelleri), 75, 720 giant hermit crab (Petrochirus californiensis), 513 giant sea anemone (Metridium), 220, 245,246,258 giant Tasmanian crabs (Pseudocarcinus gigas), 511 giant west Pacific anemone (Heteractis), 234 Giardia, 168, 169 Giardia agilis, 168 Giardia ardeae, 168 Giardia intestinalis, 167, 168, 169

Giardia lamblia (G. intestinalis, G. duodenalis), 168 Giardia muris, 168 Giardia psittaci, 168 Gibbs, P. E., 447 Gibson, R., 319 Gierer, Z., 255 Gigantocypris, 547 Gigantowales chisholmi, 641 Gilbert, J. J., 342 gill bailers (scaphognathites), 565, 569 gill bars, 865,866 gill books, 666,678 gill (branchial) pores, 848,849, 852 gills, 74, 490,491, 618

916

INDEX

dendrobranchiate, 527 dermal (papulae), 824 plicate, 747 gill slits (pores), 851 girdle, 151, 720, 722 gizzard (gastric mill), 411,412, 561, 568,615,644,741 glabella, 497,498 Glabratella, 167 Glandiceps hacksii, 850 gland of Deshayes, 741 Glanduloderma, 296 Glaucilla, 732 glaucothoe, 579 Glaucus, 732 Globigerina, 165 Globigerinella, 122, 165 glochidia, 760 Glomerida, 639 Glomeridesmida, 639 Glomeris marginata, 638 glomerulus, 851,852 glossae, 600, 603 Glossina (tsetse fly), 132 Glottidia, 792, 793 Glycera, 402,405,406,411 Glyceridae, 391 glycocalyx, 157-158 Gnathia, 536 Gnathiidea, 516 gnathobases, 480,481,656,657 gnathocephalon, 602 gnathochilarium, 641,642 Gnathophausia, 533 Gnathophausia ingens, 531,551 Gnathorhynchus, 297 Gnathostomula mediterranea, 376 Gnathostomulida, 9,375-377 Gochliomyia americana, 613 Goldfuss, 123 Goldschmidt, 16 Golfingia, 448,450,451,452, 762 Golfingiaformes, 447 Golfingia minuta, 451 Goljingia vulgaris, 448 Golfingiidae, 447 gonads, 86 gonangia (gonozooids), 232 gonangium, 232 gonapophyses, 631 Gondwana, 7 Gonionemus, 241 gonochoristic animals, 87 gonocoel theory, 114,115 gonopericardial ducts, 755 gonophores, 232 gonopod(s), 87,574,648 gonopore, 87 gonotheca, 232 Gonothyraea, 258 Gonothyrea, 220 gonozooids (gonangia), 232,790 Gonyaulax, 148 Gonyaulax tamerensis, 150 Goodrich, E. S., 68-69, 114 Gordioidea, 362 Gordius, 362 Gordius of Phrygia, King, 362n

Gorgas, William, 147 Gorgonacea, 224 Gorgonia, 220,235 gorgonians, 233,235,238 Gorgonocephalus, 818 Gorgonorhynchus, 326 Gotte’s larva, 305 Gould, S. J., 2,19,42, 107, 108 grades, 31,33 Graff, 702 Graffilla, 296 Grammostola, 685 Grandiderella, 558 Grant, R. E., 180 Grantia, 199 Granuloreticulosa, 122,124,165-167 grasping spines, 841,843,844 grazers, 58,63-65 Greeffiella, 352 Gregarina, 145 gregarines, 145-1 48 Grell, K. G., 111,210 Grobben, K., 338 grooves, 330 growth rates, sponge, 202 growth zone, 358,426,428,430 Grylloblattodea, 594,596 Guilding, L., 463 Gurney, R., 581 Gust, G., 823 gut, incomplete (blind), 57 gut sinus, 414,415 gutter (proboscis groove), 451,454 Gymnoblastea, 223 Gymnodinium breve, 151 Gymnodinium catenatum, 150 Gymnodiniumcatenella, 151 Gymnolaemata, 779 gymnosperms, 7 Gymnostreptus, 643 Gyrocotyle fimbriata, 291 Gyrodactylus, 290 habitat(s) estuaries and coastal marshlands, 13 freshwater, 13-14 hypogean, 14n marine, 9-13 osmoregulation and, 27-28 symbiotic, 14-15 terrestrial, 14 hadalpelagic zone, 10 Haddock, S. H. D., 841 Hadfield, 200 Hadzi, J., 109 Haeckel, Ernst, 1,2, 3,42,43, 107,109, 123,476 Haeckelia, 277,278 Haeckelia rubra (Euchlora rubra), 248, 278 Haemadipsa, 394 Haementeria ghilianii, 397 Haemoproteus, 146 hair sensilla, 680-681 hair worms. See Nematomorpha (hair worms) Halanych, K. M., 765,799,883

Halechin iscus, 473 Halichondria, 202 Halichondria moorei, 202 Ha1ichond ria pan icea, 194 halichondrins, 202 Haliclona, 181 Haliclona permollis, 184 Haliclystis, 220, 242 Halicryptus, 367 Halicryptus spinulosus, 365-366,367 Haliotis, 734, 753, 761 Haliotis rufescens, 62, 704, 705, 735 Haliplanella, 258 Halisarca, 188, 191 Hall, B. K., 107 Hallucigenia, 463 Hallucigenia sparsa, 463 Halobacterium salinarum, 3n Halobiotus, 473 Halobiotus crispae, 470,471 Halocyprida, 517 halophiles, 3 halophytes, 13 Halosydna, 391,407 Halotydeus destructor, 659 halteres, 608 Hancock, 772 Hansen, 542 Hansenocaris, 542 Hanson, E. D., 109 Hanson, J. L., 823 Haplognathia simplex, 376 Haplopharyngida, 286 Haplopharynx Yostratus, 298 Haplotaxida, 393 haptocysts, 140-141 Harbison, G. R., 271,281,282,283 Hardy, Alister, 269, 839 Harpacticoida, 516 Hartmanella, 156, 158 Harvell, C. D., 783 Haszprunar, G., 759 Hatschek, B., 114,222,271,338,476, 772 Hatschek’s pit, 865, 866 Hausdorf, B., 884 Hawaiian regal lobster (Euoplometopus), 513 head shield (cephalic shield), 550 heamosporidians, 145-148 hearts, 33 branchial, 747 chambered, 73 neurogenic, 73 ostiate, 73 heart vesicle, 851, 852 Hectocotylus, 758n hectocotyly, 758 Hedgpeth, J. W., 285,445,691,771 Helicoplacus, 831 Helicoprorodon, 127, 141 Helicotylenchus, 356 Heliophanus, 683 Heliophanus cupreus, 691 Helioporacea, 224 Helix, 62, 742, 746, 753, 756, 757 Helix aspera, 757 hellgrammites, 599

INDEX

hemal channels, 467 hemal ring, 824 hemal (stomachic) plexus, 775, 776 hemal system, 823-824, 845. See also circulation hematodochae, 685,686 hemerythrins, 76 Hemichordata, 9,847-854 bauplan, 849-854 body wall, 850 circulation and gas exchange, 851, 852-853 excretion, 852-853 feeding and digestion, 850-852, 853 nervous system and sense organs, 853 reproduction and development, 853-854,855 support and locomotion, 850 characteristics, 849 classification, 847 phylogeny, 868-870 taxonomic history, 840-841 Hemicytkerura, 549 Hemigrapsus sexdentatus, 575 hemimetabolous development (incomplete metamorphosis), 626,627 Hemiptera, 594,598 Hemipterodea, 593 Hemitkyris, 792 hemocoel, 72,477,497 hemocoelomate, 72 hemocyanins, 76 hemocytes, 76 hemoglobin, 76,347 hemolymph, 72,490 Hendler, G., 817,818,827 Henia vesuviana, 639 Henley, C., 98 Hennig, W., 32,631 Henricia, 816 Henry, L. M., 669 hepatic cecum (digestive cecum), 866 hepatic region, 848, 849,852 hepatopancreas (digestive ceca / gland, liver), 489 Hepatus, 530 herbivores, 58 herbivory, 22-23 hermaphroditic animals, 87 hermaphroditic duct, 756 hermatypic corals, 249 Herpetomonas, 135 Herreid, 482,485 Hesperonoe adventor, 407 Hessinger, D. A., 242 Hessling, R., 879 Heteractis (giant west Pacific anemone), 234 Heteranomia squamula, 215 heterochrony, 108 Heterocyemida, 214-2 15 Heterodonta. See Eulamellibranchia (Heterodonta) heterokont flagellation, 154 Heterokroknia, 841

Heteromyota, 453 Heteronemertea, 321,324,329,335 heteronereid, 428 heteronomous annelids, 395 Heteropkl ias, 538 Heteropkrys, 163 Heteropodidae, 655 Heteroserolis, 536 Heteroteutkis, 754 heterotrophic organisms, 312,57 heteroxenous trypanosomes, 135 heterozooids, 783 Hexabranchus sanguineus, 737 hexacanth, 313 Hexacorallia (Zoantharia), 224 Hexactinellida, 182,187-188 Hexamida, 169 Hexamida meleagridis, 167-1 68 Hexamida salmonis, 167 Hexamita, 168 Hexapoda (insects), 9,476,589-635 bauplan, 601-628 abdomen, 606-607 circulation and gas exchange, 617-61 8 development, 626-628 digestive system, 615-616 embryogeny, 625-626 excretion and osmoregulation, 618-619 feeding, 610-615 head, 602-605 locomotion, 607-610 nervous system and sense organs, 619-623 reproduction, 623-625 thorax, 605-606 characteristics, 590 classification, 593-594 diversity, 591-592 evolution, 628-632 evolution within Hexapoda, 630-632 insect flight, origin of, 629-630 origin, 628-629 Hox gene mutations in, 18 major taxa, 594-601 Paleozoic, 7 parasitic, 14 species, 24 Hexasterophora, 182 hibernation, 13 hierarchy, 24 Higgins, R. P., 377,378 Higgins larva, 378,379 higher categories, 26 higher taxa, 26-27 hindbrain, 421,422 hindgut, 489 hindgut irrigation, 74 hindwings, 595 hinge ligament, 722,723 hinge teeth, 722,723 Hippoporida calcarea, 247,248 Hippospongia, 192 Hippotkoa, 787 Hirsutia, 534 Hirsutia batkyalis, 534

917

hirudin, 410,413 Hirudinida, 394 Hirudinoidea, 394 body forms, 397 body wall and coelomic arrangement, 399400 circulation and gas exchange, 416417 development, 432433 digestive system, 413 excretion and osmoregulation, 419420 feeding, 409410 nervous system and sense organs, 424425 reproduction, 427,432433 support and locomotion, 404405 hirudinoideans, 394 Hirudo, 400,413,417,433 Hirudo medicinalis (medicinal leech), 394,410 Histiomena, 710, 711 Histioteutkis, 705 Histomonas meleagridis, 170, 171 Ho, J. S., 511 Hochberg, F. G., 213,217 Hoeg, J. T., 542 holaspis larva, 499,500 Holland, L. Z., 865 Holland, N. D., 865 Holland, P. W. H., 884 holoblastic cleavage, 94 Holometabola, 593 holometabolous development (complete metamorphosis), 626-627, 628 holoplanktonic animals, 13 Holothuria, 821, 823 Holotkuria impatiens, 822 Holotkuria tubulosa, 821-823 Holothuroidea, 805-806,812,821-823 holozoic heterotrophs, 125 Homalorhagida, 349 Homarus, 493,574 Homarus americanus (American lobsters ), 511,529 homeobox (Hox) genes, 4,17-18 homokaryotic opalinids, 174 homologues, 29,30 homology, 29 homonomous annelids, 395 homoplasy, 30,34 Homo sapiens, 65,883 Homoscleromorpha, 182 honeydew, 598 hood, 841 Hope, W. D., 357 Hoplocarida, 515,524,556-557 Hoplonemertea, 322-323,324,329,335 Hormiphora, 280 hormones, 84 Hormurus, 689 Hormurus australasiae, 689 horseshoe crabs. See Limulus host, 14,106 Hou, X., 463 house (gelatinous casing), 858,860 Hox genes. See homeobox (Hox) genes

918

INDEX

H-system of collecting canals, 357 Hubrecht, A., 114 Hubrechtella dubia, 332n Humphries, W. F., 519 Hutchinsoniella, 518 Huxley, 180 Hyale, 538 hyaline tests, 166 Hydra, 219,220,228,248,522 budding, 84 life cycle, 256 locomotion, 240 medusoid phase, 255 nematocysts, 242,243 nerve net, 251 regeneration, 253 Hydractinia, 230,248 hydranth, 232 hydrocaulus, 232 hydrocoels, 828,830 hydrocorals, 239 Hydroctena, 281-282 Hydroida, 223 hydroids, 232 hydromedusae, 235-236,246,251,253, 254 hydropore, 807,811,812,828,830 hydrorhiza, 232 hydrostatic skeleton, 52 hydrotheca, 232 hydrothermal vent communities, 12 hydrotube, 828,830 Hydrozoa, 220,223 colonies, 228-230 life cycles, 256 medusoid form, 236 polypoid form, 226-233 reproduction, 253-255 skeletons, 239 Hyman, L. H., 57,108,109,179,213, 321,338,447,772,779 Hymenolepis diminuta, 293-294 Hymenoptera, 594,600-601 Hyperiidea, 516 hypermastigotes, 169-171. See also Parabasilida hyperparasitic parasites, 14 hypertonic fluids, 67 hypobranchial groove (endostyle), 857,858,859,861,865-866 hypobranchial ridge, 851 hypocerebral ganglion, 619,620 Hypochilus, 668 Hypoconcha, 530 hypocone, 151 hypodermic impregnation, 305 hypodermis, 478 hypogean (underground) habitats, 14n hypognathous mouthparts, 604,605 hyponeural (deep oral) system, 825 hyponeural sinus, 823,824 hypopharynx, 605,642 hypostome, 227 hypostracum (periostracum), 719, 720, 723,793,794 hypotheca, 151 Hypsibius annulatus, 474

Hyptiotes, 673, 675 hysterosoma, 658,659 I.C.Z.N. (International Code of Zoological Nomenclature), 25 Ichthyotomidae, 389 Ichthyotomus sanguinarius, 408 Idmodronea, 782 Idotea, 536 Idotea resecata, 536 Ikeda, 451,456 Ikeda taenioides, 451 Illacme plenipes, 638 Ilyocypris, 549 imaginal discs, 606 imagos, 623-624 imago stage, 632 impunctate shells, 793 Inarticulata, 793 incomplete (blind) gut, 57 incomplete mesenteries, 227,229 incomplete metamorphosis (hemimetabolous development), 626,627 incudate mastax, 341, 342 incurrent canals, 184 incurrent (oral) siphon, 857,859 incurrent pore (ostium), 183 independent effectors, 42 indeterminate cleavage, 98 indirect development, 103 indirect eye, 81 indirect flight muscles, 609,610 infauna, 12 infranuclear fiber, 168-169 infundibulum (funnel, stomach), 275, 278 infusoriform larva, 213 infusorigens, 213 Ingolfiella, 538 ingression, 99 inhalant siphons, 746 inhalant (ventral) chamber, 738, 744 ink, cephalopod, 754-755 ink sac, 754 inquilism, 15 Insecta, 594,595-601 insects. See Hexapoda (insects) insertion, 55 instars,485 integumentary gas exchange, 74 interambulacrum, 806 interfilament spaces, 739, 740 intermediate host, 14,106 intermediate valves, 720, 722 intermittent (temporary) parasites, 14 interna, 542,561 internal transport, 31 International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, 25 International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (I.C.Z.N.),25 International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, 25 inter-plate ciliated groove, 279 interradial canals, 278 interstitial cells, 226,227 interstitial organisms, 12

Intertentacular organ, 786,790 intertidal zone, 11 Intestina, 286 intestinal arteries, 867 intestinal ganglia, 749, 750 intestinal veins, 866, 867 intestine, 326 intracellular digestion, 56 intranuclear mitosis, 128 intrinsic muscles, 480 Introduction to Seashore Life (Hedgpeth), 285,445 introvert (presoma), 365,445,446 introvert retractor muscles, 448 invagina tion ,99 invertebrates, 4 habitats of, 9-15 estuaries and coastal marshlands, 13 freshwater, 13-14 marine, 9-13 symbiotic, 14-15 terrestrial, 14 origins and evolution of, 4-9 Invertebrates: A Synthesis, The (Barnes et al.), 503 Invertebrates, The (Hyman), 179 invertebrate sense organs, 3742 Invertebrate Structure and Function (Barrington), 41 inverted ocelli, 80 involution, 99 Iodamoeba buetschlii, 156 ionic stress, 14 Iridia, 167 iris, 81 Iris cells, 494 Irregularia, 805 Ischnochitonida, 703 isogamy, 128 isolecithal eggs, 94 Isophyllia sinuosa, 247 Isopoda, 516,534-537 Isoptera, 594,596 Isostichopus badionotus, 823 isotonic fluids, 67 Ivanov, A. V., 434 Ivanova-Kazas, 0. M., 98 Iwata, F., 321, 333 Iwata larva, 333 Ixodes pacificus, 659 lxodes ricinus, 658 Jackson, R. R., 675 Jagersten, G., 107, 112, 114 Jamieson, B. G., 393 Janaria mirabilis, 247, 248 Janthina, 732, 735 Japanese spider crabs (Macrocheira kaempferi), 511 Jassa, 577 jaws, 463 Jeannel, R., 16 Jeffries, R. P. S., 799 Jennings, J. B., 296 Joeropsis, 536 jointed legs, 33 Jokiel, P. L., 296

INDEX

Jones, M. L., 434,438,503 Julida, 639 Jurassic period, 7 Jussieu, 772 Just, J. J., 294 juvenile hormone, 627 Kalyptorhynchia, 288 Kampfer, S., 352 Karling, T. G., 313,315 karyomastigont system, 167 Keegan, H. L., 672 kenozooids, 783 kentrogon, 561,562,564,565 Keratella slacki, 345 Khan, Genghis, 600 Kimberella quadrata, 763 kinetocysts, 164 kinetoplast, 133 Kinetoplastida, 122,123,124,131-135 characteristics, 133 nutrition, 134 reproduction and life cycles, 135 support and locomotion, 133-134 kinetosome (blepharoplast, basal body), 50 King, J. L., 511 kingdoms, 2 Kinorhyncha, 9,348-351 body wall, 349-350 characteristics, 349 circulation and gas exchange, 350 classification, 349 excretion and osmoregulation, 350 feeding and digestion, 350 nervous system and sense organs, 350 reproduction and development, 350-351 support and locomotion, 350 Kirkaldy, G.W., 26n Klass, K.-D., 597 Klein, Jacob, 803 kleptocnidae, 736 Koenenia, 661 Kofoidinium, 152 Kolbasov, G. A., 542 Komai, T., 281 Koolman, J., 884 Kowalevsky, A., 702 Kozloff, E., 217,351 Kristensen, N. P., 595, 631 Kristensen, R. M., 338, 377, 379,380, 472 Krohn, A.,209 Krohnitta subtilis, 842 Kronborgia, 296 Kruppomenia minima, 706 K-selected (specialist) species, 94,105 Kukalovi-Peck, J., 481,48ln, 605,606, 606n, 629,631 Kukrohnia bathypelagica, 840 LaBarbera, M., 58 labellum/labellae, 600,605 labial palps, 738 Labidiaster annulatus, 816-817 labidognathous jaws, 663

labium, 603,604-605,612,642,661, 662 Laboea, 142 labrum, 497,498,604,642 lac, 598 Lacazella, 797 lacinia mobilis, 529 Lacrymaria, 139 lacunae, 327 lacunar system, 369,370 ladder-like nervous system, 83,300, 301,302 Laevicaudata, 514 Lafont, R., 883 Lagerstatten, 505n Lake, J. A., 393 Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste, 180,222,286, 388,447,475,514-515,803 Lameere, A., 216 lamellae, 491 epidermal, 364,365 lamellar calcium layer, 720 Lamellibranchia, 434,436, 712-714 Lamellibranchiata. See Bivalvia (Pelecypoda; Lamellibranchiata) Lamellisabella, 435, 437 Lampea (formerly Gastrodes), 277 land, adaptations to, 106 Lang, A., 114 languets, 861 Lankester, E. R., 114,476,504~~ Lapan, E., 213,217 lappets, 253 Laqueus, 792 larva/larvae actinotroch, 778 actinula, 255 blastula, 199,200 chordoid, 381 coeloblastula, 199,200 competent, 104 cypris, 540,562,576, 579 Desor, 333 dipleurula, 868 euproops, 684 Gotte’s, 305 Higgins, 378,379 holaspis, 499,500 infusoriform, 213 Iwata, 333 lecithotrophic, 103 lobate, 797 loricate, 367,368 metanauplius, 578 nauplius, 576,578 primary, 574 protaspis, 499,500 protonymphon, 694,696 protozoa, 578 pseudozoea, 579 tadpole, 863,864 trochophore, 388,428,429 vesiculariform, 791 larval (primary) mesenchyme, 828 Lasionectes, 518,555 lasso cells, 276 lateral canals, 810,811 lateral end spines, 348 lateral proboscis veins, 851,852

919

lateral side, 45 lateral tracts, 785 latitudinal cleavage, 95 Latrodectus, 662 Latrodectus mactans, 675, 687 lattice organs, 540 Laurasia, 7 Laurer’s canal, 308 Lauterbach, K.-E. von, 762 Laval, P., 539 Lawn, 196 law of recapitulation (biogenetic law), 107 Leach, W. E., 26n Lecithoepitheliata, 286 lecithotrophic larvae, 103 Lecudina tuzetae, 147 leeches, 394 Leeuwenhoek, A. van, 121,123,167, 338 leglets, 606 legs, jointed, 33 Leiobunum, 661 Leishmania, 132n, 135 Leishmania braziliensis, 132n Leishmania donovani, T X n Leishmania major, 132n Leishmania mexicana, 132n leishmaniasis, 132 Leishmania tropica, 132n Lemmatophora typa, 629 lemnisci, 369, 370 Lenhoff, H. M., 255 Leocinclis, 130 Leonard0 davincii, 26n Lepadocystis, 831 Lepas anatifera, 513 Lepidopleurida, 703 Lepidoptera, 18,594,600 Lepidurus, 519 Lepidurus arcticus, 519 Leptasterias tenera, 816, 827 Leptocottis, 538 Leptodora, 521,522,557 Leptodora kindtii, 522 Leptogorgia, 236 Leptomedusae (Calyptoblastea or Thecata), 223,236 Leptomonas, 132,135 Leptostraca (leptostracans, nebaliaceans), 515,523-524 Leptosynapta, 827 Lernaeodiscus porcellanae, 565 Leucetta, 181 Leuckart, R., 222,476,803 Leucocytozoon, 146 Leuconia, 182 leuconoid condition, 183,184-185 Leucosolenia, 183,186, 188, 193 Leucothea, 270,276 Lkvi, 180 levotropic direction, 95 Li, C.-W., 877 lichens, 17 life, first appearance of, 2n,4-5 life cycle(s), 94, 102-106 adaptations to land and fresh water, 106 classification, 102-1 03

920

INDEX

dimorphic, 219 direct development, 103,105 indirect development, 103-104 mixed development, 103,105-106 parasite, 106 settling and metamorphosis, 104-105 ligaments, 369 hinge, 722,723 ligament sacs, 369,370 Light, S. F., 26n Lightiella, 518 Lightiella serendipida, 26n light-sensitive pigments, 80 Ligia, 536 Ligia pacifica, 513 Lima, 705,753 Limax appearance, 158 limax rhizopodans, 158 Limifossor, 706 Limnocnida, 256 Limnocythere, 549 Limulus (horseshoe crab), 82,292,296, 656,657 circulation, 679 digestive tract, 676,677 opisthosomal appendage, 678 reproduction, 684 sense organs, 680 Limulus polyphemus, 656,657 Linckia, 826, 827 Linckia laevigata, 803 Lincoln, Roger, 542 Linderiella, 521 Lineus, 331 Lineus longissimus, 319 Lineus ruber, 327,332 Lineus vegetus, 331 Linguatula serrata, 546 Lingula, 792,793,794, 796, 797 Linnaeus, Carolus (Carl von Linne), 24-25,26n, 180,222,271,286, 365,388,447,475,702,803 Linuche, 250 Linyphia litigiosa, 687 Linyphia triangularis, 675 Linyphiidae, 654 Liphistius, 662,675 Liponema brevicornis, 240,241 lipoprotein (cement) layer, 478,479 Lipscomb, D. L., 123,174,176 Liriope, 236 Lissoclinum, 861 Lissodendoryx isodictyalis, 199 Listriolobus, 453 Listriolobus pelodes, 451 Lithcolla, 163 Lithobiomorpha, 639 Lithobius, 641, 645 Lithobius forficatus, 646, 647 Lithophaga, 732 Little Gidding (Eliot), 873 littoral region, 10-11

Littorina anatomy, 709 eye, 753 kidney and nearby organs, 748 reproductive system, 757 taenioglossan condition, 734

liver (digestive ceca/gland, hepatopancreas), 489 Lobata, 271-274 lobate larva, 797 lobopodal walking legs, 158,465-466 locks (stops), 482,483 locomotion, 9-12,607-608 amoeboid, 10 cilia and flagella, 10-12 pedestrian, 607-608 Lohmann, K. J., 752

Loligo anatomy, 715 axons, 750 circulation, 745 digestive system, 742 nervous system, 751 reproduction, 758 longitudinal fission, 258 longitudinal (meridional) cleavage, 94 longitudinal parietal muscles, 784 Loomis, W. F., 255 lophocytes, 188,190 Lophogastrida, 516,531-532 Lophogorgia, 85 lophophoral end, 775 lophophoral organs, 777,778 lophophoral vessels, 776 Lophophorates, 771-800 bauplan, 773-798 brachiopods, 793-798 ectoprocts, 779-792 phoronids, 774-778 overview, 771-772 phylogeny, 798-799 taxonomic history, 772-773 lophophore(s) brachiopod, 795-796 ectoproct, 785-788,789 phoronid, 774,776 Lophophus, 779,780 lophopodid colony form, 779,780 Lophotrochozoa hypothesis, 883 Lorenzen, S., 382 lorica, 131,340,377-378 loricate larva, 367, 368 Loricifera, 9, 377-378 Lotan, A., 243 Lottia gigantea, 735 lousiness, 613 Loven, 702 Lovenia, 803 Lowe, C. J., 833 Lower Cambrian Chengjiang fossil record, 6-7 Loxokalypodidae, 373 Loxophy 11um, 136 Loxorhynchus, 530 Loxosceles reclusa, 675 Loxoscelidae, 654 Loxosoma, 372,374 Loxosoma harmeri, 375 Loxosoma leptoclini, 375 Loxosomatidae, 373 Loxosomella, 372, 375 Lucernaria, 241 Lucifer, 527 luciferase, 82 luciferin, 82

Luffariella variabilis, 202 Lumbricidae, 393 Lumbriculida, 393 Lumbriculidae, 393

Lumbricus circulatory system, 416 excretion and osmoregulation, 419 feeding, 409 foregut, 412 gas exchange, 415 nervous system, 424 reproductive system, 430 Lumbricus terrestris, 427 Lumbrineridae, 389 luminescence, 82 lung, 74,747 lung slits, 662, 679 lung vein, 678, 679 lunules, 807,814 lurking predators, 63-65 Lycosa, 662 book lung, 678 mechanoreceptors, 682 parental care, 691 Lycosa erythrognatha, 675 Lycosa rabida, 688 Lycosidae, 654 Lycoteuthis, 754 Lydekker, Richard, 589 Lyme disease, 659 Lymnaea, 762 lymphatic channels, 293 lymphatic filariasis (elephantiasis), 362,593,613 Lynceus, 521 lyriform organs, 681 Lyrocteis, 273 Lysmata californica, 513, 528 Lytechinus variegatus, 823 Lytocarpus, 244 Maccabeidae, 367

Maccabeus, 367 Maccabeus tentaculatus, 366,368 McClintock, Barbara, 16 McCook, Henry, 669 McEdward, L. R., 103 McHugh, D., 434,879 Mackey, L. Y., 799 McKinney, M. L., 108 McNamara, K. J., 108

Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus, 369, 371

Macrobiotus, 473 Macrocheira kaempferi (Japanese spider crabs), 511 macroconjugant, 145 Macrocypris, 549 Macrocystella, 831 Macrocystis, 153 Macrodasyida, 346 Macrodasys, 348 macroevolution, 15,16-19. See also extinction; speciation macrogamete, 148 macroherbivory, 62-63 macromeres, 94,827 macronuclei/macronucleus, 129,142 macrophages, 58

INDEX

macrophagy, molluscan, 733-737

Macropodus opercularis (Chinese golden carp), 312 macroseptum, 426,427 macrospheric generation, 167 Macrostomida, 288 Macrostomum, 298 Madin, L. I?., 271 Madreporaria (Scleractinia),224 madreporite, 806, 807, 811 MADS box transcription factor, 4 Magadina cumingi, 792 Magellania, 796 Maggenti, A. R., 352 main eyes, 682,683 Maitland, D. P., 568 major claw, 574,575 Malacobdella, 323, 326,327, 331 Malacobdella grossa, 320 Malacostraca, 515,522-523 distinguishing features, 552-553 reproductive features, 556-557 Malakhov, V. V., 382 malaria, 146, 147, 593 Maldanidae, 389 male atrium, 304 Mallatt, J., 883 malleate mastax, 341 Malpighian tubules, 71,491-492 Mammalia, ancestral character states, 31 Manayunkia aestuarina, 61 mancas, 529 mandibles, 550,604,605,783 mandibular glands (salivary glands), 342,378,413,615,616,644 mandibular segment, 642 Mangelia, 734 mangrove swamps, 11,13 Mangum, C., 414 manoalide, 202 ”man-of-war” (Physalia),230,232,233, 244,246,249 mantis shrimp, 65 mantle, 859, 860 Mollusca, 719-720 mantle canals, 794, 795 mantle cavity (pallial cavity), 74, 717, 718,773,793 Mollusca, 718,719-720,721 mantle lobe, 793-795,797 mantle (pallium), 717,718 Mantodea, 594,596 Manton, S. M., 503,589 Mantophasmatodea, 594,597 manubrium, 227,235,236,274 Manylov, 0. G., 347 Marcus, E., 474 marginal spherules (acrorhagi), 246 Marginifera, 792 Margulis, L., 17,175, 503 Marichisme, 26n marine habitats, 9-13 Marrella, 497 Marshall, S. D., 681 marshes, salt, 11,13 marshlands, coastal, 13 marsupium, 576

Martesia, 732 Martin, J. W., 511,514,519,527,540 Martinssonia elongata, 582 mass extinction(s), 5n,7, 16 Massin, C., 821 mastax, 339 Masterman, A., 114 Mastigias, 249,250 mastigonemes, 51 Mastigoproctus, 661, 666 Mastigoproctus giganteus, 661 Mastophora, 673,675 mata malu (Rhodactis howesii), 246 mating. See reproduction mating thread, 687,688 mating types, 145 maturation zone, 358 maxillae, 550, 604-605,661-663 maxillary (antennal) glands, 71,491, 492,568,569 maxillipeds, 550 Maxillopoda, 516,540-550 distinguishing features, 552-553 reproductive features, 556-557 maxillopodan eye, 540 maxillules, 550 Mayorella, 158 Mayr, Ernst, 2,26, 27,42 Mealybugs, 614 Meckel, J., 107 Mecoptera, 594,599 medial side, 45 median dorsal aorta, 867 median (naupliar) eye, 571, 573 medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis), 394,410 medulla terminalis, 487-488 medusae, 222,236 locomotion in, 241 sensory structures in, 252 medusa theory, 261,262 medusoid form, 219,233-236,237 Megalaspis acuticauda, 498 Megalodicopia hians, 856-857 megalopa, 577, 579 megalopores, 723,752 Megaloptera, 594,598-599 Meganyctiphanes, 526 megascleres, 192 Megascolecidae, 393 Megascolides australis, 388 megaspheric generation, 167 Mehlis’s glands, 308,312 meiofauna, 5n,12 Meiopriapulus fijiensis, 367, 368 Melibe, 741 Melita, 538 Me11ita quinquiesperforata, 821 Membranipora, 781, 783, 790, 791 membranous sac, 784 Menippe adina, 577 Menodium, 130 meraspis larva, 499,500 Mercenaria, 713 Mereschkovsky, Konstantin, 17 meridional canals, 278,279 meridional (longitudinal) cleavage, 94 Merlia normani, 184 4

921

meroblastic cleavage, 94 meroplanktonic animals, 13 Merostomata, 654,656 merozoites, 147 Mertensia ovum, 276 Mesanthura, 536 mesenchyma, 220n mesenchyme, 101,220n secondary, 82 mesenterial filament, 227,229 mesenteries, 227,229 mesentoblast, 101 mesocoel, 101,772 mesoderm, 48 formation, 100-102 use of term, 100 Mesogastropoda, 707-711 mesoglea, 101,220n mesohyl, 183 mesomeres, 827 mesonotum, 605 mesoparasites, 14,106 mesopelagic zone, 10 mesopeltidium, 666 mesosoma, 654,655,660,665 mesosome, 772 Mesostoma, 65, 301 Mesothelae, 654 mesothorax, 602,605 Mesozoa, 209-217 bauplans, 210-216 phylogeny, 216-217 use of term, 210 Mesozoic era (250-65 mya), 7 metaboly (euglenoid movement), 130 metacercaria, 309 metachronal coordination, 137-138 metachronal waves, 52 metacoel, 101, 772 metamerism, 387 teloblastic, 879 metamorphic development, 578 metamorphosis, 104-105 metanauplius, 578 metanauplius larva, 578 metanephridia, 70 metanephridium, 70 metanephromixium, 71 metanotum, 605 metapeltidium, 666 metapleural folds, 866,867 Metapolycope, 549 metasoma, 654,655,660, 665 metasomal sac, 778 metasome, 546, 772 metathorax, 602, 605 metatrochal bands, 429 Metazoa (Animalia), 1,2,3,46 evolution, 876-882 bilateral symmetry and, 877-878 deuterostomes, 880-882 first metazoans, 877 protosome, 878-880 roots, 876-877 Hox gene function, 17-18 organization on basis of body construction, 7 origins, 4,108-116

922

INDEX

bilateral condition, 112 coelomic condition, 112-116 theories of, 108-112 phylogeny, 32-33,873-882 bilateral symmetry and, 877-878 characters used to construct cladogram, 876 deuterostome evolution, 880-882 evolution, 876-882 first metazoans, 877 protostome evolution, 878-880 roots (origins), 876-877 tree, 875, 876 metazonite, 642 Metchnikoff, Elie, 16 Metridium (giant sea anemone), 220, 245,246,258 Metridium giganteum, 226 Metschnikoff, E., 56, 109,281 Mettam, C., 438 Meyer, E., 114 Miciloricus kadalis, 377 microbes, 1 Microciona prolifera (Atlantic ”red beard” sponge), 184,191 microconjugant, 145 Microcyema, 214,215 Microcyema gracile, 214 Microdajus pectinatus, 542 microevolution (anagenesis), 15-16,18 microgametes, 148 microgranular tests, 166 micromeres, 94,827 micronuclei, 129,142 microphages, 58 microphagy, molluscan, 737-741 Microphal lus, 299 Microplana, 295 micropores, 723,752 micropredators, 14 micropyle, 196,197 microscleres, 192,193 Microspora, 124,172-173 Microstoma caudatum, 248 microtriches, 293 microtubules (doublets), 50 Mictacea, 516,534 mictic females, 344 mictic ova, 344,345 Mictocaris, 534, 535 Mictocaris kalope, 534 midbrain, 421,422 midgut, 489 midsagittal plane, 44 MIH (molt-inhibiting) hormone, 487488 Millepora, 230,244 Milleporidae, 223 Miller, D. M., 369 Miller, R. L., 827 Miller, Stanley, 4n Millipedes. See Myriapoda (centipedes, millipedes) Milne-Edwards, 702,772 mineralization, 479 Minot, 286,321 miracidia, 309 Misophrioida, 516 Misumenoides, 662

mitosis closed, 128,129 extranuclear, 128 intranuclear, 128 open, 128,129 in protists, categories of, 129 semi-open, 128,129 mixed development, 103 mixis stimuli, 344 mixonephridium, 71 Mnemiopsis, 270, 273,278 Mnemiopsis leidyi, 278 modern synthesis, 15-16 molecular biology, 15 molecular phylogenetics, 882-884 Molgula, 857 Mollusca, 5,9, 701-769 bauplan, 715-761 body wall, 718-719 cephalopod coloration and ink, 754-755 circulation and gas exchange, 721, 744-747 development, 759-761 digestion, 741-744 excretion and osmoregulation, 747-74 8 feeding, 733-741 locomotion, 728-733 mantle and mantle cavity, 718, 719-720,721 nervous system, 748-751 reproduction, 721,755-759 sense organs, 752-754 shell, 718,719,720-725 torsion, 725-728 characteristics, 702 classification, 703-71 5 diversity, 704-705 Ediacaran, 5 evolution and phylogeny, 761-765 taxonomic history, 702-703 molluscan cross, 97,762 Molpadida, 806 molting, 485488 molting chamber, 689,690 molt-inhibiting hormone (MIH), 487488 Moment, G. B., 427 Monadenia fidelis, 704, 705 Monera, 2 Moniezia, 303 Moniligastrida, 393 Moniligastridae, 393 Monniot, C., 863 Monoblastozoa, 9,209,210-211 Monobrachium, 230 Monocystis, 147 Monodella, 535 monodisc strobilation, 255 monoecious animals, 87 Monogenea, 288 Monogononta, 340 monomyarian condition, 731 Mononckus, 352,356 monopectinate (pectinobranch) condition, 721, 746 monophyletic group, 28 Monopisthocotylea, 288

Monoplacophora, 703,704,707 monopodial growth, 228 Monosiga, 173 Monostilifera, 322 monoxenous trypanosomes, 135 Monstrilloida, 516 Montastrea cavernosa, 201 Montipora, 296 moon jelly. (See Aurelia) Moore, R. C., 712 Mopalia, 737 Morin, J. G., 574 Mormonilloida, 517 Morowitz, H., 213,217 morphogenesis, 17,102 Morton, B., 712 mosaic ova, 98 motile stalkers, 63-65 Motokawa, 813 motor nerve, 77 mouth appendages entognathous, 594 Myriapoda, 642 mouthparts, 489 hypognathous, 604,605 movement. See locomotion Movile Cave, Romania, 1271 mucocysts, 131,152,164 mucous (capsule) gland, 755, 756 mucous net (mucous trap), 59-60 mud shrimp (Callianassa), 532,559 Miiller, 629, 772 Miiller, H.-G., 543,581 Miiller, K. J., 377,505,543,581 Miiller, 0. F., 170, 808 Miiller’s larva, 305,306 multicellularity, 4 multiple fission, 128 Multitubulatina, 346 Murex, 742 Murex brandaris, 701n Muricea californica (Pacific gorgonian), 235 Muricea fiuticosa, 238 Musca domestica, 158 muscle arms, 353,354 muscles, 12-16. See also support atrial dilator, 784 cibarial, 612 ciliary, 81 circular, 239, 240 comminator, 819 cypris adductor, 540 diductor, 795,796 Ectoprocta, 783-785 fixing, 448,449 flight, 609,610 intrinsic, 480 parietal, 784 parietal protractor, 785 retractor, 239,240, 731, 733 introvert, 448 pedal, 728 proboscis, 326 velar/foot, 725 sphincter, 53 spindle, 448,449 Mushegian, A. R., 883 mushroom bodies, anterior, 879

INDEX

mutation, 16 in Hox genes, 17 mutual cross fertilization, 87 mutualism, 14-15 Mycale, 190 Mygalomorpha, 654 myiasis, 600 myocytes, 188-190 Myodocopa, 517 Myodocopida, 517 myoepithelial cells, 226, 227 myogenic hearts, 73 Myoida, 714 myonemes, 226 myotomes, 865,866,869 Myriapoda (centipedes, millipedes), 9, 476,637-651 anatomy, 641 bauplan, 640-649 circulation and gas exchange, 644-646 embryogeny, 649 excretion and osmoregulation, 646 feeding and digestion, 644 head and mouth appendages, 642 locomotion, 642-644 nervous system and sense organs, 646-647 reproduction and development, 647-649 characteristics, 640 classification, 639 phylogeny, 649-650 taxa of, 639-640 Mysida, 516,531 mysis larva, 579 Mystacocarida, 516,543-546 reproductive features, 556-557 Mytilus, 713, 740 Mytilus californianus, 739, 740 Mytilus edulis, 731, 739 Myxobolus cerebralis, 247 Myzopkyllobotkrium, 295 myzorhynchus, 294,295 Myzostoma, 392 Myzostomida, 389,392 Nabokov, Vladimir, 600n nacreous calcium layer, 720 Naegleria fowleri (N. aerobia), 157 nagana, 132 naiads, 626, 632 Naididae, 393 Nakauchi, M., 862 naked amebas, 157-158 naked (athecate) dinoflagellates, 151 Nanaloricus mysticus, 377, 378 Nasanov gland, 623 Nassula, 136 Nassulopsis, 140 Nassulopsis elegans, 141 Natica, 734 Natronobacterium gregoryi, 3n natural group, 28 natural selection, 15,16 naupliar (median) eye, 571,573 nauplius, 551,562 nauplius larva, 576,578

Nausitkoe, 255 Nautiloidea (Tetrabranchiata), 714 Nautilus, 763 anatomy, 714 circulation, 744 digestive system, 744 eyes, 754 locomotion, 732 metamerism, 763 reproduction, 758 shell, 723, 724 Navanax (Agleja),752 Navicula, 155 Navratilova, Martina, 146 Neantkes succinea, 95 Nebalia, 339,342, 523 Nebalioposis typica, 523 Necator, 361 neck, 290,291 Nectocaris, 8 Nectocarmen antonioi, 230 Nectonema, 362,363,365 Nectonematoidea, 362 nectophore, 232 Needham’s sac, 758 Neis, 271 nekton, 12 Nemata (nematodes), 351-362 body wall, 352-353 characteristics, 353 circulation and gas exchange, 355-357 classification, 351-352 excretion and osmoregulation, 355-357 feeding and digestion, 353-355 life cycles, 359-362 nervous system and sense organs, 357,358 reproduction and development, 357-359,360 support and locomotion, 352-353, 354 nematocysts (cnidae), 152,219, 242-244,243 structure and function, 242 Nematoda, 9 Nema tod inium, 152 nematogens, 212 stem, 213, 214 Nematomorpha (hair worms), 9, 362-365 body wall, 363 characteristics, 363 circulation and gas exchange, 363-365 classification, 362 excretion and osmoregulation, 363-365 feeding and digestion, 363 nervous system and sense organs, 365 reproduction and development, 365 support and locomotion, 363 nematomorphan larva, 364,365 Nematopsides, 152 Nemertea, 9 Nemerteans (Gibson), 319

923

nemertean worms, 78 Nemertea (ribbon worms), 319-336 bauplan, 322-333 body wall, 322-323 circulation, 327-328 excretion, 328-329 feeding and digestion, 323-327 gas exchange, 327-328 nervous system and sense organs, 329-331 osmoregulation, 328-329 reproduction and development, 331-333 support and locomotion, 323 characteristics, 321 classification, 321-322 phylogeny, 333-335 taxonomic history, 321 Nemertes, 321 Nemertodermatida, 288 neoblast cells, 427 Neocopepoda, 516 neo-Darwinian evolutionary model (modern synthesis), 15-16 Neodasys, 347 neodermis, 293,309 Neofibularia, 201 Neogastropoda, 711 Neomenia carinata, 706 Neomeniomorpha (Solenogastres), 703,706 Neometra, 806-807 Neomus, 249 Neonesidea, 549 Neopilina, 701, 704, 705, 707 Neopilina galatkeae, 703, 763 Neoptera, 594,597-601 neoteny, 108 Neotky ris lent icular is, 792 Nepkila, 668, 687 Nepkila clavipes, 675 nephridia, 28-31,68-71 nephridial capsule, 419,420 nephridioduct, 69 nephridiopores, 69 nephrocoel theory, 114 nephrocytes, 619,680,862 nephromixia, 71 Nephrops noruegicus (Norwegian lobster), 380 nephrostome, 70 Nephtyidae, 391 Nepktys, 402 Nereidae, 391 Nereis, 762 circulation and gas exchange in, 414 locomotion in, 400-401 nervous system of, 421 pharyngeal jaws of, 405 sense organs in, 423 Nereis fucata, 407 Nereis irrorata, 426 Nereis virens, 388,410 Nerilla, 388n neritic zone, 10 nerve(s) afferent, 77 antennary, 570

924

INDEX

antennulary, 570 efferent, 77 radial, 826 stomatogastric, 422 nerve nets, 82,250-251,826 nerve rings, 251,302-303 nervous system(s), 3 7 4 4 bioluminescence, 42 body plans and, 4244 central, 83 independent effectors, 42 invertebrate sense organs, 37-42 ladder-like, 83,300,301, 302 Neuhaus, B., 350,382 neural crest, 869 neural crest cell, 869 neural plate, 863, 867 neural (subneural) gland, 859,862 neural tube, 867 neuroblasts, 505 neurochord, 853 neurogenic hearts, 73 neurohormones, 84 neurons, 77 neuropodium, 396,398 neuropore, 867 Neuroptera, 594,599 neurosecretory cells, 84 neurotroch, 428,429 Newberry, A. T., 87 Newby, W. W., 452 Nicholls, J. G., 424 nidamental glands, 758, 778 Nielsen, C., 115,338,373,772,798, 873,874,876,879,884 Niobia, 254 Nipkargus, 537 nitrogenous wastes, 26-27 nits, 598 Nitsche, 772 Noctiluca, 151, 152 Nolella, 790 nomenclature, biological, 24-27 nonstoloniferous colony form, 780, 781 Nonsuck: Land of Water (Beebe), 461 Norrevang, A., 115 Norwegian lobster (Nepkrops norvegicus), 380 notochord, 854-855 Notodelpkys, 544 Notomastus, 423 notoneuron, 115 notopodium, 396,398 Notopygos ornata, 391 Notosaria, 794 Notostigmophora, 639 Notostraca, 514,519-522 distinguishing features, 552-553 reproductive features, 556-557 Novodinia antillensis, 816 Nubler-Jung, K., 884 Nucella, 735, 756, 761 Nucella emarginata, 735 nuchal organs, 421,422,423 nuchal tentacles, 445,450 Nuclearia, 156, 158 nucleomorph, 172

nucleotide evolution, 34 Nucula, 737,738 Nuculida (Palaeotaxodonta), 712 Nummulites, 167 Nummulites gizekensis, 166 nuptial net, 648 nutritive-muscular cells, 226 Nyctalops crassicaudatus, 661 Nygolairnus, 355 Nympkon, 694 Nympkon rubrum, 693 Nympkopsis spinosossima, 692 nymphs, 626 Nyssodesmus, 638

Obelia, 256 obligatory symbionts, 14 obturaculum, 434 oceanic temperatures, 10 oceanic zone, 10,12 ocelli, 80 complex lensed, 494 direct, 80 simple, 494 Ockromonas, 153 Ockham’s razor, 34n Octacnemus, 856-857 Octocorallia (Alcyonaria), 224 Octonitis, 169 Octopoda, 715 Octopus, 704, 705, 716, 737 Octopus ckierckiae, 716 Octopus digueti, 716 Octopus dofeini, 717 octopuses, 65 Octopus horridus, 716 Ocypode, 530 Ocyropsis, 280 Odonata, 594,596 Odontaster crassus, 803 odontoblasts, 733 Odontogripkus, 8 odontophore, 733,734 odontophore protractor, 733 Oegophiurida, 804-805 Oekiocolax, 296 Oesopkagostomum, 357 Oikopleura, 858 Okada, 197 Olenellus gilberti, 498 Olenoides serratus, 498 Oligochaeta, 31,37,393 body forms, 397 body wall and coelomic arrangement, 399 circulation and gas exchange, 415416 digestive system, 411-413 excretion and osmoregulation, 418-419 feeding, 409 nervous system and sense organs, 424 regeneration and asexual reproduction, 427 reproduction and development, 430432 support and locomotion, 402404

oligochaetes, 37,393 olynthus, 183,186,200 ommatidia, 81,494 omnivores, 58 Oncknesoma, 450 Onckocerca volvulus, 351,529 Oncideves, 614 oncomiracidium, 309 oncosphere, 313 Oniscidea, 516 ontogenetic analysis, 34 ontogeny-phylogeny relationship, 106-108 Onuphidae, 389 Onychophora, 5,9,463469 bauplan, 463469 circulation and gas exchange, 467 excretion and osmoregulation, 467 feeding and digestion, 466 locomotion, 465466 nervous system and sense organs, 468 reproduction and development, 468-469 comparison of annelids, tardigrades, arthropods and, 464465 oocyst, 148 ooecial fold, 790,791 ooecial vesicle, 790, 791 ooecium (ovicell), 790 ookinete, 148 Ooperipatus, 468 Oops, 26n oostegites, 529, 576 ootheca, 596 ootype, 308,312 oozooid, 862 Opabinia, 8 Opalina, 174 Opalinida, 122,124,173-174 open circulatory systems, 71 opening lever, 687,689 open mitosis, 128, 129 opercula, 242, 622, 779 Opheliida, 389 Opheliidae, 389 Opkiactis, 826 Opkiocoma, 817 Opkioderma, 817 Opkioderma appressun, 812 Opkionereis, 817 Opkionereisfasciata, 818 Opkiopkolis aculeata, 803 Opkiopkragmusfilagraneous, 825 Opkiotkrix, 817, 818 Opkiotkrix fragilis, 61, 818 Opkiotkrix lineata, 817-818 Ophiurida, 805 Ophiuroidea, 804-805,812,817 Opkryotrocka,422 Opilioacariformes, 654 Opiliones, 655, 664 opisthaptor, 294 Opisthobranchia, 711 opisthognathous mouthparts, 604 Opistkopatus, 464 Opistkopatus roseus, 464 Opistkorckis, 312

INDEX

Opistkorckis (Clonorckis) sinensis, 290 Opistkorckis sinensis, 309 opisthosoma, 434,435,653-654,655, 657,662,665 Opisthothelae, 654 opportunistic (facultative) symbionts, 14 opposable thumbs, 31 optic cushions, 826 optic nerves, 570 optic tentacles, 752 oral appendages, 540 oral ciliature, 137 oral cone, 348,377 oral disc, 227, 229 oral grooves, 276 oral hood, 865,866 oral (incurrent) siphon, 857,859 oral lobes, 274 oral papillae (slime papillae), 463-465 oral stylets, 348, 377,472,473 oral sucker, 294 oral surface, 44 Orbiniida, 391 Orbiniidae, 391 Orckestia, 553 Orckestoidea, 553 Oreaster, 815 Oreaster reticulatus, 815 organic tests, 166 organ of Tomosvary, 79,647 orifice (in cystid), 779 origin, 55 Ornitkonodorus moubata, 659 orogenital pore, 305 Orsten, 543,581,582, 697 orthognathous jaws, 663 orthologous genes, 29 orthomitosis, 128 intranuclear, 129 open, 129 semi-open, 129 orthonectid, 111 Orthonectida, 9,209 bauplan, 215-216 taxonomic history, 209 Ortkoporus ornatus, 638 Orthoptera, 594,597 Orthopterodea, 593 Orzeliscus, 473 Oscarella, 191 osculum, 183 osmoconformers, 68 osmoregulation, 26-31, 66 habitat and, 27-28 structures, 28-31 osmoregulators, 68 osmotic hypothesis, 244 osmotic stress, 14 osphradia, 717,752 ossicles, 801, 808 ostia (dermal pores), 183,184,489, 490,616,617,644,739,740 ostiate hearts, 73 ostium (incurrent pore), 183 Ostracoda, 517,547-550 reproductive features, 556-557 Ostrea, 758 otolith, 863,864

Ottoia prolifca, 366 out-group analysis, 34 ovaries, 86 ovarioles, 624,625 ovicell (ooecium), 790 oviducal gland, 433, 758 oviduct (pallial duct), 87, 755,756 ovigers, 653,691,693 oviparous animals, 105 ovipositor, 625 ovisacs, 430,431 ovitestis, 358 ovotestis, 755 Ovoviviparous animals, 105 ovular nuclei, 129 ovum/ova, 94 mictic, 344, 345 Owen, Richard, 2 Owenia, 411,429 Oweniida, 391 Oweniidae, 391 Oxidus gracilis, 638 oxygen atmospheric, 5 in estuaries, 13 Oxyopes, 685 Oxyopidae, 654 Ozobranchus, 394 Pack ygraps us ,530 Pacific gorgonian (Muricea californica), 235 pads, 465,466 paedogenesis, 108 paedomorphosis, 108 Paguristes, 532 Paguristes pilosus, 560 Pagurus, 248,532 Palaeocopida, 517 Palaeonemertea, 321,324,329,335 Palaeoptera, 594,595-596 Palaeoscolex, 439 Palaeotaxodonta. See Nuculida (Palaeotaxodonta) Palagotkuria, 803 Paleoheterodonta, 712 Paleozoic era (570-250 mya), 6-7 palinura, 516,529 pallial cavity, 74, 717, 718, 773, 793 Mollusca, 718,719-720,721 pallial duct (oviduct), 87, 755, 756 pallial groove, 747 pallial line, 722, 723 pallial (parietal, intestinal) ganglia, 749,750 pallial tentacles, 753 Pallisentis fractus, 369 pallium (mantle), 717, 718 Palola viridis, 426 palpal organ, 685 Palpigradi, 655,664 palp proboscis, 738 palps, 395,693 Palytkoa toxica, 246 palytoxin, 246 Pampkagus, 160 Panagrolaimus, 355 Panama isthmus, 9 Panarthropoda, 461

925

Pandalus, 569 Pandaros, 202 Panderia, 498 pandora larvae, 381 Pangaea, 7 Panulirus argus, 555,557 Panulirus (spiny lobster), 532,571 papillae adhesive, 864 epidermal, 718-719 oral (slime), 463-465 papulae (dermal gills), 824 parabasal fiber, 169,170 Parabasilida, 124,169-71 characteristics, 170 nutrition, 171 reproduction, 171 support and locomotion, 170-171 Parabutkus, 672,686 Paracentrot us, 819 Paracerceis, 536 Parafossarulus, 309 paragastric canals, 278 paraglossae, 600,603 Paragonimus, 529 Pa ragonim us wes termani, 311 Paragordius, 362,365 parallelism, 29-30 paralogous genes, 29 Paramecium, 58, 136 asexual reproduction, 142 locomotion, 138-139 “paranoiac,” 139 as protist-metazoan intermediate, 111 reproduction, 143,144 sexual processes, 145 trichocyst, 127 Paramecium caudatum, 139,143 Paranema, 132 Paranemertes, 324 Paranemertes peregrina, 324, 325 paranotal lobe hypothesis, 629 Parapagurus, 247 Parapagurus dofleini, 248 parapet (collar), 239 paraphyletic group, 28 paraphyletic taxa, 28 classification construction and, 31-32 in traditional systematics, 36 Parapinnixa, 530 parapodia, 395,396,732 parapolar cells, 212 parapyles, 162 Parasagitta hispida, 845 Parascaris equorum, 360 parasite(s) evolution of hosts and, 17 life cycles, 106 Parasitiformes, 654 parasitism, 14 parasitoids, 14 Parastickopus, 803,821,822 Parastomonema, 353-354 Paravortex, 296 paraxonemal rod, 151 parazoan grade of body construction, 179

926

INDEX

Pardosa amentata, 672 parenchyma, 220n parenchyme, 22012 parenchymula (parenchymella) larvae, 199 Parerytkropodium, 260 parietal (intestinal, pallial) ganglia, 749,750 parietal protractor muscles, 785 paroral membrane, 140 parsimony, principle of logical, 34 pars intercerebralis, 488 parthenogenesis, 88 Paruroctonus mesaensis, 672 Pasilobus, 675 Passamaneck, Y., 883 Patella, 746 patelliform, 724 pattern formation, 4 Patterson, 123 Paucitubulatina, 346 Paul, C. R. C., 833,834 Paulus, H. F., 697 PAUP (software), 34 Pauropoda, 639,640,649 Pauropus silvaticus, 638 Pax-6 gene, 504 Paxillosida, 804 p d m gene, 630 Pearse, J. S., 827 Pecten, 753 Pectinaria, 403,406,407 Pectinariidae, 392 pectines, 681 pectinobranch (monopectinate) condition, 721, 746 pedal cords, 748,749 pedal disc, 227 pedal ganglia, 420,421, 749, 750 pedal gland, 340, 728 pedal laceration, 258 pedal retractor muscles, 728 pedestals, 693,694 pedestrian arthropods, 482 pedicel, 603,661,662 Pedicellaria, 808 pedicellariae, 808, 809 Pedicellaria globifera, 808 Pedicellaria tridens, 808 Pedicellaria tripkylla, 808 Pedicellina, 372, 374 Pedicellinidae, 373 pedicle, 792-793 pedicle valve, 793,794 pediculosis, 613 Pediculus, 613 Pediculus kumanus, 614 Pediculus pubis, 613 pedipalps, 653, 655,657,660,661,662 peduncle, 550n peduncular (pedicle) lobe, 797 Peggickisme, 26n peg organs, 621 Pelagia, 220, 246,255,259 Pelagia noctiluca, 245 pelagic organisms, 12 pelagic zone, 12 Pelagodiscus, 792 pelagosphera larva, 451,452

Pelagothuria, 806-807 Pelecypoda. See Bivalvia

Petrolisthes armatus (porcelain crab),

pellicle, 125,130 Pelomyxa, 158, 159 pelta, 170 Peltogaster paguri, 563 Penaeus, 527,577 Penaeus setiferus, 528 Penicillata, 639 penis, 87 pennate diatoms, 154 Pennatulacea, 224,232,233 Pennatula (sea pen), 234 Pennington, J. T., 428,727,828 Pentanympkon, 694 Pentapora, 781 Pentapycnon, 694 pentaradial symmetry, 44 Pentastomida, 516,543,546 Pentastomum, 546 Pentatrichomonas komonis, 170 Pentkaleus major, 659 Pequignat, E., 810 Peracarida, 516,529-540,556-557 Peranema, 130,131 pereon, 517n, 550 pereonites (pereomeres), 517n, 550 pereopods, 515,517n, 550 Perez, F. M., 785 periblastula, 99 pericardial cells, 619 pericardial chamber, 717,744,745 pericardial sinus, 465,489,490, 616, 617,644 Pericimenes brevicarpalis, 249 Peridineum, 150 Peridinium, 122 Peridinium volzii, 152 perihemal sinuses, 823 periostracum (hypostracum), 719, 720, 723,793,794 Peripatopsis, 466,468 Peripatopsis moseleyi, 464,467,469 Peripatopsis sedgwicki, 465 Peripatus, 461,465,467 Peripatus capensis, 467 Peripatus trinitatus, 469 peripheral tentacles, 445,450 Peripkylla, 255 periplasm (peripheral cytoplasm), 625,649 periproct, 827 perisarc, 228,230-232 peristalsis, 52 peristomial field, 787 peristomial membrane, 816, 817 peristomium, 395 peritoneum, 48 peritrema, 645 peritrophic membrane, 489,615,644 perivisceral coelom, 717,810 permanent parasites, 14 Peropkora, 856457,862 Perotrockus, 704, 705 petaloids, 824 petasma, 574 Petrochirus californiensis (giant hermit crab), 513

Petrolistkes cabriolli, 565 Petrolistkes elegans, 59 Petta, 411 Pettibone, M. H., 389,407

513,532,572

Peyssonal, 772

Pfiesteria, 151n Pfiesteria piscicida, 151 Pkacus, 130 Pkaeodaria, 162 phaeodium, 163

Phagocata, 303 phagocytosis, 56

Pkallonemertes murrayi, 320 Phallus impudicus, 26n Phanerozoic eon, 6 pharmacology, systematics and, 27 pharyngeal canals, 278 pharyngeal cavity, 297,298 pharyngeal gill slits (stigmata), 80, 127,857,859,865,866 pharyngeal glands, 296 pharyngeal pump, 612 pharyngeal tubes, 347 pharynx, 615,616 bulbous, 296,297 plicate, 296,297 simple, 296,297 Pkascolion, 446,450 Phascolion crypta, 451 Phascolionidae, 447 Pkascolion strombi, 451 Pkascolosoma, 446,448,451,452 Pkascolosoma agassizii, 450 Phascolosomida, 447 Phascolosomiformes, 447 Phasmida (Phasmatoptera), 594,597 Phasmida (Secernentea), 352 phasmids, 357,358 Pkeretima, 430 pheromones, 84 Pkidiana, 710, 711 Pkilodina roseola, 339 Philonexis, 758 Pkixometra, 828 Pklebotomus, 132n pH of seawater, 10 Pkolas, 732 Pkoneutria fera, 675 phonoreception, 79 phonoreceptors, 621 phoresis, 15 phoresy, 664 Phoronida, 9,773-778 bauplan, 774-778 body cavity, 775-776 body wall, 775-776 circulation and gas exchange, 776-777 excretion, 776-777 lophophore, feeding, and digestion, 776 nervous system, 777 reproduction and development, 777-778 support, 775-776 characteristics, 773 Pkoronis, 772, 773

INDEX

Phoronis architechta, 774 Phoronis australis, 777 Phoronis hippocrepia, 774 Phoronis ovalis, 777, 778 Phoronis psammophila, 774 Phoronis vancouverensis, 774,777,778 Phoronopsis, 773 Phoronopsis harmeri (P. viridis), 777, 778 phoront, 15 photic reaction, 80 photic zone, 10,12 Photis conchicola, 557,558 photoautotrophy, 66 photocytes, 623 photophores, 754 photoreceptors, 4042,77 photosynthesis, 10 Phragmatopoma, 403 Phragmophora, 841 Phreatoicidea, 516 Phreatoicopis terricola, 292 Phrynophiurida, 805 Phthiraptera, 594,597-598 Phthiria relativitae, 26n Phthirius pubis, 614 Phthirus, 613 Phylactolaemata, 779 Phyllobothrium, 295 phyllobranchiate gills, 527 Phyllocarida, 515,523-524 distinguishing features, 552-553 reproductive features, 556-557 Phyllodoce, 429 Phyllodocida, 391 Phyllodocidae, 391 phyllopodia (foliacious limbs), 480, 481,551 phylogenetic groups, natural vs. composite, 1 phylogenetic sequencing convention, 35 phylogenetic systematics (cladistics), 15,32-34 similarity concept in, 24,38 traditional systematics vs., 35-37 phylogeny(ies), 873-888 blastocoelomate phyla, 381-382 constructing, 31-38 deuterostomes, 868-870 evolutionary developmental biology, 884-885 molecular phylogenetics, 882-884 ontogeny and, relationships between, 106-108 physa, 227 Physa, 756 Physalia ("man-of-war"), 230,232, 233, 244,246,249 Physalia physalis, 232 Physonectae, 233 phytoplankton, 12-13 Picrophilus oschimae, 3n pigment cells, 682 primary, 494 pigments light-sensitive, 80 proximal, 494,495 respiratory, 34-36,74 screening, 494,495

secondary, 495 pilidium, 333 pillbugs, 37 pinacocytes, 183,188,189 pinacoderm, 183 pinnules, 228,407,408,434,807,812 pinocytosis, 56,57 pinocytotic channels, 57 pinocytotic vesicles, 57 piroplasms, 145-148 Pirsig, Robert M., 23 Pisaster giganteus, 24,25,26, 813 Pisaster ochraceus, 815-816,826 Pisaura, 683, 687 Pisauridae, 654 Pisciola, 433 Pista, 407 placental plate, 468 placids, 348 Placiphorella, 737 Placiphorella velata, 734 Placobdella, 417 Placobranchus, 741 placoids (rods), 473 Placozoa, 9,111,209,210 plakula, 110 Planctosphaera, 847,849 Planctosphaera pelagica, 847, 849 Planctosphaeroidea, 847 plankton, 12-13 planktotrophic larvae, 103 Planocera, 301, 305 Plantae (Metaphyta), 2 Plante, C. J., 410 planula larva, 253 plasmodial phase, 625 plasmodial stages, 215 Plasmodium, 612,613 diseases caused by, 146 life cycle of, 147, 149 Plasmodium falciparum, 146 plasmotomy, 128 Platnick, N. I., 687 Platycopida, 517 Platycopioida, 516 Platyctenida, 273,274 Platydesmida, 639 Platydesmus, 295 Platyhelminthes (flatworms), 9/81, 285-318 bauplan, 289-313 attachment, 294-295 body wall, 291-294 circulation, 299 excretion, 299-300 feeding and digestion, 295-299 gas exchange, 299 life cycles, 310-311, 314 locomotion, 294-295 nervous system and sense organs, 300-303 osmoregulation, 299-300 reproduction and development, 303-313 support, 294-295 characteristics, 288 classification, 286-289 phylogeny, 313-31 7 taxonomic history, 286

927

Platylepas, 542 Platysterida, 804 Plecoptera, 594,596 plectrum, 529 Pleocyemata, 515,527-528 pleon, 550-551 pleonites (pleomeres), 550 pleopods, 515,551 plerocercoid stage, 313 Plesiodiadema, 806-807 plesiomorphy, 31,33-34 pleura, 478 pleural ganglia, 749, 750 pleural lobes, 527 Pleurobrachia, 270,271,273, 276, 277, 280 pleurobranchs, 527 Pleurodasys, 346 pleuromitosis, 128, 129 Pleuroncodes planipes, 513 Pleurostigmophora, 639 Pleurotomaria, 744 plicate ctenidia, 747 plicate gill, 747 plicate pharynx, 296,297 Pliciloricus enigmaticus, 378 Pliciloricus gracilis, 378 Plocamia karykina, 202 Plumatella, 779, 780 plumatellid colony form, 779, 780 pneumatophore, 232 pneumostome, 74,75,746,747 Pocillopora damicornis, 258 podia, 806 podites (articles), 480 podium, 810,811 podobranchs, 527 Podocopa, 517 Podocopida, 517 Podocoryne, 248 Poecilostomatoida, 517 polar cap, 212 polar fields, 280 polarity, 43 Polaromonas vacuolata, 3n polian vesicles, 810, 811 Polinices, 65, 729 Polis, G. A,, 65 Politolana, 78 Pollicipes polymerus, 540 Polybrachia, 435,436 Polycelis tenuis, 298 Polychaeta, 31,388 body forms, 395-396 body wall and coelomic arrangement, 397-398 circulation and gas exchange, 413415 digestive system, 410411 excretion and osmoregulation, 417-41 8 feeding, 405409 Middle Cambrian, 7 nervous system and sense organs, 420424 regeneration and asexual reproduction, 425427 sexual reproduction and development, 427-430

928

INDEX

support and locomotion, 400402, 403 Polychaete Worms (Fauchald), 387 Polychisime, 26n Polychoerus, 306 Polycirrus, 414 Polycladida, 288 Polyclinum, 840 Polycope, 549 Polycystina, 162 Polydesmida, 639 polydisc strobilation, 255 Polydora, 402,406,408 Polydora alloporis, 408 polyembryony, 626,791 polygastry, 253 Polygordius, 388n Polykrikos, 152 pofymerous species, 694 polymorphic species, 30 Polynoidae, 391 Polyophthalmus, 422 Polyopisothocotylea, 288 Polyorchis, 220 polyphyletic group, 28 polyphyletic taxa, 28,29 Polyphysia, 401,402 polypide, 779,780 Polyplacophora, 703,708 polypoid form, 219,226-233 polyps, 222, 772 polyp theory, 261,262,263 Polystilifera, 322 Polystoma integerrimum, 310 polythridium, 368 Polytoma, 173 Polytonella, 173 polytroph larvae, 429 Polyxenida, 639 Polyzoniida, 639 Pomatias, 750 "Pompeii worm" (Alvinella pompejana), 408 Pompholyxophrys, 158 Pontobdella muricata, 394 pools, ephemeral (vernal pools), 13, 14n Porania, 816 porcelain crab (Petrol is t hes armat us), 513,532,572 porcelaneous tests, 166 Porcellio, 491,568, 569 Porifera (sponges), 5,9, 179-208 bauplan, 182-201 activity and sensitivity, 194-196 body structure and aquiferous system, 183-188 cell aggregation, 191 cell types, 188-191 circulatory system, 72 excretion, 192-194 gas exchange, 192-194 nutrition, 192-194,195 reproduction and development, 196-20 1 support, 191-192,193 biochemical agents, 201-202 classification, 182

distribution and ecology, 201 growth rates, 202 phylogeny, 203-205 evolution within Porifera, 204-205 origin of sponges, 203-204 symbioses, 202-203 taxonomic history, 180-182 Porites astereoides, 247 porocytes, 183,188,189 Porpita, 230, 246 Portia, 662, 675, 683 postclitellar, 397 postecdysis (postmolt period), 486, 487 posterior cardinal veins, 866,867 posterior end, 44 posterior growth zone, 496 posterior region, 397 posterodorsal tubercle, 693,694 postlarva, 578, 579 postmolt period (postecdysis), 486, 487 post-tarsus, 606 Potamocypris, 549 Powell, M. A., 741 power stroke, 51 Pray, F. A., 344 preclitellar region, 397 precoxa, 629 predation, 63 predators, 58 lurking, 63-65 predatory lifestyles, skeleton development and, 6 predictive function of classification, 24 prehensors (forcipules), 641, 644 premandibular segment, 642 premolt, 485,486 preoral ciliary organ, 851 preoral hood, 778 presoma (introvert), 365,445,446 prestomach, 775, 776 Priapulan protonephridia, 368 Priapula (priapulans), 9,28,338, 365-368 body wall, 367 characteristics, 366 circulation and gas exchange, 368 classification, 366-367 excretion and osmoregulation, 368 feeding and digestion, 367-368 nervous system and sense organs, 368 reproduction and development, 368 support and locomotion, 367 Priapulidae, 366-367 Priapulus, 367 Priapulus australis, 366 Priapulus bicaudatus, 366 Priapulus caudatus, 367 primary body cavity (blastocoel), 98 primary (definitive) host, 14,106 primary larva, 574 primary (larval) mesenchyme, 828 primary literature, 26 primary pigment cells, 494 primary segment, 602,603 "primeval soup" theory, 4n

primitive (ancestral) character states, 31 Primno, 538 principal filaments, 747 principle of logical parsimony, 34 prions, 2 prismatic calcium layer, 720 Pristionchus aerivora, 359 Probopyrus bithynis, 577 Proboscidactyla, 230 proboscides, 738 proboscis, 319-321,325-326,451,453, 600,692,693,848,849 Proboscis apparatus, 325-326 proboscis canal, 325,326 proboscis complex, 852 proboscis groove (gutter), 451,454 proboscis pore, 325,326,330 proboscis receptacle, 369 proboscis retractor muscle, 326 proboscis skeleton, 850,851 proboscis stalk, 848, 849 Procaris, 528, 559 Procaris ascensionis, 528, 560 procephalon, 602 procercoid stage, 313 Prochloron, 861 Procryptobia, 134 procuticle, 478,479 proecdysis, 485 proglottids, 290,291 prognathous mouthparts, 604,605 Progymnoplea, 516 prohaptor, 294 prokaryotes, 1 , 2 Prolecithophora, 288 prolegs, 18,481 proloculum, 167 Proneomenia, 749 Proneomenia antarctica, 706 pronotum, 605 propagative budding, 862 propeltidium, 666 Proplicastomata, 288 propodium, 728 propodosoma, 658,659 Propontocypris, 549 proprioceptors, 79 Proseriata, 288 Prosobranchia, 703 prosoma, 653,655,657,662,665 prosome, 546,772 prosopyles, 184 Prosorhochmus, 333 prostate gland, 756 prostatic glands, 304 Prosthiostomurn, 296 Prostoma, 332 Prostoma graecense, 325 prostomium, 395 protandric hermaphroditism, 87 protandry, 87 protaspis larva, 499,500 proterosoma, 666 Proterospongia, 110, 111, 173 Proterozoic era, 4,5 prothoracic glands, 488,619,620 prothorax, 602,605

INDEX

Protista, 2, 9,121-178. See also under specific taxa bauplan, 124-129 activity and sensitivity, 125-127 body structure, excretion, and gas exchange, 124-125 nutrition, 125 reproduction, 127-129 support and locomotion, 125 classification, 123-124 definability of, 121 diversity of, 122 organization on basis of body construction, 7 phylogeny, 174-176 Stephanopogon, 174 taxonomic history of, 123 Protoalcyonaria, 224 Protobranchia, 712 protocerebrum, 492,493,570 protocoel, 101,772 protoconch, 724 Protodrilus, 388n, 391 Protoglossus, 850 Protoglossus kohleri, 851 protogynic hermaphroditism, 87 protogyny, 87 protonephridia, 69,70,286 protonephromixium, 71 protonymphon larvae, 694,696 Protopalina, 174 Pro t operid inium, 151 protopodite, 480481 protopod (sympod), 480,515,550,554, 605-606 protostomes bilateral symmetry and origins, 877-8 78 developmental differences between deuterostomes and, 113,114-115 evolution, 878-880 Protostyela longicauda, 863 protostyle, 744 prototroch, 428,429 protozoa, 1,3,28 protozoa larva, 578 protractors, 55 Protura, 594,595 proventriculus, 615,616 proximal pigments, 494,495 prozonite, 642 Pruvotina impexa, 706 Psammogorgea, 235 Pseudamphithoides incurvaria, 553,558 Pseudicyema, 209 pseudoblastomeres, 468,469 Pseudocarcinus gigas (giant Tasmanian crabs), 511 Pseudocella, 359 Pseudoceros canadensis, 302 Pseudoceros ferrugineus, 286 pseudocoelom, 49 pseudocoelomate grade, 48 pseudofeces, 737 Pseudoplexaura (sea fan), 235 pseudopodia, 50,158 Pseudoscorpionida, 655,664 pseudosimplex, 470,471

pseudotrachea, 74,534,535,568,569 pseudozoea larvae, 579 Psocoptera, 594,597 Psolidium, 822 Psolus, 814,821 Psolus chintinoides, 808 psychrophiles, 3 ptenoglossate radula, 735 Pteraeol id ia, 741 Pteraster tesselatus, 803, 814 Pteriomorphia. See Filibranchia Pterobranchia, 847 Pteromonas lacertae, 128 pterothorax, 605 Pterotrachea, 710, 734, 752 Pterygota, 594,595 Pterygotus, 656 Pterygotus buffaloensis, 655 Ptilocrinus, 813 Ptilosarcus (sea pen), 220 ptychocyst, 243 Pugettia, 530 Pulex irritans, 599, 613 Pulmonata, 712 pulsatile organs, 616, 617 pumping mechanisms for circulation, 33 punctae, 793 punctuated equilibrium model, 19 Puncturella, 709 pupal stage, 626 pupation, 626 pupil, 81 Purchon, R. D., 712 pusules, 151 Pycnogonida, 18,654,691-696 anatomy, 692-695 circulation and gas exchange, 695-696 excretion, 695-696 feeding and digestion, 695 locomotion, 695 nervous system and sense organs, 696 reproduction and development, 696 Pycnogonum litorale, 695, 696 Pycnogonum rickettsi, 695 Pycnogonum stearnsi, 692 Pycnophyes, 351 Pycnopodia, 813,814,826 pygidium (telson), 395,496,497,498, 515,551,653,655,660 Pylopagurus varians, 513 pyloric ceca, 816,817 pyloric ducts, 816, 817 pyloric gland, 861,864 pyloric stomach, 561,568,816,817 pylorus, 787 pyramids, 819 pyriform organ complex, 793 Pyrodinium bahamense, 150 Pyrolobus fumarii, 3n Pyrosoma, 858 quadriradial (tetramerous) symmetry, 44,235 Quammen, David, 593 Quatrefages, 447

929

rachiglossate radulae, 734,735 rachis, 233 radial canal, 184, 235, 810,811 radial cleavage, 95 radial nerves, 826 radial spokes, 50 radial symmetry, 4 3 4 5 cnidarian, 225-226 Radiaspis radiata, 498 Radiata, 28 radiation, 30 explosive, 37 radiolarian, acantharian, 161 radioles, 407,408 radula, 63, 717,733 molluscan, 733-737 radular membrane, 733,734 radular protractor, 733 radular sac, 733 Raikov, I. B., 128 rain forest (tropical wet forest), 11 ramate mastax, 341 Ramskold, L., 463 Rapana, 735 Raphidioptera, 594,599 Rathkea, 254 Rebach, 574 recapitulation, law of (biogenetic law), 107 recency of common descent, 32 receptor, 77 recombination, 16 recovery stroke, 51 rectal accessory gills, 618 rectal glands (rectal sacs), 619,816, 817 rectum, 326 redia, 309 red tide, 150 reduction, morphological, 30 reduction bodies, 197 reef corals, Paleozoic, 7 reefs, modern, 9 refugial lifestyle, 2-3 regeneration, 85,280,425427,826, 827 Regier, J. C., 884 regulative ova, 98 Rehbachiella, 582 Reiswig, H. M., 194, 196 relatedness (genealogical kinship), 24 Remane, 476 Remipedia, 514,517-519 distinguishing features, 552-553 reproductive features, 556-557 renal appendages, 748 renal sacs, 748 renal vesicles, 862 renette cells, 356, 357 Renilla (sea pansy), 220 renopericardial duct, 745, 747 reproduction, 4448,556-557,573-576 asexual, 4546 parthenogenesis, 48 sexual, 4 6 4 7 reproductives, 596 reproductive success, 16 reptant arthropods, 482

930

INDEX

Reptilia, 31, 35-36 repugnatorial glands, 489, 638, 641, 664 research, taxonomic, 4n reserve stylet sacs, 325 resilin, 477 respiratory pigments, 34-36,74 respiratory trees, 822,823 rete system, 363 retina, 81,682,683 retinular cells, 80,494 retinula (retinular element), 494 retractor muscles, 239,240, 731, 733 pedal, 728 proboscis, 326 retractors, 55 retrocerebral organ, 343 reversal, evolutionary, 30 Reynolds, Osborne, 49 Reynolds number, 49 rhabdites, 292 Rhabditis, 356, 357, 358 Rhabdocalyptus, 196 Rhabdocoela, 288 rhabdoids, 291-292 rhabdome, 494,495 rhabdomere, 495 rhabdomeric eyes, 82 Rhabdopleura, 849,850,852,853 Rhabdosphaera clavigera, 155 rhagon, 199 Rhamphos tomella argen tea, 782 Rhenops, 497 rhinophores, 752 rhipidoglossate radulae, 734, 735 Rhizobium, 741 Rhizocephala, 516 Rhizophora, 561 Rhizopoda (amebas), 122,124, 155-161 characteristics, 157 diversity of, 156 nutrition, 159-160 reproduction, 160-1 61 support and locomotion, 157-159 Rhizostomae, 225 Rhobdomonas, 130 Rhodactis howesii (mata malu), 246 rhombogen, 213 Rhombozoa, 9,209 bauplan, 211-215 dicyemids, 212-214 Heterocyemida, 214-215 taxonomic history, 209 rhopalia, 253 Rhopalura, 209,211 Rhopalura granosa, 215 Rhopalura ophiocomae, 215 Rhynchelmis, 430 rhynchocoel, 319,326,330 Rhynchocoela. See Nemertea (ribbon worms) Rhynchodemus, 295 rhynchodeum, 325,326 Rhynchoscolex, 305 Rhyniella praecursor, 595 ribbon worms. See Nemertea (ribbon worms)

Rice, M. E., 447,448449,451 Ricinoides crassipalpe, 661 Ricinulei, 655, 664 Ridgeia, 436,438 Riedl, R. J. M., 338,375 Rieger, G. E., 382 Rieger, R. M., 115 Riftia, 434,436 Riftia pachyptila, 434, 435, 437 ring canal, 235,810,811 ”ring” vessel, afferent, 776 Ripistes, 393,409 Ristau, 180 “river blindness,” 351 rivers, subterranean, 14n Roberts, M. E., 842 Rochdalia parkeri, 629 Rocky Mountain spotted fever, 659 rods (placoids), 473 Romafia’s Sign, 133 Root, G., 670 rootlets, 561 rosette, 97 Rostanga pulchra, 202, 725 rostellum, 294,295 rostrum, 515,550,783 Rotaliella, 167 Rotaria, 341 Rotifera (rotifers), 9,338-345 body cavity, 341 body wall, 341 characteristics, 340 circulation, 343 classification, 340 corona, details of, 340-341 excretion, 343 external anatomy, 340-341 feeding and digestion, 341-342 gas exchange, 343 nervous system and sense organs, 343 osmoregulation, 343 reproduction and development, 343-345 support and locomotion, 341 rotules, 821 Rovner, J. S., 683 Rowe, F. W., 804 Rowell, 798 r-selected (opportunistic) species, 94, 104 Rudman, W. B., 725 Ruppert, E. E., 305,332,338,448449, 785,870 Ruthmann, A., 210 Ryland, J. S., 771 Rynkatropa pawsoni, 801

Sabella, 402,407 Sabellariidae, 392 Sabellida, 392 Sabellidae, 392 sac, adhesive, 791 Saccocirrus, 388n Saccoglossus, 840, 849, 852, 854 Sqccoglossus horsti, 849 Sacculina carcini, 540 sacculus, 467,569

Sadikov, 883 Sagartia, 245 Sagartia troglodytes, 260 Sagartiomorphe, 248 Sagitta, 842, 844, 845 Sagitta bipunctata, 78 Sagitta elegans, 842 Sagitta hispida, 842 Sagitta pseudoserratadentatoides, 26n Sahnicythere, 549 Saipanetta, 549 Salinella, 9, 111, 112, 209,210, 211,216, 874 bauplan, 10-11 salinity of fresh water, 14 of seawater, 10 salivary glands (mandibular glands), 342,378,413,615,616,644 Salmon, M., 574 Salpa, 277, 858 Salpingoeca, 173 saltation theory, 16 Salticidae, 655 salt marshes, 11,13 Salvini-Plawen, L. von, 762 Sander, K., 2,42 Sandman, 571 Sao hirsuata, 500 saprobic heterotrophs, 125 Sarcoptes scabiei, 658 Sars, Michael, 222 Sarsia, 254 Satan, 26n Satoh, N., 869 Saxipendium coronatum, 847 saxitoxins, 150-151 Sayonara, 26n Scalibregmidae, 391 scalids, 348, 377, 378 scape, 603 scaphognathites (gill bailers), 565,569 Scapholeberis, 522 Scaphopoda, 714 scavengers, 58 scavenging, 23-25 scenarios, evolutionary, 31 Schabronath, J., 681 Scheltema, A. H., 702,762,879 Scheltema, R. S., 762 Schindewolf, 16 Schistosoma, 311 Schistosoma mansoni, 290,311 Schistosomiasis, 311 schizocoely, 101 Schizomida, 655,664 Schizoporella, 781 Schlagel, 129 Schmidt, I., 194 Schmidt-Rhaesa, A., 365 Schmitt, W. L., 534 Schneider, 772 Schultz, J. W., 697, 884 Schultze, M. S., 321 Scissurella, 746 Scleractinia (Madreporaria), 224 sclerites, 236,238, 478, 685, 686 scleroblasts, 236

INDEX

Sclerocypris, 549 sclerocytes, 188,190 Sclerolinum, 434 sclerotization, 479 scolex, scoleces, 290,291,295 Scolopendra, 643, 644 Scolopendra cingulata, 645, 648 Scolopendra heros, 638, 639, 648 Scolopendromorpha, 639 Scoloplos, 428 Scopimera, Dotilla, 568 Scorpiones, 655,664-665 Scotoplanes, 803,814 screening pigments, 494,495 Scrobicularia, 730 Scudderia furcata (fork-tailed katydid), 80 Scutigera, 637, 641,643 Scutigera coleoptrata, 638 Scutigerella, 638 Scutigerella immaculata, 644 Scutigeromorpha, 639 Scypha (Sycon),184 distribution of, 201 inversion in, 200 larva of, 200 spicules in, 193 Scyphistoma,222 scyphistomae, 227 scyphomedusae, 237 Scyphozoa, 220,225 life cycles, 259 reproduction, 255-258 Scytodes, 675, 676 Scytodidae, 655 sea anemone feeding in, 245 locomotion in, 240,241 nerve net in, 83 sea cucumber, 75 “Sea daisies,” 804 ”sea mouse” (Aphrodita),391,411 sea pansy (Renilla),220 sea pen (Pennatula),234 sea pen (Ptilosarcus),220 sea slug, 75 sea spiders. See Pycnogonida sea wasp (Chironex),244 Secernentea (Phasmida), 352 secondary eyes, 682,683 secondary literature, 26 secondary mesenchyme, 828 secondary pigment cells, 495 secondary segments, 602,603 second maxillary segment, 642 sedentary animals, 12 Sedgwick, A., 114,452 Segestria, 685 segmental arteries, 867 segmental engrailed expression, 879 segmental gland, 467 segmented worms. See Annelida (segmented worms) Seison, 342,344 Seison annulatus, 339 Seisonidea, 340 sejugal furrow, 656,658 selective deposit feeders, 62

Selenkothuria, 821 Semaeostomae, 225 Semibalanus balanoides, 540 seminal receptacle, 87,304,647, 755, 756 seminal (sperm) funnels, 430 seminal vesicle, 87, 648 semi-open mitosis, 128,129 Semper cells, 49412 sense organs, 3 7 4 2 apical, 428 epithelial, 424 frontal, 330, 331 slit, 79, 681, 682 sensilla, 493 slit, 493, 681 sensitivity Porifera, 194-196 Protista, 125-127 sensory nerve, 77 sensory (receptor) cells, 682 general, 251 sensory vesicle, 863, 864 Sepia, 214,732, 754 Sepioida, 715 septum, septa, 238, 738 transverse septa, 723 Sergestes, 527 serial homology, 387 Serpulidae, 392 Serpulorbis gigas, 737 Serpulorbis squamigerus, 737 Serres, E. R. A., 107 sessile animals, 12 sessile eyes, 550 sessile opportunists, 63-65 setal-net feeders, 59 settling, 104-5 Sexanymphon,694 sexual reproduction, 4647 Annelida, 427433 Chordata, 862-864 Ctenophora, 280-281 Cycliophora, 381 Echinodermata, 826-827 Ectoprocta, 790-792 Nemertea, 331-333 Platyhelminthes, 303-313 Porifera, 197-201 Shapeero, W., 365,367 shared derived characteristics, 38 Sharov, A. G., 476 Shear, W. A., 649,669 sheet web, 673,674 Sheina orri, 547 shell, Mollusca, 718,719,720-725 shell adductor muscles, 729,730 shell glands, 718 Shick, J. M., 824 Shimomura, O., 253 Shinn, G. L., 842,845,868 Shostak, S., 242 shrimps, cleaner, 15 Shumardia pusilla, 500 Siberian Traps, 7 Siboga (ship), 434 Siboglinidae (beard worms), 434438 characteristics, 436

931

circulation and gas exchange, 436437 excretion and osmoregulation, 436437 nervous system and sense organs, 437 nutrition, 436 reproduction and development, 437438 taxonomic history, 434 tube, body wall, and body cavity, 434436 Siboglinum, 435,436,437 Siboglinumfiordicum, 436 Siboglinum weberi, 434 Siddall, M.E., 223

Siernienkiewicziechinogammarus siemienkiewitschii,26n Siewing, R., 98 siliceous spicules, 5 silk, spider, 667-670 similarity(ies), 24,25, 38 simple cilia, 137 simple development, 626 simple ocelli, 494 simple pharynx, 296,297 simple plates, 808 simple tactile hairs, 681, 682 Simpson, G. G., 26,27 Simulium, 529 sinus gland, 488 siphon, 454,455, 724,820,821 siphonal canal, 722, 724 siphonal chamber, 859,861 Siphonaptera, 594,599 siphon (funnel), 732 Siphoniulida, 639 Siphonodictyon,201 Siphonodictyon coral1iphagum, 20 1 siphonoglyphs, 227,229 Siphonophora, 223,232-233 Siphonophorida, 639 Siphonopoda. See Cephalopoda (Siphonopoda) Siphonosoma, 452 Siphonostomatoida, 517 siphonozooids, 233 siphuncle, 723 Sipuncula, 9,28,445451 body wall and coelom, 447449 characteristics, 446 circulation and gas exchange, 447449 classification, 447 excretion and osmoregulation, 450 feeding and digestion, 449450 nervous system and sense organs, 450 phylogeny, 457 reproduction and development, 451,452 support and locomotion, 449 taxonomic history, 447 Sipunculida, 447 Sipunculiformes, 447 Sipunculus, 448,449 Sipunculus nudus, 446,447,448,451 sister taxa (sister groups), 34-35,37

932

INDEX

Skara, 581,582 skeletal lamina, 341 skeleton(s), 12-16. See also support axial, 236 calcareous body, 6 hydrostatic, 12-13, 52 hydrozoan, 239 predatory lifestyles and development of, 6 proboscis, 850,851 rigid, 13-16 sponge, 191-192,193 cells secreting, 188,190 stramenopile, 155 Slabber, Martinus, 839 slime glands, 466 slime papillae (oral papillae), 463-465 slit sense organs, 79,681,682 slit sensilla, 493, 681 slugs, 31 Smith, A. B., 804,805,833,834 Snodgrass, R. E., 114,476,503,504 social ascidians, 856, 857 soglchordin precursor gene, 885 sog gene, 869,884 Solaster, 814 Solaster dawsoni, 815 Solaster stimpsoni, 815 soldiers, 596 sole, 728 Solemya, 741 Solemya reidi, 741 Solemyida (Cryptodonta), 712 solenia, 228 solenocyte (cyrtocyte), 69, 347 solitary ascidians, 856,857 Sollas, W. J., 180 Solpugida, 655,665-666 somatic cells, 212 somatic ciliature, 137 somatocoels, 828,830 Somero, G. N., 741 somite, 478 Sonoran desert, 11 Sopott-Ehlers, B., 302,316 Sorberacea, 855 Ssrensen, M. V., 873,874,879 Sorensen, Z., 879 Spadella, 841, 842, 845 Spadella cephaloptera, 845 spadix, 758 spat, 731 Spa thidiopsis, 172 spawning, broadcast, 86 specialist (k-selected)species, 94, 105 speciation, 15,18 macroevolutionary processes affecting, 16 models of, 37 phylogenetic systematics and, 36-37 species, 24 polymorphic, 30 species group categories, 26 Species Plantarum (Linnaeus), 25 specific epithet (trivial name), 24 Spelaeogriphacea, 516,534 Spelaeogriphus, 535 Speleonectes, 518

Speleonectes ondinae, 513 Speleonectes tulumensis, 572 Spengel, 702 Spengelomenia bathybia, 706 Speonebalia cannoni, 524 spermathecae, 430,431,624,625 spermatic cysts (sperm follicles), 197 spermatophores, 87 sperm duct, 87 sperm tubes, 624,625 sperm web, 685 sphaeridia, 826 Sphaeroeca, 110 Sphaeroeca volvox, 111 Sphaeroma walkeri, 536 Sphaerotheriida, 639 Spheciospongia, 203 Spheciospongia vesparia, 202 spherical symmetry, 43 spherulous cells, 190 sphincter, atrial, 784 sphincter muscles, 53 spicules, 192, 193,350 spiculospheres, 861 Spider Communication (Witt & Rovner), 683 spider silk, 667-670 spider ”webs,” 667-670 spigots, 667,668 spindle muscle, 448,449 Spinicaudata, 515 spinnerets, 661,662,667-670 spinoscalids, 377,378 Spinulosida, 804 spiny lobster (Panulirus), 532,571 Spionida, 391 Spionidae, 391 spiracles, 74, 467, 491, 617-618, 644, 645 spiral cleavage, 95 spire, 722,724 Spirobolida, 639 Spirobranchus grandis, 391 spirochetosis, fowl, 659 spirocysts, 243 Spironoura, 358 Spironucleus, 169 Spirorbidae, 392 Spirostreptida, 639 Spirostreptus, 643 Spirula, 723 splash zone (supralittoral zone), 10 Spodoptera, 673 Spondylus, 753 sponges. See Porifera (sponges) Spongia, 192,199 Spongicola, 202 Spongicola venusta, 528 Spongilla, 181, 197 spongin, 191,193 spongocoel (atrium), 183 spongocytes, 188,190 spools, 667, 668 sporocyst, 309 sporosacs, 255 sporozoites, 147 spring trap, 673

squids, 17 Squilla, 490, 525 stabilimentum, 667,669 stalked eyes, 495, 550 star-cell organ, 374 statoblasts, 790 statocysts, 79 statolith, 79 Stauromedusae, 225 Steatoda castanea, 675 Steganoblastus, 831 Stegasoma, 858 Stegophrynus darnmermani, 661 Steinbeck, John, 701,801 stellate ganglia, 750, 751 stem, 233 Stemmiulida, 639 stem nematogen, 213, 214 Stenodicfya lobata, 629 stenohaline animals, 68 Stenolaemata, 779 Stenoplax, 762 Stenopodidea, 515,528 stenopodous limbs, 552 stenopods, 480,481 Stenopus, 528 Stenopus hispidus, 572 Stenorhynchus, 530 Stentor, 122,136, 139, 140 Stephanocea, 128 Stephanoceros, 339 Sfephanodrilus, 394 Stephanopogon, 124,174 Stephanoscyphus, 255 Stephen, A. C., 447 Stephens, G., 810 stercoral pocket, 676,678 stereoblastula, 98 stereogastrulae, 99 stereom, 808 sternal plate, 348, 349 sternite, 478 sternum, 662,663 Sterrer, W., 376 Stichodactyla mertensii, 226 Sticholonche, 163 Stichopus, 821 stigmata (pharyngeal gill slits), 80, 127,857,859,865,866 stilting, 680 stochastic processes, 16 stolonal funiculus, 785 Stolonifera, 224 stoloniferous colony form, 780, 781 stolons, 849, 850 stomach, 326 cardiac, 561,568,816,817 central, 787 infundulum or funnel, 275,278 pyloric, 561, 568, 816, 817 stomachic end, 775 stomatogastric nerves, 422 Stomatolepas, 542 Stomatopoda, 515,524 stomoblastula, 200 stomochord (buccal diverticulum), 847,851

lNDEX

stomodeal plane, 274,275 Stomolophus meleagris ("cannonball jellyfish"), 259 Stomphia, 240,241 stone canal, 810,811 stops (locks), 482,483 storage organs, 865,866 Storch, V., 367 Stramenopila (stramenopiles), 122, 123,124,153-155 characteristics, 154 nutrition, 154-155 reproduction, 155 support and locomotion, 154,155 Strathmann, M. F., 828 Strausfeld, N. J., 504 Strepsiptera, 594,598 streptoneury, 725 stretch receptors, 79 Strickland code, 25 strict consensus tree, 876 Strigamia, 641 Strobila, 222 strobila, 255,258, 290, 291 strobilate, 290 strobilation, 255 stroma, 808 Stromatocystites ,834 Strombidium, 142 Strombus, 728, 752 Stromonas, 131 Strongylocentrotus, 63, 811,825 Strongylocentrotus drobachiensis, 26n Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, 803,814, 825 Stunkard, H., 211-212,213,217 Styela, 857 stygobionts, 511 Stygobromus, 537 Stygocarella, 525 Stylaria, 393 Stylasterias forreri, 808,816-817 Stylasteridae, 223 style sac, 743, 744 stylet glands, 473 styletocytes, 325 stylets, 325, 561, 605, 612 Stylobates, 247 Stylobates aenus, 248 Stylocephalus longicollis, 147, 148 Stylocephalus sp., 147 Stylochus, 305 Stylommatophora, 712 Stylonychia, 138 Styraconyx qivitoq, 470 subdermal lacunae, 187 subenteric ganglion, 570 subequal cleavage, 94 Suberites, 202 subesophageal ganglion, 570 subimago stage, 632 subintestinal (subesophageal) ganglion, 725,750 sublittoral zone (subtidal zone), 10 subneural vessel, 415,416 subordinated (hierarchical) classification, 37 subradular organ, 753-754 subspecies, 25

subterranean rivers, 14n subtidal zone (sublittoral zone), 10 subumbrella, 235 Succinea vaginacontorta, 26n sulcal, 227 sulcus, 151 superpositional eyes, 494,495 support, 9,12-16 supporting cells, 242 suprabranchial chambers, 739 supraenteric ganglion, 83 supraintestinal (supraesophageal) ganglion, 725, 750 supralittoral zone (splash zone), 10 supraneural pore, 790 supranuclear fiber, 168-169 survival budding, 862 suspension feeders, 58 suspension feeding, 18-21,58-61 molluscan, 737-741 sutures, 722,723,724 swamps, mangrove, 11, 13 swarmer, 142,164 Swofford, D., 874

Sycon. See Scypha (Sycon) syconoid condition, 183-184 Syllidae, 391-392 Syllis ,426 Symbiodinium, 150,249,741 symbiogenesis, 17,175 Symbion pandora, 379,380 symbiont, 14 symbiosis(es), 14-15 with Cnidaria, 246-250 evolutionary novelties arising from, 17 with sponges, 202-203 symmetrical animals, 43 symmetry, 4346 nervous systems and, 42-43 Symphyla, 639, 640,649 symplectic met achrony, 138 symplesiomorphies, 33 sympodial growth, 230 sympod (protopod), 480,515,550,554, 605-606 Synagoga mira, 540 Synalpheus, 559-560 synapomorphy (shared derived characters, evolutionary novelties), 32-34,38 Syncarida, 515,524-526 reproductive features, 556-557 syncitial blastoderm, 625 syncytial theory, 109 Syndesmis, 296 syngamy, 86,128 synkaryon, 143 synonyms, 25 Synura, 153 Systellommatophora, 712 Systema Naturae (Linnaeus), 25,286, 365,447 systematics, phylogenetic (cladistics), 15,32-34 traditional Systematics vs., 35-37 systematics (taxonomy), 27 syzygy, 147

933

Taboata ,298 tabulae, 239 Tachypleus,656 Tachypleus tridendatus, 656 tactile receptors, 78 tadpole larva, 863,864 Taenia, 286,294,295 Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm), 291, 313,314 Taenia solium, 295,312,313 taenidia, 617,618 taenioglossate radulae, 734, 735 Tagelus, 730 tagmata, 477 tagmosis, 477478 tail fan, 515, 523, 551 Talitrus pacificus, 537 Talitrus sylvaticus, 537 Tanaidacea, 516,534 Tangaroa tahitiensis, 688 Tantulocarida, 516,542,556-557 Tanyst y l u m a n thomas ti, 692 tapetum, 682-683 tapeworms. See Cestoda Tardigrada, 9,469475 bauplan, 471475 circulation and gas exchange, 473 feeding and digestion, 472473 locomotion, 472 nervous system and sense organs, 473 reproduction and development, 473475 comparison of annelids, onychophorans, arthropods and, 464465 Middle Cambrian, 7 target site, 84 tarsal organs, 681,682 tarsus, 606 Tatjanellia grandis, 454 taxis, 78 taxonomic research, 4n taxonomy (systematics), 27 taxon/taxa, 24 f amily-level,26-27 higher, 26-27 monophyletic, 28 paraphyletic, 28 classification construction and, 31-32 in traditional systematics, 36 polyphyletic, 28, 29 "positive" vs. "negative" characters basis for, 38 sister (sister groups), 34-35, 37 Technitella, 166 Tedania, 201 teeth, 841,843,844 hinge, 722,723 Tegenaria, 668, 677, 682 Tegiticula, 592-593 tegmentum, 723,752 tegmina, 597,606 tegument, 293,369-370 Telestacea, 224 Telesto,234 Telford, M., 814,821 teloblastic growth, 429

934

INDEX

teloblastic metamerism, 879 teloblastic segmental growth (teloblasty), 496 teloblasts, 428,496 telolecithal eggs, 94 telopod, 480, 605,606 telotroch, 428,429 telson (pygidium), 395,496,497,498, 515,551,653,655,660 Temnocephala caeca, 292 Temnocephalida, 288 temperatures, oceanic, 10 temporary (intermittent) parasites, 14 Tenagodus, 729 tendinous bar, 497 tension hypothesis, 244 tentacle canal, 278 tentacle sheath, 274,275 tentacle suspension feeding, 60, 61 tentacular crown, 372,373 tentacular plane, 274,275 tentacular scale, 817,818 tentillae, 274, 275 tentorium, 603 Terebella, 407 Terebellida, 392 Terebellidae, 392 Terebratalia, 792, 794 Terebratella, 797 Terebratella sanguinea, 792 Teredo, 731, 732 Teredo navalis, 63 tergal plate, 348,349 tergite, 478 terminal bulb, 741 terminal cells, 69 terminal claw, 465 terminalia (anogenital tagmata), 607 terminal tube foot, 810 termitaria, 596 termites, 15 Terpios, 202 terrestrial habitats, 14 test@),54, 125, 808 calcareous, 166 microgranular, 166 testability, 24 Testacella, 736 testate amebas, 157 testes, 86 Tethya, 199 Tethys Sea, 7,9 Tetrabranchiata, 714 Tetraclita,577 Tetractinomorpha, 182 Tetragnatha, 685 Tetragnathidae, 654 Tetrahymena, 135 Tetrahymena pyriformis, 137 tetramerous (quadriradial) symmetry, 44,235 tetrapartite ommatidium, 494 Teuthoida (Decapoda), 515,527, 528-529,530,715 reproductive features, 556-557 Texas cattle fever, 659 Thalamoporella, 782 Thalassinidea, 516,529

Thalassocalyce inconstans, 274 Thalassocalycida, 274 Thalassophysa,164 Thaliacea, 855 Thaumatoconcha,549 Thayer, C . W., 793 theca, 238 Thecamoeba, 158 Thecata, 223 thecate (armored) dinoflagellates, 151 thecate hydroid, 232 Thecostraca, 516,540,556-557 Thelepus, 391 Thelohania californica, 172 Themiste, 449,451 Themiste lageniformis, 451 Themiste pyroides, 446,451 Themistidae, 447 Theorie Elementaire de la Botanique, 25 Thevaphosa leblondi, 681 Theraphosidae, 654 Theridiidae, 654 Theridion, 691 thermophiles, 3 thermoreceptors, 42 Thermosbaenacea, 516,534 Thermosbaena mirabilis, 534 Thetys vagina, 26n Thomas, Lewis, 209 Thomisidae, 654 Thompson, D’Arcy, 6,46 Thompson, T. E., 702,772 Thoracica, 516 thoracomeres, 517n, 550 thoracopods, 517n thoracotropic hormone, 488 thorax, 497,498,517n,550 Hexapoda, 605-606 Thraulodes, 618 threshold, 77 Thuesen, E. V., 844 thumbs, opposable, 31 Thyone, 823,827 Thysanoptera, 594,598 Thysanozoon,286,293 Thysanozoon brocchii, 292 Thysanura, 594,595 tibia, 606 Tichenor, Jermoe, 87 ”tick fever” (African relapsing fever), 659 tidal flat, 11 Tiedemann’s bodies, 810,811 Tiegs, 476 Tilgner, E,, 597 Tinerfe, 273 tissues, 46 Tityus, 672 Tjalfella, 280 tocopherol, 345 Tomopteridae, 392 Tomopteris, 391 Tomosvary, organ of, 79,647 tongue bar, 851,852 Tonicella lineata, 708 Tonicia, 752 Topsell, Reverend E., 653

tornaria larva, 854,855 torsion, 717 Mollusca, 725-728 torted gastropods, 725, 726 Townsley, S. J., 246 toxoglossate radulae, 734,735 Toxoplasma gondii, 146 toxoplasmosis, 146 Toxopneustes, 810 Toxopneustes roseus, 62 trabecular network, 187 tracheae, 74,467,491 tracheal pouches, 618 tracheal system, 617-618,644,645 Trachelomonas, 130, 131 tracheole end cell (tracheolar cell), 617,618,645 tracheoles, 617,618,645-646 Trachylina, 223 transfer choanocyte (carrier cell), 198, 199 transgenic events, 16 transposable elements (TEs), 16-17 transposase, 17 transverse canals, 278 transverse cleavage, 95 transverse fission, 258 transverse parietal muscles, 784 transverse plane, 45 transverse septa, 723 Trapezia, 530 Trebius heterodont, 544 tree of life, Haeckel’s, 1, 3 trees, 24. See also dendrogram evolutionary, 30-33 family, 34 Trematoda, 288 Trembley, Abraham, 253 Trench, R. K., 142 Tresus, 713, 730 Tretomphalus, 167 Tretomphalus bulloides, 167 Triassic period, 7 Triatoma, 614 Trichinella spiralis, 359, 360 trichobothria, 681, 682 trichobranchiate gills, 527 trichocysts, 152 trichogon, 561, 562 trichomes, 617, 618, 645 trichomonads, 169-171. See also Parabasilida Trichomonas murius, 170 Trichomonas tenax, 170 Trichomonas vaginalis, 170-171 Trichonympha, 169,170, 171 Trichoplax, 111, 211, 877 phylogeny of, 216 taxonomic history of, 210 Trichoplax adhaerens, 111,209,210,211 Trichoptera, 594,600 Trichuris trichiura, 359 Trichuris trichura, 360 Tricladida, 288,289 Tridacna, 705, 717 Tridacna gigas, 717 Trididemnum, 861 Triebelina, 549

"trilobite larva" (euproops larva), 684 Trilobitomorpha (trilobites), 7,476, 497499,500 development, 499,500 general body form, 497499 internal anatomy 499,500 Trinchesia,742 trinomen, 25 Triopha, 735 Triops, 519,521, 572 triploblastic, 48 tritocerebrum, 492,493,570 Tritonia diomedea, 752 Tritrichomonas,171 Tritrichomonas foetus, 170 triungulins, 598 trivial name (specific epithet), 24 trivium, 808 trochaea, 115 trochal discs, 341 trochanter, 606 trochoblasts, 428 trochophore larva, 388,428,429 Trochophores, The (Garstang), 429 trochus, 340-342 Trombicula, 658, 659 trophi, 339 trophocytes, 196 trophosome organ, 436 trophozoite, 147 tropical dry forest, 11 tropical wet forest (rain forest), 11 tropics, deteriorating state of, 27 Trunculariopsis trunculus, 701n trunk, 365,434,435,445,451,453, 550, 848,849 trunk cells, 212 Trypanosoma,122 avoidance of detection by human immune system, 146 body plan of, 135 diseases caused by, 132 Typanosoma brucei, 132, 133,134 Trypanosoma cruzi, 133,135,613, 614 Trypanosoma gambiense, 132 Trypanosoma rhodesiense, 132 trypanosomes, 131-135. See also Kinetoplastida tsetse fly (Glossina),132 tube(s) adhesive, 346 Pogonophoridae, 434436 tube feet, 806 tube feet suspension feeding, 60,61 tubercles, 808 Tubifex, 247,393 Tubificidae, 393 Tubiluchidae, 367 Tubiluchus corallicola, 366,368 Tubipora, 236 Tubulanus, 320,324,327,330,332 Tubularia, 228,233,256 tunic, 856,857 Tunicata. See Urochordata (Tunicata) tunicin, 860 tun stage, 470 Turbanella, 346, 347 Turbellaria, 286

turbellarians anatomy of, 289,290 archetype, 313-3 15 body wall, 291-293 excretion and osmoregulation, 299 feeding and digestion, 295-298 nervous system and sense organs, 300-302 sexual reproduction, 303-307 support, locomotion, and attachment, 294 turbellarian theory, 261 Turbeville, J. M., 332, 869 Turner, P.N, 338 "two-plasm" theory, 17 Tydeus starri, 658 Tyler, S., 382 tymbal, 622 tympanic membrane (tympanum), 79, 621,622 tympanic organs, 79,621,622 type specimen, 25n Typhlatya, 560 Typhloplanoida, 288 typhlosole, 412,416 Typhlosyllis, 426

Ubx gene, 18,481 Uca anatomy of, 530 reproduction in, 574,575 Uca princeps (fiddler crab), 513 Uglem, G. L., 294 Uloboridae, 654 Uloborus,668 Ultrabithorax (Ubx) gene, 18,481 Umbellula, 233 umbo, 722,723 umbrella crab (Cryptolithodes),532 unequal cleavage, 94 Ungemach, 196 unicellular grade, 46 unique-in-combination taxa, 338 uniramous limbs (stenopods), 480,481 Upogebia, 559 Upupa epops, 26n urea, 67 Urechis, 451 anatomy, 455 circulation, 455 feeding, 454 nephridia, 456 Urechis caupo, 407,453 development, 457 feeding, 454 healing capabilities, 456 ureotelic animals, 67 uric acid, 67 uricotelic animals, 67 Urnatella, 373 urns, 448 Urochordata (Tunicata),9,854, 855-864 bauplan, 857-864 body wall, 860 circulation and gas exchange, 861-862 excretion, 861-862

feeding and digestion, 860-861 nervous system and sense organs, 862 reproduction and development, 862-864 support and locomotion, 860 Urodasys, 345,346,347 urogenital duct, 755, 756 urogenital pore, 748 uropods, 515,551 uropolar cells, 212 Uropygi, 655,666 Urosalpinx,735 urosome, 537,546 uterine bell, 369, 370,371 uterus, 305 Vacelet, 180, 194 Vaejovis spinigerus, 672 vagabond's disease, 613 vagina, 87,308,624,625,755,756 Vaginacola, 136 Vahlkampfia, 159 Valentincic, 826 Valentine, J. W., 2,42,798 Valvatida, 804 valves, 154, 717, 720,722 Valvifera, 516 Vampyromorpha, 715 Vampyroteuthis, 732 Vanadis,417,423 van Beneden, Edouard, 209 van den Biggelaar, J. A. M., 759 Van Essen, D., 424 Vannella, 156, 158 Van Valen, L., 46,86 Vargula,549 vas deferens, 756 vasoperitoneal tissue, 777 vector tissue, 433 vein(s) cardinal, 866,867 cecal, 866,867 intestinal, 866, 867 lung, 678,679 proboscis, 851,852 Velamen, 271 velar cilia, 761 velar/foot retractor muscle, 725 velar tentacles, 865,866 Velella ("by-the-wind sailor"), 220, 233,246 veliger, 717, 759, 760 velum, 235,236,759,760,817,865,866 "Vendobionta," 5n "Vendozoa, 5n Veneroida,712-1 4 venom glands, 644 venous sinus, 851,852 ventral aorta, 866, 867 ventral end, 44 ventral vessel, 415416 ventricle, 744, 745 Venus's flower basket (Euplectella), 181,187,202 Vermes, 286 Vermetus, 752 vermiform adults, 212,213,214,215 If

936

lNDEX

vermigon (vermiform instar), 561,562 vernacular (common) names, 24n vernal pools (ephemeral pools), 13, 14n Verruca, 540 vertebra, 808,818 Vertebrata, 3,9,31,855 vertebrates cladogram, 36 diversity, 7 eyes, 81 vesiculariform larvae, 791 vesicular nucleus, 129 vestibule, 373, 841, 843, 865, 866 Vestimentiferans, 434 vestimentum, 434 vibraculum, 783 vibration sensors, 78 Vibrio, 844 Victorella, 790 villi, 188 viroids, 2 viruses, 2 visceral cords, 748,749 visceral ganglia, 749, 750 visceral mass, 717 vitellarium, 304 vitelline platelets, 196 vitellogenesis, 94 vitreous body, 682,683 viviparous animals, 105 Viviparus, 734 Vogt, 286,388 Volckovia, 831 Voltzow, J., 728 Volvox, 110,111, 122, 172 colony formation in, 173 as rotifer host, 342 von Baer, K. E., 2,107 von Frisch, K., 623 von Siebold, 123,47$3 Vorticella, 139, 140, 142 Vorticella campanula, 144 Vosmaer, 271 vulva (genital atrium), 648 Wada, H., 869 Waddycepkalus teretiusculus, 546 Wagener’s larvae, 214,215 Walker, C. W., 810 Wallace, Alfred, 25 Walossek, D., 377,505,543,581

Waltonia, 795, 797 Ward, J. E., 733 Wasson, K., 87 water conservation, 26-27 water expulsion vesicles (WEVs),29, 68,125 water vascular system, 801,810-812 Watson, G. M., 242 Watson, J. E., 687 waxy layer, 478,479 Wells, Martin, 1 Wenner, A. M., 623 Westheide, W., 438, 879 wetlands, destruction of, 14n Weygoldt, P., 697 wheel organ, 865,866 whirling disease, 247 whorls, 722, 724 Wickham, D. E., 324 Wigglesworth, V. B., 629 Wilcox, R. S., 675 Wiley, E. O., 26 Wilkinson, C. R., 203 William of Ockham, 34n Willows, A. 0. D., 752 Wilson, D. M., 590 Wilson, E. B., 95 Wilson, E. O., 590 Wilson, H. V., 191 Wilson, I., 883 Winchell, C. J., 883 wing pads, 626,627 wings, insect, 608-610 evolution, 629-630 Wingstrand, K. G., 762 Wingstrandarctus corallinus, 470,471 Winnepenninckx, B., 46,879 Winston, J. E., 787 Witt, I? N., 683 Wiwaxia, 8 Woese, Carl, 1 Wolbackia, 625 Woodger, Joseph Henry, 2,42 Woodley, J. D., 817 Woollacott, R. M., 200,790, 791, 792 workers, 596 Wray, G. A., 827,830,833 Wright, 772 Wuckereria bancrofti, 359-362, 593 Wulff, J. L., 815

Xenobalanus, 542 Xenopnuesta, 453 Xenoturbella bocki, 316 Xiphosura, 654,656 X organ, 348,487-488 Xylopkaga, 732 Xyloplax anatomy of, 806-807 water vascular system of, 811, 812 Xyloplax medusiformis, 803,804,817 Xyloplax turnerae, 804, 817 Xysticus, 687, 688 Yager, J., 517,519 Yokoia, 8 Yoldia, 737 yolk, 94 yolk duct, 308 yolk pyramids, 649 Y-organ, 487,488 Young, A. E., 727 Young, C. M., 429,438,846,

Zanclea, 247 Zappa confluentus, 26n Zen, 26n Zeroseius ometes, 658 Zeus, 26n Ziegler, H. E., 114 Zimmer, R. L., 778,790,791,792,798 Zoantharia (Hexacorallia), 224 Zoanthidea, 224 zoarium, 779 zoea larva, 576,578 zoecium, 779 zonation, 11 zonites, 348 Zonosagitta bedoti, 844 Zonosagitta pulckra, 844 Zoochlorella, 150 zooids, 785,786 zooplankton, 12-13 zootypic stage, 42 zooxanthellae, 17 Zooxanthella (Symbiodinium), 150,249, 74 1 zooxanthellate corals, 249-250 Zoraptera, 594,597 Zrzavy, J., 874,882 Zygentoma, 594,595 Zygiella, 671 zygote, 86, 94