Intro Abnormal Psychology

INTRODUCTION TO ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY Abnormal Psychology is the application of the methods, concepts, principles and findings of general psychology primarily the psychology of perception, learning and development and social psychology to deviant behaviors and experiences. Abnormal

psychology is an attempt to

understand and explain the abnormal in the framework of the normal and general. Abnormality is those set of behaviors or thought processes which are commonly agreed to be bizarre, unusual or odd .People who hear voices or think they are Christ or are subject to uncontrollable fits of violence or depression seem to be obviously emotionally disturbed. The best current definition of abnormal behavior, and by extension, mental disorder, is one that contains several characteristics. The definition of mental disorder presented in the current American diagnostic manual, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR), includes a number of characteristics essential to the concept of abnormal behavior. In DSM-IV-TR, mental disorder is defined as: A clinically significant behavioral or psychological syndrome or pattern that occurs in an individual and that is associated with present distress (e.g., a painful symptom) or disability (i.e., impairment in one or more important areas of functioning) or with a significantly increased risk of suffering, death, pain, disability, or an important loss of freedom. In addition, this syndrome or pattern must not be merely an expectable and culturally sanctioned response to a particular event, for example, the death of a loved one. Whatever its original cause, it must currently be considered a manifestation of a behavioral, psychological, or biological dysfunction in the individual (American Psychological Association, APA, 2000; p. xxxi Personal Distress

One characteristic used to define some forms of abnormal behavior is personal distress—that is, a person’s behavior may be classified as abnormal if it causes him or her great distress. Felicia felt distress about her difficulty with paying attention and the social consequences of this difficulty— that is, being called names by other schoolgirls. Personal distress also characterizes many of the forms of abnormality considered in this book—people experiencing anxiety disorders and depression suffer greatly. But not all abnormal behaviors cause distress. For example, an individual with antisocial personality disorder, may treat others coldheartedly and violate the law

without experiencing any guilt, remorse, anxiety, or other type of distress. And not all behavior that causes distress is abnormal—for example, the distress of hunger due to religious fasting or the pain of childbirth.

Disability

Disability, that

is, impairment in some important area of life (e.g.,work or

personal relationships) can also be used to characterize abnormal behavior. For example, substance-related disordersare defined in part by the social or occupational disability (e.g., serious arguments with one’s spouse or poor work performance) created by substance abuse. Being rejected by peers, as Felicia was, is also an example of this characteristic. Phobias can produce both distress and disability—for example, if a severe fear of flying prevents someone living in California from taking a job in New York. Like distress, however, disability alone cannot be used to define abnormality, because some, but not all, disorders involve disability. For example, the disorder bulimia nervosa involves binge eating and compensatory purging (e.g., vomiting) in an attempt to control weight gain but does not necessarily involve disability. Most individuals with bulimia lead lives without impairment, while bingeing and purging in private. Other characteristics that might in some circumstances be considered disabilities—such as being short if you want to be a professional basketball player—do not fall within the domain of abnormal psychology. As with the characteristic of statistical infrequency, we do not have a rule that tells us which disabilities belong in our domain of study and which do not. Violation of Social Norms

In the realm of behavior, social norms are widely held standards (beliefs and attitudes)that people use consciously or intuitively to make judgments about where behaviors are situated on such scales as good–bad, right–wrong, justified–unjustified, and acceptable–unacceptable. Behavior that violates social norms might be classified as abnormal. For example, the repetitive rituals performed by people with obsessive-compulsive disorder and the conversations with imaginary voices that some people with schizophrenia

engage in are behaviors that violate social norms. José’s dropping to the floor at the sound of a popping balloon does not fit within most social norms. Yet this way of defining abnormal behavior is both too broad and too narrow. For example, it is too broad in that criminals and prostitutes violate social norms but are not usually studied within the domain of psychopathology; and it is too narrow in that highly anxious people typically do not violate social norms but are a focus of psychopathologists. Also, of course, social norms vary a great deal across cultures and ethnic groups, so behavior that clearly violates a social norm in one group may not do so at all in another. For example, in some cultures but not in others it violates a social norm to directly disagree with someone. In Puerto Rico, José’s behavior would not likely have been interpreted in the same way as it would be in the United States. Important issue of cultural and ethnic diversity as it applies to the descriptions, causes, and treatments of mental disorders.

Dysfunction

In an influential and widely discussed paper, Wakefield (1992) proposed that mental disorders could be defined as harmful dysfunction. It is important to note that this definition has two parts: a value judgment (“harmful”) and an objective, scientific component—the (“dysfunction”). A judgment that a behavior is harmful requires some standard, and this standard is likely to depend on social norms and values, the characteristic just described. Dysfunctions are said to occur when an internal mechanism is unable to perform its natural function—that is, the function that it evolved to perform. By grounding this part of the definition of mental disorder in evolutionary theory, Wakefield hoped to give the definition scientific objectivity. Numerous critics have argued that the dysfunction component of Wakefield’s definition is not so easily and objectively identifiable in relation to mental disorders (e.g., Houts, 2001; Lilienfeld & Marino, 1999). One difficulty is that the internal mechanisms involved in mental disorders are largely unknown; thus, we cannot say exactly what may not be functioning properly. Wakefield (1999) has

tried to meet this objection by, in part, referring to plausible dysfunctions rather than proven ones. In the case of Jack, for example, hallucinations (hearing voices) could be construed as a failure of the mind to “turn off” unwanted sounds. Nevertheless, we have a situation in which we judge a behavior or set of behaviors to be harmful and then decide that the behavior represents a mental disorder because we believe it is caused by a dysfunction of some unknown internal mechanism. Clearly, like the other definitions of abnormality, Wakefield’s concept of harmful dysfunction has its limitations. The broader concept of dysfunction as indicated in the DSM-IV-TR definition of mental disorder refers to behavioral, psychological, or biological dysfunctions that are supported by our current body of evidence. This broadening does not entirely avoid the problems that Wakefield’s definition suffers from, but it is an attempt that formally recognizes the limits of our current understanding.

CRITERIAS OF NORMALITY AND ABNORMALITY Normal is average: The Statistical Definition A common sense approach to the problem of definition has been to label normal those behaviors or traits which are frequent, typical or commonly occur in most persons. The term abnormal is then applied to any forms of behavior ( including thoughts and feelings) which are infrequent , atypical or very rare in the experience of most persons. In psychology one can be to emotionally responsive or not responsive enough. A student can be so anxious that his performance on exams is disrupted or show so little anxiety that he has no motivation to study. It is the middle range of scores and associated attitudes which is considered normal ; all else is abnormal. Thus , the statistical criterion of abnormality has a strong appeal for the psychologist who is eager to put abnormal psychology on a firmly scientific basis. Normalcy is Personal Comfort A second approach equates normalcy with the personal comfort felt by the individual.If he is relatively untroubled and indifferent to his inner state and to the impression he makes on others, or if he manifests a state of wellbeing and euphoria, he is normal no matter how deviant his behavior appears to observers. In the absence of universally accepted , external criteria, a person’s subjective state seems as good as any other . If a person feels good, how is anyone else to “prove” that he is disturbed.

Normalcy is Social Conformity From birth on, the individual lives in a social framework. Society expects him to conform to its standards with certain permitted exceptions. He is rewarded if he conforms and punished if he does not. The criterion of social nonconformity emerges from these considerations : an individual is deemed abnormal to the degree that he fails to conform to social standards and expectations. CULTURAL RELATIVISM AND ABNORMALITY One of the main problems with the idea of defining abnormality as statistical infrequency, deviation from ideal mental health or deviation from social norms is the fact that none of these criteria copes well with cultural variations. The idea of cultural relativism suggests that beliefs about abnormality differ between cultures and sub-cultures. What may be considered as perfectly acceptable behaviour in one culture may be seen as abnormal in another. Researchers have only recently begun to consider the implications of multi-cultural experiences on health and illness (including physical health). Western culture makes a number of assumptions about psychological states, for example that: •

Physical and psychological components of a disorder are separate and the emotional aspects are normally given primacy.

•

Mental illness is caused by psychological conditions and might be treated by psychological processes.

•

An individual self exists which is experienced as whole, continuous over time, distinct and unique.

Cultural variations in the experience of mental disorders One of the reasons that definitions of abnormality vary considerably from culture to culture is that there are differences in the way that people experience mental disorders. For instance, cultures outside the West do not necessarily conceive of internal emotional experiences as separate from bodily experiences and may focus more on physical ailments than psychological distress. Thus a Chinese person may complain of a stomach-ache rather than depression.

Some groups and sub-cultures value showing their emotions, whereas others emphasise containment. For example, the British are expected to avoid displays of emotion and to ‘keep a stiff upper lip’. Some cultures emphasize the religious or spiritual aspects of mental illness. For example, an Afro-Caribbean person might seek a religious solution to a psychological problem. Some cultures treat religiously induced trance-like states as acceptable spiritual experiences, while others may see the same behaviour as a symptom of mental illness. It may be seen as a sign of weakness to ask for help from a mental health practitioner. Others, such as Asian culture, believe that problems should be dealt within the family and it would be disrespectful to discuss personal and family problems with a stranger. Many cultures have a much more fluid view of the self and of reality. For example, an American Indian who hears the voice of a recently deceased relative calling from the afterworld would view this as a perfectly normal experience, whereas a European person may see this as a hallucination. Cultural bias in diagnosis Within attempts to define and classify abnormality, cultural biases exist. For example, Puerto Ricans have a unique way of reacting to stressful situations which includes symptoms such as heart palpitations, faintness and seizure-like episodes. These are often misdiagnosed as signs of severe mental disturbance due to a lack of knowledge of the culture (Guaraccia et al., 1990). In Britain and the USA, black males are more likely to be treated as criminals and sent to prison rather than be diagnosed as mentally ill. If they show symptoms of alcohol and drug abuse, they are more likely to be diagnosed as psychotic than are white males. Cultural differences must not be confused with effects that are due to poverty or poor education. Disorders are a product of cultures Definitions of mental disorders are also influenced by the fact that there are some disorders that are highly specific to particular cultures. The values and stresses of modern Western life have created more and different disorders that did not exist before. People might consider going to a therapist because they have a vague sense of lack of fulfilment and consider this to be pathological.

Even with disorders that are considered to be universal (e.g. depression, schizophrenia, manicdepression, certain types of anxiety disorder and dementia), there are cultural differences in the way that symptoms are expressed. Eating disorders mainly exist in Westernised, middle-class communities. In Catholic and Islamic cultures, where suicide is considered to be a sin, there are relatively low suicide rates whereas in Japan suicide is considered an honorable response to perceived shame. The conclusion from studies of cultural differences is that expression of symptoms and help-seeking behavior vary greatly between cultures. Research has shown significant differences in the extent to which ethnic groups use mental health services. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DEVIANCE AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY . "Pathological" situations are those of an especially foreboding nature such as nuclear holocausts or death camps--crises of a different magnitude than simple "deviance" or "dysfunction" might connote. Kavolis (1969) proposed "destructiveness" as an objective basis upon which to redefine the concept of pathology. Destructiveness is manifest in behavior damaging to life, health and sense of identity. Modern efforts to define basic human rights by agencies like the U.N. fit this tradition. The discipline of social psychology should seek objective indices of destructiveness and the characteristics of social structure that produce pathology. In both of these approaches deviance might or might not be pathological. Other sociologists take the position that the concept of pathology is value laden and there can never be agreement on defined pathological states. For example, the whole (society) may be healthy at the expense of the parts and vice versa. The overall society can function effectively in war or in the production of goods while its members can be subjugated or exploited. There also may be conflict in what is good for the persistence or expansion of the system and that, which maximizes individual satisfactions. In society, unlike biological organisms, the health or well being of one sector may be dependent on the ill health of another. Few, if any, of society's actions benefits everyone in the society. There are always conflicting interests, and the definition of normalcy depends on the perspective that is applied.

Those who benefit most by the existing social arrangements see

persistence as a value and therefore "normal" and disruptions as "pathological". Those who stand to benefit from change see the existing system as "pathological". Since society can be organized in an infinite number of ways, no one set of relations can be seen as necessary or "normal". MENTAL HEALTH PROFESSIONALS

As views of mental illness and abnormal behavior have evolved, so, too, have the professions associated with the field. Professionals authorized to provide psychological services include clinical psychologists, counseling psychologists, psychiatrists, psychoanalysts, and social workers. In this section, we discuss these different types of clinicians, the different types of training they receive, and a few related issues. Clinical psychologists- must have a Ph.D. or Psy.D. degree, which entails 4 to 7 years of graduate study. Training for the Ph.D. in clinical psychology is similar to that in other psychological specialties, such as developmental or cognitive neuroscience. It requires a heavy emphasis on research, statistics, neuroscience, and the empirically based study of human and animal behavior. As in other fields of psychology, the Ph.D. is basically a research degree, and candidates are required to write a dissertation on a specialized topic. But candidates in clinical psychology learn skills in two additional areas, which distinguishes them from other Ph.D. candidates in psychology. First, they learn techniques of assessment and diagnosis of mental disorders; that is, they learn the skills necessary to determine whether a person’s symptoms or problems indicate a particular disorder. Second, they learn how to practice primarily verbal means of helping troubled individuals change their thoughts, feelings, and behavior to reduce distress and to achieve greater life satisfaction. Students take courses in which they master specific techniques under close professional supervision; then, during an intensive internship, they gradually assume increasing responsibility for the care of patients. Psychiatrists hold an M.D. degree and have had postgraduate training, called a residency, in which they have received supervision in the practice of diagnosis and pharmacotherapy (Administering psychoactive medications). By virtue of the medical degree, and in contrast with psychologists, psychiatrists can function as physicians—giving physical examinations, diagnosing medical problems, and the like. Most often, however, the only aspect of medical practice in which psychiatrists engage is prescribing , chemical compounds that can influence how people feel and think. Psychiatrists may receive some training in psychotherapy as well, though this is not a strong focus of training. A psychoanalyst receives specialized training at a psychoanalytic institute. The program usually involves several years of clinical training as well as the in-depth psychoanalysis of the trainee. Until recently most U.S. psychoanalytic institutes required of their graduates an M.D. and a psychiatric residency. Nowadays, one need not even have a doctoral degree

in psychology to gain admission. It can take up to 10 years of graduate work to become a psychoanalyst. Social workers have an M.S.W. (master of social work) degree. Training programs are .than Ph.D. programs, typically requiring 2 years of study. The focus of training is on psychotherapy. Those in social work graduate programs do not receive training in psychological assessment. A highly diverse group of people can be called psychopathologists. These people conduct research into the nature and development of the various disorders that their therapist colleagues try to diagnose and treat. Psychopathologists may come from any number of disciplines; some are clinical psychologists, but the educational backgrounds of others range from neuroscience to developmental psychology. What unites them is their commitment to the study of how mental disorders develop. Since we still have much to learn about psychopathology, the diversity of backgrounds and interests is an advantage, for it seems clear that major advances will be made in many areas. APPROACHES TO ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH The term “psychodynamic” refers to the incessant struggle among various aspects of personality .As such ,psychonanalytic theory exemplifies a psychodynamic perspective in that it gives a prominent role to the complex interplay among processes of personality that compete or wrestle with each other for control over the person’s behavior. The theory was founded by Sigmund Freud in Germany Levels of Consciousness: The Topographical Model. Freud employed a topographical model of Personality organization. According to this model, psychic life can be represents by three levels of consciousness-the conscious, the preconscious and the unconscious 1)The conscious level consists of whatever sensations and experiences you are aware of at a given moment in time. Freud insisted that only a small part of mental life(thoughts, perceptions, feelings, memories) is contained in the realm of consciousness.

2)The preconscious level encompasses all experiences that are not conscious at the moment but which can easily be retrieved into awareness either spontaneously or with a minimum of effort. In Freud’s view the preconscious bridges the conscious and unconscious regions of the mind 3)The unconscious level is the storehouse for primitive instinctual drives plus emotions and memories that are so threatening to the conscious mind that they have been repressed, or unconsciously pushed into the unconscious mind. For Freud, such unconscious material is responsible for everyday behavior The Anatomy of Personality Structure During the early 1920’s Freud revised his conceptual model of mental life and introduced 3 basic structures: 1)Id-It refers exclusively to the primitive, instinctive and inherited aspects of personality. The id functions entirely in the unconscious and is closely tied to instinctual biological urges (eat ,sleep, defecate)that energize our behavior .The id obeys the pleasure principle i.e. Immediate tension reduction thereby manifesting itself in an impulsive, irrational and narcissistic manner regardless of the consequences. Freud identified two mechanisms the id employs to rid the personality of tension a)Reflex Actions-The id responds automatically to sources of irritation, thereby promptly removing tension which the irritant elicits b)Primary Processes-The id forms a mental image of an object previously associated with satisfaction of a basic need. 2)The Ego-The ego is the decision making component of the psychic apparatus that seeks to express and gratify the desires of the id in accordance with the constraints imposed by the outside world. It obeys the Reality Principle, the aim of which is to preserve the integrity by suspending instinctual gratification until either an appropriate outlet or environmental condition that will satisfy the need is found.. Through secondary processes, the ego is able to establish appropriate courses of action to satisfy instinctual needs without endangering the safety of the individual and/or others. 3)The Superego-In order for a person to function effectively in society, he must acquire a system of values, norms ,and ethics that are reasonably compatible with that society. These

are acquired through the process of “socialization” and in terms of the structural model of psychoanalysis, are developed through the formation of a superego. Freud divided the superego into two subsystems a)The conscience-is acquired through the use of punishment by the parents. It is concerned with things that parents say are “naughty” behaviour and for which the child is reprimanded. It includes the capacity for punitive self-evaluation ,moral prohibitions,and guilt feelings b)The Ego Ideal-is the rewarding aspect of the superego is the ego-ideal. It is derived from whatever the parents approve or value and leads the individual to pursue standards of excellence which, if achieved, generate a sense of self-esteem and pride. Instincts Freud depicted human motivation as based entirely on energy aroused from body’s tissue needs. In Freudian theory ,mental representations of these bodily excitations reflected in the form of wishes are termed instincts. Instincts are therefore innate bodily states of excitation that seek expression and tension release Freud recognized the existence of two basic groups of them-life and death instincts. Eros-or life instinct includes all those forces that serve to maintain vital life processes and ensure the propagation of the species Thanatos-or death instinct underlies all the manifestations of cruelty ,aggression, suicide, and murder All instincts have 4 features: a)Source-The bodily condition or need from which it arises b)Aim-The aim of an instinct is always to abolish or reduce the excitation deriving fro its need c)An object-refers to any person or thing in the environment or within the individual’s own body that provides the satisfaction of an instinct d)An impetus-refers to the magnitude of energy,force,or pressure that is used to satisfy or gratify the instinct . Personality Development: The Psychosexual stages Freud

hypothesized

a

series

of

5

sequential

stages

of

personality

development:oral,anal,phallic and genital. A period of latency ,normally occurred between

the ages of 6 or 7 and the onset of puberty, was included by Freud in the overall scheme of development, but technically speaking, it is not a stage. All the stages are closely associated with erogenous zones, sensitive areas of the body surface that function as sites for the expression of libidinal urges. The term psychosexual emphasizes that the major factor underlying human development is the sexual instinct as it progresses from one erogenous zone to another over the course of a person’s life. according to this theory, at any particular point in the developmental sequence some region of the body seeks objects or activities to produce pleasurable tension. The table below summarizes the stages of psychosexual development identified by Freud. The logic of this formulation was explained by Freud in terms of 2 factors frustration and overindulgence. In the case of frustration, the child’s psychosexual needs are thwarted by the mothering one and thus fail to be optimally gratified. In overindulgence, the parents provide little or no incentive for the child to master internal functions. He also introduced the concept of regression i.e. reverting to an earlier stage of psychosexual development and displaying the childish behavior appropriate to that period.

ANXIETY Anxiety is an ego function which alerts the person to sources of impending danger that must be counteracted or avoided. As such, anxiety enables the person to react to threatening situations in an adaptive way(Freud,1926) STAGE

AGE RANGE

LIBIDINAL FOCUS

ORAL

0-18 MONTHS

Mouth(sucking, biting, chewing)

ANAL

1.5-3 YRS

PHALLIC

3-6 YRS

Anus(retaining or exp elling faeces) Genitals(masturbating)

LATENCY

6-12 YRS

None(sexually dormant)

GENITAL

PUBERTY ONWARD

Genitals(becoming heterosexually intimate)

DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS Weaning(from breast or bottle).Separation from mothering one Toilet training(self control) Identifying with same-sex adult role model Expanding social/peer contacts Establishing caring relationships; contributing to society through work

Types of Anxiety Based on the sources of threat to the ego(the outside environment, the id, and the superego),psychoanalytic theory identifies 3 types of anxiety. a)Realistic Anxiety-The emotional response to threat and perception of real dangers in the external world(e.g. dangerous animals) b)Neurotic Anxiety-An emotional response to the threat that unacceptable id impulses will become conscious is called neurotic anxiety. c)Moral Anxiety-When the ego is threatened by punishment from the superego,the ensuing emotional response is called moral anxiety. EGO DEFENSE MECHANISMS The major psychodynamic functions of anxiety are to help the person avoid conscious recognition of unacceptable instinctual impulses and to allow impulse gratification in appropriate ways at appropriate times. Ego defense mechanisms help to carry out these functions as well as to protect the person from overwhelming anxiety. Some principal defense strategies are reviewed below. Repression-It is the process of excluding distressing thoughts and feelings from consciousness. As a result. repressing individuals are neither aware of their own anxietyprovoking conflicts nor do they remember emotionally traumatic past events Projection-the process by which the person attributes unacceptable internal thoughts, feelings and behaviors to other people or to the environment. Projection thus enables a person to blame someone or something else for his or her own shortcomings. Displacement-The expression of an instinctual impulse is redirected from a more threatening person or object to a less threatening one Rationalization-It refers to “fallacious reasoning” in that it misinterprets irrational behavior in order to make it appear rational and thus justifiable to oneself and others.

Reaction Formation-Sometimes the ego can guard against a forbidden impulse by expressing its opposite on both thought and behavior. Regression-This involves reverting to immature and childlike patterns of behavior. It is a way of alleviating anxiety by retreating to an earlier period of life that was more secure and pleasant. Sublimation-It enables

the person adaptively to divert impulses so that they may be

expressed via socially approved thoughts or actions. Denial-When someone refuses to acknowledge that an unpleasant event has occurred, he or she is engaging in denial. Evaluation Criticism

1)Method of Data Collection-Freud used observation of his own patient .No controlled experiments. His patients did not represent the general population 2)Criticism for definition of terms. Freud’s concepts were difficult to be operationally defined such as quantifying psychic energy,Oedipus-electracomplex Contributions

1)Expansion of Psychology’s domain-His was the 1st comprehensive theory of personality wherein he extended psychology’s domain by studying the relationship among unconscious motivations, dreams and anxiety 2)Freud made much of normal behavior, comprehensible. Understanding of such day to day phenomena as dreams, forgetfulness, slip of tongue mistakes, ego defense mechanisms was made possible.

POST- FREUDIAN DEVELOPMENT

Subsequent theorists called Neo-Freudians have given attention to social determinants, and conscious reality. The theories developed in this period are characterized by less prominent roles to sexual and aggressive tendencies of Id and expansion of the concept of ego. Carl Jung Jung developed the concept of analytical psychology. He claimed that there is a collective unconscious also. Its contents are archetypes or primordial images. They are due to heredity. Some examples of archetypes include God, The mother Earth and the young potent hero et al. Jung proposed that the human psyche includes conscious as well as a covert or shadow aspect, that is unconscious. An individual’s personal growth involves an unfolding of this shadow and its gradual integration with the rest of the personality into a meaningful coherent life pattern. Alfred Adler In his theory known as individual psychology Adler believed that behavior is purposeful and goal directed. He thought that everyone of us has the capacity to choose and create. Our goals are the sources of motivation. The goals that provide security and help to overcome inferiority complex or feelings of inadequacy that are from childhood. Karen Horney She argued that the differences between females and males were largely the results of social factors, not because of any innate inferiority among the females. According to her each sex has attributes admired by the other and neither should be viewed as superior or inferior. The psychological disorders were not caused by the fixation of psychic energy but from disturbed interpersonal relationship during childhood. Erik Erikson He offered a framework to understand the needs of people in relation to society in which they grow, learn and later make their contributions. He argued that development occurs throughout the life span. Erikson’s theory has 8 stages of development which are as given in the table Stage

Age

Crisis

Adequate Resolution

1

0 to 1.5 years

2

1.5 to 3 years

Trust v/s Basic sense of Mistrust safety, security, Ability to rely on forces outside self Autonomy Perception of self as v/s shame agent; capable of and doubt controlling one’s own body and making things

Inadequate Resolution Insecurity, anxiety

Successful development leads to Hope

Feelings of Willpower inadequacy about selfcontrol, control of events

3

4

5

happen Initiative v/s Confidence in Guilt oneself as being able to initiate and create 6 years to Industry v/s Adequacy in basic puberty Inferiority social and intellectual skills; acceptance by peers Adolescence Identity Comfortable sense v/s of self as a person role both unique and confusion socially accepted 3 to 6 years

for and to

Feeling of lack Purpose of self worth Lack of self confidence, feelings of failure Sense of self as fragmented ,shifting ,unclear sense of self Feeling of aloneness, loneliness, separation, denial of intimacy needs Self-Indulgent concerns; lack of future orientation

Competence

Fidelity

6

Early childhood

Intimacy v/s Isolation

Capacity closeness commitment others

Love

7

Middle Adulthood

Generativity v/s Stagnation

8

Late Adulthood

Integrity v/s Despair

Focus of concern Care beyond oneself, to family,society,futur e generations Sense of Feelings of Wisdom wholeness,basic futility, satisfaction with life disappointment

Erikson considered each stage as involving a crisis. He viewed development as a life-long process. In this process ego identity is central. His concept of identity crisis of adolescent has drawn considerable attention. Erikson believed that “human personality in principle develops according to steps pre-determined in the growing person’s readiness to be driven toward, to be aware of, and to interact with a widening social radius”. Thus young people must generate for themselves some central perspective and direction that gives them a meaningful sense of unity and purpose THE DISPOSITIONAL APPROACH Many personologists have emphasized the understanding of personality in terms of the dispositional qualities or tendencies that reside within the individual. Gordon Allport, one of the most influential advocates of the dispositional perspective believed

that each person is unique and that person’s uniqueness an best be captured by specifying his or her particular personality traits. Allport (1937) proposed a precise definition of personality which read as follows;” Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic behavior and thought” The dispositional approach to personality asserts that no two people are completely alike. Any one person behaves in a consistent and different fashion for all others Allport’s explanation for this is found in his concept of trait which he regarded as the most valid ”unit of analysis” for representing what people are like and how they differ fro one another behaviorally”. Allport defined a trait as a “neuro-psychic structure having the capacity to render many stimuli functionally equivalent, and to initiate and guide equivalent (meaningfully consistent) forms of adaptive and expressive behavior” . A trait is what accounts for the more permanent ,enduring ,trans-situational features of our behavior. It is a vital ingredient of our “personality structure” Allport(1937) proposed 3 types of personal dispositions: Cardinal Dispositions A cardinal disposition is one that is so pervasive that almost everything a person does can be traced to its influence. This highly generalized disposition cannot remain hidden unless it is a trait such as seclusiveness, where its possessor might become a hermit whose dispositions would be known to no one Central dispositions Less pervasive but still quite generalized characteristics of the person are called central dispositions-the so called building blocks of personality. As such they represent those tendencies n the person’s behavior that others can readily discern. Secondary Dispositions Traits that are less conspicuous, less generalized, less consistent and thus less relevant to the definition of personality are called secondary dispositions. food and clothing preferences, specific attitudes and situatonally determined characteristics of the person would be classified under this rubric. Evalauation Criticisms

1) With exception of the field of expressive behavior, this theory has not been an efficient generator of propositions for empirical test

2 Many psychologists feel that one reason the theory has difficulty in making predictions is that the concept of functional autonomy is not susceptible to empirical demonstration. Contributions

1 Allport’s emphasis upon active ego functions and the concept of functional

autonomy

are highly congruent with recent developments in psychoanalytic ego psychology 2 Its plentiful novel features must have consequences for future developments in psychological theorizing

RAYMOND CATTELL:A Trait Theory of Personality. Cattell’s theory seeks to explain the complicated transactions between the personality system and the more inclusive sociocultural matrix of the functioning organism. He is convinced that an adequate theory of personality must take into account the multiple traits that comprise the personality, the extent to which these traits are genetically and environmentally determined. According to Cattell(1965),personality is that which permits us to predict what a person will do in a given situation. He classified traits into several ways: 1) Surface Traits v/s Source Traits 2) Constitutional v/s Environmental –Mold traits 3)Ability, Temperament and Dynamic Traits 4) Common v/s Unique Traits Evaluation Criticism 1)Cattell’s theory has been overlooked by many personality psychologists and is virtually unknown among the general public 2)Cattell’s work is couched in technical language and thus difficult to understand. Contribution 1)His research touched almost every issue in personality theory 2)His efforts to construct a theory based on precise measurement techniques

HANS EYESENCK:A Trait-Type Theory of Personality The essence of Eyesenck’s theory is that the elements of personality can be arranged hierarchically. In this scheme, certain supertraits or types, such as extraversion, exert a powerful influence over behavior. In turn he sees each of these supertraits as being comprised of several component traits. The component traits either are more superficial reflections of the underlying type dimension or are specific qualities that contribute to that dimension. Finally traits are composed of numerous habitual responses, which, in turn are derived from a multitude of specific responses. Basic personality types Eyesenck(1947,1952) found two basic type dimensions that he labeled as introversionextraversion and neuroticism-stability

Evaluation Criticism

Contribution

1)He is regarded by many psychologists as a first-rate scholar who is highly creative in his attempts to establish a scientific model of personality structure and functioning. 2)He stressed the need for rigorous measurement as the cornerstone for constructing a sound theory of personality. THE LEARNING-BEHAVIORAL APPROACH Personality from the learning perspective consists of all the tendencies a person has acquired over the course of a lifetime. The learning-behavioral approach thus concerns itself with the person’s overt actions as determined by his/her life experiences. B.F.Skinner formulated this approach to studying personality which involves the discovery of the unique pattern of relationships between the behavior of an organism and its reinforcing consequences Classical conditioning Ivan Pavlov through his famous experiment discovered that if a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the UCS(unconditioned stimulus),eventually the neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit UCR(unconditioned response) when it is presented alone without the UCS. PHASE Pre-Experimantal

OPERATIONS TECHNICAL TERMS 1.Dog in harness on several Habituation occasion 2.Exposure to bellsound(initially neutral stimulus) 3.One end of a tube grafted in

Experimental Trial

a dog’s jaw and the other in a glass jar Trial1:Paired representation of Neutral sound bell followed by food ---Unconditioned and saliva secretion. stimulus(US) Trial 2:

Test Trials

stimulus

“

US-Unconditioned Response(UR) Trial 3: “ Conditioning or acquisition trials Presentation of sound of bell Conditioned Stimulus(CS) only and measurement of -conditioned Reponse(CR) saliva secreted

Respondent behavior is skinner’s version of Pavlovian or classical conditioning. He also called it Type S conditioning to stress the significance of the stimulus that comes before and elicits the response. Operant conditioning This type of conditioning was first investigated by B.F. Skinner. Operants are those behaviors or responses which are emitted by animals and human beings voluntarily and are under their control. Skinner called it as ‘Type R conditioning. That is, a behavior is followed by a consequence and the nature of the consequence modifies the organism’s tendency to repeat the behavior in future .If the consequences are favorable for the organism, then the likelihood of the operant being emitted again in the future is thereby increased. When this happens, the consequence is said to be reinforcing and the operant response which has been affected by the reinforcement has been conditioned. This is termed as positive reinforcement Alternatively. if response outcomes are unfavorable then the likelihood of the operant occurring again has decreased. This is called as negative reinforcement. Punishment-Punishment refers to any aversive stimulus or event whose presentation follows and depends on the occurrence f some operant response. Instead of strengthening the response it follows, punishment decreases the probability that the response will occur. the intended purpose of punishment is to induce people not to behave in certain ways. Negative Reinforcement-It is the process whereby the organism terminates. escapes or avoids an aversive stimulus .Any behavior that prevents an aversive state of affairs thereby tends to increase in frequency and is said to be negatively reinforced.

In Skinner’s system, the tendency of reinforced behavior to extend to a variety of related settings is called stimulus generalization. Behavior strengthened in one situation is likely to recur when the organism encounters other situations that resemble the original one. Stimulus discrimination, the opposite of generalization is the process of learning how to repond appropriately in various environmental settings. Discrimination is acquired through through reinforcement of response in the presence of some stimuli and nonreinforcemnt of them in the presence of other stimuli. Evaluation Criticisms

1)An adequate understanding of human behavior must involve more than a slavish application of the experimental methods of physical science 2)The investigation underlying this theory have been carried out on animal species that is phylogenetically far removed from and manifestly different in many crucial aspects from the human species. Contributions

1)The biggest contribution is in the careful detail with which this position represents the learning process. S-R theory provides a model to be emulated by other theoretical positions 2)The S-R theorists have a better sense of the nature and function of the theory in any empirical discipline than any other group of personality theorists. THE HUMANISTIC APPROACH Humanistic psychology offers a radically different picture of our species. Personologists claim that human beings are intrinsically good and self –perfecting. According to this view, it is human nature to move consistently in the direction of personal growth, creativity and self-sufficiency ,unless there are extremely strong environmental conditions to the contrary .

Abraham Maslow Abraham maslow is generally acknowledged as the foremost spokesperson for humanistic personality theory.Maslow believed that people are motivated to seek personal goals that make their lives rewarding and meaningful.As one general type of need is satisfied ,another surface s and commands the person’s attention and efforts.He proposed that all human needs are innate and that they are systematically arranged in an asending hierarchy of priority.

Underlying this scheme is the assumption that lower-order needs ,prepotent needs must be relatively satisfied before the person can be aware of or motivated y higher order needs. Gratification of needs lower in the hierarchy allows for awareness of and motivation by needs higher in the hierarchy. Evaluation Criticism

1) Too many exceptions-Too many people seem to be highly productive and creative even though their basic needs do not seem to have been satisfied. Although Maslow noted such exception, he did little to account for them. 2)Unscientific Approach-Maslow has been accused of using uncontrolled and unreliable research techniques, basing his conclusions about self actualizing people on a small sample of people accepting a valid the conscious self-reports of his subjects.

Contribution

1)It vastly increased psychology’s domain by starting the study on healthy humans 2)Maslow’s theory has been highly influential in the areas of education, business, religion and child rearing.

Carl Roger’s Self Theory The most important idea proposed by Rogers is that of fully functioning person. People want to become such persons and move in this direction. Rogers believed that one’s mental health is related to the degree of congruence or match between our self-concept and life experiences. If our self-concept is consistent with actual life-experiences, we ourselves will be congruent and we will be well adjusted. The opposite is true when there is little or no overlap between the two. Thus, we learn that significant others will approve of us only when we behave in certain ways and express certain feelings. This situation needs creation of an atmosphere of unconditional positive regard. Thus, a person is accepted irrespective of what they say or do. Such a condition is created in a client-centered therapy. CONGRUENCE in a well-adjusted individual

INCONGRUENCE in a poorly adjusted individual

Evaluation Criticism

1)Overly simplistic and optimistic approach. Real people, say critics, experience hate as much as love and are often motivated by sexual desires. 2)Important aspects of Personality ignored or denied. Rogers essentially dismissed the darker side of human nature. He also said very little about the development of personality. Contributions

1)Alternative, Positive view of humans, Rogers helped to illuminate a facet of human nature that was previously obscure. 2)Applied Value-Rogers person-centered psychology has been applied in such diverse areas as religion,nursing,dentistry etc. EXISTENTIAL APPROACH Largely dispensing with psychological constructs and theories about personality, the existential approach characterizes human beings as creatures of continual change and transformation, living essentially finite lives in a context of personal strengths and weaknesses as well as opportunities and limitations created by their environment. With attention given to this entire context of the client's life, the existential approach is all about exploring meaning and value and learning to live authentically -- that is, in accordance with one's own ideals, priorities and values. Authentic living means being true to oneself and honest about one's own possibilities and limitations, continually creating one's own identity even in the face of deep uncertainty about everything in the future except for the eventual arrival of our own death. Authentic living means living deliberately, rather than by default. The role of the existential therapist is really to facilitate the client's own encounter with themselves, to work alongside them in the job of exploring and understanding better the client's values, assumptions and ideals. The therapist is concerned to engage seriously with what matters most to the client, to avoid imposing their own judgements, and to help the client to elucidate and elaborate on their own perspective, with an ultimate view to the client's being able to live life well and in their own way. In the course of exploring the client's world, the therapist may appeal to a 4-part framework encompassing the client's existence in the physical dimension of the natural world, the body, health and illness; the social dimension of public relationships; the psychological or personal

dimension, where we experience our relationship with ourselves as well as intimacy with others; and the spiritual dimension of ideals, philosophy and ultimate meaning.

The existential approach seeks clarity and meaning in all these dimensions and thus, in a sense, it begins with a significantly broader view of human existence than those approaches which focus on specific psychological mechanisms or which focus on the self as a meaningful entity, separable from its relations and interactions with the surrounding world. Evaluation Criticisms

1)more narrow than some other approaches in terms of the client set whose concerns it can most successfully address

2)Clients who are less inclined to examine and explore their personal assumptions and ideals, or who would like to achieve immediate relief of specific psychological symptoms -- as well as those who would like advice or diagnosis from their counsellor -- will probably find less value in existential counselling. Contributions

1) clients who view their problems as challenges of living, rather than symptoms of psychopathology, and clients who are genuinely attracted to increasing self awareness and self examination, will be well served by existential counselling

2) it begins with a significantly broader view of human existence than other approaches COGNITIVE APPROACH Psychology was institutionalised as a science in 1879 by Wilhelm Wundt who found the first psychological laboratory. His initiative was soon followed by other European and American Universities. These early laboratories, through experiments, explored areas such as memory and sensory perception, both of which Wundt believed to be closely related to physiological processes in the brain. The whole movement had evolved from the early philosophers, such as Aristotle and Plato. Today this approach is known as Cognitive Psychology. Cognitive Psychology revolves around the notion that if we want to know what makes people tick then the way to do it is to figure out what processes are actually going on in their minds. In other words, psychologists from this perspective study cognition which is ‘the mental act or process by which knowledge is acquired.’ The cognitive approach is concerned with “mental” functions such as memory, perception, attention etc. It views people as being similar to computers in the way we process information (e.g. input-process-output). For example, both human brains and computers process information, store data and have input an output procedures. This had led cognitive psychologists to explain that memory comprises of three stages: encoding (where information is received and attended to), storage (where the information is retained) and retrieval (where the information is recalled). It is an extremely scientific approach and typically uses lab experiments to study human behaviour. The cognitive approach has many applications inlcuding cognitive therapy and eyewitness testimony. BIOLOGICAL APPROACH We can thank Charles Darwin (1859) for demonstrating in the idea that genetics and evolution play a role in influencing human behaviour. Theorists in the biological perspective who study behavioural genomics consider how genes affect behaviour. Now that the human genome is mapped, perhaps, we will someday understand more precisely how behaviour is affected by the DNA we inherit. Biological factors such as chromosomes, hormones and the brain all have a significant influence on human behaviour, for example gender. The biological approach believes that most behaviour is inherited and has an adaptive (or evolutionary) function. For example, in the weeks immediately after the birth of a child, levels of testosterone in fathers drop by more than 30 per cent. This has an evolutionary function.

Testosterone-deprived men are less likely to wander off in search of new mates to inseminate. They are also less aggressive, which is useful when there is a baby around. Biological psychologists explain behaviours in neurological terms, i.e. the physiology and structure of the brain and how this influences behaviour. Many biological psychologists have concentrated on abnormal behaviour and have tried to explain it. For example biological psychologists believe that schizophrenia is affected by levels of dopamine (a neurotransmitter). These findings have helped psychiatry take off and help relieve he symptoms of the mental illness through drugs. However Freud and other disciplines would argue that this just treats the symptoms and not the cause. This is where health psychologists take the finding that biological psychologists produce and look at the environmental factors that are involved to get a better picture Evaluation Criticisms

It's reductionist, which leads to the following criticisms: (a) If someone comes to you with depression is it any use to them to tell them that their serotonin receptors are not functioning properly? (b) Mind/body problem 1: psychology has great influence on physiology (stress and illness) (c) Mind/body problem 2: sensation is not necessarily the same as perception (d) Consciousness: what is it, where is it and is it any use finding it? (e) What about free will? Biological approach advocates determinism Contributions

If we know the physiological basis of some aspects of behaviour (e.g. depression) then we can treat the problem using drugs, which could solve the problem entirely if it's simply a straightforward chemical imbalance. Plus, some aspects of physiology and anatomy are very useful when it comes to diagnosing brain damage etc.

Approaches Conclusion

Therefore, in conclusion, there are so many different approaches to psychology to explain the different types of behaviour and give different angles. No one approach has explanatory powers over the rest. Only with all the different types of psychology which sometimes contradict one another (nature-nurture debate), overlap with each other (e.g. psychoanalysis and child psychology) or build upon one another (biological and health psychologist) can we understand and create effective solutions when problems arise so we have a healthy body and healthy mind. The fact that there are different approaches represents the complexity and richness of human (and animal) behaviour. A scientific approach, such as behaviourism or cognitive psychology, tends to ignore the subjective (i.e. personal) experiences that people have. The humanistic approach does recognise human experience, but largely at the expense of being non-scientific in its methods and ability to provide evidence. The psychodynamic approach concentrates too much on the unconscious mind and childhood. As such it tends to lose sight of the role of socialisation (which is different in each country) and the possibility of free will. The biological approach reduces humans to a set of mechanisms and physical structures that are clearly essential and important (e.g. genes). However, it fails to account for consciousness and the influence of the environment on behaviour.

REFERENCES

1. Rosen Ephraim, Fox Ronald E., Gregory Ian.(1972).Abnormal Psychology. Second Edition. Philadelphia and London : W. B. SAUNDERS COMPANY

2. Coleman James C.(1976).Abnormal Psychology and Modern Life. Fifth Edition. United States of America : Scott, Foresman and Company

3. Carson Robert C, Butcher James N.(2007). Abnormal Psychology.13th Edition. South Asia : Pearson Education Inc

4. Sarason Irwin G. (1972). Abnormal Psychology-the problem of maladaptive behavior. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

5. Hall C.S., Lindzey G.R., Campbell, J.B. (1997). Theories of Personality . Fourth edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons 6.