Intercultural Communication Training: A Sector Study

Intercultural Communication Training: A Sector Study JoAnne Stein (INST 400) Table of Contents Overview What is Intercultural Communication? What is Training? History of Intercultural Communication Training Components of Intercultural Communication Training Why Training? Types of Training Contexts Goals of Training Overview of the Field Breaking into the Field Education Certification Experience Other Methods Trainer Qualifications Skills Personal Traits Finding a Job Earnings Appendix A: Skills and Competencies Appendix B: Self-Evaluation Questions Works Cited

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What is Intercultural Communication? According to intercultural communication theorist Ting-Toomey (2005), intercultural communication is “the symbolic exchange process whereby individuals from two (or more) different cultural communities negotiate shared meanings in an interactive situation.” Any type of communication that takes place between people from different backgrounds involves elements of intercultural communication. Intercultural communication is also founded on the basis that cultural differences exist between people and that they strongly affect the way people communicate with one another.

What is Training? Training is simply a fancy word for teaching. However it is different from traditional teaching because many training sessions are geared toward adults, consist of dense and practical information, and are often delivered over a very short period of time. The field of training as a whole, however, is a relatively new field. Scholars are still trying to determine best practices, establish means of regulating the field and outlining requirements for certification as a trainer. Kohls (1995) explains that “while learning and education have been with us for a very long time, training is a relatively new activity” and “has only been considered a field since about 1965.” One definition of training states that it is a “field of expertise in and of itself, divorced from the content of any particular training program” (Kohls, 1995). The field of training can be separated into two different approaches. One approach is to specialize in training as a general field of study as Kohls has outlined

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above. This means the trainer must have knowledge of adult education, learning styles, assessment and evaluation practices, and ways to effectively implement a training program. However, an effective trainer does not need to be an expert in a certain field in order to effectively communicate information about a topic to an audience. The reason for this is that the trainer will have the tools necessary to relate any kind of information to an audience. Kohls (1995) sums this up by stating, “training is the master discipline which makes it possible to transfer other disciplines.” Another approach to training is for trainers to specialize in a certain area of study such as intercultural communication, for example. The trainer would then become an expert in the desired field and then incorporate the elements of effective training to implement their program. This approach is often more effective due to the trainer’s own personal experience in the field and extensive knowledge of the topic. Therefore the trainer can bring experiences into the program to help illustrate examples and can answer questions in a more informed manner.

History of Intercultural Communication Training The field of intercultural communication training is relatively new and underdeveloped. Many estimate that the field has only been around for approximately 50 years. The field came into existence due to the realization of a need for cross cultural knowledge and understanding. The field is also notorious for combining numerous disciplines that have existed previously, including “anthropology, sociology, psychology, linguistics, comparative management, and communications” (Wederspahn, 2000).

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Early interculturists were primitive in that they viewed the world from a very ethnocentric point of view, believing their culture to be superior. This resulted in the desire and subsequent attempts to humanize or tame “savages” by teaching them the proper way of living or forcing them to conform to a certain way of life. However, the focus soon shifted from attempting to promote and enforce one culture across the world to attempts to understand cultural variations. The failures of various groups in their attempts to enter different cultures led to the realization that cooperation and understanding was necessary for success. According to Wedersphan (2000), the “profession began shortly after World War II” and there are “three major periods in its history.” These periods are outlined as follows:

Prior to about 1980, cross-cultural services were delivered mostly to nonprofit or governmental organizations. From 1980 to 1990, the market for corporate intercultural training emerged and developed. In the post-1990 period, the field has matured considerably and has gained increasing acceptance and sophistication (Wederspahn, 2000).

In the 1970s, the “vast majority of the training…in the United States was done in noncorporate settings such as the US Navy, the Deparment of State, and the Peace Corps (Wederspahn, 2000). Landmark events in the history of the field include the establishment of U.S. State Department’s Foreign Service Institute which was established in 1946 and was one of the

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first organizations to “focus on the cross-cultural challenges facing expatriates and international travelers” (Wederspahn, 2000). However, it wasn’t until 1962 when the Peace Corps was established that “systematic cross-cultural training was designed” (Wederspahn, 2000). In 1975 the Society for Intercultural Education, Training and Research (SIETAR) was founded and has since become “the worldwide association of intercultural specialists” and has “held annual conferences since then” (Wederspahn, 2000). In 1977, the “Overseas Briefing Center was established to train US government employees and their families assigned abroad” (Wederspahn, 2000). However, it wasn’t until 1994 when The American Society for Training Directors, now The American Society for Training and Development (ASTD) “that training was organized under one banner” (Biech, 2005). In addition to the development of organizations designed to provide intercultural training, there have been several landmark publications on topics related to intercultural communication and training. Several most popular early books and their dates of publication are:

1978: The Cultural Environment of International Business by Vern Terpstra 1979: Managing Cultural Differences by Philip Harris and Robert Moran 1980: Culture’s Consequences by Geert Hofstede (Wederspahn, 2000)

Despite the development of organizations and the publication of books and journals pertaining to intercultural communication, “intercultural services did not start to gain momentum in the private sector until about 1980” and the “level of usage of cross-

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cultural training rose only slowly (Wederspahn, 2000). However, “the demand was sufficiently strong to attract many new practitioners to the field” and there was a “proliferation of new cross-cultural training companies” (Wederspahn, 2000). Consequently, “most of today’s leading intercultural training and consulting firms got their start during the 1980s” (Wederspahn, 2000). In the 1990s, many practitioners wanted to “officially expand the field of training to incorporate identifying business goals at the top of the organization and ensuring that systems were in place to support the change required to achieve the business goals” (Biech, 2005). The 1990s also “saw the rapid growth of…domestic diversity training” and the “concept of outsourcing intercultural services” due to downsizing (Wederspahn, 2000).

Components of Intercultural Communication Training At the most basic level, intercultural communication training teaches the trainee(s) about the culture and communication style that is unique to the area the trainee(s) will be traveling to, working or living in. On a deeper, more theoretical level, intercultural communication must answer the question: What is culture? However, for the purpose of this paper, the basic theories of culture and communication will not be examined. Nonetheless, awareness of the most basic elements of the field is important for success as a intercultural communication trainer.

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Overall, it is important to realize that there is more to teaching someone how to be successful in a culture than simply learning the language (if, indeed, the language is different from one’s own culture). The most common contents of training programs are the cultural dimensions or values which exist across cultures and cause the vast differences experienced upon traveling to a new culture. It is such cultural differences “that really ‘make a difference’ in intercultural encounters” (Ting-Toomey, 1999). Dutch writer and management researcher Geert Hofstede is credited with outlining five dimensions of culture: individualism versus collectivism (sometimes referred to as individualism versus group orientation), power distance (small power distance versus large power distance), uncertainty avoidance, masculinity versus femininity (also known as male dominance versus gender equality) and Confucian dynamism (short-term versus long-term orientation). These five dimensions relate to “business organizational values in different cultures” and should be viewed as a “systematic attempt to compare cultures on an aggregate, group level” (Ting-Toomey, 1999). Individualism versus collectivism indicates the tendency to emphasize the importance of the individual or group within a culture. Individualistic cultures, for example, emphasize “the importance of individual identity over group identity, individual rights over group rights, and individual needs over group needs” while collectivistic cultures emphasize “the importance of the ‘we’ identity over the ‘I’ identity, group rights over individual rights, and in-group-oriented needs over individual wants and desires” (Ting-Toomey, 1999).

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The power distance dimension illustrates “the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions…accept that power is distributed unequally” (Ting-Toomey, 1999). The uncertainty avoidance dimension tells “the extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by uncertain or unknown situations and the extent to which they try to avoid these situations” (Ting-Toomey, 1999). A “masculine” culture means that “gender roles are clearly distinct” while a “feminine” culture means that “social gender roles overlap” (Ting-Toomey, 1999). Confucian dynamism is a dimension that was first used to “explain some of the distinctive behavioral patterns in East Asian cultures” (Ting-Toomey, 1999). It can be categorized by having a short-term orientation versus long-term orientation which delineates the importance attached to the future as opposed to the past and present. Longterm orientation “encourages thrift, savings, perseverance toward results, and a willingness to subordinate oneself for a purpose” (Jandt, 2007). Short-term orientation “is consistent with spending to keep up with social pressure, less savings, preference for quick results, and a concern with face” (Jandt, 2007). Further research reveals even more cultural dimensions that can be used to categorize cultural differences. These dimensions are: content specific versus content diffuse (also known as low or high context or content-focused versus context-focused communication style), sequential time versus synchronic time (monochromic versus polychromic time or punctuality versus flexible sense of time), universalism versus particularism, achievement versus ascription and internal versus external (Kim, 1999). Wederspahn (2000) goes on to add several more distinctions:

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Hierarchical versus egalitarian distribution of power

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Formality versus informality

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Task and goal orientation versus relationship orientation

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Holistic/deductive versus linear/inductive thinking

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Confrontation versus diplomacy

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Competition versus cooperation

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Self-determination versus acceptance of fate/circumstance

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Permissiveness versus strict rules

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Pragmatic flexibility versus adherence to detailed plans

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Change as positive versus being undesirable

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Youth-orientation versus age-veneration

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Dominance over nature versus harmony with nature

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Rigid class structure versus social mobility

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Favoring action and doing versus just being

In addition to the different cultural dimensions listed, there are other barriers to effective intercultural communication. These include language, nonverbal signals such as “gestures, postures, and other metamessages,” “preconceptions and stereotypes” of one’s own or another culture, “a tendency to evaluate…the content of communication received from others,” and the high levels of “anxiety that shrouds cross-cultural communication” due to the fact that communicating interculturally is a highly unfamiliar experience for most people (Brislin & Pedersen, 1976). 9

Why Training? So why is training important? Why should companies hire trainers to train their employees? Why should employees participate in intercultural training as opposed to hiring culturally aware employees? First, education is necessary for employees to advance in their careers. New technologies and ways of doing business are constantly emerging. Both companies and their employees must stay informed of new changes in order to remain competitive and successful. Second, it is often cheaper to train existing employees as opposed to finding and hiring new employees who have the skills that could be taught. Outsourcing the training to a training company or freelance trainer can save companies money. Third, it is often thought that it is easier to train an excellent businessperson the intercultural skills needed as opposed to teaching business savvy to someone who is bicultural or aware of cultural differences.

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Types of Training The types of training available are as numerous as the many different needs of organizations that are constantly emerging. Types of intercultural training are often broken down into two categories: preparing Americans to go abroad (and/or return home) and managing cultural differences domestically. Kohls (1995) breaks down the range of intercultural training programs into 14 different categories. They are as follows: relocation training, initial on-site support, reentry training and repatriation counseling, managing diversity in the domestic work force, supervisory skills for diverse domestic employees, multinational team building, intercultural awareness training, intercultural communication skills, management training within international organizations, joint venture preparation, international human resources management, Americanization training for foreign nationals, international negotiation facilitation and protocol to receive international representatives. Relocation training is sometimes called “pre-departure training” or “countryspecific training” (Kohls, 1995). The purpose of such a program is to “prepare a person who has been assigned to work in a foreign country to understand how that country, it’s people and their norms and expectations are different from those of his or her own country” (Kohls, 1995). Initial on-site support is also referred to as “in-country support” or “settling-in support” (Kohls, 1995). This type of training takes place once an expatriate and his or her family has arrived in the target country. Such training helps to provide “additional assurances, specific recommendations, contacts and answers to a multitude of

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unanswered questions” that someone may have upon arriving in a new culture (Kohls, 1995). It is recommended that such support should be made available for the “first three or four months of the foreign sojourn” (Kohls, 1995). Another important point about onsite support is that is should be provided by someone who does not have connections to the company that the expatriate is working for. This is due to the fact that the trainer may have to “nurse the family members through their worst period of culture shock when, emotionally, they will not be at their best; and it will not help if the employees have to worry about any of this information ever finding its way into personnel files or even into the company’s corridor gossip channels” (Kohls, 1995). Reentry training and expatriate counseling (sometimes referred to as repatriation programs) helps the expatriate and his or her family “readjust to life back in the home country after the foreign assignment has been completed” (Kohls, 1995). Readjusting to life back home is necessary because returning expatriates may not realize “how they personally have changed during their international assignments and how life and work at home have changed during their absence” (Wederspahn, 2000). This seems to be the most frequently overlooked type of training as few realize that reverse culture shock is a “painful reality…for those who did the best job of adjusting overseas” (Kohls, 1995). The necessity of such programs was reflected in a 1998 survey of 114 companies that found “75% of the expatriates surveyed felt that ‘an effective repatriation program is critical’” (Wederspahn, 2000). According to Wederspahn (2000), such programs “should include the entire family and are best conducted within 90 days of the date of return home while the issues and challenges are still fresh.”

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Managing diversity in the domestic work force is a training topic often utilized by mid-level managers. This type of training is “one of the fastest growing training programs” due to the “rapid rise in the entry of ethnic groups, women, homosexuals and physically disadvantaged people into the U.S. work force” (Kohls, 1995). Such training helps managers learn how to “motivate and manage” their employees and is necessary due to the fact that diverse people have very different needs and wants than the typical “white, male, middle-class” work force that has previously existed (Kohls, 1995). Supervisory skills for diverse domestic employees is similar to managing diversity in the domestic work force training. Instead, such training is utilized at the “supervisory level” as opposed to usage by mid-level managers (Kohls, 1995). The focus of this training is to get “diverse work-force members to work together cooperatively and productively” (Kohls, 1995). Multinational team building is implemented on all levels when “two or more nationalities and/or ethnic groups…must work together cooperatively and productively on a single project” (Kohls, 1995). A program like this focuses on helping “each component culture understand how they are similar to and different from all the other cultural groups involved as well as acknowledge where and how each group will have to give a little for the group to work together harmoniously and effectively” (Kohls, 1995). Intercultural awareness training is targeted toward people “about to leave for an international posting” but is also required for “home-based mid-level and upper-level management personnel (and even for the board members) of companies who are about to go international or who intend to step up their global activities” (Kohls, 1995). Such training helps management personnel realize that the “international arena requires a new

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level of awareness, a new way of looking at the world and [their] company’s role in it” and intercultural awareness training will help put its trainees into “the right frame of mind to make [their] international venture a success” (Kohls, 1995). In addition, intercultural awareness training should be applied “from top to bottom” and to “all the home office staff who will have anything whatsoever to do with [the] company’s international operation” (Kohls, 1995). Intercultural communication skills is designed for “managers who need to communicate face-to-face or phone-to-phone with people from other countries” and will help trainees “develop the skills that are most effective in communicating with foreign national whose English may be limited, or highly accented and out of recent practice” (Kohls, 1995). Management training within international organizations takes place in organizations “where people from multiple countries need to work together, at a very high level, to accomplish common international goals” (Kohls, 1995). This training is similar to management skills development but is taken to another level because it is “made enormously more difficult because each manager is coming to the assignment with vastly different expectations, created by his or her own enculturation, which as caused him or her to view management with widely differing interpretations” (Kohls, 1995). Consequently, the numerous amount of “conflicting definitions and expectations need to be brought out into the open and thoroughly discussed” so that a “consensus agreement” can be reached as to which management concept and approach” will be used (Kohls, 1995).

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Joint venture preparation takes place when an American company is about to “enter a joint venture agreement with a foreign country” (Kohls, 1995). During joint venture preparation training, an intercultural trainer “works with a team from each of the companies, preparing the team to expect and adjust to the cultural and business practices of the other team” (Kohls, 1995). The trainer will also ‘join in the negotiation process” and may possibly “remain on retainer throughout the first full year of operation” in order to facilitate “both sides in understanding where the other side is coming from and why” (Kohls, 1995). International human resources management training may be required by human resources personnel in order to cover topic such as: “compensation packages and practices; the realities of overseas living; the acculturation cycle which people go through in the process of adjusting to a foreign country; and helping the company’s returning employees through the difficult reentry process” (Kohls, 1995). Americanization training for foreign nationals is for those who will be working with “American-owned subsidiaries and/or American based companies, as well as those foreign students who have decided to study at American universities” (Kohls, 1995). This training is designed to “prepare the foreign national to function appropriately within the radically different work or study expectations they will encounter in this country (even if they are coming from a Western European country)” (Kohls, 1995). International negotiation facilitation can mean “generic” or “country-specific preparation in conducting negotiations on an international level” (Kohls, 1995). In some cases intercultural trainers can be hired to “act as neutral mediators” to help facilitate negotiations between companies (Kohls, 1995).

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Training on protocol to receive international representatives is strongly advised in order to be aware of the “arrangement necessary to receive whatever level of visiting dignitary [one is] expecting to host” (Kohls, 1995). While the reasons for this may seem obvious, “more than one American company has done irreparable damage by failing to treat visiting officials with the courtesies they normally receive (and therefore have come to expect)” (Kohls, 1995). Such situations can apply not only to business situations but also to government, military or political situations when the risks of not providing adequate courtesies may be even greater. Wederspahn (2000) points out another type of intercultural training called “cultural awareness orientation.” Such a training program may be accompanied by a broad title such as “Global Awareness,” “Culture Matters,” or “Life and Work Overseas” (Wederspahn, 2000). Instead of being targeted toward a specific country, these programs are “aimed at helping the learners recognize the presence and power of culture in crosscultural settings” and “typically include explanations of general intercultural concepts and exercises to make the learners aware of their own cultural values” (Wederspahn, 2000). These programs are targeted at “potential expatriates” or any “group of employees whose effectiveness is hampered by lack of cultural awareness” (Wederspahn, 2000). Due to that fact that these programs simply give an overview of the importance of cultural awareness, they are not “sufficient preparation for handling complex crosscultural situations effectively or for living and working abroad” (Wederspahn, 2000). Another type of training program that is beginning to be offered is expatriate selection. This type of training helps managers determine which employees would be effective expatriates and outlines methods of testing whether or not they would be

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successful during an overseas assignment. Such training is especially important because it can prevent companies from wasting valuable training on people who are not good expatriate candidates. Training can also be categorized not only by content and/or target audience, but by time frame. According to Bly (2001), trainers “typically train groups of 15 to 30 employees at a time in half-day, full-day, or two-day seminars.” Training sessions can last longer, of course, depending on the amount of information that needs to be covered. Another intercultural training topic is that of etiquette. This can include manners and customs from other countries as well as dining etiquette. This type of training can also be valuable alongside training aimed at customs associated with hosting foreign dignitaries.

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Contexts Intercultural communication training takes place in numerous contexts and for multiple purposes. Several of the most common areas where knowledge of cross-cultural issues is relevant as well as examples of situations where training would be beneficial are:

1. Business When preparing to do business abroad it is necessary to understand the other culture, including how they think and what they value. Business negotiations vary greatly from country to country and without proper training on how to approach them, businesses can lose money and opportunities.

2. Education Teachers preparing to teach abroad must know how to effectively convey information to their students. Learning styles and views toward education are different in other countries and teachers must be aware of this in order to succeed. Teachers must also receive training when teaching students from diverse backgrounds. Students must also receive training when preparing to study abroad, especially if the planned study abroad term will last for a significant amount of time.

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Researchers going abroad to study various issues must also know how to approach certain topics with care and tact. Intercultural training will help them succeed in their efforts.

3. Advertising/Marketing In order to effectively advertise or market products and/or services to a foreign market, companies must have knowledge of the culture and values of that market. The behavior of consumers and language barriers can lead to cultural blunders.

4. Government/Politics Awareness of cultures can make the difference between war and peace when it comes to foreign affairs and policies. Governments and politicians must also be aware of local practices and customs when hosting international dignitaries as well as when visiting foreign leaders at home.

5. Volunteer Work Those wanting to volunteer abroad must be aware of cultural differences in the environment they are about to enter. International aid workers often travel to hostile environments where the cultural practices are drastically different from those they are used to at home. Cross-cultural awareness can make the transition to living and volunteering in another country easier.

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Goals of Training The goal of intercultural communication training seems to be generally agreed upon by many intercultural communication scholars. According to Brislin & Yoshida (1994), “intercultural communication training refers to formal efforts designed to prepare people for more effective interpersonal relations when they interact with individuals from cultures other than their own.” Another goal is to “encourage constructive and nonstressful interaction between members of different cultures” (Brislin & Pedersen, 1976). Ting-Toomey (1999) states that the goal is “to create shared meanings between dissimilar individuals in an interactive situation.” Additional, more specific goals for Americans preparing to go abroad have been outlined by Kohls (1995) and are as follows: •

Prepare Americans without previous overseas living experience (of at least one continuous year) to adjust positively to living in a foreign environment

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Make these Americans aware of their own previous socialization as Americans —specifically, what their American values are, how unique and unusual those values are in a world context, and how strange Americans sometimes seem to people of other cultures.

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Introduce these Americans to the logic of the foreign culture to which they are going and give as complete and accurate a picture of that culture as is possible in the limited time available.

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Ease these Americans through the inevitable experience of “culture shock.”

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Facilitate a rapid and positive adjustment of each family member to the host culture, enable the employee to work productively in the host culture, and lead eventually to the successful completion of the full tour of assignment.

Whether or not all the goals outlined will be accomplished depends on the length of the training program. The results of such training will allow expatriates to: •

Prepare for the physical move overseas.

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Master the logistical skills of surviving in the foreign country (e.g., marketing, housing, transportation, schooling).

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Communicate, verbally and nonverbally, with nationals of the country.

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Make a minimum number of social blunders in the new environment.

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Make sense of a totally different set of operative values, implicit assumptions, and an unfamiliar reasoning process and system of logic.

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Apply the indigenous values, implicit assumptions, reasoning process and logic system (rather than one’s own) to interpret all that is seen and heard in the new culture.

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Successfully weather the trauma of culture shock.

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Facilitate a rapid and successful adjustment for each family member to the host culture, and enable all of them to have a positive, productive overseas experience.

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Move toward becoming bicultural, and, eventually, if the newcomer lives in the foreign country long enough, to become fully bicultural (i.e., able to function comfortable in more than one cultural mode of operation) (Kohls, 1995).

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Overview of the Field The field of intercultural training is still young and continues to develop and grow. Therefore it is hard to determine exactly where the field will go. Now is the time that the future of the field will be decided by those involved in it. Training as a field in general, however, will never go away. The importance of education and knowledge of certain areas and skills will always be necessary. Due to the constant need for people to develop new skills, it is more cost effective for companies to train their current employees rather than hire new ones. Gordon, Petrini and Campagna (1997) state that training “will remain important given workplace needs for ongoing skill development and upgrading.” The current economy of the United States plays a large part in the high demand and stability of the field of training. Not long ago many Americans worked their whole lives at one company and were ensured job security until retirement. Unfortunately, this is no longer the case and many adults will change jobs several times over their lifetime. In addition, the transition from a manufacturing and industry-based economy to a service economy has also altered the job market. As a result, “jobs and career paths, even entire industries, change constantly” (Careers in Corporate Training, 2004). Consequently, “somebody has to train employees” how to use new technology or implement changes

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into the workplace, for example (Careers in Corporate Training, 2004). In addition, businesses are now [adopting a ‘smarter, not harder’ work ethic that puts a premium on well-educated, knowledgeable employees” (Careers in Corporate Training, 2004). According to Bly (2001), “47 percent of college-educated workers participated in skill-improvement training for their current jobs each year” and “U.S. companies spend $55 billion annually on workplace training.” Training is also being made more available to U.S. companies because “federal tax allows businesses and individuals to deduct the cost of advanced education and training programs from their taxable incomes in order to encourage people to make themselves smarter” (Careers in Corporate Training, 2004). The need for training “means that the world is moving along at a faster pace than ever before” and that “the days when one skill would last a lifetime are long past” (Careers in Corporate Training, 2004). The constantly changing world is also due in part to globalization. Because it is nearly impossible for a company not to feel the effects of globalization, it is increasingly important that companies and employees become aware of the world around them. This is where specialized trainers such as intercultural trainers come into play. As long as companies continue to do business globally, they will need to understand other people, other cultures, and how to communicate effectively with others. Intercultural trainers can provide this knowledge. One of the current issues facing the field right now is what to call it. The duties performed by intercultural trainers often fall under numerous different job titles and categories ranging from corporate trainers to human resource managers. The term human resource development, which was coined by Leonard Nadler, a professor at the George Washington University, is often used to describe the field as well (Biech, 2005).

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Some of the “traditional and emerging job titles in training” are: trainer, instructional systems designer, internal training consultant, training coordinator, training manager, vice-president of training and development, workforce training consultant, distance learning coordinator/director, web-based media developer, technical trainer or etrainer (Gordon et al., 1997). The existence of numerous names and job titles may be due in part to the fact that “job titles and descriptions,” which once “served as accurate overviews of the tasks and responsibilities that defined one’s role in an organization,” are now “little more than token placeholders” (Reitman, 2001). Despite the numerous and ever changing titles, Reitman (2001) emphasizes that it doesn’t matter what you call yourself, what’s important is “what you can help a company achieve.” Another reason is that the “industry is evolving so quickly that titles and functions change constantly” and “nobody seeks out advanced training so that they can stay in the same position” (Careers in Corporate Training, 2004). Furthermore, the tools being used to implement training are constantly changing and so this creates new positions and new skills sets that need to be developed. Another issue is to outline the job titles and duties of trainers. According to Gordon et al. (1997), “no single profile can describe a typical job in the field of training and human resource development.” Some of the tasks that trainers can perform are: “administering, evaluating, and managing HRD programs and services; analyzing learning needs; developing, marketing, or delivering instructional materials; designing programs; and serving as agents for organizational change” (Gordon et al., 1997).

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The duties of a training manager are outlined as someone who “designs, plans, and implements corporate training programs” (Careers in Human Resources, 2004). This definition is very broad and does not break down the numerous topics that training programs can cover. Despite the current transformation the field of training is undergoing, Reitman (2001) states that “training will become the next boom industry” and that “it will reshape its look and feel significantly.” Reitman (2001) also sums up the fact that “along with training’s transformation, the role and skill set of those doing the training is changing.” Nonetheless, “it seems clear that training itself, along with the role of the trainer, will be central to an organization’s effectiveness and will offer a competitive advantage” (Reitman, 2001).

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Breaking into the Field Due to the fact that the field of intercultural training is “relatively new and multidisciplinary” there is no “firmly established or generally recognized course of professional development for interculturalists” (Wederspahn, 2000). In addition, there are “few established experiential or academic pathways into the profession” (Wederspahn, 2000). Instead, many “practitioners come from a wide range of backgrounds” and the “extent and depth of their [international or cross-cultural] experience varies greatly” (Wederspahn, 2000). Such practitioners often accidentally fall into their positions due to their experiences and relevant skills acquired in other areas of study or careers. Several paths that can lead to a career in intercultural training are through education and experience.

1. Education There is no specific degree program designed to lead to a career as an intercultural trainer. However there are programs in related fields that can give one the skills needed to succeed as an intercultural trainer.

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According to the American Society for Training and Development (ASTD), “by the early 1990s U.S. higher education was offering more than 60 undergraduate degree programs, more than 140 master’s programs, and almost 60 Ph.D. programs in human resource development” (Gordon et al., 1997). Human resource development is one area that the field of training often falls under and can help provide a background in training. Another related field is corporate training. The most popular fields of study for corporate trainers are in “education and psychology” (Careers in Corporate Training, 2004). There are additional programs in adult education and in intercultural communication. Degrees in foreign language and culture would undoubtedly be helpful as well. Some sources suggest that a background in drama or acting is also helpful for getting started in training due to the fact that presentation and public speaking skills are important for success in the field of training. Despite the type of degree or area of specialization achieved, educational credentials are necessary in this field. One of the reasons for this is the fact that “it’s hard to get other people to take you seriously if they don’t have a reason to believe you know something they don’t” (Careers in Corporate Training, 2004). Furthermore, a bachelor’s degree is considered “absolutely mandatory” while a “master’s degree will likely be mandatory after a few years” (Careers in Corporate Training, 2004).

II. Certification

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In addition to undergraduate, graduate and doctoral programs, there are trainingspecific certification programs. The ASTD Certification Institute offers certification as a Certified Professional in Learning and Performance (CPLP). According to the ASTD website, the certification is “valid for three years” and professionals are qualified to become certified if they have a “minimum of three years related work experience… though five or more is preferable” (ASTD, 2007). It is important to distinguish between certification and certificate programs because certification focuses on “assessing knowledge and skills” while a certificate program focuses on “the training provided to develop a certain knowledge and skill base” (Biech, 2005, p. 302). Therefore, certification is granted when an individual has “met certain qualifications or standards” and a certificate can be awarded simply for completing a program, “with or without assessment” (Biech, 2005).

2. Experience Specific experiences needed to be an effective intercultural trainer are outlined by various intercultural experts. According to Kohls (1995), an intercultural trainer must have “area knowledge of the target country, gained either through first-hand experience or through study,” “living experience in the target country, of a minimum of two years (and preferably longer),” “the experience of having lived through culture shock (somewhere),” and “experience as a trainer, especially as a stand-up trainer.” In addition to simply having international and intercultural experiences, these experiences can be measured by their “depth, duration, success, relevance, breadth, [and]

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learning” to “determine the extent to which [a trainer’s background] is suitable (Wederspahn, 2000).

3. Other Methods Other methods of getting acquainted with the field of intercultural training is to network with others in the field by joining professional organizations or attending conferences. According to Wederspahn (2000), the “most direct way…to become acquainted with the intercultural field…is to attend the annual SIETAR conference.”

Trainer Qualifications In addition to relevant education and experience, successful intercultural trainers must also possess a broad set of skills as well as certain personal traits.

1. Skills Putting together and implementing a training program involves skills other than specific knowledge of intercultural communication and culture. Several of the skills needed to successfully implement a training program require very specific expertise that could be considered a separate field. This includes knowledge of needs analysis and evaluation methods, structure of the training program, various learning styles, visual aid

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and/or handout design, advancements in technology, effects of the number of participants, preferred seating arrangements and methods of evaluating the effectiveness of the program. Trainers must also have strong organization and preparation skills. One source states that “there is nothing so off-putting as an unprepared trainer” and that “anybody who gets up in front of a roomful of people and tells them what to do had better know what they’re doing first” (Careers in Corporate Training). Reitman (2001) presents “five ‘competency clusters’ or roles that are important for trainers” that were identified from research done for the Ontario Society for Training and Development. The five competency clusters and roles are as follows:

1. analyzing performance needs 2. designing training 3. instructing-facilitating 4. evaluating training 5. coaching the application of training (Reitman, 2001)

Reitman (2001) goes on to say that, in order to “perform these roles successfully, trainers need technical, business, interpersonal, and intellectual competencies.” These categories are further explored and broken down into the various categories. For example, technical competencies include “adult learning understanding, competency identification skill, computer competence, electronic systems skill, facilities skill, objectives preparation skill, performance observation skill, subject matter understanding,

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training theories and techniques” (Reitman, 2001). Business competencies include “business understanding, cost-benefit analysis skill, organization understanding, organization behavior understanding, project management skill” (Reitman, 2001). Interpersonal competencies involves various skills such as “coaching, feedback, group process, presentation, questioning, relationship-building, writing” (Reitman, 2001). Lastly, intellectual competencies are composed of “data reduction skill, information search skill, intellectual versatility, model-building skill, observing skill, self-knowledge” (Reitman, 2001). Reitman (2001) sums up this analysis by stating that “to succeed today, a trainer needs all of those core competencies.” As is evident from this summary, numerous, multi-discipline skills are needed to succeed in training. While such an extensive list may seem overwhelming and discourage potential trainers from pursuing a career in training, it is not necessary to have all these skills at once. At a very basic level one must posses “strong oral and written communication skills, business focus, computer savvy, [the] ability to think critically and analytically, [the] ability to work with people of various cultural and educational backgrounds, [and the] ability to switch gears, for example, from administrator to counselor to negotiator” (Careers in Human Resources). When an individual possesses the most basic skills, he or she can then build upon them to continue to gain skills and competence as a trainer as the majority of the “specialty skills” needed will be learned “in the workplace” (Careers in Corporate Training, 2004). However, when it comes to actually presenting the program to the trainees, the importance of excellent communication skills, both written and verbal, cannot be stressed enough.

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In addition, Kohls (1995) provides a list of 31 various skills and competencies needed to thoroughly and effectively design, implement and evaluate a training program. This list can be found in Appendix B.

2. Personal Traits Certain personal traits can lend credibility to intercultural trainers and help them to be effective. In general, effective trainers need to possess attributes such as a “sense of humility, sense of humor, empathy, enthusiasm, commitment to excellence, energy, charisma, ability to inspire learning, interpersonal warmth and approachability, patience [and] sense of accountability for results” (Kohls, 1995 & Wederspahn, 2000). Traits specific to intercultural trainers are attributes such as an “openness to, interest in, and enjoyment of cross-cultural experiences and people, sensitivity to cultural differences, cultural self-awareness, tolerance of ambiguity, and tolerance of differences, openness to new experiences and to people who are different” and respect for cultural differences (Kohls, 1995 & Wederspahn, 2000). Other characteristics outlined by Biech (2005) include being both “assertive and influencing, both logical and creative, confident and poised, customer-focused, flexible and spontaneous, impartial and objective, self-sufficient, process-oriented, solution and results-oriented [and] well-organized.” More helpful traits are the ability to “relate to specific situation, build trust” and be a “good listener” and “excellent communicator” (Biech, 2005).

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Needless to say a trainer should also enjoy presenting information and speaking in public. Being highly articulate and possessing a flair for speaking will greatly contribute to a trainer’s success. Unlike traditional teaching, trainers do not give lectures or simply read from a prepared script. Instead, trainers must “engage their subjects and encourage audience participation” (Careers in Corporate Training). While a trainer may have the skills needed to effectively communicate, he or she will be even more effective by possessing innate personal traits such as the ability to reach out to the audience and care about them and their success. Therefore trainers must have the ability to bring “people out of their shells” and “feel as though [they] have a vested interest in the success of all of [their] students” (Careers in Corporate Training). Because trainers are selling themselves, their knowledge, experiences, and ability to convey information, they must also have the ability to present themselves in a positive light. They must always make a good impression, be prepared, and portray themselves with confidence. This means trainers must put more effort into their appearance because their job is to work in front of people. Good posture, appropriate attire, eye contact and grooming are equally as important as the information that will be presented and will lend to a trainer’s credibility and reputation. Other aspects of the job regarding day-to-day duties need to be considered. A list of questions for self-evaluation is listed in Appendix C.

Finding A Job One suggestion on how to get hired as a trainer are to “write to training managers” or “call vice presidents, supervisors, and department managers whose

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employees may need skills improvement” (Wederspahn, 2000). Wederspahn (2000) also suggests that potential trainers “prepare an outline of [their] course and a biography highlighting [their] credentials to send prospective clients” and that they “design these materials so they can be faxed or e-mailed if there is immediate interest.” In addition it is important to know who to contact when attempting to sell one’s training services. For example, “front-line managers and supervisors may not be thinking about a training program, but if they feel lack of skills is a problem in their organizations, [an] offer will interest them” (Wederspahn, 2000). After contacting the appropriate person, it is important to “stress the benefits of skill improvement, especially any return on investment it can generate” (Wederspahn, 2000). Jobs as trainers can be with for profit companies, non-profit or government organizations. Many jobs with for profit private companies will be located “where the businesses are” and this “means in cities and their suburbs” (Careers in Corporate Training, 2004, p. 4). However, due to technological advances, training can now take place online and “with e-learning, students and strainers can be on opposite sides of the globe” (Careers in Corporate Training, 2004). Nonetheless, it is advised that recent graduates not be “too choosy about where [their] first job takes [them]” (Careers in Corporate Training, 2004). When searching for a job in the corporate market, “in many large corporations seminar leaders are hired…by a training manager who works under human resources” (Bly, 2001). If a “company is not large enough to have a training manager,” trainers are hired by “the HR director or another HR manager” (Bly, 2001). In such a situation the person doing the hiring are “training buyers, not end users” because they “are not buying

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your program for themselves” but are instead buying a trainer’s services “for someone else in their corporation: an executive who wants to train his or her team to improve their skills” (Bly, 2001). Others who may hire trainers are “line managers, typically at the vice president or department head level, in charge of departments or functional areas” (Bly, 2001). It is these people who are the “end users of training: the managers who will send their staff members through your program” (Bly, 2001). However, a “training professional buys only if training has been identified as something to do” and a “line manager can be persuaded to buy training even if he or she has never thought about it” if you are able to “identify a business problem that your training program can solve” (Bly, 2001). Ultimately trainers have a “better chance of getting more people interested when contacting end users than when contacting training professionals who are merely purchasers” (Bly, 2001). Bly (2001) suggests that it is important that trainers have “valuable experience in a particular field or task” and that “experience is the strongest differentiator you can have” because it “adds credibility to listeners during [the training program] as well as to potential clients when you pitch your speaking services.” Not only should trainers have experience, but they should have experience “aimed at a specific market” because the “more experience you have in the topic, the more credible you are versus other speakers” (Bly, 2001). Bly (2001) goes on to state that it is “even better” to have experience in your “client’s industry” because the “client will be to hire you over speakers who do not specialize in an industry.”

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Many trainers also started out as school teachers before making the transition to training adults. Therefore the field of education can also serve as a path into a career as a trainer. Serving time in the military can also help prepare someone for a career as the trainer. The reason for this is that the U.S. Army and Navy provide numerous adult training programs and have over 200 years of experience in doing so.

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Earnings Specific earnings of intercultural trainers are hard to determine. This is due to the fact that the field is not entirely developed, is known by many different names, and is quite fragmented. In addition, the U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics lists intercultural trainers under the category of Human Resources, Training and Labor Relations Managers and Specialists despite the fact that all these jobs are very different. The field of training in itself is also very different from the specialized field of intercultural training. However, factors that typically affect one’s salary, such as “education, experience level, performance record, job category, geographic location, and the type and size of the organization” where one works all apply to the field of training” (Gordon et al., 1997). The Bureau of Labor Statistics (2007) also confirms this, stating that “annual salary rates for human resources workers vary according to occupation, level of experience, training, location, and firm size.” The Bureau of Labor Statistics (2007) goes on to outline May 2006 earnings of “training and development managers,” listing them as follows:

Median annual income: $80,250 Middle 50%: Between $58,770 and $107,450

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Lowest 10%: Less than $43,530 Highest 10%: More than $141,140

The Bureau of Labor Statistics (2007) also differentiates between training and development managers; human resources managers; employment, recruitment, and placement specialists; compensation, benefits, and job analysis specialists; and training and development specialists as jobs all falling under the same category. The May 2006 earnings of “training and development specialists” were: Median annual income: $47,830 Middle 50%: Between $35,980 and $63,200 Lowest 10%: Less than $27,450 Highest 10%: More than $80,630 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2007)

However, The Bureau of Labor Statistics does not indicate the differences between “training and development managers” and “training and development specialists.” According to Gordon et al. (1997), a “few top earners in the field actually make as much as $250,000 a year.” In addition, “57 percent of trainers believe they are underpaid” (Gordon et al., 1997). Corporate training is an area that intercultural trainers could potentially fall under. Salaries for corporate trainers are cited as falling between “$40,000 per year” and “$120,00 per year” (Careers in Corporate Training, 2004).

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In addition, hourly rates can range “from $50 to $150 depending upon the trainer and the subject being taught” (Careers in Corporate Training, 2004). Another source indicates that “for an in-house corporate training seminar, companies expect to spend around $200 to $250 per employee per day” (Bly, 2001). Therefore, it is not uncommon for a “class with 15 employees” to receive payment of “$3,000” to teach the class” (Bly, 2001). Lastly, Bly (2001) indicates that “many [trainers] get $1,500 a day” and that “the more specialized and in-demand your program, the more you can charge.” When intercultural training positions are listed under the umbrella of Human Resources, a training manager can have a salary ranging from $52,000 to $100,000” (Careers in Human Resources, 2004). Such figures indicate the lack of information specific to the field of intercultural training regarding earnings. According to Wederspahn (2000), “teaching a skill often pays better than performing the skill itself.” The statistics from related fields show the potential earnings opportunities that exist for intercultural trainers when working as a trainer in the broader sense.

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Appendix A Competencies in the Training and Development Model (ASTD, Washington, D.C.) 1. Adult Learning Understanding: Knowing how adults acquire and use knowledge, skills, attitudes. Understanding individual differences in learning. 2. Audio-Visual Skill: Selecting and using audio-visual hardware and software. 3. Career Development Knowledge: Understanding the personal and organizational issues and practices relevant to individual careers. 4. Competency Identification Skill: Identifying the knowledge and skill requirements of jobs, tasks, roles. 5. Computer Competence: Understanding and being able to use computers. 6. Cost-Benefit Analysis Skill: Assessing alternatives in terms of their financial, psychological and strategic advantages and disadvantages. 7. Counseling Skill: Helping individuals recognize and understand personal needs, values, problems, alternative goals. 8. Data Reduction Skill: Scanning, synthesizing and drawing conclusion from data. 9. Delegation Skill: Assigning task responsibility and authority to others 10. Facilities Skill: Planning and coordinating logistics in an efficient and costeffective manner. 11. Feedback Skill: Communicating opinion, observations and conclusions so that they are understood. 12. Futuring Skill: Projecting trends and visualizing possible and probable futures and their implications. 13. Group Process Skill: Influencing groups to both accomplish tasks and fulfill the needs of their members. 14. Industry Understanding: Knowing the key concepts and variables that define an industry or sector (e.g., critical issues, economic vulnerabilities, measurements, distribution channels, inputs, outputs, information sources). 15. Intellectual Versatility: Recognizing, exploring and using a broad range of ideas and practices. Thinking logically and creatively without undue influence from personal biases. 16. Library Skills: Gathering information from printed and other recorded sources. Identifying and using information specialists and reference services and aids. 17. Model Building Skill: Developing theoretical and practical frameworks which describe complex ideas in understandable, usable ways. 18. Negotiation Skill: Securing win-win agreements while successfully representing a special interest in a decision situation.

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19. Objectives Preparation Skill: Preparing clear statements which describe desired outputs. 20. Organization Behavior Understanding: Seeing organizations as dynamic, political, economic and social systems which have multiple goals; using this larger perspective as a framework for understanding and influencing events and change. 21. (106) Organization Understanding: Knowing the strategy, structure, power networks, financial position, systems of a SPECIFIC organization. 22. Performance Observation Skills: Tracking and describing behaviors and their effects. 23. Personnel and Human Resources Understanding: Understanding issues and practices in other HR areas (Organizational Development, Organization Job Design, Human Resource Planning, Selection and Staffing, Personnel Research and Information Systems, Compensation and Benefit, Employee Assistance, Union/Labor Relations). 24. Presentation Skills: Verbally presenting information so that the intended purpose is achieved. 25. Questioning Skill: Gathering information from and stimulating insight in individuals and groups, through the use of interviews, questionnaires and other proving methods. 26. Records Management Skill: Storing data in easily retrievable form. 27. Relationship Versatility: Adjusting behavior in order to establish relationships across a broad range of people and groups. 28. Research Skills: Selecting, developing and using methodologies, statistical and data collection techniques for a formal inquiry. 29. Training and Development Field Understanding: Knowing the technology, social, economic, professional and regulatory issues in the field, understanding the role T&D play in helping individuals learn for current and future jobs. 30. Training and Development Techniques Understanding: Knowing the techniques and methods used in training; understanding their appropriate uses. 31. Writing Skills: Preparing written material which follows generally accepted rules of style and form, is appropriate for the audience, creative and accomplishes its intended purposes. Source: Kohls, L. R. (1995). Training know-how for cross cultural and diversity trainers. (page 105).

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Appendix B DO YOU HAVE WHAT IT TAKES? Although training may seem like a glamorous profession to an observer, like any other profession, it has its hidden challenges. Having the skills to be a trainer is only one prerequisite. A much more difficult requirement for a successful trainer is to have strong mental and emotional composure. Training is a demanding profession. It requires constant energy output. If you tire quickly, become discouraged easily, or become frustrated if things do not go according to plan, training may not be for you. Here are some aspects to consider about training. Are you willing to work longer than an 8-hour day? Are you willing to stay later than your official “ending” time? Can you stand on your feet all day? Even if you can literally stand on your feet all day, can you figuratively stand on your feet all day? Can you perform even when you feel lousy? Are you prepared to constantly give of yourself without expecting to receive anything in return? Can you be the perfect role model all the time? Can you cope with constant logistics problems? Can you be a big lug? Are you prepared to encourage your participants even when there is a lack of management commitment? Can you deliver hard feedback? Are you able to process failure, identify solutions, and make improvements? Source: Biech, E. (2005). Training for Dummies. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley (pages 21-23).

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Works Cited ASTD. (2007). CPLP fast facts. Retrieved March 2, 2007, from ASTD Web site: http://www.astd.org/content/ASTDcertification/CPLPFastFacts.htm Biech, E. (2005). Training for dummies. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Bly, R. (2001). Getting started in speaking, training, or seminar consulting. New York: Wiley Brislin, R. W. & Pedersen, P. (1976). Cross-cultural orientation programs. New York: Garnder Press, Inc. Brislin, R. & Yoshida, T. (1994). Intercultural communication training: An introduction. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, Inc. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2007). Human resources, rraining, and labor relations managers and specialists. Retrieved February 23, 2008, from U.S. Department of Labor Website: http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos021.htm#earnings. Careers in corporate training: teaching adults to help them advance in their lives and work. (2004). Chicago: Institute for Career Research. Careers in human resources. (2004). San Francisco, CA: WetFeet. Gordon, E., Petrini, C., & Campagna, A. (1997). Opportunities in training and development careers. Lincolnwood, IL: VGM Career Horizons.

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Jandt, F. (2007). An introduction to intercultural communication: Identities in a global community. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Kim, H. (1999). Transcultural customization of international training programs. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc. Kohls, L. R. (1995). Training know-how for cross cultural and diversity trainers. Reitman, A. (2001). Career moves: Take charge of your training career now! Alexandria, VA: American Society for Training & Development. Duncanville, TX: Adult Learning Systems, Inc. Ting-Toomey, S. (1999). Communicating across cultures. New York: The Guildford Press. Ting-Toomey, S. (2005). Understanding intercultural communication. Los Angeles: Roxbury Publishing Company. Wederspahn, G. (2000). Intercultural services: A worldwide buyer’s guide and sourcebook. Houston, TX: Gulf Pub.

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