Indian History - The Freedom Movement

Indian independence movement

History of South Asia ( Indian Subcontinent)

• Western Chalukya Empire

• 973–1189

Hoysala Empire

1040–1346

Kakatiya Empire

1083–1323

Islamic Sultanates

1206–1596

• Delhi Sultanate

• 1206–1526

Stone Age

70,000–3300 BCE

• Mehrgarh Culture

• 7000–3300 BCE

Ahom Kingdom

Indus Valley Civilization

3300–1700 BCE

Vijayanagara Empire 1336–1646

Late Harappan Culture

1700–1300 BCE

Vedic period

• Deccan Sultanates • 1490–1596 1228–1826

Mughal Empire

1526–1858

Maratha Empire

1674–1818

1500–500 BCE

Sikh Confederacy

1716–1799

Iron Age

1200–300 BCE

Sikh Empire

1799–1849

• Maha Janapadas

• 700–300 BCE

1757–1858

• Magadha Empire

• 545 BCE 550

British East India Company British Raj

1858–1947

Modern States

1947–present

• Maurya Empire

• 321–184 BCE

Middle Kingdoms

300 BCE–1279 CE

• Chera Empire

• 300 BCE–200 CE

• Chola Empire

• 250 BCE–1070 CE

• Satavahana

• 230 BCE–220 CE

• Kushan Empire

• 60–240 CE

various national and regional

• Gupta Empire

• 280–550

campaigns, agitations and efforts of

• Pala Empire

• 750–1174

• Chalukya Dynasty

• 543–753

political organizations, philosophies, and

• Rashtrakuta

• 753–982

movements which had the common

The term "Indian independence movement" is diffuse, incorporating

both Nonviolent and Militant philosophy and involved a wide spectrum of

aim of ending the British Colonial Authority as well as other colonial

1

administrations in South Asia. The

from East Asia and Quit India

initial resistance to the movement can

movement.

be traced back to the very beginnings of Colonial Expansion in Karnataka by the Portuguese in the 16th century and by the British East India Company in Bengal, in the middle and late 1700s. The first organised militant movement was in Bengal, that later took political stage in the form of mainstream movement from the latter part of the 1800s was increasingly led by the leaders of the then newly formed

India remained a Dominion of The Crown till 26 January 1950, when it adopted its Constitution to proclaim itself a Republic. Pakistan proclaimed itself a Republic in 1956 but faced a number of internal power struggles that has seen suspensions of democracy. In 1971, the Pakistani Civil War culminating in the 1971 War saw the splintering-off of East Pakistan into the nation of Bangladesh.

Indian National Congress with prominent moderate leaders seeking only their basic rights to appear for civil services examinations and more rights, economic in nature, for the people of the soil. They used moderate methods of prayer, petition and the press (3p's). Beginning of early 1900s saw a more radical approach towards political independence proposed by leaders as the Lal Bal Pal and Sri Aurobindo. Militant nationalism also emerged in the first decades, culminating in the failed Indo-German Pact and Ghadar Conspiracy during the World War I. The end of the war saw the Congress adopt the policies of nonviolent agitation and civil disobedience led by Mahatma Gandhi. Other leaders, such as Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose, later came to adopt a military approach to the movement. The World War II period saw the peak of the movements like INA movement led by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose

The independence movement also served as a major catalyst for similar movements in other parts of the world, leading to the eventual disintegration and dismantling of the British Empire and its replacement with the Commonwealth of Nations. Gandhi's philosophy of nonviolent resistance inspired the American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968) led by Martin Luther King, Jr., the quest for democracy in Myanmar led by Aung San Suu Kyi and the African National Congress's struggle against apartheid in South Africa led by Nelson Mandela. However not all these leaders adhered to Gandhi's strict principle of nonviolence and nonresistance. European rule Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive with Mir Jafar after the Battle of Plassey European traders came to Indian shores with the arrival of the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama in 1498, Capad beach, at the port of

2

Calicut in search of the lucrative spice

Even while these modernizing trends

trade. After the 1757 Battle of Plassey,

influenced Indian society, Indians

during which the British army under

increasingly despised British rule. The

Robert Clive defeated the Nawab of

memoirs of Henry Ouvry of the 9th

Bengal, the British East India Company

Lancers record many "a good

established itself. This is widely seen

thrashing" to careless servants. A spice

as the beginning of the British Raj in

merchant, Frank Brown, wrote to his

India. The Company gained

nephew that stories of maltreatment of

administrative rights over Bengal,

servants had not been exaggerated

Bihar, and Orissa in 1765 after the

and that he knew people who kept

Battle of Buxar. They then annexed

orderlies "purposely to thrash them".

Punjab in 1849 after the death of

As the British increasingly dominated

Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1839 and the

the continent, they grew increasingly

First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–1846) and

abusive of local customs by, for

then the Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–

example, staging parties in mosques,

49).

dancing to the music of regimental

The British parliament enacted a series of laws to handle the administration of the newly-conquered provinces, including the Regulating Act of 1773, the India Act of 1784, and the Charter Act of 1813; all enhanced the British government's rule. In 1835 English was made the medium of instruction. Western-educated Hindu elites sought to rid Hinduism of controversial social practices, including the varna (caste) system, child marriage, and sati. Literary and debating societies initiated in Bombay and Madras became forum for open political discourse. The educational attainment and skillful use of the press by these early reformers created the growing possibility for effecting broad reforms within colonial India, all without compromising larger Indian social values and religious practices.

bands on the terrace of the Taj Mahal, using whips to force their way through crowded bazaars (as recounted by General Henry Blake), and mistreating sepoys. In the years after the annexation of Punjab in 1849, several mutinies among sepoys broke out; these were put down by force. [] Regional movements prior to 185 7 Sannyasi Rebellion and Conspiracy Of The Pintos and Polygar Wars Several regional movements against foreign rule were staged in various parts of pre-1857 India. However, they were not united and were easily controlled by the foreign rulers. Examples include the rebellion of Abbakka Rani in Karnataka from 1555 to 1570 against the Portuguese, Sannyasi Rebellion in Bengal in the 1770s,[1] the 1787 ethnic revolt against

3

Portuguese control of Goa known as

cartridges with their teeth before

the Conspiracy Of The Pintos,[2] the

loading them into their rifles. So if

revolt of Titumir in Bengal in 1830's

there was cow and pig fat, it would be

and uprisings by South Indian local

offensive to Hindu and Muslim soldiers,

chieftains like Veerapandya

respectively. In February 1857, sepoys

Kattabomman against British rule.[3]

(Indian soldiers in the British army)

Other movements included the Santal

refused to use their new cartridges.

Rebellion and the resistance offered to

The British claimed to have replaced

the British by Titumir in Bengal,[4][5] the

the cartridges with new ones and tried

Kittur Rebellion led by Rani

to make sepoys make their own grease

Chennamma in Karnataka, Polygar

from beeswax and vegetable oils, but

Wars in Tamil Nadu, Kutch Rebellion in

the rumour persisted.

Saurashtra.[6] [] The Indian Rebellion of 1857 Secundra Bagh after the 93rd Highlanders and 4th Punjab regiment fought the rebels, Nov 1857.

In March 1857, Mangal Pandey, a soldier of the 34th Native Infantry in Barrackpore, attacked his British sergeant and wounded an adjutant.

The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a

General Hearsay, who said Pandey was

period of uprising in the northern and

in some kind of "religious frenzy,"

central India against British rule in

ordered a jemadar to arrest him but

1857–58. The rebellion was the result of

the jemadar refused. Mangal Pandey

decades of ethnic and cultural

was hanged on 7 April along with the

differences between Indian soldiers and

jemadar. The whole regiment was

their British officers. The indifference of

dismissed as a collective punishment.

the British towards Indian rulers like

On May 10, when the 11th and 20th

the Mughals and ex-Peshwas and the

Cavalry assembled, they broke rank

annexation of Oudh were political

and turned on their commanding

factors triggering dissent amongst

officers. They then liberated the 3rd

Indians. Dalhousie’s policy of

Regiment, and on 11 May the sepoys

annexation, the doctrine of lapse or

reached Delhi and were joined by

escheat, and the projected removal of

other Indians. The Red Fort, the

the descendants of the Great Mughal

residence of the last Mughal emperor

from their ancestral palace to the

Bahadur, was attacked and captured

Qutb, near Delhi also angered some

by the sepoys. They demanded that he

people. The specific reason that

reclaim his throne. He was reluctant at

triggered the rebellion was the

first, but eventually agreed to the

rumored use of cow and pig fat in .557

demands and became the leader of

calibre Pattern 1853 Enfield (P/53) rifle

the rebellion.

cartridges. Soldiers had to break the

4

Soon, the revolt spread throughout

Viceroy was appointed to represent the

northern India. Revolts broke out in

Crown. In proclaiming the new direct-

places like Meerut, Jhansi, Kanpur,

rule policy to "the Princes, Chiefs, and

Lucknow etc. The British were slow to

Peoples of India," Queen Victoria

respond, but eventually responded with

promised equal treatment under British

brute force. British moved regiments

law, but Indian mistrust of British rule

from the Crimean War and diverted

had become a legacy of the 1857

European regiments headed for China

rebellion.

to India. The British fought the main army of the rebels near Delhi in Badlke-Serai and drove them back to Delhi before laying siege on the city. The siege of Delhi lasted roughly from 1 July to 31 August. After a week of street fighting, the British retook the city. The last significant battle was fought in Gwalior on 20 June 1858. It was during this battle that Rani Lakshmi Bai was killed. Sporadic fighting continued until 1859 but most of the rebels were subdued. Some notable leaders were Ahmed Ullah, an advisor of the ex-King of Oudh; Nana Sahib; his nephew Rao Sahib and his retainers, Tantia Topi and Azimullah Khan; the Rani of Jhansi; Kunwar Singh; the Rajput chief of Jagadishpur in Bihar; Firuz Saha, a relative of the Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah and Pran Sukh Yadav who along with Rao Tula Ram of Rewari fought with Britishers at Nasibpur, Haryana. [] Aftermath The war of 1857 was a major turning point in the history of modern India. The British abolished the British East India Company and replaced it with direct rule under the British crown. A

The British embarked on a program in India of reform and political restructuring, trying to integrate Indian higher castes and rulers into the government. They stopped land grabs, decreed religious tolerance and admitted Indians into the civil service, albeit mainly as subordinates. They also increased the number of British soldiers in relation to native ones and allowed only British soldiers to handle artillery. Bahadur Shah was exiled to Rangoon, Burma where he died in 1862, finally bringing the Mughal dynasty to an end. In 1877, Queen Victoria took the title of Empress of India. [] Rise of organized movements The decades following the Sepoy Rebellion were a period of growing political awareness, manifestation of Indian public opinion and emergence of Indian leadership at national and provincial levels. Dadabhai Naoroji formed East India Association in 1867, and Surendranath Banerjee founded Indian National Association in 1876.

Inspired by a suggestion made by A.O. Hume, a retired British civil servant, seventy-three Indian delegates met in Bombay in 1885 and founded the

5

Indian National Congress. They were

Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Sir Syed

mostly members of the upwardly

Ahmed Khan, Rabindranath Tagore and

mobile and successful western-

Dadabhai Naoroji spread the passion

educated provincial elites, engaged in

for rejuvenation and freedom.

professions such as law, teaching, and journalism. At its inception, the Congress had no well-defined ideology and commanded few of the resources essential to a political organization. It functioned more as a debating society that met annually to express its loyalty to the British Raj and passed numerous resolutions on less controversial issues such as civil rights or opportunities in government, especially the civil service. These resolutions were submitted to the Viceroy's government and occasionally to the British Parliament, but the Congress's early gains were meagre. Despite its claim to represent all India, the Congress voiced the interests of urban elites; the number of participants from other economic backgrounds remained negligible.

By 1900, although the Congress had emerged as an all-India political organization, its achievement was undermined by its singular failure to attract Muslims, who felt that their representation in government service was inadequate. Attacks by Hindu reformers against religious conversion, cow slaughter, and the preservation of Urdu in Arabic script deepened their concerns of minority status and denial of rights if the Congress alone were to represent the people of India. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan launched a movement for Muslim regeneration that culminated in the founding in 1875 of the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh (renamed Aligarh Muslim University in 1921). Its objective was to educate wealthy students by emphasizing the

The influences of socio-religious

compatibility of Islam with modern

groups such as Arya Samaj (started by

western knowledge. The diversity

Swami Dayanand Saraswati) and

among India's Muslims, however, made

Brahmo Samaj (founded, among others,

it impossible to bring about uniform

by Raja Ram Mohan Roy) became

cultural and intellectual regeneration.

evident in pioneering reform of Indian

[] Rise of Indian nationalism

society. The inculcation of religious

The first spurts of nationalistic

reform and social pride was

sentiment that rose amongst Congress

fundamental to the rise of a public

members were when the desire to be

movement for complete nationhood.

represented in the bodies of

The work of men like Swami

government, to have a say, a vote in

Vivekananda, Ramakrishna Paramhansa,

the lawmaking and issues of

Sri Aurobindo, Subramanya Bharathy,

administration of India. Congressmen

6

saw themselves as loyalists, but

Congress of 1906 did not have public

wanted an active role in governing

membership, and thus Tilak and his

their own country, albeit as part of the

supporters were forced to leave the

Empire. This trend was personified by

party.

Dadabhai Naoroji, who went as far as contesting, successfully, an election to the British House of Commons, becoming its first Indian member.

But with Tilak's arrest, all hopes for an Indian offensive were stalled. The Congress lost credit with the people, A Muslim deputation met with the

Bal Gangadhar Tilak was the first

Viceroy, Minto (1905–10), seeking

Indian nationalist to embrace Swaraj as

concessions from the impending

the destiny of the nation. Tilak deeply

constitutional reforms, including special

opposed the British education system

considerations in government service

that ignored and defamed India's

and electorates. The British recognized

culture, history and values. He

some of Muslim League's petitions by

resented the denial of freedom of

increasing the number of elective

expression for nationalists, and the lack

offices reserved for Muslims in the

of any voice or role for ordinary

Government of India Act 1909. The

Indians in the affairs of their nation.

Muslim League insisted on its

For these reasons, he considered

separateness from the Hindu-

Swaraj as the natural and only

dominated Congress, as the voice of a

solution. His popular sentence "Swaraj

"nation within a nation."

is my birthright, and I shall have it"

[ ] Partition of Bengal

became the source of inspiration for

In 190 5, Curzon, the Viceroy and

Indians.

Governor-General (1899–1905), ordered

In 1907, the Congress was split into

the partition of the province of Bengal

two. Tilak advocated what was deemed

for improvements in administrative

as extremism. He wanted a direct

efficiency in that huge and populous

assault by the people upon the British

region, where the Bengali Hindu

Raj, and the abandonment of all things

intelligentsia exerted considerable

British. He was backed by rising public

influence on local and national politics.

leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala

The partition outraged Bengalis. Not

Lajpat Rai, who held the same point of

only had the government failed to

view. Under them, India's three great

consult Indian public opinion, but the

states - Maharashtra, Bengal and

action appeared to reflect the British

Punjab shaped the demand of the

resolve to divide and rule. Widespread

people and India's nationalism. Gokhale

agitation ensued in the streets and in

criticized Tilak for encouraging acts of

the press, and the Congress advocated

violence and disorder. But the

boycotting British products under the

7

banner of swadeshi. People showed

World War I began with an

unity by tying Rakhi on each other's

unprecedented outpouring of loyalty

wrists and observing Arandhan (not

and goodwill towards the United

cooking any food).

Kingdom from within the mainstream

During the partition of Bengal new methods of struggle were adopted. These led to swadeshi and boycott movements. The Congress-led boycott of British goods was so successful that it unleashed anti-British forces to an extent unknown since the Sepoy Rebellion. A cycle of violence and repression ensued in some parts of the country (see Alipore bomb case). The British tried to mitigate the situation by announcing a series of constitutional reforms in 1909 and by appointing a few moderates to the imperial and provincial councils. In what the British saw as an additional goodwill gesture, in 1911 King-Emperor George V visited India for a durbar (a traditional court held for subjects to express fealty to their ruler), during which he announced the reversal of the partition of Bengal and the transfer of the capital from Calcutta to a newly planned city to be built immediately south of Delhi, which later became New Delhi. However, ceremony of transfer on 23 December 1912 was marked by the attempt to assassinate the then Viceroy, Lord Hardinge, in what came to be known as the DelhiLahore conspiracy. [] World War I See also: Hindu German Conspiracy and Defence of India Act 1915

political leadership, contrary to initial British fears of an Indian revolt. India contributed massively to the British war effort by providing men and resources. About 1.3 million Indian soldiers and laborers served in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, while both the Indian government and the princes sent large supplies of food, money, and ammunition. However, Bengal and Punjab remained hotbeds of anti colonial activities. Terrorism in Bengal, increasingly closely linked with the unrests in Punjab, was significant enough to nearly paralyse the regional administration.[7][8] Also from the beginning of the war, expatriate Indian population, notably from United States, Canada, and Germany, headed by the Berlin Committee and the Ghadar Party, attempted to trigger insurrections in India on the lines of the 1857 uprising with Irish Republican, German and Turkish help in a massive conspiracy that has since come to be called the Hindu German conspiracy[9][10][11] This conspiracy also attempted to rally Afghanistan against British India.[12] A number of failed attempts were made at mutiny, of which the February mutiny plan and the Singapore mutiny remain most notable. This movement was suppressed by means of a massive

8

international counter-intelligence

achieving the proposed measure were

operation and draconian political acts

later enshrined in the Government of

(including the Defence of India act

India Act 1919, which introduced the

1915) that lasted nearly ten years.[13][14]

principle of a dual mode of

In the aftermath of the WW I, high casualty rates, soaring inflation compounded by heavy taxation, a widespread influenza epidemic, and the disruption of trade during the war escalated human suffering in India. The Indian soldiers smuggled arms into India to overthrow the British rule. The prewar nationalist movement revived as moderate and extremist groups within the Congress submerged their differences in order to stand as a unified front. In 1916, the Congress succeeded in forging the Lucknow Pact, a temporary alliance with the Muslim League over the issues of devolution of political power and the future of Islam in the region. The British themselves adopted a "carrot and stick" approach in recognition of India's support during the war and in response to renewed nationalist demands. In August 1917, Edwin Montagu, the secretary of state for India, made the historic announcement in Parliament that the British policy for India was "increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration and the gradual development of self-governing institutions with a view to the progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire." The means of

administration, or diarchy, in which both elected Indian legislators and appointed British officials shared power. The act also expanded the central and provincial legislatures and widened the franchise considerably. Diarchy set in motion certain real changes at the provincial level: a number of non-controversial or "transferred" portfolios, such as agriculture, local government, health, education, and public works, were handed over to Indians, while more sensitive matters such as finance, taxation, and maintaining law and order were retained by the provincial British administrators. [] Gandhi arrives in India Mahatma Gandhi had been a prominent leader of the anti-Apartheid movement in South Africa, and had been a vocal opponent of basic discrimination and abusive labour treatment as well as suppressive police control such as the Rowlatt Acts. During these protests, Gandhi had perfected the concept of satyagraha, which had been inspired by the philosophy of Baba Ram Singh (famous for leading the Kuka Movement in the Punjab in 1872). The end of the protests in South Africa saw oppressive legislation repealed and the release of political prisoners by General Jan

9

Smuts, head of the South African

sharecroppers and landless farmers

Government of the time.

who were being forced to pay

Gandhi, a stranger to India and its politics after twenty years, had initially entered the fray not with calls for a nation-state, but in support of the unified commerce-oriented territory that the Congress Party had been asking for. Gandhi believed that the industrial development and educational development that the Europeans had brought with them were required to alleviate many of India's problems. Gopal Krishna Gokhale, a veteran Congressman and Indian leader, became Gandhi's mentor. Gandhi's ideas and strategies of non-violent civil disobedience initially appeared impractical to some Indians and Congressmen. In Gandhi's own words, "civil disobedience is civil breach of unmoral statutory enactments." It had to be carried out non-violently by withdrawing cooperation with the corrupt state. Gandhi's ability to inspire millions of common people became clear when he used satyagraha during the anti-Rowlatt Act protests in Punjab.

oppressive taxes and grow cash crops at the expense of the subsistence crops which formed their food supply. The profits from the crops they grew were insufficient to provide for their sustenance. [] The Rowlatt Act and its aftermath The positive impact of reform was seriously undermined in 1919 by the Rowlatt Act, named after the recommendations made the previous year to the Imperial Legislative Council by the Rowlatt Commission, which had been appointed to investigate what was termed the "seditious conspiracy" and the German and Bolshevik involvement in the militant movements in India.[15][16][17] The Rowlatt Act, also known as the Black Act, vested the Viceroy's government with extraordinary powers to quell sedition by silencing the press, detaining the political activists without trial, and arresting any individuals suspected of sedition or treason without a warrant. In protest, a nationwide cessation of

Gandhi’s vision would soon bring

work (hartal) was called, marking the

millions of regular Indians into the

beginning of widespread, although not

movement, transforming it from an

nationwide, popular discontent. The

elitist struggle to a national one. The

agitation unleashed by the acts

nationalist cause was expanded to

culminated on 13 April 1919, in the

include the interests and industries

Jallianwala Bagh massacre (also known

that formed the economy of common

as the Amritsar Massacre) in Amritsar,

Indians. For example, in Champaran,

Punjab. The British military commander,

Bihar, the Congress Party championed

Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer,

the plight of desperately poor

10

blocked the main entrance, and

movement enjoyed widespread popular

ordered his soldiers to fire into an

support, and the resulting unparalleled

unarmed and unsuspecting crowd of

magnitude of disorder presented a

some 5,000 men, women and children.

serious challenges to foreign rule.

They had assembled at Jallianwala

However, Gandhi called off the

Bagh, a walled in courtyard in defiance

movement following the Chauri Chaura

of the ban. A total of 1,651 rounds

incident, which saw the death of

were fired, killing 379 people (as

twenty-two policemen at the hands of

according to an official British

an angry mob.

commission; Indian estimates ranged as high as 1,499[18]) and wounding 1,137 in the episode, which dispelled wartime hopes of home rule and goodwill in a frenzy of post-war reaction. [] The Non- cooperation movements It can be argued that the independence movement, even towards the end of First World War, was far removed from the masses of India, focusing essentially on a unified commerce-oriented territory and hardly

In 1920, the Congress was reorganized and given a new constitution, whose goal was Swaraj (independence). Membership in the party was opened to anyone prepared to pay a token fee, and a hierarchy of committees was established and made responsible for discipline and control over a hitherto amorphous and diffuse movement. The party was transformed from an elite organization to one of mass national appeal and participation.

a call for a united nation. That came

Gandhi was sentenced in 1922 to six

in the 1930s with the entry of

years of prison, but was released after

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi into

serving two. On his release from

Indian Politics in 1915.

prison, he set up the Sabarmati

[] The first Non cooperation movement

Ashram in Ahmedabad, on the banks

The first satyagraha movement urged

newspaper Young India, and

the use of Khadi and Indian material

inaugurated a series of reforms aimed

as alternatives to those shipped from

at the socially disadvantaged within

Britain. It also urged people to boycott

Hindu society - the rural poor, and the

British educational institutions and law

untouchables.

courts; resign from government employment; refuse to pay taxes; and forsake British titles and honours. Although this came too late to influence the framing of the new Government of India Act of 1919, the

of river Sabarmati, established the

This era saw the emergence of new generation of Indians from within the Congress Party, including C. Rajagopalachari, Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, Subhash Chandra

11

Bose and others- who would later on

launched. By 1929, however, in the

come to form the prominent voices of

midst rising political discontent and

the Indian independence movement,

increasingly violent regional

whether keeping with Gandhian Values,

movements, the call for complete

or diverging from it.

independence from Britain began to

The Indian political spectrum was further broadened in the mid-1920s by the emergence of both moderate and militant parties, such as the Swaraj Party, Hindu Mahasabha, Communist Party of India and the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh. Regional political organizations also continued to represent the interests of nonBrahmins in Madras, Mahars in Maharashtra, and Sikhs in Punjab. However, brahmins like Mahakavi Subramanya Bharathi, Vanchinathan and Neelakanda Brahmachari played a major role from Tamil Nadu in both freedom struggle and fighting for equality for all castes and communities.

find increasing grounds within the Congress leadership. Under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru at its historic Lahore session in December 1929, The Indian National Congress adopted a resolution calling for complete independence from the British. It authorized the Working Committee to launch a civil disobedience movement throughout the country. It was decided that 26 January 1930 should be observed all over India as the Purna Swaraj (total independence) Day. Many Indian political parties and Indian revolutionaries of a wide spectrum united to observe the day with honour and pride.

[] Purna Swaraj

[] Salt March and Civil Disobedience

Following the rejection of the

Gandhi emerged from his long

recommendations of the Simon

seclusion by undertaking his most

Commission by Indians, an all-party

famous campaign, a march of about

conference was held at Bombay in

400 kilometres from his commune in

May 1928. This was meant to instill a

Ahmedabad to Dandi, on the coast of

sense of resistance among people. The

Gujarat between 12 March and 6 April

conference appointed a drafting

1930. The march is usually known as

committee under Motilal Nehru to draw

the Dandi March or the Salt

up a constitution for India. The

Satyagraha. At Dandi, in protest

Calcutta session of the Indian National

against British taxes on salt, he and

Congress asked the British government

thousands of followers broke the law

to accord dominion status to India by

by making their own salt from

December 1929, or a countrywide civil

seawater.

disobedience movement would be

12

In April 1930 there were violent police-

However, the conference ended in

crowd clashes in Calcutta.

failure in December 1931. Gandhi

Approximately over 100,000 people were

returned to India and decided to

imprisoned in the course of the Civil

resume the civil disobedience

disobedience movement (1930-31), while

movement in January 1932.

in Peshawar unarmed demonstrators were fired upon in the Qissa Khwani bazaar massacre. The latter event catapulted the then newly formed Khudai Khidmatgar movement (founder Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, the Frontier

Gandhi) onto the National scene. While Gandhi was in jail, the first Round Table Conference was held in London in November 1930, without representation from the Indian National Congress. The ban upon the Congress was removed because of economic hardships caused by the satyagraha. Gandhi, along with other members of the Congress Working Committee, was released from prison in January 1931.

For the next few years, the Congress and the government were locked in conflict and negotiations until what became the Government of India Act of 1935 could be hammered out. By then, the rift between the Congress and the Muslim League had become unbridgeable as each pointed the finger at the other acrimoniously. The Muslim League disputed the claim of the Congress to represent all people of India, while the Congress disputed the Muslim League's claim to voice the aspirations of all Muslims. hi [] Elections and the Lahore resolution Jinnah with Gandhi, 1944. The Government of India Act 1935, the

In March of 1931, the Gandhi-Irwin Pact

voluminous and final constitutional

was signed, and the government

effort at governing British India,

agreed to set all political prisoners free

articulated three major goals:

(Although, some of the key

establishing a loose federal structure,

revolutionaries were not set free and

achieving provincial autonomy, and

the death sentence for Bhagat Singh

safeguarding minority interests through

and his two comrades was not taken

separate electorates. The federal

back which further intensified the

provisions, intended to unite princely

agitation against Congress not only

states and British India at the centre,

outside it but within the Congress

were not implemented because of

itself). In return, Gandhi agreed to

ambiguities in safeguarding the

discontinue the civil disobedience

existing privileges of princes. In

movement and participate as the sole

February 1937, however, provincial

representative of the Congress in the

autonomy became a reality when

second Round Table Conference, which

elections were held; the Congress

was held in London in September 1931.

emerged as the dominant party with a

13

clear majority in five provinces and

Particularly notable movements arose

held an upper hand in two, while the

in Bengal, especially around the

Muslim League performed poorly.

Partition of Bengal in 1905, and in

In 1939, the Viceroy Linlithgow declared India's entrance into World War II without consulting provincial governments. In protest, the Congress asked all of its elected representatives to resign from the government. Jinnah, the president of the Muslim League, persuaded participants at the annual Muslim League session at Lahore in 1940 to adopt what later came to be known as the Lahore Resolution, demanding the division of India into two separate sovereign states, one Muslim, the other Hindu; sometimes referred to as Two Nation Theory. Although the idea of Pakistan had been introduced as early as 1930, very few had responded to it. However, the volatile political climate and hostilities between the Hindus and Muslims transformed the idea of Pakistan into a stronger demand.

Punjab.[19] In the former case, it was the educated, intelligent and dedicated youth of the urban Middle Class

Bhadralok community that came to form the "Classic" Indian revolutionary,[19] while the latter had an immense support base in the rural and Military society of the Punjab. Organisations like Jugantar and Anushilan Samiti had emerged in the 1900s. The revolutionary philosophies and movement made their presence felt during the 1905 Partition of Bengal. Arguably, the initial steps to organize the revolutionaries were taken by Aurobindo Ghosh, his brother Barin Ghosh, Bhupendranath Datta etc. when they formed the Jugantar party in April 1906.[20] Jugantar was created as an inner circle of the Anushilan Samiti which was already present in Bengal mainly as a revolutionary society in

[] Revolutionary activities

the guise of a fitness club.

Apart from a few stray incidents, the

The Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar

armed rebellion against the British

opened several branches throughout

rulers was not organized before the

Bengal and other parts of India and

beginning of the 20th century. The

recruited young men and women to

Indian revolutionary underground

participate in the revolutionary

began gathering momentum through

activities. Several murders and looting

the first decade of 1900s, with groups

were done, with many revolutionaries

arising in Maharastra, Bengal, Orissa,

being captured and imprisoned. The

Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and the

Jugantar party leaders like Barin Ghosh

then Madras Presidency including what

and Bagha Jatin initiated making of

is now called South India. More groups

explosives. Amongst a number of

were scattered around India.

notable events of political terrorism

14

were the Alipore bomb case, the

and ammunitions from Germany and

Muzaffarpur killing tried several

stage an armed revolution against the

activists and many were sentenced to

British.[23]

deportation for life, while Khudiram Bose was hanged. The founding of the India House and the The Indian Sociologist under Shyamji Krishna Varma in London in 1905 took the radical movement to Britain itself. On 1 July 1909, Madan Lal Dhingra, an Indian student closely identified with India House in London shot dead William Hutt Curzon Wylie, a British M.P. in London. 1912 saw the Delhi-Lahore Conspiracy planned under Rash Behari Bose, an erstwhile Jugantar member, to assassinate the then Viceroy of India Charles Hardinge. The conspiracy culminated in an attempt to Bomb the Viceregal procession on 23 December 1912, on the occasion of transferring the Imperial Capital from Calcutta to Delhi. In the aftermath of this event, concentrated police and intelligence efforts were made by the British Indian police to destroy the Bengali and Punjabi revolutionary underground, which came under intense pressure for some time. Rash Behari successfully evaded capture for nearly three years.

The Ghadar Party operated from abroad and cooperated with the revolutionaries in India. This party was instrumental in helping revolutionaries inside India catch hold of foreign arms. After the First World War, the revolutionary activities began to slowly wane as it suffered major setbacks due to the arrest of prominent leaders. In the 1920s, some revolutionary activists began to reorganize. Hindustan Socialist Republican Association was formed under the leadership of Chandrasekhar Azad. Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb inside the Central Legislative Assembly on 8 April 1929 protesting against the passage of the Public Safety Bill and the Trade Disputes Bill. Following the trial (Central Assembly Bomb Case), Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were hanged in 1931. Allama Mashriqi founded Khaksar Tehreek in order to direct particularly the Muslims towards the independence movement.[24]

However, by the time that WW I

Surya Sen, along with other activists,

opened in Europe, the revolutionary

raided the Chittagong armoury on 18

movement in Bengal (and Punjab) had

April 1930 to capture arms and

revived and was strong enough to

ammunition and to destroy government

nearly paralyse the local

communication system to establish a

administration.[21][22]

local governance. Pritilata Waddedar

During the First World War, the revolutionaries planned to import arms

led an attack on a European club in Chittagong in 1932, while Bina Das

15

attempted to assassinate Stanley

Linlithgow's action, the entire Congress

Jackson, the Governor of Bengal inside

leadership resigned from the local

the convocation hall of Calcutta

government councils. However, many

University. Following the Chittagong

wanted to support the British war

armoury raid case, Surya Sen was

effort, and indeed the British Indian

hanged and several others were

Army was one of the largest volunteer

deported for life to the Cellular Jail in

forces during the war. Especially during

Andaman. The Bengal Volunteers

the Battle of Britain, Gandhi resisted

started operating in 1928. On 8

calls for massive civil disobedience

December 1930, the Benoy-Badal-

movements that came from within as

Dinesh trio of the party entered the

well as outside his party, stating he

secretariat Writers' Building in Kolkata

did not seek India's freedom out of the

and murdered Col. N. S. Simpson, the

ashes of a destroyed Britain. However,

Inspector General of Prisons.

like the changing fortunes of the war

On 13 March 1940, Udham Singh shot Michael O'Dwyer, generally held responsible for the Amritsar Massacre, in London. However, as the political

itself, the movement for freedom saw the rise of two movements that formed the climax of the 100-year struggle for independence.

scenario changed in the late 1930s —

The first of these, the Azad Hind

with the mainstream leaders

movement led by Netaji Subhash

considering several options offered by

Chandra Bose, saw its inception early

the British and with religious politics

in the war and sought help from the

coming into play — revolutionary

Axis Powers. The second saw its

activities gradually declined. Many past

inception in August 1942 led by Gandhi

revolutionaries joined mainstream

and began following failure of the

politics by joining Congress and other

Cripps' mission to reach a consensus

parties, especially communist ones,

with the Indian political leadership over

while many of the activists were kept

the transfer of power after the war.

under hold in different jails across the

[] The Indian National Army See also: Legion Freies Indien, Battaglione Azad Hindoustan, Capt. Mohan Singh, Indian Independence League, and INA trials

country. [] The climax: War, Quit India, INA and Post-war revolts Indians throughout the country were divided over World War II, as Linlithgow, without consulting the Indian representatives had unilaterally declared India a belligerent on the side

Jubilant INA and Japanese troops after capturing a post on the Indo-Burmese Border. Although largely ignored by post-Independence historians of India, the contributions of the Azad Hind movement are now considered significant.[25]

of the allies. In opposition to

16

The arbitrary entry of India into the

in the forests of in Arakan, Burma and

war was strongly opposed by Subhash

Assam, laying siege on Imphal and

Chandra Bose, who had been elected

Kohima with the Japanese 15th Army.

President of the Congress twice, in 1937

During the war, the Andaman and

and 1939. After lobbying against

Nicobar islands were captured by the

participation in the war, he resigned

Japanese and handed over by them to

from Congress in 1939 and started a

the INA; Bose renamed them Shahid

new party, the All India Forward Bloc.

(Martyr) and Swaraj (Independence).

When war broke out, the Raj had put him under house arrest in Calcutta in 1940. However, at the time the war was at its bloodiest in Europe and Asia, he escaped and made his way through Afghanistan to Germany to seek Axis help to raise an army to fight the shackles of the Raj. Here, he raised with Rommel's Indian POWs what came to be known as the Free India Legion. This came to be the conceptualisation in embryonic form of Bose's dream of raising a liberation Army to fight the Raj. However, the turn of tides in the Battlefields of Europe saw Bose make his way ultimately to Japanese South Asia where he formed what came to be known as the Azad Hind Government as the Provisional Free Indian Government in exile, and organized the Indian National Army with Indian POWs and Indian expatriates at South-East Asia, with the help of the Japanese. Its aim was to reach India as a fighting force that would build on public resentment to inspire revolts among Indian soldiers to defeat the Raj. The INA was to see action against the allies, including the British Indian Army,

The INA would ultimately fail, owing to disrupted logistics, poor arms and supplies from the Japanese, and lack of support and training.[1] The supposed death of Bose is seen as culmination of the entire Azad Hind Movement. Following the surrender of Japan, the troops of the INA were brought to India and a number of them charged with treason. However, Bose's audacious actions and radical initiative had by this time captured the public imagination and also turned the inclination of the native soldiers of the British Indian Forces from one of loyalty to the crown to support for the soldiers that the Raj deemed as collaborators.[26][27] After the war, the stories of the Azad Hind movement and its army that came into public limelight during the trials of soldiers of the INA in 1945 were seen as so inflammatory that, fearing mass revolts and uprisings — not just in India, but across its empire — the British Government forbade the BBC from broadcasting their story.[28] Newspapers reported the summary execution of INA soldiers held at Red Fort.[29] During and after the trial,

17

mutinies broke out in the British Indian

came to be known as the Cripps'

Armed forces, most notably in the

Mission. The purpose of the mission

Royal Indian Navy which found public

was to negotiate with the Indian

support throughout India, from Karachi

National Congress a deal to obtain

to Bombay and from Vizag to

total co-operation during the war, in

Calcutta.[30][31][32] Many historians have

return of progressive devolution and

argued that it was the INA and the

distribution of power from the crown

mutinies it inspired among the British

and the Viceroy to elected Indian

Indian Armed forces that were the true

legislature. However, the talks failed,

driving force behind India's final

having failed to address the key

independence.[33][34][35]

demand of a timeframe towards self-

[] Quit India

government, and of definition of the

The Quit India Movement (Bharat

powers to be relinquished, essentially

Chhodo Andolan) or the August

portraying an offer of limited

Movement was a civil disobedience

dominion-status that was wholly

movement in India launched in August

unacceptable to the Indian

1942 in response to Gandhi's call for

movement.[37] To force the Raj to meet

immediate independence of India and

its demands and to obtain definitive

against sending Indians to the World

word on total independence, the

War II.

Congress took the decision to launch

At the outbreak of war, the Congress

the Quit India Movement.

Party had during the Wardha meeting

The aim of the movement was to

of the working-committee in

bring the British Government to the

September 1939, passed a resolution

negotiating table by holding the Allied

conditionally supporting the fight

War Effort hostage. The call for

against fascism,[36] but were rebuffed

determined but passive resistance that

when they asked for independence in

signified the certitude that Gandhi

return. In March 1942, faced with an

foresaw for the movement is best

increasingly dissatisfied sub-continent

described by his call to Do or Die,

only reluctantly participating in the

issued on 8 August at the Gowalia

war, and deteriorations in the war

Tank Maidan in Bombay, since re-

situation in Europe and South East

named August Kranti Maidan (August

Asia, and with growing dissatisfactions

Revolution Ground). However, almost

among Indian troops- especially in

the entire Congress leadership, and not

Europe- and among the civilian

merely at the national level, was put

population in the sub-continent, the

into confinement less than twenty-four

British government sent a delegation

hours after Gandhi's speech, and the

to India under Stafford Cripps, in what

greater number of the Congress

18

khiland were to spend the rest of the

the Muslim League under a single

war in jail.

mast and movement. It did however,

On August 8, 1942, the Quit India resolution was passed at the Bombay session of the All India Congress

obtain passive support from a substantial Muslim population at the peak of the movement.

Committee (AICC). The draft proposed

The British swiftly responded by mass

that if the British did not accede to

detentions. A total over 100,000 arrests

the demands, a massive Civil

were made nationwide, mass fines

Disobedience would be launched.

were levied, bombs were airdropped

However, it was an extremely

and demonstrators were subjected to

controversial decision. At Gowalia Tank,

public flogging.

Mumbai, Gandhi urged Indians to follow a non-violent civil disobedience. Gandhi told the masses to act as an independent nation and not to follow the orders of the British. The British, already alarmed by the advance of the Japanese army to the India–Burma border, responded the next day by imprisoning Gandhi at the Aga Khan Palace in Pune. The Congress Party's Working Committee, or national leadership was arrested all together and imprisoned at the Ahmednagar Fort. They also banned the party altogether. Large-scale protests and demonstrations were held all over the country. Workers remained absent en masse and strikes were called. The movement also saw widespread acts of sabotage, Indian under-ground organisation carried out bomb attacks on allied supply convoys, government buildings were set on fire, electricity

The movement soon became a leaderless act of defiance, with a number of acts that deviated from Gandhi's principle of non-violence. In large parts of the country, the local underground organisations took over the movement. However, by 1943, Quit

India had petered out. [] RIN Mutiny The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny (the RIN Mutiny or the Bombay Mutiny) encompasses a total strike and subsequent mutiny by the Indian sailors of the Royal Indian Navy on board ship and shore establishments at Bombay (Mumbai) harbor on 18 February 1946. From the initial flashpoint in Bombay, the mutiny spread and found support through India, from Karachi to Calcutta and ultimately came to involve 78 ships, 20 shore establishments and 20,000 sailors.

lines were disconnected and transport

The RIN Mutiny started as a strike by

and communication lines were severed.

ratings of the Royal Indian Navy on

The Congress had lesser success in

the 18th February in protest against

rallying other political forces, including

general conditions. The immediate

19

issues of the mutiny were conditions

demarginalisation of communal issues

and food, but there were more

among the mutineers.

fundamental matters such as racist behaviour by British officers of the Royal Navy personnel towards Indian sailors, and disciplinary measures being taken against anyone demonstrating pro-nationalist sympathies. By dusk on 19 February, a Naval Central Strike committee was elected. Leading Signalman M.S Khan and Petty Officer Telegraphist Madan Singh were unanimously elected President and Vice-President respectively..[38] The strike found immense support among the Indian population already in grips with the stories of the Indian National Army. The actions of the mutineers were supported by demonstrations which included a one-day general strike in Bombay. The strike spread to other cities, and was joined by the Air Force and local police forces. Naval officers and men began calling themselves the Indian National Navy and offered left-handed salutes to British officers. At some places, NCOs in the British Indian Army ignored and defied orders from British superiors. In Madras and Pune, the British garrisons

[] Independence, 1947 to 1950 Transfer of power, 15 August 1947. On 3 June 1947, Viscount Louis Mountbatten, the last British GovernorGeneral of India, announced the partitioning of the British Indian Empire into a secular India and a Muslim Pakistan. On 14 August 1947, Pakistan was declared a separate nation from them. At midnight, on 15 August 1947, India became an independent nation. Violent clashes between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs followed. Prime Minister Nehru and Deputy Prime Minister Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel invited Mountbatten to continue as Governor General of India. He was replaced in June 1948 by Chakravarti Rajagopalachari. Patel took on the responsibility of unifying 565 princely states, steering efforts by his “iron fist in a velvet glove” policies, exemplified by the use of military force to integrate Junagadh, Jammu and Kashmir, and Hyderabad state (Operation Polo) into India.

had to face revolts within the ranks of

The Constituent Assembly completed

the British Indian Army. Widespread

the work of drafting the constitution on

rioting took place from Karachi to

26 November 1949; on 26 January 1950

Calcutta. Famously the ships hoisted

the Republic of India was officially

three flags tied together — those of

proclaimed. The Constituent Assembly

the Congress, Muslim League, and the

elected Dr. Rajendra Prasad as the first

Red Flag of the Communist Party of

President of India, taking over from

India (CPI), signifying the unity and

Governor General Rajgopalachari.

20

Subsequently, a free and sovereign

result of the war still affects the

India absorbed three other territories:

geopolitics of both the countries. The

Goa (from Portuguese control in 1961),

British made Gulab Singh the first

Pondicherry (which the French ceded in

Maharaja of the princely state of

1953–1954) and Sikkim which was

Jammu and Kashmir, after they

absorbed in 1975. In 1952, India held its

defeated the Sikh during the First

first general elections, with a voter

Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46) and signed

turnout exceeding 62%.

the Treaty of Lahore in 1846.[6] Gulab

The Republic of India has fought three wars and one major incursion battle with Pakistan and one border war with China. [] Major wars [] First Indo- Pak war, 1947 Independent India, formed on August 15, 1947, has seen three wars with Pakistan (1947-48, 1965, 1971). The first war took place after Pakistani soldiers and armed tribesmen invaded the independent province of Kashmir. When the forces almost reached the capital Srinagar the Maharaja, Hari Singh, and the democratically elected Prime Minister of Kashmir, Sheikh Abdullah, signed an agreement with India in which all Kashmiri lands were ceded to India. India sent their troops in shortly after and freed a majority of the new

Singh founded a dynasty, the Royal House of Jammu and Kashmir, that was to rule the state, the second-largest principality under the British Raj, until India gained its independence in 1947. Prior to the withdrawal of the British from India, the state came under pressure from both India and Pakistan to join them. The Maharaja of Kashmir, Hari Singh wanted to remain independent and tried to delay the issue. However at the time of British withdrawal the state was invaded by tribals from the North West Frontier Province (NWFP) and regular Pakistani soldiers. The Maharaja then decided to accede Kashmir to secular India, which sent troops to safeguard the Kashmir border. The legitimacy of the accession is still disputed by the Pakistanis.

Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir

According to the instruments of

from Pakistani infiltrators.

partition of India, the rulers of princely

The Indo- Pakistani War of 1947 , sometimes known as the First Kashmir War, was fought between India and Pakistan over the region of Kashmir from 1947 to 1948. It was the first of four wars fought between the two newly independent nations. The

states were given the choice to freely accede to either India or Pakistan. Thay were also asked to take into account the demographic nature, history, geography and future prospects their subjects into consideration. Raja Hari Singh, ruler of Kashmir, acceded to India. Due to a

21

lack of demographic data concerning

gave a strategic advantage to either

religious affiliations, it is difficult to

side and the fronts gradually solidified.

determine whether public opinion was

Support for the AZK forces by Pakistan

a factor Raja Hari Singhs' decision.

became gradually more overt with

[] Summary of war

regular Pakistani units becoming

AZK (Azad Kashmir) forces (Azad in

involved. A formal cease-fire was

Urdu means liberated or free) are the

declared on 31 December 1948.

local militia supported by the

[] Sino- Indian war, 1962

Pakistanis. The AZK had several advantages in the war, notably: 

 

Prior to the war the Jammu and Kashmir state forces had been spread thinly around the border as a response to militant activity, and so were badly deployed to counter a full scale invasion. Some of the state forces joined AZK forces. The AZK were also aided by regular Pakistani soldiers who manned some of their units, with the proportion increasing throughout the war.

The Sino- Indian War (simplified Chinese: 中印边境战争; traditional Chinese: 中印邊境戰爭; pinyin: Zhōng-Yìn Biānjìng Zhànzhēng; Hindi: भारत-चीन युद

Bhārat-Chīn Yuddh), also known as the Sino- Indian Border Conflict, was a war between People's Republic of China and India. The initial cause of the conflict was a disputed region of the Himalayan border in Arunachal Pradesh, known in China as South

As a result of these advantages the

Tibet. Fighting began on 20 October

main invasion force quickly brushed

1962 between the People's Liberation

aside the Jammu and Kashmir state

Army and the Military of India. The

forces. But the attacker’s advantage

conflict coincided closely with the

was not vigorously pressed and the

Cuban Missile Crisis which began in

Indians halted the offensive by

October 1962. The first heavy

airlifting reinforcements. This was at

engagement of the war was a Chinese

the price of the state formally

attack on an Indian patrol north of the

acceding to India. With Indian

McMahon Line.[10] The conflict

reinforcements the Pakistani / AZK

eventually widened to include the

offensive ran out of steam towards the

region of Aksai Chin which the PRC

end of 1947. The exception to this was

regarded as a strategic link, via the

in the High Himalayas sector where

China National Highway route G219,

the AZK were able to make substantial

between the Chinese-administered

progress until turned back at the

territories of Tibet and Xinjiang. The

outskirts of Leh in late June 1948.

war ended when the Chinese captured

Throughout 1948 many small-scale

both disputed areas and unilaterally

battles were fought. None of these

declared a ceasefire on 20 November

22

1962, which went into effect at

the process of subduing and which in

midnight. At present china controls

1965 would itself be declared an

askai chin an area claimed by india

"autonomous region"). The eastern

whereas india controls arunachal

border, between Burma and Bhutan,

pradesh (north east frontier agency).

comprises the present Indian state of

parts of arunachal pradesh are claimed

Arunachal Pradesh (formerly the North

by china as "south tibet".

East Frontier Agency). Both of these

The Sino-Indian War is notable for the harsh conditions under which much of

regions were overrun by China in the 1962 conflict.

the fighting took place, entailling

Most combat took place at high

large-scale combat at altitudes of over

altitudes. The Aksai Chin region is a

4250 metres (14,000 feet).[10] This

vast desert of salt flats around 5000

presented enormous logistical problems

metres above sea level, and Arunachal

for both sides. The Sino-Indian War

Pradesh is extremely mountainous with

was also noted for the non-use of

a number of peaks exceeding 7000

navy and airforce by both the Chinese

metres. According to military doctrine,

and Indian sides.

to be successful an attacker generally

The aftermath of the war saw sweeping changes in the Indian military to prepare it for similar conflicts in the future, and placed pressure on Indian prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru, who was seen as responsible for failing to anticipate the Chinese invasion. Location China and India share a long border, sectioned into three stretches by Nepal and Bhutan, which follows the Himalayan mountains between Burma and what was then East Pakistan. A number of disputed regions lie along this border. At its western end is the Aksai Chin region, an area the size of Switzerland, that sits between the Chinese "autonomous region" of Xinjiang, and Tibet (which China was in

requires a 3:1 ratio of numerical superiority over the defender; in mountain warfare this ratio should be considerably higher as the terrain favours defense. At the beginning of the war China took full advantage of this: the Chinese Army had possession of the highest ridges in the regions. The high altitude and freezing conditions also cause logistical and welfare difficulties; in past similar conflicts (such as the Italian Campaign of World War I) more casualties have been caused by the harsh conditions than enemy action. The Sino-Indian War was no different, with many troops on both sides dying in the freezing cold.[12] [] Background British map published in 1909 showing the Indo-Tibetan traditional border

23

The cause of the war was a dispute

bombing on Indian towns, the United

over the sovereignty of the widely-

States Navy ordered an aircraft carrier

separated Aksai Chin and Arunachal

to the Bay of Bengal due to reach

Pradesh border regions. Aksai Chin,

there in late November.

claimed by India to belong to Kashmir and by China to be part of Xinjiang, contains an important road link that connects the Chinese regions of Tibet and Xinjiang. China's construction of this road was one of the triggers of the conflict. Arunachal Pradesh (called South Tibet by China) is also claimed by both nations—although it is roughly the size of Austria, it is sparsely inhabited (by numerous local tribes) due to its mountainous terrain. United States intervention The PLA penetrated close to the outskirts of Tezpur, Assam, a major frontier town nearly fifty kilometers from the Assam-North-East Frontier Agency border.

[6]

The local government

ordered the evacuation of the civilians in Tezpur to the south of the Brahmaputra River, all prisons were thrown open, and government officials who stayed behind destroyed Tezpur's currency reserves in anticipation of a Chinese advance.[7]

China had reached its claim lines so the PLA did not advance farther, and on November 19 it declared a unilateral cease-fire. Zhou Enlai declared a unilateral ceasefire to start on midnight, November 21. Zhou's ceasefire declaration stated, Beginning from November 21, 1962, the Chinese frontier guards will cease fire along the entire Sino-Indian border. Beginning from December 1, 1962, the Chinese frontier guards will withdraw to positions 20 kilometers behind the line of actual control which existed between China and India on November 7, 1959. In the eastern sector, although the Chinese frontier guards have so far been fighting on Chinese territory north of the traditional customary line, they are prepared to withdraw from their present positions to the north of the illegal McMahon Line, and to withdraw twenty kilometers back from that line. In the middle and western sectors, the Chinese frontier guards will

On the evening of November 20, Nehru,

withdraw twenty kilometers from the

seeing the disintegration of his own

line of actual control.

armies, made an appeal to the United

Aftermath [] China

States, for armed aid, including airstrikes, if Chinese forces continued

According to the PLA's official military

to advance, and air cover, in case of

history, the war achieved China's

raids by the Chinese air force. With

policy objectives of defeating the

the Chinese outnumbering every Indian

Indian forces and securing peaceful

division and faced with the idea of

borders in the western sector, as China

24

retained de facto control of the Aksai

a strong Asian Axis to counteract the

Chin. After the war, India abandoned

increasing influence of the Cold War

the Forward Policy, and the de facto

superpowers.[2]

borders stabilized along the Line of Actual Control.

The unpreparedness of the army was blamed on Defense Minister Menon,

Published scholarship in China is still

who resigned his government post to

expected to explain and justify, not to

allow for someone who might

criticize, the decisions of the Chinese

modernize India's military further.

Communist Party, at least on such

India's policy of weaponization via

sensitive matters as war.[2] Chinese

indigenous sources and self-sufficiency

publications on the war themselves do

was thus cemented. Sensing a

not mention specific dates or events

weakened army, Pakistan, a close ally

and use generalized terms. The first

of China, initiated the Second Kashmir

book-length analysis of the war from

War with India in 1965, however this

China which was allowed to be sold

war was still indecisive and led to

was published in 1993.[2]

cease fire.[61] Two years later in 1967,

[] India

there was a short border skirmish,

After India was swiftly defeated by

dubbed "Chola Incident" by India,

China memorials were erected for the

between PLA troops and Indian troops,

Indian troops who died in the war.

which went more favourably for

Arguably, the main lesson India learned

India.[62]

from the war was the need to

The Indian government commissioned

strengthen its own defenses. The

an investigation, resulting in the

country could no longer follow Nehru's

classified Henderson-Brooks-Bhagat

trusting polemics of "Hindi-Chini bhai-

Report on the causes of the war and

bhai" and non-violent peace. Because

the reasons for failure. India's

of India's inability to sense danger,

performance in high-altitude combat in

Prime Minister Nehru faced harsh

1962 led to an overhaul of the Indian

accusations from government officials,

Army in terms of doctrine, training,

as he was the one who had promoted

organization and equipment. By 1964,

good relations with China.[6] Indians in

India's military manpower had

general became highly skeptical of

doubled.[10]

China and its military. Many Indians

[] Later skirmishes

view the war as a betrayal of India's attempts at establishing a longstanding peace with China. The war also put an end to Nehru's earlier hopes that India and China would form

Indian media also declared a series of skirmishes after the 1962's war, but never been confirmed by Chinese or international media. One report is that:

25

In late 1967, there were two skirmishes

forced to move sideways along the

between Indian and Chinese forces in

Thag La ridge, away from the valley.

Sikkim. The first one was dubbed the

The Army's strong response was

"Nathu La incident", and the other the

regarded as the exorcism of the ghost

"Chola incident". Prior to these

of 1962.[76] By 1987, Beijing's tone

incidents had been the Naxalbari

becoming ominously similar to that in

uprising in India by the Communist

1962 and this prompted many Western

Naxalites and Maoists.[63]

diplomats to predict war. For logistical

Also Indian media declared on 11th September 1967, Chinese troops opened fire on Indian troops who were protecting an Engineering Company in

and tactical considerations the Chinese focused on the September 7, 1993 “Peace and Tranquility along the LAC Agreement” with India.

Nathula. The conflict escalated over

Summary

the next five days to an exchange of

against China (1962). China won the

heavy artillery and mortar fire between

border skirmish, leading India to

the Indians and the Chinese. 62 Indian

revamp the entire military system.

soldiers were killed as the Indians

After the war ended, the Department

drove back the Chinese

of Defence Production was set up to

forces.[64][65][66][67][68] The extent of Chinese

create an indigenous defense

casualties in this incident is not known.

production base which is self-reliant

As Indian side's report,a similar incident occurred in 1984, when squads of Indian soldiers began actively

India fought a border war

and self-sufficient. Since 1962, 16 new ordinance factories have been set up. [] Second Indo- Pak war, 1965

patrolling the Sumdorong Chu Valley in

The Indo- Pakistani War of 1965 was

Arunachal Pradesh in a move to

a culmination of skirmishes that took

industrialize the region.[26][69][70][71][72] The

place between April 1965 and

Indian team left the area before the

September 1965 between India and

winter.[26] In the winter of 1986, the

Pakistan. This conflict became known

Chinese deployed their troops to the

as the Second Kashmir War fought

Sumdorong Chu before the Indian

by India and Pakistan over the

team could arrive in the summer and

disputed region of Kashmir, the first

built a helipad.[73]

having been fought in 1947. The war

However, after being quickly deployed to the valley, the Indian Army was successful in shocking the Chinese in Sumdorong Chu reported by some Indian Media.[74][75] Chinese troops were

began following the failure of Pakistan's Operation Gibraltar, which was designed to infiltrate and invade Jammu and Kashmir. The five-week war caused thousands of casualties on both sides. It ended in a United

26

Nations (UN) mandated ceasefire and

Pir Pass, eight kilometers inside

the subsequent issuance of the

Pakistani-administered territory.[11]

Tashkent Declaration.

On September 1, 1965, Pakistan

Much of the war was fought by the

launched a counterattack, called

countries' land forces in Kashmir and

" Operation Grand Slam", with the

along the International Border between

objective to capture the vital town of

India and Pakistan. This war saw the

Akhnoor in Jammu, which would sever

largest amassing of troops in Kashmir

communications and cut off supply

since the Partition of India in 1947, a

routes to Indian troops. Attacking with

number that was overshadowed only

an overwhelming ratio of troops and

during the 2001-2002 military standoffs

technically superior tanks, Pakistan

between India and Pakistan. Most of

initially progressed against Indian

the battles were fought by opposing

forces, who were caught unprepared

infantry and armored units, with

and suffered heavy losses.[11] India

substantial backing from air forces.

responded by calling in its air force to

Many details of this war, like those of

blunt the Pakistani attack. The next

other Indo-Pakistani Wars, remain

day, Pakistan retaliated, its air force

unclear and many media reports have

attacked Indian forces and air bases in

been riddled with media biases.

both Kashmir and Punjab. Although

On August 15, 1965, Indian forces crossed the ceasefire line and launched an attack on the region referred to by the disputants as either "Azad Kashmir" or "Pakistan-occupied Kashmir". Pakistani reports cite this attack as unprovoked.[9] Indian reports cite the attack as a response to massive armed infiltrations of Kashmir by Pakistan.[10] Initially, the Indian Army

Operation Grand Slam ultimately failed, as the Pakistan Army was unable to capture Akhnoor, it became one of the turning points in the war when India decided to relieve pressure on its troops in Kashmir by attacking Pakistan further south. Pakistan's Ichogil Canal was a vital barrier that needed to be crossed by Indian troops. This bridge across the canal was destroyed by the Pakistan Army before retreating.

met with considerable success, capturing three important mountain

India crossed the International Border

positions after a prolonged artillery

on the Western front on September 6,

barrage. By the end of August,

marking an official beginning of the

however, both sides had experienced

war.[9] On September 6, the 15th

successes; Pakistan had made progress

Infantry Division of the Indian Army,

in areas such as Tithwal, Uri and

under World War II veteran Major

Punch and India had captured the Haji

General Prasad, battled a massive counterattack by Pakistan near the

27

west bank of the Ichogil Canal (BRB

time but after a much harder battle

Canal), which was a de facto border of

due to Pakistani reinforcements.

India and Pakistan. The General's entourage itself was ambushed and he was forced to flee his vehicle. A second, this time successful, attempt to cross the Ichhogil Canal was made over the bridge in the village of Barki, just east of Lahore. These developments brought the Indian Army within the range of Lahore International Airport. As a result, the United States requested a temporary ceasefire to allow it to evacuate its citizens in Lahore.

Lt. Col. Hari Singh of the Indian 18th Cavalry posing outside a captured Pakistani police station (Barkee) in Lahore District. On the days following September 9, both nations' premiere formations were routed in unequal battles. India's 1st Armored Division, labelled the "pride of the Indian Army", launched an offensive towards Sialkot. The Division divided itself into two prongs, came under heavy Pakistani tank fire at Taroah and was forced to withdraw.

One unit of the Jat regiment, 3 Jat, had

Similarly, Pakistan's pride, the 1st

also crossed the Ichogil canal and

Armored Division, pushed an offensive

captured[12] the town of Batapore (Jallo

towards Khemkaran, with the intent to

Mur to Pakistan) on the west side of

capture Amritsar (a major city in

the canal. The same day, a counter

Punjab, India) and the bridge on River

offensive consisting of an armored

Beas to Jalandhar. The Pakistani 1st

division and infantry division supported

Armored Division never made it past

by Pakistan Air Force Sabres forced the

Khem Karan, however, and by the end

Indian 15th Division to withdraw to its

of September 10 lay disintegrated

starting point. Although 3 Jat suffered

under the defences of the Indian 4th

minimal casualties, the bulk of the

Mountain Division at what is now

damage being taken by ammunition

known as the Battle of Asal Uttar (Real

and stores vehicles, the higher

Answer literally, or Fitting Response as

commanders had no information of 3

the more appropriate English

Jat's capture of Batapore and

equivalent). The area became known

misleading information led to the

as 'Patton Nagar' (Patton Town) as

command to withdraw from Batapore

Pakistan lost or abandoned nearly 100

and Dograi to Ghosal-Dial. This move

mostly US-made Patton tanks.

brought extreme disappointment[13] to

The war was heading for a stalemate,

Lt-Col Desmond Hayde, CO of 3 Jat.

with both nations holding territory of

Dograi was eventually recaptured by 3

the other. The Indian army suffered

Jat on 21 September, for the second

3,000 battlefield deaths, while Pakistan suffered no less than 3,800. The Indian

28

army was in possession of 710 mile²

reports of Chinese troop movements

(1,840 km²) of Pakistani territory and

on the Indian border to support

the Pakistan army held 210 mile² (545

Pakistan.[63] As such, India agreed to the

km²) of Indian territory. The territory

UN mandate in order to avoid a war

occupied by India was mainly in the

on both borders.

fertile Sialkot, Lahore and Kashmir sectors,[14] while Pakistani land gains were primarily in deserts opposite Sindh and in Chumb, in the northern sector.[15] [edit] Involvement of other nations

India's participation in the Non-Aligned Movement yielded little support from its members. Pakistan, however, gained assistance from countries of Asia with large Islamic populations, including Turkey, Iran and Indonesia. The USSR

The United States of America, which

was more neutral than most other

had previously supplied military

nations during the war and even

equipment to India and Pakistan,

invited both nations to talks that it

imposed an embargo against further

would host in Tashkent.

supplies to both countries once the

Consequences of the war [India

war had started. The US was apprehensive that military equipment

The war had created a tense state of

that it had provided to be used in a

affairs in its aftermath. Though the war

battle against communism, would

was indecisive, Pakistan suffered much

instead be used by the countries to

heavier material and personnel

fight one another. The American

casualties compared to India. Many war

embargo especially affected Pakistan

historians believe that had the war

since the majority of its equipment

continued, with growing loss and

was provided by America. This would

decreasing supplies, Pakistan would

cause Pakistan to believe that it could

have been eventually defeated. India's

not continue the war beyond

decision to declare ceasefire with

September.[62]

Pakistan caused some outrage among

Following imposition of the American embargo, other NATO allies (including

the Indian populace, who believed they had the upper hand.

the UK) discontinued providing military

India continued to increase its defense

equipment to the nations.

spending after the war. The Indian

Both before and during the war, China had been a major military associate of Pakistan and had invariably admonished India, with whom it had fought a war in 1962. There were also

Military, which was already undergoing rapid expansions, made improvements in command and control to address some shortcomings. Partly as a result of the inefficient information gathering preceding the war, India established

29

the Research and Analysis Wing for

importantly, failed to achieve its goal

external espionage and intelligence.

of occupying Kashmir; this result has

India viewed the American policy during the war as biased, since Pakistan had started the war but the

been viewed by many impartial observers as a defeat for Pakistan.[69][70][71]

US did little to restrain Pakistan.[64]

Many high ranking Pakistani officials

After the war, India slowly started

and military experts later criticized the

aligning with the Soviet Union, both

faulty planning of Operation Gibraltar

politically and militarily. This would be

that ultimately led to the war. The

cemented formally years later before

Tashkent declaration was also criticized

the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.

in Pakistan, though few citizens

In light of the failures of the previous war against the Chinese, the

realised the gravity of the situation that existed at the end of the war.

performance in this war was viewed as

Political leaders were also criticized.

a "politico-strategic" victory in India.

Following the advice of Zulfikar Ali

The Indian premier, Shastri was hailed

Bhutto, Pakistan's foreign minister,

as a hero in India.[65]

Ayub Khan had raised very high

Pakistan

expectations among the people of

At the conclusion of the war, many

Pakistan about the superiority - if not

Pakistanis considered the performance

invincibility - of its armed forces,[72] but

of their military to be positive.

Pakistan's inability to attain its military

September 6 is celebrated as 'Defence

aims during the war, created a political

Day' in Pakistan, in commemoration of

liability for Ayub.[73] The defeat of its

the successful defence of Lahore

Kashmiri ambitions in the war led to

against the Indian army. The

the army's invincibility being

performance of the Pakistani Air Force,

challenged by an increasingly vocal

in particular, was praised.

opposition.[74] And with the war creating

The myth of a mobile, hard hitting Pakistan Army, however, was badly dented in the war, as critical breakthroughs were not made.[66]

a huge financial burden, Pakistan's economy, which had witnessed rapid progress in the early 60s, took a severe beating.[75][76]

Several Pakistani writers criticized the

Pakistan was surprised by the lack of

military's ill-founded belief that their

support by the United States, an ally

"Martial Race" of soldiers could defeat

with whom the country had signed an

India in the war.[67][68] Moreover, Pakistan

Agreement of Cooperation. USA

had lost more ground than it had

declared its neutrality in the war by

gained during the war and, more

cutting off military supplies to both

30

sides,[7] leading Islamabad to believe

it was even. USSR interfered and got

that they were "betrayed" by the

the truce between the two nations at

United States.[77] After the war, Pakistan

Tashkent agreement, which also saw

would increasingly look towards China

the mysterious death of Indian PM Lal

as a major source of military hardware

Bahadur Shastri. At the same time,

and political support.

there was the possibility of a second

Another negative consequence of the war was the growing resentment

Sino-Indian war along the Nathu La Pass in Sikkim [2].

against the Pakistani government in

Ten battalions of the Sikh Regiment

East Pakistan(present day Bangladesh),

saw action in the 1965 war. In a bid to

particularly for West Pakistan's

seal off routes of infiltrations for the

obsession with Kashmir.[78] Bengali

Pakistanis in J & K, 1 Sikh who were in

leaders accused the central

the Tithwal sector attacked Pakistani

government of not providing adequate

positions . A company led by Major

security for East Pakistan during the

Somesh Kapur captured Richhmar

conflict, even though large sums of

Ridge on 24 August 1965 and then

money were taken from the east to

attacked and captured the Pir Sahiba

finance the war for Kashmir.[79] In fact,

feature on the night of 25/26 August.

despite some Pakistan Air Force

From this feature the Indian troops

attacks being launched from bases in

could now overlook an extensive area

East Pakistan during the war, India did

under Pakistan control. Through out

not retaliate in that sector,[80] although

September, Pakistani troops tried hard

East Pakistan was defended only by a

to recapture this feature but were

two-infantry brigade division (14

unsuccessful. 1 Sikh received 3 Vir

Division) without any tank support.[81]

Chakras ( Major Somesh Kapur and L/

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was critical of

Havildar Gurdev Singh and Sepoy

the disparity in military resources

Gurmel Singh (posth.)) for these

deployed in East and West Pakistan,

operations .

calling for greater autonomy for East

[] The Chola Incident

Pakistan, which ultimately led to the

The 1967 Sino- Indian skirmish also

Bangladesh Liberation war and another

known as the Chola incident, was a

war between India and Pakistan in

day-long battle between Indian troops

1971.

and members of the Chinese People's Liberation Army in Sikkim.[1] The

The second Indo-Pak war was also

conflict ran from October 1 to October

fought over Kashmir issue. It ended in

2 1967.[1]

with Indian forces gaining chunks of lands all around except Punjab where

31

The skirmish occurred in the country of

Shoora (Parliament of Pakistan). Awami

Sikkim. India was responsible for the

League leader, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman,

defense of Sikkim at that time. The

presented the Six Points to the

region is one of high altitudes and

President of Pakistan and claimed the

thus mountainous maneuvers were

right to form the government. After the

crucial in battle. Early Chinese

leader of the Pakistan Peoples Party,

positions in regions of higher altitudes

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, refused to yield the

would thus have provided them with

premiership of Pakistan to Mujibur,

an advantage. To reclaim high ground

President Yahya Khan called out the

would generally require a higher ratio

military, which was made up largely of

of attackers to defenders.

West Pakistanis.

[edit] Background Main articles: Sino-Indian relations, McMahon Line, and Sino-Indian War

Mass arrests of dissidents began, and attempts were made to disarm East Pakistani soldiers and police. After

China has claimed that the McMahon

several days of strikes and non-

Line created by Britain in NEFA was

cooperation movements, the Pakistani

illegal. Thus they claimed the territory

military cracked down on Dhaka on the

of Sikkim as part of South Tibet, a part

night of March 25, 1971. The Awami

of China.

League was banished, and many

[2]

Since then, China has

accepted Sikkim as part of India that it

members fled into exile in India. Mujib

refused to do earlier.

was arrested and taken to West

[3]

Pakistan. A Sino-India skirmish took place in

On 27 March 1971, Ziaur Rahman, a

1967 and is known today as the Chola

rebellious major in the Pakistani army,

Incident.

declared the independence of

[] Third Indo- Pak war, 1971

Bangladesh on behalf of Mujibur. In April, exiled Awami League leaders

The Indo-Pakistani conflict was sparked

formed a government-in-exile in

by the Bangladesh Liberation war, a

Boiddonathtola of Meherpur. The East

conflict between the traditionally

Pakistan Rifles, an elite paramilitary

dominant West Pakistanis and the

force, defected to the rebellion. A

majority East Pakistanis. The

guerrilla troop of civilians, the Mukti

Bangladesh Liberation war ignited after

Bahini, was formed to help the

the 1970 Pakistani election, in which

Bangladesh Army.

the East Pakistani Awami League won 167 of 169 seats in East Pakistan and secured a simple majority in the 313seat lower house of the Majlis-e-

The Indo- Pakistani War of 1971 was a major military conflict between India and Pakistan. The war is closely

32

associated with the Bangladesh

Glacier was under territorial dispute,

Liberation War (sometimes also

but in the late 1970s and early 1980s,

referred to as the Pakistani Civil War).

Pakistan began organizing several

Although there is some disagreement

tourist expeditions to the Glacier. India,

about the exact dates of the war,

irked by this development, mounted

hostilities between India and Pakistan

Operation Meghdoot, and captured the

commenced officially on the evening of

top of the Glacier by establishing a

December 3, 1971. The armed conflict

military base which it still maintains to

on India's western front during the

this day at a cost of more than US$1

period between 3 December 1971 and

million per day.[1] Pakistan on the other

16 December 1971 is called the "Indo-

hand spends just under US$1 million

Pakistani War" by both the Bangladeshi

per day, though as % of GDP Pakistan

and Indian armies. The war ended in

spends 5 times as the Indian Military

the surrender of the Pakistani military

does to maintain its share of the

after armed hostilities on two fronts.

glacier.[2] Pakistan tried in 1987 and in

In the third Indo-Pak war, India intervened decisively in what was then East Pakistan due to the mass exodus of refugees to India following West Pakistani military action there. The new

1989 to re-take the Glacier but was unsuccessful. A stalemate has arose where India controls the top part of the Glacier and Pakistan is placed at the bottom of the Glacier.

nation of Bangladesh was created as a

In the 1970s and early 1980s several

result. India succeeded in removing

mountaineering expeditions applied to

Pakistani soldiers from what is now

Pakistan to climb high peaks in the

known as "East Pakistan" resulting in

Siachen area as U.S army maps

the formation of Bangladesh. This

deliberately showed it on Pakistani side

conflict is often cited as India's

of the Line of Control, and Pakistan

greatest military victory, but also

granted them. This in turn reinforced

among the greatest genocides of the

the Pakistani claim on the area, as

20th century wherein Pakistani forces

these expeditions arrived on the

slaughtered anywhere from 1 million to

glacier with a permit obtained from

3 million Bangladeshi's, the vast

the Government of Pakistan. Teram

majority being Hindu.

Kangri I (7,465 m/24,490 ft) and Teram

[] Siachin war, 1984

Kangri II (7,406 m/24,300 ft) were climbed in 1975 by a Japanese

The Siachin war between India and Pakistan occurred in 1984. The area of the dispute was the Siachen Glacier the world's highest battlefield. The

expedition led by H. Katayama, which approached through Pakistan via the Bilafond La.[6] Once having become aware of this and the errant US

33

military maps, Colonel N. Kumar of the

current Pakistani president, General

Indian Army, then commanding the

Pervez Musharraf states that Pakistan

Army's High-Altitude Warfare School,

lost almost 900 square miles (2,300 km2)

mounted an Army expedition to the

of territory.[10] TIME states that the

Siachen area as a counter-exercise. In

Indian advance captured nearly

1978 this expedition climbed Teram

1,000 square miles (2,600 km2) of

Kangri II, claiming it as a first ascent

territory claimed by Pakistan.[11] Since

in a typical 'oropolitical' riposte.

then Pakistan has launched several

Unusually for the normally secretive

attempts to displace the Indian forces,

Indian Army, the news and

but with little success. The most well

photographs of this expedition were

known was in 1987, when an attempt

published in 'The Illustrated Weekly of

was made by Pakistan to dislodge

India', a widely-circulated popular

India from the area. The attack was

magazine.[7]

masterminded by Pervez Musharraf

The first public mention of a possible conflict situation in the Siachen was an abbreviated article titled "High Politics in the Karakoram" by Joydeep Sircar in

The Telegraph newspaper of Calcutta in 1982[8]. The full text was printed as "Oropolitics" in the Alpine Journal, London, in 1984.[9] India launched Operation Meghdoot (named after the divine cloud messenger in a Sanskrit play by Kalidasa) on 13 April 1984 when the Kumaon Regiment of the Indian Army and the Indian Air Force went into the glacier region. Pakistan quickly responded with troop deployments and what followed was literally a race to the top. Within a few days, the Indians were in control over most of the area, as Pakistan was beaten to most of the Saltoro Ridge high ground by about a week. The two northern passes - Sia La and Bilafond La - were quickly secured by India. In his memoirs,

(later President of Pakistan) heading a newly raised elite SSG commando unit raised with United States Special Operations Forces help in the area.[12] A special garrison with eight thousand troops was built at Khapalu. The immediate aim was to capture Bilafond La but after bitter fighting that included hand to hand combat, the Pakistanis were thrown back and the positions remained the same. The only Param Vir Chakra - India's highest gallantry award - to be awarded for combat in the Siachen area went to Naib Subedar Bana Singh (retired as Subedar Major/Honorary Captain), who in a daring daylight raid assaulted and captured a Pakistani post atop a 22,000 foot (6,700 m) peak, now named Bana Post.[13] Further attempts to reclaim positions were launched by Pakistan in 1990, 1995, 1996 and even in early 1999, just prior to the Lahore Summit. The 1995 attack by Pakistan SSG was

34

significant as it resulted in 40

maintaining these outposts are put at

casualties for Pakistan troops without

~$300 and ~$200 million for India and

any changes in the positions. An Indian

Pakistan respectively. India has built

IAF MI-17 helicopter was shot down in

the world's highest helipad on this

1996.

glacier at a place called Sonam, which

[edit] Current situation

is at 21,000 feet (6,400 m) above the

The Indian army controls all of the

sea level, to serve the area. India also

70 kilometres (43 mi) long Siachen

installed the world's highest telephone

Glacier as well as all of its tributary

booth on the glacier.[18] One of the

glaciers as well as the three main

factors behind the Kargil War in 1999

passes of the Saltoro Ridge

when Pakistan sent infiltrators to

immediately west of the glacier, Sia La,

occupy vacated Indian posts across the

Bilafond La, and Gyong La, thus

Line of Control was their belief that

holding onto the tactical advantage of

India would be forced to withdraw from

high ground.[14].

Siachen in return for Pakistan pulling

[15]

Gyong La (Pass)

itself is at 35-10-29N, 77-04-15 E; that

back from Kargil. Both sides have been

high point is controlled by India. The

wishing to disengage from the costly

Pakistanis control the glacial valley just

military outposts but after the Kargil

five kilometers southwest of Gyong La.

War India has backed off from

The line where Indian and Pakistani

withdrawing in Siachen, wary that the

troops are presently holding onto their

Kargil scenario could play out again if

respective posts is being increasingly

they vacate their Siachen Glacier posts

referred to as the Actual Ground

without any official confirmation of

Position Line (AGPL).[16][17]

their positions.

The Pakistanis have been unable get

During her tenure as Prime Minister of

up to the crest of the Saltoro Ridge,

Pakistan, Ms Benazir Bhutto, visited the

while the Indians cannot come down

area west of Gyong La, making her the

and abandon their strategic high posts.

first premier from either side to get to

A cease fire went into effect in 2003.

the Siachen region. On June 12, 2005,

Even before then, every year more

Prime Minister Manmohan Singh

soldiers were killed because of severe

became the first Indian Prime Minister

weather than enemy firing. The two

to visit the area, calling for a peaceful

sides have lost an estimated 2,000

resolution of the problem. In the

personnel primarily due to frostbite,

previous year, the President of India,

avalanches and other complications.

Abdul Kalam became the first head of

Both nations have 150 manned

state to visit the area. India based Jet

outposts along the glacier, with some

Airways plans to open a chartered

3,000 troops each. Official figures for

service to the glacier's nearest airlink,

35

the Thoise airbase, mainly for military

By 21 May, the Indian army had

purposes. Pakistan's PIA flies tourists

isolated Tiger Hill from three directions,

and trekkers daily to Skardu, which is

east, north and south. In order to

the jumping off point for K2, the

inflict casualties the enemy positions

world's second highest point just 33

on Tiger Hill were subjected to artillery

kilometers (20.5 miles) northwest of the

and mortar fire. A fresh battalion, 18

Siachen area, although bad weather

Grenadiers was brought in to capture

frequently grounds these scheduled

the peak with regiments holding the

flights.

firm base. On the night of July 3, 18

Since September 2007, India has opened up mountaineering and trekking expeditions to the forbidding glacial heights. The expeditions are also meant to show to the international audience that Indian troops hold "almost all dominating

Grenadiers captured the eastern slope but further advance was held up due to effective enemy fire from Helmet Top, India Gate features on the western slope. By morning July 4th Tiger Hill was captured by the 18th Grenadiers, effectively ending Pakistan's Kargil War.

heights" on the important Saltoro

The Kargil War, also known as the

Ridge and, to show that Pakistani

Kargil conflict,(I) was an armed

troops are not within 15 miles (24 km)

conflict between India and Pakistan

of the 43.5-mile (70 km) Siachen

that took place between May and July

Glacier.[19] Despite protests from

1999 in the Kargil district of Kashmir.

Pakistan, India maintains that it doesn't

The cause of the war was the

need Pakistan's approval to send

infiltration of Pakistani soldiers and

trekkers to Siachen, in what it says is

Kashmiri militants into positions on the

essentially an Indian territory.[20]

Indian side of the Line of Control,

Coordinates:

35.5° N 77.0° E

[] Kargil war, 1999 India fought a brief border skirmish with Pakistan in the Indian state of Kashmir in 1999. Dubbed the Kargil War, after the infiltration of Pakistani soldiers and paramilitary in the Kargil area, India reclaimed the territory through military and diplomatic channels. Pakistan lost 4000 soldiers, while India lost little over 500.

which serves as the de facto border between the two states. During and directly after the war, Pakistan blamed the fighting entirely on independent Kashmiri insurgents, but documents left behind by casualties and later statements by Pakistan's Prime Minister and Chief of Army Staff showed involvement of Pakistani paramilitary forces. The Indian Army, supported by the Indian Air Force, attacked the Pakistani positions and, with international diplomatic support,

36

eventually forced a Pakistani

nations took notice of the conflict and

withdrawal across the Line of Control

desired to end it.

(LoC).

The first hint of the possible use of a

The war is one of the most recent

nuclear bomb was on May 31 when

examples of high altitude warfare in

Pakistani foreign secretary Shamshad

mountainous terrain, and posed

Ahmad made a statement warning that

significant logistical problems for the

an escalation of the limited conflict

combating sides. This was the first

could lead Pakistan to use "any

direct ground war between any two

weapon" in its arsenal.[47] This was

countries after they had developed

immediately interpreted as an obvious

nuclear weapons. (India and Pakistan

threat of a nuclear retaliation by

both test-detonated fission devices in

Pakistan in the event of an extended

May 1998, though the first Indian

war, and the leader of Pakistan's

nuclear test was conducted in 1974.)

senate noted, "The purpose of

The conflict led to heightened tension

developing weapons becomes

between the two nations and increased

meaningless if they are not used when

defence spending on the part of India.

they are needed."[48] Many such

In Pakistan, the aftermath caused

ambiguous statements from officials of

instability to the government and the

both countries were viewed as an

economy, and, on October 12, 1999, a

impending nuclear crisis. The limited

coup d'etat by the military placed

nuclear arsenals of both sides,

army chief Pervez Musharraf in power.

paradoxically could have led to

One of the main concerns in the international community during the Kargil crisis was that both neighbours had access to weapons of mass destruction, and if the war intensified, it could have led to nuclear war. Both countries had tested their nuclear capability a year before in 1998; India conducted its first test in 1974 while it was Pakistan's first-ever nuclear test. Many pundits believed the tests to be

'tactical' nuclear warfare in the belief that a nuclear strike would not have ended in total nuclear warfare with mutual assured destruction, as could have occurred between the United States and the USSR. Some experts believe that following nuclear tests in 1998, Pakistani military was emboldened by its nuclear deterrent cover to markedly increase coercion against India.[49]

an indication of the escalating stakes

The nature of the India-Pakistan

in the scenario in South Asia. With the

conflict took a more sinister proportion

outbreak of clashes in Kashmir just a

when the U.S. received intelligence

year after the nuclear tests, many

that Pakistani nuclear warheads were being moved towards the border. Bill

37

Clinton tried to dissuade Pakistan

use non-conventional weapons. One

prime minister Nawaz Sharif from

militant group even claimed to possess

nuclear brinkmanship, even threatening

chemical weapons; this was later found

Pakistan of dire consequences.

to be a hoax, and even the gas masks

According to a White House official,

were most likely intended by the

Sharif seemed to be genuinely

Pakistanis as protection from an Indian

surprised by this supposed missile

attack. The Pakistani allegations of

movement and responded that India

India using banned chemicals in its

was probably planning the same. This

bombs were proven to be unfounded

was later confirmed in an article in

by the U.S. administration at the time

May 2000, which stated that India too

and the OPCW.[

had readied at least five nuclear-

Aftermath [] India

tipped ballistic missiles.[50] Sensing a deteriorating military scenario, diplomatic isolation, and the risks of a larger conventional and nuclear war, Sharif ordered the Pakistani army to vacate the Kargil heights. He later claimed in his official biography that General Pervez Musharraf had moved nuclear warheads without informing him.[51] Recently however, Pervez Musharraf revealed in his memoirs that Pakistan’s nuclear delivery system was not operational during the Kargil war;[19] something that would have put Pakistan under serious disadvantage if the conflict went nuclear.

Indian PM A.B.Vajpayee flashes the V sign after the Parliamentary elections in which his coalition emerged the victors. His handling of the Kargil crisis is believed to have played a big part in garnering the votes. The aftermath of the war saw the rise of the Indian stock market by over 30%. The next Indian national budget

Additionally, the threat of WMD

included major increases in military

included a suspected use of chemical

spending. From the end of the war

and even biological weapons. Pakistan

until February 2000, the economy of

accused India of using chemical

India was bullish. There was a surge in

weapons and incendiary weapons such

patriotism, with many celebrities

as napalm against the Kashmiri

pitching in towards the Kargil cause.[53]

fighters. India, on the other hand,

Indians were also angered by the

showcased a cache of gas masks,

death of pilot Ajay Ahuja under

among other firearms, as proof that

controversial circumstances, and

Pakistan may have been prepared to

especially after Indian authorities

38

reported that Ahuja had been

did not fully inform the government

murdered and his body mutilated by

about the intrusions, adding that the

Pakistani troops. The war had also

army chief Ved Prakash Malik, was

produced higher than expected

initially reluctant to use the full strike

fatalities for the Indian military, with a

capability of the Indian Air Force,

sizeable percentage of them including

instead requesting only helicopter

newly commissioned officers. One

gunship support.[56] Soon after the

month later, the Atlantique Incident -

conflict, India also decided to complete

where a Pakistan Navy plane was shot

the project - previously stalled by

down by India - briefly reignited fears

Pakistan - to fence the entire LOC.[57]

of a conflict between the two countries.

The Kargil victory was followed by the 13th Indian General Elections to the

After the war, the Indian government

Lok Sabha, which gave a decisive

severed ties with Pakistan and

mandate to the NDA government. It

increased defence preparedness. Since

was re-elected to power in

the Kargil conflict, India raised its

September–October 1999 with a

defence budget as it sought to acquire

majority of 303 seats out of 545 in the

more state of the art equipment;

Lok Sabha. On the diplomatic front, the

however, a few irregularities came to

conflict was a major boost to Indo-U.S.

light during this period of heightened

relations, as the United States

military expenditure.[54] There was also

appreciated Indian attempts to restrict

severe criticism of the intelligence

the conflict to a limited geographic

agencies like RAW, which failed to

area. These ties were further

predict either the intrusions or the

strengthened following the 9/11 attacks

identity/number of infiltrators during

and a general shift in foreign policy of

the war. An internal assessment report

the two nations. Relations with Israel –

by the armed forces, published in an

which had discreetly aided India with

Indian magazine, showed several other

ordnance supply and matériel such as

failings, including "a sense of

unmanned aerial vehicles and laser-

complacency" and being "unprepared

guided bombs, as well as satellite

for a conventional war" on the

imagery – also were bolstered

presumption that nuclearism would

following the end of the conflict.[58]

sustain peace. It also highlighted the

[] Pakistan

lapses in command and control, the insufficient troop levels and the dearth of large-calibre guns like the Bofors.[55] In 2006, retired Air Chief Marshal, A.Y. Tipnis, alleged that the Indian Army

39

believed to have felt let down by the prime minister's decision to withdraw the remaining fighters. However, some authors, including ex-CENTCOM Commander Anthony Zinni, and ex-PM Nawaz Sharif, state that it was the In 1999 TIME reported from the front line[59] of the combat and provided one of the few images of a Pakistani soldier at his post. Faced with the possibility of international isolation, the already fragile Pakistani economy was weakened further.[60][61] The morale of its forces after the withdrawal was affected[62] as many units of the

General who requested Sharif to withdraw the Pakistani troops.[70][71] With Sharif placing the onus of the Kargil attacks squarely on the army chief Pervez Musharraf, there was an atmosphere of uneasiness between the two. On October 12, 1999, General Musharraf staged a bloodless coup

d'état, ousting Nawaz Sharif.

Northern Light Infantry were

Benazir Bhutto, an opposition leader

destroyed,[63] and the government

and former prime minister, called the

refused to even recognise the dead

Kargil War "Pakistan's greatest

bodies of its soldiers,[64][65] an issue that

blunder". Many ex-officials of the

provoked outrage and protests in the

military and the ISI (Pakistan's principal

Northern Areas.[66][67] Pakistan initially

intelligence agency) also were of the

did not acknowledge many of its

view that "Kargil was a waste of time"

casualties, but Sharif later said that

and "could not have resulted in any

over 4,000 Pakistani troops were killed

advantage" on the larger issue of

in the operation and that Pakistan had

Kashmir.[72] A retired Pakistani Army

lost the conflict. Responding to this,

General, Lt Gen Ali Kuli Khan,

Pakistan President Pervez Musharraf

lambasted the war as "a disaster

said, "It hurts me when an ex-premier

bigger than the East Pakistan

undermines his own forces," and

tragedy",[73] adding that the plan was

claimed that Indian casualties were

"flawed in terms of its conception,

more than that of Pakistan.[68]

tactical planning and execution" that

Many in Pakistan had expected a victory over the Indian military based on Pakistani official reports on the war,[60] but were dismayed by the turn of events and questioned the eventual retreat.[13][69] The military leadership is

ended in "sacrificing so many soldiers.".[74][73] The Pakistani media too was vocal in its criticism of the whole plan and the eventual climbdown from the Kargil heights since there were no gains to show for the loss of lives and

40

only resulted in international

performance in the war - which even

condemnation for its actions.[75]

drew praise from a retired Indian Lt.

Despite calls by many for a probe, no public commission of inquiry was set up to investigate the people responsible for initiating the conflict. However, the Pakistani political party, PML(N) unveiled a white paper in 2006, which states that Nawaz Sharif constituted an inquiry committee that recommended a court martial for General Pervez Musharraf.[76] The party alleges that Musharraf "stole the report" after toppling the government, to save himself. The report also claims that India knew about the plan 11 months before its launch, enabling a complete victory for India on military, diplomatic and economic fronts.[77] A statement in June, 2008 by a former army corps commander of Pakistan that Sharif "was never briefed by the army" on the Kargil attack,[78] had reignited the demand for a proble on the episode by legal & political groups.[79][80] Though the Kargil conflict had brought the Kashmir dispute into international focus – which was one of the aims of Pakistan – it had done so in negative circumstances that eroded its credibility, since the infiltration came just after a peace process between the two countries was underway. The sanctity of the LoC too received international recognition.

General[25] - the regiment was incorporated into the regular army. The war showed that despite a tactically sound plan that had the element of surprise, little groundwork had been done to gauge the politico-diplomatic ramifications.[81] And like previous unsuccessful infiltrations attempts like

Operation Gibraltar that sparked the 1965 war, there was little coordination or information sharing among the branches of the Pakistan military. One U.S. Intelligence study is reported to have stated that Kargil was yet another example of Pakistan’s (lack of) grand strategy, repeating the follies of the previous wars.[82] All these factors contributed to a strategic failure for Pakistan in Kargil. [] Other Operations [] Sri Lanka mission, 1987-1990 The Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) carried out a mission in northern and eastern Sri Lanka, in 1987–1990 to disarm the LTTE as per the Indo-Sri Lanka accord. In what was labeled as

Operation Pawan, the Indian Air Force flew about 70,000 sorties to and within Sri Lanka, without a single aircraft lost or mission aborted. [] Operation Cactus, 1988 In November 1988, the Maldives Government appealed India for military help against a mercenary invasion. On

After the war, a few changes were

the night of November 3, 1988, the

made to the army. In recognition of

Indian Air Force airlifted a parachute

the Northern Light Infantry's

41

battalion group from Agra and flew

months. In 1974, India tested a device

them non-stop over 2000 km to

of up to 15 kilotons. The test was a

Maldives. The Indian paratroopers

"peaceful nuclear explosion" and was

landed at Hulule, secured the airfield

codenamed "Operation Smiling

and restored the Government rule at

Buddha".

Malé within hours. The brief, bloodless

[] Operation Shakti ( nuclear tests, 199 8)

operation showed the capability of the Indian Air Force in what was labeled

On May 11 and May 13, 1998, India

as Operation Cactus.

conducted five underground nuclear

[] Missile program

tests (3 on May 11 and 2 on May 13)

India has a well developed missile capabilities, which traces its roots to the Indian Space Program.

and declared itself a nuclear state. [] Overview and recent developments The Indian military today ranks as the

[] Integrated Guided Missile Development Program ( IGMDP)

world's third largest after the USA and

The Integrated Guided Missile

million strong, the paramilitary unit of

Development Program (IGMDP) was

the Republic of India is the world's

formed in 1983 with the aim of

largest and most elite paramilitary

achieving self-sufficiency in missile

force. Eager to portray itself as a

development & production.

potential superpower, India began an

Presently it comprises five core missile programs

China in terms of troops. Over a

intense phase of modernization and upgradation of its armed forces in the late 1990s. India is focusing more on

    

Agni ballistic missile Prithvi ballistic missile Akash surface-to-air missile Trishul surface-to-air missile Nag anti-tank guided missile

This program has given India self reliance in Missile development. So, attempts like Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) to control access to and availability of advanced

developing indigenous military equipments rather than relying on other countries for military supplies. This change in policy has paid off well for the Indian Armed Forces. Most of the Indian naval ships and submarines, military armoured vehicles, missiles and ammunition are indigenously designed and manufactured.

weapon systems for developing nations

[] Military collaborations with other nations

are not a major concern for India now.

Apart from diverting resources towards

[] Nuclear program [] Smiling Buddha, 1974

indigenously manufacturing military

In 1966, India had declared that it can produce nuclear weapons within 18

equipment, the Indian Government is also focusing on collaborating with other countries to develop cutting-

42

edge military technology and weapons.

destroyed ammunition worth Rs. 378

Jointly developed by Russia and India,

crore.

the world's only supersonic cruise

[] Awards

missile, known as the BrahMos, was

In Independent India, the gallantry

successfully test-fired in 2001. In 1997,

awards for exemplary display of

India agreed to participate in the

bravery in war time are the Param Vir

development of Russia's Prospective

Chakra, Maha Vir Chakra and Vir

Air Complex for Tactical Air Forces

Chakra in the decreasing order of

program. One of the primary objectives

importance. Their peace time

of the program is to develop a 5th

equivalents are the Ashoka Chakra,

generation fighter aircraft, a prototype

Kirti Chakra and Shaurya Chakra. The

of which, known as the Su-47, flew its

latter two awards were formerly known

first successful test-flight in 1997. India

as Ashoka Chakra, Class II and Ashoka

is also collaborating with Israel to

Chakra, Class III respectively.

develop Unmanned Aerial Vehicles and

Sometimes, the peace time awards are

anti-missile defense systems.

bestowed on civilians as well. For

India is now focusing on purchasing

meritorious service, the awards are

the technology behind the military

Param Vishisht Seva Medal, Athi

equipment rather than the military

Vishisht Seva Medal and Vishisht Seva

equipment. Recent examples of the

Medal in decreasing order of

successful implementation of this

importance.

Indian policy include the purchase of Sukhoi Su-30 MKI multi-role fighter aircraft and T-90 main battle tanks from Russia and diesel-powered Scorpene submarines from France. In 2004, India purchased US$ 5.7 billion worth of military equipment from other countries, making it the developing world's leading arms-purchaser. [] Disasters On April 28, 2000, ammunition worth Rs. 393 crore was destroyed due to a fire at the Bharatpur ammunition depot. Another fire at Pathankot sub-depot resulted in loss of ammo worth Rs. 27.39 crore. On May 24, 2001, another blaze at the Birdhwal sub-depot

43