Idol Worship In Pre Islamic Arabia

chapter twelve idol-worship in pre-islamic arabia religious conditions in pre-islamic arabia kabah was built in mecca, by abraham and his son ishmael as a first-ever monument dedicated to one god. built around the famous black stone (probably a meteorite) in the remotest antiquity, the kabah ever remained the holiest and the most sacred of the temples and this gave mecca an overwhelming predominance over the other cities of arabia. with the passage of many thousands years, the descendants of ishmael abandon worship of one god alone and were seduced by idol worship. at the time of muhammad’s birth, kabah was the bastion of paganism and idol-worship. there were 360 idols, one for each day, arranged around the great god hubal, two gazelles of gold and silver, and image of abraham and his son ishmael. here the tribes came from all over arabia, year after year, to kiss the black stone, and circumambulate around kabah seven times, usually naked. human sacrifices were also frequent. the three moon-goddesses – al-lat, the bright moon, al-manat the dark moon, and al-uzza, the union of the two were regarded as the daughters of the high god. the goddess uzza was represented by a tree at a place called nakhla. the goddess lat was located in taif. manat was represented by a rock on the caravan road between mecca and syria. arabs also worshipped animal and plants, the gazelle, the horse, the camel, the palm tree, inorganic matter like pieces of rock, stones, etc. belief in jins, ghouls, and oracles were rendered by their idols, which they consulted by means of pointless arrows. each tribe had its particular idols and temples. the priest and hierophants attached to these temples received rich offering from the devotees. and often, there arose sanguinary conflicts between the followers of rival temples.

besides specials idols located in the temples each family had household penates, which exacted rigorous observations. they often carried their idols with them when they traveled, presuming that the idol had permitted its worshiper to travel. all these statues, whether in kabah or scattered around the tribes, were regarded as intermediaries and a means of rapprochement between their worshipers and supreme god. the idea of a supreme deity, however was not unrecognized but it influence was confined to a minority. the prestige of the kabah, the chapel of abraham and ishmael, stood unimpeached among all. the custody of this temple was an object of great jealousy among the tribes, as it conferred on the custodians the most honorable functions and privileges in the sight of the arabs. at the time of muhammad’s birth this honor was possessed by his family and his grandfather was the venerable chief of the theocratic commonwealth which was constituted around the kabah. the translation of the quran is presented below in bold letters and explanation in parentheses. polytheism verses monotheism - an islamic perspective (6:151) say: “come, let me convey unto you what god has [really] forbidden to you: “do not ascribe divinity, in any way, to aught beside him.” [in the stories of pre-islamic prophets, implications have - as is always the case with quranic stories and parables - a universal, timeless import. the stress is on the intrinsic impossibility of reconciling belief in the one god, whose omniscience and omnipotence embraces all that exists, with an attribution of divine or semi-divine qualities and functions to anyone or anything else. all religious attitudes based on a desire to bring god closer to man through the interposition of alleged mediators between him and man. in primitive religions, this interposition led to the deification of various forces of nature and, subsequently, to the invention of imaginary deities, which

were thought to act against the background of an undefined, dimly-perceived supreme power (for instance, the moira of the ancient greeks). in higher religious concepts, this need for mediation assumes the form of personified manifestations of god through subordinate deities (as is the case, in hinduism, with the personifications of the absolute brahma of the upanishads and the vedanta in the forms of vishnu or shiva), or in his supposed incarnation in human form (as represented in the christian idea of jesus as god’s son and the second person of the trinity). and, lastly, god is supposedly brought closer to man by the interposition of a hierarchy of saints, living or dead, whose intercession is sought even by people who consider themselves to be monotheists - and this includes many misguided muslims who do not realize that their belief in saints as mediators between men and god conflicts with the very essence of islam. the ever-recurring quranic stress on the oneness and uniqueness of god, and the categorical denial of the idea that anyone or anything - whether it be a concrete being or an abstract force could have the least share in god’s qualities or the least influence on the manner in which he governs the universe aims at freeing man from the selfimposed servitude to an imaginary hierarchy of mediating powers, and at making him realize that “wherever you turn, there is god’s countenance” (2:115), and that god is “always near, responding to the call of whoever calls unto him” (2:186). whenever the term shuraka (pl. of sharik) is used in the quran with reference to beliefs, it invariably denotes real or imaginary beings or forces to whom one ascribes a share in god’s divinity: consequently, this concept - and its utter condemnation in islam - relates not merely to the worship of false deities but also to the attribution of semidivine qualities and powers to saints (in the liturgical sense of this word), as well as to abstract notions like wealth, social status, power, nationality, etc.,

to which men so often ascribe an objective influence on human destinies. the following are the arguments put forth by pagans of arabia and the quranic response to them.] do not give god any compeers (2:21-22) o mankind! worship your sustainer, who has created you and those who lived before you, so that you might remain conscious of him who has made the earth a resting-place for you and the sky a canopy, and has sent down water from the sky and thereby brought forth fruits for your sustenance: do not, then, claim that there is any power that could rival god, when you know [that he is one]. [lit., “do not give god any compeers”. this term implies any object of adoration to which some or all of god's qualities are ascribed, whether it be conceived as a deity “in its own right” or a saint supposedly possessing certain divine or semi-divine powers. this meaning can be brought out only by a free rendering of the above phrase.] following ancestral beliefs blindly abraham’s criticism of idol-worship, his people merely stress its antiquity, forgetting - that ancient usage and precedence in time are no proof of a concept soundness (see part 1, under abraham). (5:103-105) and most of them never use their reason: for when they are told, “come unto that which god has bestowed from on high, and unto the apostle” - they answer, “enough for us is that which we found our forefathers believing in and doing.” why, even though their forefathers knew nothing, and were devoid of all guidance? o you who have attained to faith! it is [but] for your own selves that you are responsible: those who go astray can do you no harm if you [yourselves] are on the right path. unto god you all must return: and then he will make you [truly]

understand all that you were doing [in life]. (11:109, 111) and so, [o prophet,] be not in doubt about anything that those [misguided people] worship: [do not think that their beliefs are based on reason: a reference, primarily, to the pagan arabs who rejected god’s message on the plea that it conflicted with their; and, more generally, to all people who are accustomed to worship (in the widest sense of this word) false values handed down from their ancestors and who, consequently, observe false standards of morality: an attitude which must unavoidably - as the last sentence of this verse shows - result in future suffering, be it in this world or in the hereafter, or in both.] they but [thoughtlessly] worship as their forefathers worshipped aforetime; and, behold, we shall most certainly give them their full due [for whatever good or evil they have earned], without diminishing aught thereof. [we shall repay them their portion in full, undiminished.] and, verily, unto each and all will thy sustainer give their full due for whatever [good or evil] they may have done: behold, he is aware of all that they do! (31:21-24) and when such [people] are told to follow that which god has bestowed from on high, they answer, “nay, we shall follow that which we found our forefathers believing in and doing!” why - [would you follow your forefathers] even if satan had invited them unto the suffering of the blazing flame? [as in many other places in the quran, the above verse expresses an oblique condemnation of blindly following religion of forefathers.] now whoever surrenders his whole being unto god, and is a doer of good withal, has indeed taken hold of a support most unfailing: for with god rests the final outcome of all events. but as for him who is bent on denying the truth - let not his denial grieve you: unto us they must return, and then we shall make them [truly] understand all that

they were doing [in life]: for, verily, god has full knowledge of what is in the hearts [of men]. we will let them enjoy themselves for a short while but in the end we shall drive them into suffering severe. worshipping of idols bring us nearer to god (39:1-3) the bestowal from on high of this divine writ issues from god, the almighty, the wise: for, behold, it is we who have bestowed this revelation upon you (muhammad) from on high, setting forth the truth: so worship him, sincere in your faith in him alone! is it not to god alone that all sincere faith is due? and yet, they who take for their protectors aught beside him [are wont to say], “we worship them for no other reason than that they bring us nearer to god.” [this relates not only to the worship of saints, angels and deified persons as such, but also to that of their symbolic representations (statues, pictures, relics, etc.) and, in the case of defunct human personalities, of their real or reputed tombs. since all such practices are based on the worshipper’s hope of mediation between himself and god, they obviously conflict with the concept of his omniscience and justice, and are, therefore - notwithstanding their widespread occurrence utterly rejected by the quran.] behold, god will judge between them [on resurrection day] with regard to all wherein they differ [from the truth]: [i.e., between those worshippers and the spiritual leaders who have led them astray.] for, verily, god does not grace with his guidance anyone who is bent on lying [to himself and is] stubbornly ingrate! worship of angels and goddesses god chosen for himself daughters (37:149) and now ask them to enlighten you: has thy sustainer daughters, whereas they would have [only] sons? [this reference to people who ascribe divinity to beings other than god.]

(43:15-18) and yet, they attribute to him offspring from among some of the beings created by him! verily, most obviously bereft of all gratitude is man! [despite the fact that most people readily admit that god has created all that exists, some of them tend to forget his uniqueness.] or [do you think], perchance, that out of all his creation he has chosen for himself daughters, and favored you with sons? [the people thus addressed were the pagan arabs, who believed that some of their goddesses, as well as the angels, were god’s daughters. since pre-islamic arabs regarded daughters as a mere liability and their birth as a disgrace, this verse is obviously ironical.] for [thus it is:] if any of them is given the glad tiding of [the birth of] what he so readily attributes to the most gracious, [i.e., female offspring, which implies a natural likeness to its progenitor.] his face darkens, and he is filled with suppressed anger: “what! [am i to have a daughter -] one who is to be reared [only] for the sake of ornament?” [one who, from the viewpoint of the pre-islamic arabs, would have no function other than embellishing a man’s life.] - and thereupon he finds himself torn by a vague inner conflict. [he finds himself in an invisible inner conflict, which he does not quite admit to his consciousness. he debates within himself, shall he keep this child despite the contempt which he feels for it - or shall he bury it in the dust?] (52:39) or, [if you believe in god, how can you believe that] he has [chosen to have] daughters, whereas you yourselves would have [only] sons? [this is addressed to the pagan contemporaries of the prophet, implying that you not only blaspheme by ascribing progeny to god, but you intensify your blasphemy by ascribing to him something that you yourselves despise, i.e., female offspring.] god has begotten a son

(37:150-157) is it that we have created the angels female, and they [who believe them to be divine] have witnessed [that act of creation]? oh, verily, it is out of their own [inclination to] falsehood that some people assert, “god has begotten [a son]”; and, verily, they are lying [too, when they say], “he has chosen daughters in preference to sons”! [they have invented for him sons and daughters.] what is amiss with you and your judgment? will you not, then, bethink yourselves? or have you, perchance, a clear evidence [for your assertions]? produce, then, that divine writ of yours, if you are speaking the truth! angels as female deities (17:40-41) has, then, your sustainer distinguished you by [giving you] sons, and taken unto himself daughters in the guise of angels? verily, you are uttering a dreadful saying! [an allusion to the pre-islamic arabian belief that the angels - conceived of as a kind of female sub-deities - were god’s “daughters”, and this despite the pagan arabs’ contempt for female offspring. in its wider implication, this rhetorical question is meant to bring out the absurdity of the supposition that god’s divinity could be projected into, or shared by, any other being.] and, indeed, many facets have we given [to our message] in this quran, so that they [who deny the truth] might take it to heart: but all this only increases their aversion. (43:19) and [yet] they claim that the angels - who in themselves are but beings created by the most gracious - are females: [but] did they witness their creation? [or, who are but creatures of the most gracious stressing their having been created and, hence, not being divine.] this false claim of theirs will be recorded, and they will be called to account [for it on judgment day]! [regarding the sex of the angels, who are spiritual in nature and, therefore, sexless.]

worship of jinn the plural noun jinn (popularly, but incorrectly, taken to denote “genii” or “demons”) is derived from the verb janna, “he was (or “became”) concealed” or “veiled from sight”; thus, the veiling darkness of night is called jinn. according to arab philologists, the term jinn signifies primarily, “beings that are concealed from man’s senses”, and is thus applicable to all kinds of invisible beings or forces. (6:100) and yet, some [people] have come to attribute to all manner of invisible beings a place side by side with god - although it is he who has created them [all]. (37:158) and some people have invented a kinship between him and all manner of invisible forces- although [even] these invisible forces know well that, verily, they [who thus blaspheme against god] shall indeed be arraigned [before him on judgment day]. [people who refuse to believe in god often tend to regard those elemental forces as mysteriously endowed with a purposeful creative power, the quran states that their votaries invent a “kinship” between them and god, i.e., attribute to them qualities and powers similar to his.] mediators and intercessors those who believe in the existence of other deities or divine powers apart from god regard them as no more than mediators between man and him, the argument runs thus: if those alleged divine or semi-divine “mediators” would really exist, then it is obvious that, being no more than mediators, even they would have to recognize him as the supreme being - which would amount to admitting that they have no power of their own but are, in the last resort, entirely dependent on and subject to him: and this unavoidable conclusion implies a negation of any divinity in those imaginary mediators. this being so, is it not far more reasonable for man to turn directly to god,

who is almighty, all-seeing, all-hearing, and has therefore no need of any mediator. worship of intercessors (39:43-45) and yet, they choose [to worship], side by side with god, [imaginary] intercessors!” [despite all the evidence of god’s almightiness, many people tend to disregard it and choose to worship intercessors who could not act as such independently of god’s permission.] say: “why - even though they have no power over anything, and no understanding?” [this is a reference to the adoration of dead saints or their tombs or relics, as well as of inanimate representations of saints, of imaginary deities, etc.] say: “god’s alone is [the power to bestow the right of] intercession: his [alone] is the dominion over the heavens and the earth; and, in the end, unto him you will all be brought back.” and yet, whenever god alone is mentioned, the hearts of those who will not believe in the life to come contract with bitter aversion - whereas, when those [imaginary powers] are mentioned side by side with him, lo, they rejoice! [since cognition of god must have a sense of moral responsibility as its correlate, the godless shrink from it, and joyfully turn to the worship - real or metaphoric - of imaginary powers which make no such moral demand.] saints and angels are powerless (17:42) say: “if there were - as some people assert - [other] deities side by side with him, surely [even] they would have to strive to find a way unto him who is enthroned on his almightiness?” [the term “seat of power” is used in the quran to denote god’s absolute sway over all that exists; the expression may be suitably rendered as “he who is enthroned in his almightiness”.] (17:56-57) say: [to those who believe in the existence of any divine power apart from god] “call upon those [beings] whom you

imagine [to be endowed with divine powers] beside him”- [as the sequence shows, this relates to the worship of saints or angels] and [you will find that] they have it not in their power to remove any affliction from you, or to shift it [elsewhere]. [i.e., to transfer it onto themselves: obviously an allusion to the christian doctrine of vicarious atonement.] those [saintly beings] whom they invoke are themselves striving to obtain their sustainer’s favor - [even] those among them who are closest [to him] [i.e., the greatest of the prophets, as well as the angels.] hoping for his grace and dreading his chastisement: for, verily, thy sustainer’s chastisement is something to beware of! (34:22-23) say: “call upon those [beings] whom you imagine [to be endowed with divine powers] beside god: they have not an atom’s weight of power either in the heavens or on earth, nor have they any share in [governing] either, nor does he [choose to] have any helper from among them.” [i.e., anybody who would mediate between him and any of his creatures. as is evident from the sequence (as well as from 17:56- 57), this passage relates, in particular, to the attribution of divine or semi-divine qualities to saints and angels and to the problem of their “intercession” with god.] and, before him, intercession can be of no avail [to any] save one in whose case he may have granted leave [therefore]: so much so that when the terror [of the last hour] is lifted from their hearts, they [who have been resurrected] will ask [one another], “what has your sustainer decreed [for you]?” - [to which] the others will answer, “whatever is true and deserved - for he alone is exalted, great!” [i.e., whatever god decides regarding his grant or refusal of leave for intercession (which is synonymous with his redemptive acceptance or his rejection of the human being concerned) will conform with the requirements of absolute truth and justice.]

god’s omniscience and intercessors (13:33-34) is, then, he who has every living being in his almighty care, [the term nafs has here apparently the general meaning of “soul” or “living being”, applying both to humans and animals.] [dealing with each] according to what it deserves [i.e., according to the exigencies of its life, and - in the case of a human being - according to his or her moral deserts as well.] – [is, then, he like anything else that exists]? and yet, they ascribe to other beings a share in god’s divinity! say: “give them any name [you please] [this phrase is an expression of utter contempt for those allegedly divine beings: i.e., they are so unreal and meaningless as not to deserve even a name. those false objects of worship and imaginary intercessors are but empty names which you have invented. the concept of intercessors directly contradicts god’s omniscience which the next sentence refers to.] but do you [really think that you could] inform him of anything on earth that he does not know - or [do you] but play with words?” nay, goodly seems their false imagery [lit., “their cunning or artful device”:] to those who are bent on denying the truth, and so they are turned away from the [right] path: and he whom god lets go astray can never find any guide. for such, there is suffering in the life of this world; but, truly, [their] suffering in the life to come will be harder still, and they will have none to shield them from god. superstitions related to idol worship arbitrary prohibitions due to superstitions (5:103) it is not of god’s ordaining that certain kinds of cattle should be marked out by superstition and set aside from the use of man; yet those who are bent on denying the truth attribute their own lying inventions to god. [lit., “god has not ordained anything (in the nature) of a bahirah, nor

a saibah, nor a wasilah, nor a ham.” these expressions denote certain categories of domestic animals, which the pre-islamic arabs used to dedicate to their various deities by setting them free to pasture and prohibiting their use or slaughter. they were selected mainly on the basis of the number, sex and sequence of their offspring; but the lexicographers and commentators are by no means unanimous in their attempts at definition. for this reason as well as because of their inherent complexity - the above four terms cannot be translated into any other language; these terms are rendered in the text as “certain kinds of cattle marked out by superstition and set aside from the use of man”: this being the common denominator of the four categories. it is obvious that their mention at this place (as also in 6:138-139 and 143-144) serves as an illustration of the arbitrary invention of certain supposedly religious obligations and prohibitions.] conjectures and artificial rituals (6:116-121) now if you pay heed unto the majority of those [who live] on earth, they will but lead you astray from the path of god: they follow but [other people’s] conjectures, and they themselves do nothing but guess. [i.e., regarding the true nature of human life and its ultimate destiny, the problem of revelation, the relationship between god and man, the meaning of good and evil, etc. apart from leading man astray from spiritual truths, such guesswork gives rise to the arbitrary rules of conduct and self-imposed inhibitions to which the quran alludes, by way of example, in verses below.] verily, thy sustainer knows best as to who strays from his path, and best knows he as to who are the right-guided. eat, then, of that over which god’s name has been pronounced, if you truly believe in his messages. [the purpose of this and the following verse is not, as might appear at first glance, a repetition of already promulgated food laws but, rather, a reminder

that the observance of such laws should not be made an end in itself and an object of ritual. the “errant views” spoken of in next verse are such as lay stress on artificial rituals and taboos rather than on spiritual values.] and why should you not eat of that over which god’s name has been pronounced, seeing that he has so clearly spelled out to you what he has forbidden you [to eat] unless you are compelled [to do so]? but, behold, [it is precisely in such matters that] many people lead others astray by their own errant views, without [having any real] knowledge. verily, thy sustainer is fully aware of those who transgress the bounds of what is right. but abstain from sinning, be it open or secret [this injunction connects with the previous verse, thus: “eat, then, of that over which god’s name has been pronounced....., but abstain from sinning” - i.e., do not go beyond that which god has made lawful to you.] - for, behold, those who commit sins shall be requited for all that they have earned. hence, eat not of that over which god’s name has not been pronounced: for this would be sinful conduct indeed. and, verily, the evil impulses [within men’s hearts] whisper unto those who have made them their own [lit., “the satans whisper unto those who are near to them”'.] that they should involve you in argument [as to what is and what is not a sin]; and if you pay heed unto them, 1o! you will become [like] those who ascribe divinity to other beings or forces beside god. [i.e., your own evil impulses are trying to draw you into argument as to what does and what does not constitute a sin in order to make you lose sight of god’s clear ordinances in this respect; and if you follow their arbitrary, deceptive reasoning, you will elevate them, as it were, to the position of moral law-givers, and thus ascribe to them a right that belongs to god alone.] dedicating shares to deities

(6:136) and out of whatever he has created of the fruits of the field and the cattle, they assign unto god a portion, saying, “this belongs to god”or so they [falsely] claim – “and this is for those beings who, we are convinced, have a share in god’s divinity.” [the pre-islamic arabs used to dedicate a part of their agricultural produce and cattle to some of their deities, and a part to god, whom they regarded as one - albeit the greatest of them. this is a false claim because everything that exists belongs, in the last resort, to god alone. in consonance, however, with the method of the quran, the above verse does not allude merely to this historical aspect of preislamic arabian life but has a wider, more general implication as well: that is, it refers not only to the apportioning of devotional shares between god and the imaginary deities, but also to the attribution of any share in his creative powers to anyone or anything beside him.] but that which is assigned to the beings associated in their minds with god does not bring [them] closer to god - whereas that which is assigned to god brings [them but] closer to those beings to whom they ascribe a share in his divinity. bad, indeed, is their judgment! [i.e., the fact that they assign a share of their devotions to god does not strengthen their belief in him but, rather, implies a negation of his transcendental uniqueness and, thus, makes them more and more dependent on imaginary divine or semi-divine mediators.] arbitrary prohibitions and questioning grant of free will (16:35, 56) now they who ascribe divinity to aught beside god say, “had god so willed, we would not have worshipped aught but him - neither we nor our forefathers; nor would we have declared aught as forbidden without a commandment from him.” [the arbitrary, unwarranted prohibitions and taboos alluded to in the present verse are discussed in 6:136-153. the derision of god’s messages by the deniers of the truth is

implied in their questioning his grant of free will to man - that is to say, the ability to choose between right and wrong, which is the basis of all morality.] even thus did speak those [sinners] who lived before their time; but, then, are the apostles bound to do more than clearly deliver the message [entrusted to them]? [i.e., the apostles could not force anyone to make the right choice.] as it is, they ascribe - out of what we provide for them as sustenance - a share unto things of which they know nothing. by god, you shall most certainly be called to account for all your false imagery! [this relates to the custom of the pagan arabs - of dedicating a part of their agricultural produce and cattle to their deities; and because those deities were mere figments of imagination, they are described here as things of which they know nothing.] slaying children (6:137) and, likewise, their belief in beings or powers that are supposed to have a share in god’s divinity makes [the expression “their associates” denotes here the evil beings or forces (shayatin) from among men and jinn.] [even] the slaying of their children seem goodly to many of those who ascribe divinity to aught beside god, thus bringing them to ruin and confusing them in their faith. [this is a reference to the custom prevalent among the pre-islamic arabs of burying alive some of their unwanted children, mainly girls, and also to the occasional offering of a boy-child in sacrifice to one or another of their idols. apart from this historical reference, the above quran-verse seems to point out, by implication, the fact that an attribution of divinity to anyone or anything but god brings with it an evergrowing dependence on all kinds of imaginary powers which must be propitiated by formal and often absurd and cruel rites: and this, in turn, leads to the loss of all spiritual freedom and to moral self-destruction.] yet, unless

god had so willed, they would not be doing all this: stand, therefore, aloof from them and all their false imagery! [i.e., he allows them to behave as they do because he wants them to make use of their reason and of the free will with which he has endowed man.] arbitrary rules related to idol worship (6:138-140) and they say, “such-and-such cattle and fruits of the field are sacred; none may eat thereof save those whom we will [to do so]”- so they [falsely] claim; [the pre-islamic arabs falsely claimed that these taboos were ordained by god, as is made clear in the last part of this verse. one of these supposed, arbitrary ordinances laid down that only the priests of the particular idol and some men belonging to the tribe could eat the flesh of such dedicated animals, while women were not allowed to do so.] and [they declare that] it is forbidden to burden the backs of certain kinds of cattle; and there are cattle over which they do not pronounce god’s name - falsely attributing [the origin of these customs] to him. [i.e., while sacrificing them to their idols (see 5:103). as a rule, the pagan arabs did pronounce the name of god - whom they regarded as the supreme deity over the animals, which they slaughtered; in the above mentioned exceptional cases, however, they refrained from doing so in the belief that god himself had forbidden it.] [but] he will requite them for all their false imagery. and they say, “all that is in the wombs of such-and-such cattle is reserved for our males and forbidden to our women; but if it be stillborn, then both may have their share thereof.” [god] will requite them for all that they [falsely] attribute [to him]: behold, he is wise, allknowing. lost, indeed, are they who, in their weak-minded ignorance, slay their children and declare as forbidden that which god has provided for them as sustenance, falsely ascribing [such prohibitions] to

god: they have gone astray and have not found the right path. (6:142144) and of the cattle reared for work and for the sake of their flesh, eat whatever god has provided for you as sustenance, and follow not satan’s footsteps: behold, he is your open foe! [i.e., by superstitiously declaring as forbidden what god has made lawful to man. all the references to pre-islamic taboos given in these verses are meant to stress the lawfulness of any food (and, by implication, of any other physical enjoyment) which god has not expressly forbidden through revelation.] [his followers would have it that, in certain cases, any of these] four kinds of cattle of either sex [is unlawful to man]: either of the two sexes of sheep and of goats. [lit., “eight (in) pairs - of sheep two and of goats two” (the two other pairs are mentioned in the next verse). this is an outstanding example of the ellipticism often employed in the quran: a mode of expression, which cannot be correctly rendered in any other language without the use of explanatory interpolations. the term zawj denotes a pair of things as well as each of the two constituents of a pair: hence my rendering of thamaniyat azwaj (lit., “eight in pairs”) as “four kinds of cattle of either sex”. the particular superstition to which this and the next verse refer is probably identical with the one mentioned in 5:103.] ask [them]: “is it the two males that he has forbidden, or the two females, or that which the wombs of the two females may contain? tell me what you know in this respect, if what you say is true.” [i.e., not on the basis of guesswork but of knowledge acquired through authentic revelation. the preceding and subsequent ironical questions are meant to bring out the vagueness and inconsistency which characterizes all such superstitious, self-imposed prohibitions.] and [likewise they declare as unlawful] either of the two sexes of camels and of bovine cattle. [lit., “and of camels two, and of bovine cattle two”- thus

completing the enumeration of the “eight kinds (i.e., four pairs) of cattle”.] ask [them]: “is it the two males that he has forbidden, or the two females, or that which the wombs of the two females may contain? is it, perchance, that you [yourselves] were witnesses when god enjoined [all] this upon you?” and who could be more wicked than he who, without any [real] knowledge, attributes his own lying inventions to god, and thus leads people astray. behold, god does not grace [such] evildoing folk with his guidance. (6:150) say: “bring forward your witnesses who could bear witness that god has forbidden [all] this!” [a reference to the arbitrary prohibitions mentioned in the preceding passages.] - and if they bear witness [falsely], do not bear witness with them; and do not follow the errant views of those who have given the lie to our messages, nor of those who believe not in the life to come, and who regard other powers as their sustainer’s equals! [i.e., attribute divine or almost-divine qualities to certain ill-defined natural powers - e.g., believe in spontaneous creative evolution, or in a self-created universe, or in a mysterious, impersonal elan vital that supposedly underlies all existence, etc.] foretelling of future through divination (5:3) and [you are forbidden] to seek to learn through divination what the future may hold in store for you: this is sinful conduct. [lit., “to aim at divining (the future) by means of arrows”. this is a reference to the divining-arrows without a point and without feathers used by the pre-islamic arabs to find out what the future might hold in store for them. (a comprehensive description of this practice may be found in lane iii, 1247.) as is usual with such historical allusions in the quran, this one, too, is used metonymically: it implies a prohibition of all manner of attempts at divining or foretelling the future.]

why worship one god alone and not idols (6:19-20) say: “what could most weightily bear witness to the truth?” say: “god is witness between me and you; and this quran has been revealed unto me so that on the strength thereof i might warn you and all whom it may reach.” could you in truth bear witness that there are other deities side by side with god? say: “i bear no [such] witness!” say: “he is the one god; and, behold, far be it from me to ascribe divinity, as you do, to aught beside him!” they unto whom we have vouchsafed revelation aforetime know this as they know their own children; [i.e., the truth of god’s transcendental uniqueness and oneness stressed in all authentic scriptures.] yet those [of them] who have squandered their own selves - it is they who refuse to believe. (30:35) have we ever bestowed upon them from on high a divine writ [lit., “a warrant” or “authority” (sultan), in this context obviously denoting a revelation.] which would speak [with approval] of their worshipping aught beside us? [lit., “of that which they were wont to associate with us”.] (30:40) it is god who has created you, and then has provided you with sustenance, and then will cause you to die, and then will bring you to life again. can any of those beings or powers to whom you ascribe a share in his divinity do any of these things? limitless is he in his glory, and sublimely exalted above anything to which men may ascribe a share in his divinity! all deities are but one god (38:4-10) now these [people] deem it strange that a warner should have come unto them from their own midst - and [so] the deniers of the truth are saying: “a [mere] spellbinder is he, a liar! [although this passage describes, in the first instance, the attitude of the pagan quraysh towards the

prophet, it touches upon the reluctance of most people, at all times, to recognize a man from their own midst - i.e., a human being like themselves as god-inspired.] does he claim that all the deities are [but] one god? verily, a most strange thing is this!” [divorced from its purely historical background, this criticism acquires a timeless significance, and may be thus paraphrased: does he claim that all creative powers and qualities are inherent exclusively in what he conceives as one god?, which illustrates the tendency of many people to attribute a decisive influence on human life and, hence, a quasi-divine status to a variety of fortuitous phenomena or circumstances (like wealth, luck, social position, etc.) rather than to acknowledge the overwhelming evidence, in all observable nature, of god’s unique existence.] and their leaders launch forth [thus]: “go ahead, and hold steadfastly onto your deities: this, behold, is the only thing to do! [i.e., a sensible course of action.] never did we hear of [a claim like] this in any faith of latter days! it is nothing but [a mortal man’s] invention! [i.e., in any of the faiths prevalent in our days: an oblique reference to christianity and its dogma of the trinity, which contrasts with the quranic concept of god’s oneness and uniqueness, as well as to any other faith based on the belief in a multiplicity or multiform incarnation of divine powers (e.g., hinduism with its triad of brahma, vishnu and shiva).] what! upon him alone from among all of us should a [divine] reminder have been bestowed from on high?” nay, but it is my own reminder that they distrust! [i.e., it is not the personality of the prophet that fills them with distrust, but, rather, the substance of the message proclaimed by him - and, in particular, his insistence on god’s absolute oneness and uniqueness, which runs counter to their habits of thought and social traditions.] nay, they have not yet tasted the suffering which i do impose! [on people who refuse to accept the truth]

or do they [think that they] own the treasures of thy sustainer’s grace [the grace] of the almighty, the giver of gifts? [i.e., do they think that it is for them to decide as to who should and who should not be graced with divine revelation?] or [that] the dominion over the heavens and the earth and all that is between them is theirs? why, then, let them try to ascend [to god-like power] by all [conceivable] means! [i.e., do they think that human beings are so highly endowed that they are bound to attain, some day, to mastery over the universe and all nature, and thus to god-like power?] god alone is your protector and not idols (39:36-40) is not god enough for his servant? and yet, they would frighten you with those [imaginary divine powers which they worship] beside him! [the godless always stress the supposed necessity of paying attention to all these imaginary forces and values, and frighten themselves and their fellow-men by the thought that a neglect to do so might have evil consequences in their practical life.] but he whom god lets go astray can never find any guide, whereas he whom god guides aright can never be led astray. [god only help those, who help themselves.] is not god almighty, an avenger of evil? and thus it is [with most people]: if you ask them, “who is it that has created the heavens and the earth?” - they will surely answer, “god.” say: “have you, then, ever considered what it is that you invoke instead of god? if god wills that harm should befall me, could those [imaginary powers] remove the harm inflicted by him? or, if he wills that grace should alight on me, could they withhold his grace [from me]?” say: “god is enough for me! in him [alone] place their trust all who have trust [in his existence].” say: “o my [truth-denying] people! do yet all that may be within your power, [whereas] i, behold, shall labor [in god’s way]: in time you will come to know who it is that shall be

visited [in this world] by suffering which will cover him with ignominy, and upon whom long-lasting suffering shall alight [in the life to come]!” [implying that surrender to false values inevitably leads to man’s spiritual decay and, if persisted in by many, to social catastrophes and widespread suffering.] parable of frailty of spider’s web (29:41-42) the parable of those who take [beings or forces] other than god for their protectors is that of the spider which makes for itself a house: for, behold, the frailest of all houses is the spiders house. could they but understand this! verily, god knows whatever it is that men invoke instead of him - for he alone is almighty, truly wise. [i.e., he knows the nothingness of those false objects of worship, irrespective of whether they be imaginary deities, or deified saints, or forces of nature, or even false concepts or ideas; but he also knows the weakness of the human heart and mind and, hence, the hidden motivation of all such irrational worship.] god alone is your sustainer (10:31-33) say: “who is it that provides you with sustenance out of heaven and earth, [the provision of sustenance is used here in both the physical and spiritual connotations of this word, which explains the reference to “heaven and earth” and, subsequently, “man’s hearing and sight”.] or who is it that has full power over [your] hearing and sight? and who is it that brings forth the living out of that which is dead, and brings forth the dead out of that which is alive? and who is it that governs all that exists?” and they will [surely] answer: “[it is] god.” [the people referred to here are those who believe, firstly, that there are beings endowed with certain divine or semi-divine qualities, thus having a share in

god’s divinity; and secondly, that by worshipping such beings men can come closer to god. this idea obviously presupposes belief in god’s existence but it offends against the concept of god’s oneness and uniqueness, it deprives those people’s belief in god of its true meaning and spiritual value.] say, then: “will you not, then, become [fully] conscious of him - seeing that he is god, your sustainer, the ultimate truth? [i.e., seeing that, on your own admission, he is the one who creates and governs all things and is the ultimate reality behind all that exists (see 20:114): which implies a categorical denial of the possibility that any other being could have a share, however small, in his divinity.] for, after the truth [has been forsaken], what is there [left] but error? how, then, can you lose sight of the truth?” thus is thy sustainer’s word proved true with regard to such as are bent on sinful doings: they will not believe. [in this particular context, “the sustainer’s word” seems to be synonymous with the way of god (sunnat allah) concerning deliberate sinners and deniers of the truth.] god alone guides unto the truth (10:35) say: “does any of those beings to whom you ascribe a share in god’s divinity guide unto the truth?” say: “it is god [alone] who guides unto the truth. which, then, is more worthy to be followed - he who guides unto the truth, or he who cannot find the right way unless he is guided? what, then, is amiss with you and your judgment?” [since the concept of “finding the right way” cannot apply to lifeless idols and idolatrous images, the above passage obviously relates to animate beings whether dead or alive - to whom a share in god’s divinity is falsely attributed: that is, to saintly personalities, prophets or angels whom popular fancy blasphemously endows with some or all of god’s qualities, sometimes even to the extent that they are regarded as a manifestation or incarnation of

god on earth. as for the act of god’s guidance, it is displayed, primarily, in the power of conscious reasoning as well as of instinctive insight with which he has graced man, thus enabling him to follow the divine laws of right conduct.] idols do not answers prayers (7:191-198) will they, then, ascribe divinity, side by side with him, unto beings that cannot create anything - since they themselves are created [lit., “that which does not create anything”: a phrase expressed in the singular, but having the plural meaning of beings - that is, either animate beings (like saints or supposedly divine personalities) or their inanimate representations.] and neither are able to give them succor nor can succor themselves. if you pray to them (idols) for guidance, do not respond to you? as far as you are concerned, it is all one whether you invoke them or keep silent. verily, all those whom you invoke beside god are but created beings like yourselves: [i.e., created beings subservient to god’s will. this refers to saints, living or dead, as well as to inanimate objects of every description, including idols, fetishes and representational images physical or mental - of saints or deified persons.] invoke them, then, and let them answer your prayer - if what you claim is true! have these [images], perchance, feet on which they could walk? or have they hands with which they could grasp? or have they eyes with which they could see? or have they ears with which they could hear? say [o prophet]: “summon to your aid all those to whom you ascribe a share in god’s divinity, and thereupon contrive [anything you may wish] against me, and give me no respite! verily, my protector is god, who has bestowed this divine writ from on high: for it is he who protects the righteous, whereas all those whom you invoke in his stead are neither able to give

you succor nor can succor themselves; and if you pray unto them for guidance, they do not hear; and though you may imagine that they behold you, they do not see.” deities cannot create anything (10:34) say: “can any of those beings to whom you ascribe a share in god’s divinity create [life] in the first instance, and then bring it forth anew?” say: “it is god [alone] who creates [all life] in the first instance, and then brings it forth anew. how perverted, then, are your minds!” [the rhetorical question above is connected with the false belief that those idolatrously worshipped beings are no more than “intercessors” between their followers and god: and so, even their misguided votaries cannot possibly attribute to them the power to create and to resurrect. in its wider sense, this question (and the subsequent answer) relates to the god-willed, cyclic process of birth, death and regeneration evident in all organic nature.] (25:2-3) he to whom the dominion over the heavens and the earth belongs, and who begets no offspring, and has no partner in his dominion: for it is he who creates every thing and determines its nature in accordance with [his own] design. [i.e., in accordance with the function assigned by him to each individual thing or phenomenon.] and yet, some choose to worship, instead of him, imaginary deities that cannot create anything but are themselves created, [i.e., whether they be inanimate “representations” of imaginary deities, or personified forces of nature, or deified human beings, or simply figments of the imagination.] and have it not within their power to avert harm from, or bring benefit to, themselves, and have no power over death, nor over life, nor over resurrection! can idols have shared in creation?

(16:17-21) is, then, he who creates comparable to any [being] that cannot create? will you not, then, bethink yourselves? for, should you try to count god’s blessings, you could never compute them! behold, god is indeed much forgiving, a dispenser of grace; and god knows all that you keep secret as well as all that you bring into the open. now those beings that some people invoke [this refers to dead saints invested by their followers with divine or semi-divine qualities.] beside god cannot create anything, since they themselves are but created: they are dead, not living, and they do not [even] know when they will be raised from the dead! (46:2-6) the bestowal from on high of this divine writ issues from god, the almighty, the wise. we have not created the heavens and the earth and all that is between them otherwise than in accordance with [an inner] truth, and for a term set [by us]: [the reference to the term set by god to all creation is meant to stress the fact of its finality in time as well as in space, in contrast with his own timelessness and infinity.] and yet, they who are bent on denying the truth turn aside from the warning which has been conveyed unto them. [they refuse to heed the warning not to attribute divine qualities to any being or force beside god.] say: “have you [really] given thought to what it is that you invoke instead of god? show me what these [beings or forces] have created anywhere on earth! or had they, perchance, a share in [creating] the heavens? [if so,] bring me any divine writ preceding this one, or any [other] vestige of knowledge if what you claim is true!” [that is in support of your claim that there are other divine powers besides god.] and who could be more astray than one who invokes, instead of god, such as will not respond to him either now or on the day of resurrection, [or will not respond to him till the day of

resurrection, i.e., never.] and are not even conscious of being invoked? such as, when all mankind is gathered [for judgment], will be enemies unto those [who worshipped them], and will utterly reject their worship? [this is symbolic “enmity” of all false objects of worship.] can idols govern the heavens? (35:40) say: “have you ever [really] considered those beings and forces to whom you ascribe a share in god’s divinity, [and] whom you invoke beside god? show me what it is that they have created on earth - or do [you claim that] they have a share in [governing] the heavens?” have we ever vouchsafed them [i.e., to those who ascribe divinity to beings or forces other than god.] a divine writ on which they could rely as evidence [in support of their views]? [30:35 - “have we ever bestowed upon them from on high a divine writ which would speak [with approval] of their worshipping aught beside us?” the reference to a “divine writ” makes it clear that the people spoken of here are the erring followers of earlier revelation, and not atheists.] nay, [the hope which] the evildoers hold out to one another [is] nothing but a delusion. [i.e., their expectation that the saints whom they invest with divine or semi-divine qualities will “mediate” between them and god, or “intercede” for them before him, is based on nothing but wishful thinking.] multiplicity of divine powers and chaos (23:91-94) never did god take unto himself any offspring, [this allusion to the pre-islamic arabian belief in angels as god’s daughters and the christian dogma of jesus as son of god.] nor has there ever been any deity side by side with him: [for, had there been any,] lo! each deity would surely have stood apart [from the others] in whatever it had created, [implying that in such a hypothetical case each of the gods would have been concerned

only with his own sector of creation, thus causing complete confusion in the universe.] and they would surely have [tried to] overcome one another! limitless in his glory is god, [far] above anything that men may devise by way of definition, knowing all that is beyond the reach of a created being’s perception as well as all that can be witnessed by a creature’s senses or mind - and, hence, sublimely exalted is he above anything to which they may ascribe a share in his divinity! say: “o my sustainer! if it be thy will to let me witness [the fulfillment of] whatever they [who blaspheme against thee] have been promised [to suffer] - do not, o my sustainer, let me be one of those evildoing folk!” parable of several masters (39:29) god sets forth a parable: a man who has for his masters several partners, [a metaphor for belief in a plurality of divine powers.] [all of them] at variance with one another, and a man depending wholly on one person: can these two be deemed equal as regards their condition? [nay,] all praise is due to god [alone]: but most of them do not understand this. [in the present instance, the term mathal is used as a synonym for state or condition, as it alludes to man’s condition arising from either of two contrasting attitudes: a belief in god’s transcendental oneness and uniqueness, on the one hand, and a readiness to ascribe divine powers and qualities to a variety of created beings or supposed incarnations of god, on the other.] sin of idol worship unforgivable sin (idol worship is invoking satan) (4:116-120) verily, god does not forgive the ascribing of divinity to aught beside him, although he forgives any lesser sin unto whomever he wills: for those who ascribe divinity to aught beside god have indeed gone far

astray. in his stead, they invoke only lifeless symbols - thus invoking none but a rebellious satan whom god has rejected for having said, “verily, of thy servants i shall most certainly take my due share, and shall lead them astray, and fill them with vain desires; and i shall command them - and they will cut off the ears of cattle [in idolatrous sacrifice]; and i shall command them - and they will corrupt god’s creation!” [the pre-islamic arabs used to dedicate certain of their cattle to one or another of their idols by cutting off or slitting the ears of the animal, which was thereupon considered sacred. in the above context, this reference is used metonymically to describe idolatrous practices, or inclinations, in general. the allusion to satan’s inducing man to “corrupt god’s creation” has a meaning to which sufficient attention is but seldom paid: since this creation, and the manner in which it manifests itself, is an expression of god’s planning will, any attempt at changing its intrinsic nature amounts to corruption.] but all who take satan rather than god for their master do indeed, most clearly, lose all: he holds out promises to them, and fills them with vain desires: yet whatever satan promises them is but meant to delude the mind. [the term ghurur signifies anything by which the mind is beguiled or deceived - for instance, utter self-abandonment to earthly joys, or the absurd belief that there is no limit to man's aims and achievements.] all works in vain (39:65) and yet, it has already been revealed to you [o man,] as well as to those who lived before you, that if you ever ascribe divine powers to aught but god, all your works shall most certainly have been in vain: for [in the life to come] you shall most certainly be among the lost. [i.e., “it has been conveyed to you through the divine messages revealed to the prophets”. the above reminder is being addressed to man in general,

irrespective of time and circumstance, concerning the deadly sin of ascribing divine powers to aught beside god.] prayers for forgiveness not accepted (9:113, 115) it does not behove the prophet and those who have attained to faith to pray that they who ascribed divinity to aught beside god be forgiven [by him] - even though they happened to be [their] near of kin - after it has been made clear unto them that those [dead sinners] are destined for the blazing fire. [this prohibition relates to the dead among such sinners - i.e., those who have died without repentance - and not to those who are still living: for a prayer for forgiveness in respect of a living sinner, amounts to asking god that he grace him with his guidance and this is permissible.] and god would never - after having invited them to his guidance - condemn people for going astray [it is not compatible with god’s omniscience and majesty that he should cause people to go astray after he has guided them or after he has invited them to the way of rectitude.] before he has made [entirely] clear unto them of what they should beware. verily, god has full knowledge of everything. [the people referred to are the believers who, before the revelation of verse 113, used to pray to god that he grant his forgiveness to their relatives and friends who had died in the state of shirk (ascribing divinity to aught beside god): in other words, the believers need not fear to be taken to task for something which they did before the prohibition laid down in verse 113 was revealed (i.e., “before he has made clear unto them of what they should beware”). an alternative interpretation of verse 115 is meant to explain the severity with which the whole of this surah condemns the deniers of the truth and the hypocrites who are going astray after god has made clear unto them of what they should beware. this interpretation is perhaps the more plausible of the two, and

particularly so in view of the sequence (verse 116).] (18:51) i did not make them witnesses of the creation of the heavens and the earth, nor of the creation of their own selves; [i.e., since they are but created beings, and not co-existent with me, how can you take them for your masters? - an allusion to the beings, real or imaginary, to which men ascribe divine qualities, either consciously or (as in the case of ones submission to the whisperings of satan) by subconscious implication.] and neither do i [have any need to] take as my helpers those [beings] that lead [men] astray [since god is almighty, all-knowing and self-sufficient, the belief that any being or power could have a helping share in his divinity, or could mediate between him and man, causes the latter to go utterly astray.] (18:52) hence, [bear in mind] the day on which he will say, “call [now] unto those beings who, you imagined to have a share in my divinity!” – whereupon they will invoke them, but those [beings] will not respond to them: for we shall have placed between them, an unbridgeable gulf. [or: a barrier of perdition: an allusion to the wide gulf of unreality that separates those sinners from the blasphemous figments of their imagination or, more probably, the gulf that separates them from the saintly persons whom they were wont to worship despite the fact that the latter had never made any claim to divine status.] (18:53) and those who were lost in sin will behold the fire, and will know that they are bound to fall into it, and will find no way of escape there from. man’s ingratitude as a cause of idol worship remembering god in hard-time and invoking idols in good-times (16:53-55) for, whatever good thing comes to you, comes from god; and whenever harm befalls you, it is unto him that you cry for help - yet as soon as he has removed the harm from you, lo! some of you [begin to]

ascribe to other powers a share in their sustainer’s divinity, [i.e., by attributing the change in their luck to what they regard as extraneous factors and influences, they invest the latter, as it were, with divine qualities and powers.] [as if] to prove their ingratitude for all that we have granted them! enjoy, then, your [brief] life: but in time you will come to know [the truth]! (39:8) now [thus it is:] when affliction befalls man, he is likely to cry out to his sustainer, turning unto him [for help]; [i.e., instinctively, and as a rule] but as soon as he has bestowed upon him a boon by his grace, he forgets him whom he invoked before, and claims that there are other powers that could rival god - and thus leads [others] astray from his path. say [unto him who sins in this way]: “enjoy yourself for a while in this your denial of the truth; [yet,] verily, you are of those who are destined for the fire! birth of a healthy child and share in divinity (7:189-190) it is he who has created you [all] out of one living entity, and out of it brought into being its mate, so that man might incline [with love] towards woman. [for an explanation of “one living entity” and “its mate”, see 4:1.] and so, when he has embraced her, she conceives [what at first is] a light burden, and continues to bear it. then, when she grows heavy [with child], they both call unto god, their sustainer, “if thou indeed grant us a sound [child] we shall most certainly be among the grateful!” and yet, as soon as he has granted them sound [offspring], they begin to ascribe to other powers beside him a share in bringing about what he has granted them! sublimely exalted, however, is god above anything to which men may ascribe a share in his divinity! [many of them look upon the contributing factors of sound childbirth as something

independent of god, forgetting that all these contributing factors are - like the birth of the child itself - but an outcome of god’s will and grace: a manifestation of what the quran calls the way of god (sunnat allah).]