Human A1

Human A&P 120 Mar. 3, 2007

REVIEW OUTLINE for EXAM II

MATERIAL TO REVIEW from EXAM I:

From LAB--BIOETHICAL PRINCIPLES: be able to apply A. AUTONOMY-- individual choice/freedom;autonomy of action should not be subjected to controlling constraint by others B. NON-MALEFICENCE: Above all, do no harm; the first medical principle C. BENEFICENCE--relationship to others not just self; oft cited as the 2nd medical principle -- 1. Basic version: help others only if they want help -- 2. Strong version=PATERNALISM: higher authority enforces its idea of good D. JUSTICE--equal or fair treatment, equal rights, equal goods: -- 1. Egalitarian--equal goods -- 2. Libertarian--equal rights/freedoms

PRINCIPLES of SELF-REGULATION A. HOMEOSTASIS = REGULATED CONSTANCY WHY needed? There are optimal states for many things such as water content, temperature, etc. 1. 1. HOW to keep at optimum? Basic Negative Feedback System!

--VARIATIONS: a) Antagonistic or dual effector control: 2 effectors that have opposite corrective effects (e.g., furnace, airconditioner), or 1 effector that can be boosted or inhibited--e.g., control by parasympathetic va sympathetic nerves); b) effectors may be behaviors, e.g., seeking warm spots; hunger + eating, etc.

B. REGULATED CHANGE--not everything has a constant optimum WHY? Many types of change are useful: growth, puberty, fight-or-flight, cycles, new situationsÉ HOW? 2 different mechanisms: 1. RESET System: changes the set point of a negative feedback system. --a) temporary emergencies: e.g., fever; stress --b) cyclical "clocks": e.g., sleep/wake cycle and hypothalamus SCN clock 2. POSITIVE FEEDBACK System--one which accentuates a change rather than reducing it. Sometimes this is not adaptive but a dangerous malfunction. BUT sometimes it can be useful for desired rapid changes: e.g., nerve APs!!!

-----------------------------------------------------------------------C. ENHANCED REGULATION 1. DELAY PROBLEM: Over and/or Undercompensations! Delay problems are INHERENT in a simple feedback system because there are always delays in getting a signal from the disturbed state to the effector's response; if delays are too long and/or disturbance too fast, the system may oscillate (over and under-compensation) -- What to do about delays? Sometimes nothing except learn to avoid rapid changes. But sometimes evolution has produced solutions. There is one main way this can happen: ANTICIPATION system --one which activates a feedback system before the disturbance changes a regulated state; may use a sensor to measure the oncoming disturbance rather than the state itself. May be innate physiology or learned behaviors. Examples: role of Motor Cortex; Cerebellum; Memory in general

2. NEW-SITUATION PROBLEM: existing feedback system may not work well at high altitude, with new diet or activity regime, etc. Solution = ACCLIMATIZATION or "ADAPTATION" system: change effectiveness/capacity/ability of feedback component. E.g., buy a bigger air conditioner if the climate is getting too hot for your old one

II. Principles of EVOLUTION A. 2 LEVELS of EXPLANATION in Biology: see lecture & reading examples 1. "Proximate" or mechanistic: "as is"; "how does it work" analysis. Exampple: how sensors "adapt" 2. Evolutionary=historical/selective reason; "why did it end up this way" E.g, WHY sensors "adapt" B. Basic steps in Evolution by Natural Selection -- review if needed

HIERARCHY OF BIOLOGY –How GENES are regulated by PROMOTERS & transcription proteins--apply to MEMORY, hormones! --LOCK and KEY concept for PROTEINS and molecules that they bind! --Basic tissue types and how they make organs

NEW STUFF SKIN and Evolution: Why have humans lost so much body hair compared to other mammals, except diving ones? What is the function of melanocytes and their pigments, and how have these evolved in different human groups? Folate vs Vitamin D and UV exposure!!

SELF-REGULATION: Whole-Body Regulatory Systems OVERVIEW--Old vs. new ideas: 3-part interaction of Neural, Endocrine, Immunal HIERARCHICAL/distributed REGULATION!! Intrinsic vs Extrinsic multiple levels: Why this is important! Robotics, governments, human body-analogy of Individual->City govt->Count Govt-->State govt->Federal govt

I. NEURAL REGULATION = NERVES, NERVOUS SYSTEM A. OVERVIEW: Cells 1. NEURONS: know basic structure/parts (dendrites, cell body, axons, axon ending with synapse) 2. GLIAL (specialized connective): nourish, assist neurons; insulation--myelin speeds up signals; --ORGANIZATION: CNS (brain, spine) and PNS in and out=somatic/motor,

parasympathetic, sympathetic --Study Methods: can study individual cells, and brain regions with scanners, stimulators: --KNOW what is fMRI, how used? Transcranial magnetic stimulation?

B. SIGNALS / COMMUNICATION: ELECTRICAL NEURON MEMBRANES: have leak channels; gated channels; Na-K ATPase pump 1. RESTING POTENTIAL, -70mV: a) Na/K ATPase pump -- moves 3Na+ out and 2K+ in per cycle: so EXTRACELLULAR fluid is dominated by Na+, INTRACELLULAR fluid by K+ b) Cell PROTEINS / DNA are negatively charged and trapped INSIDE the cell c) Na+ has both ELECTRICAL and DIFFUSION gradient inwards, but gates are closed d) K+ freely moves out through LEAK channels, but held mostly inside by negative charges

2. ACTION POTENTIAL (AP):--uses "VOLTAGE-GATED" channel proteins: a) DEPOLARIZATION: some sort of stimulus causes Na+ to enter the neuron (via elect. Attraction and diffusion); cell voltage rises above -70 mV IF cell voltage does not reach its threshold, some K+ leaves and cell goes back to resting; but if it does reach threshold (about -50mV), then b)---> c) REPOLARIZATION: at +30 mV, Na+ channels CLOSE and K+ channels OPEN. K+, which is higher in the cell, then moves out by conductance at first (repelled by positive charge of cell) and diffusion later:

b) AP RISE: Positive feedback propogation occurs: at -55mV, Na+ channels snap OPEN. More Na+ to conduct/diffuse in. This cause nearby channels to reach -55 mV and to open. And so on. Thus an allor-none voltage spike (AP) (about +30mV) propagates down the cell d) Recovery When cell returns to resting potential (-70mV), all channels close, and the Na/K pump restores the original Na/K gradients .

3. GRADED POTENTIALS occur in neurons where there are no voltage-gated channels; other channels let ions flow in but these then decay over distance.

C. SIGNALS / COMMUNICATION: SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION : axon ending 1) Stimulus: AP arrives ; 2) Ca++ channels open, and Ca++ ions flow (conduct) in; 3) Ca++ triggers exocytosis of neurotransmitter (NT) vesicles produced by neuron; 4) Diffusion across synaptic cleft; 5) Receptor binding ; 6) Receptor action, e.g.,let Na into target cell: see details below* 7) Shut-off: NT removed by reuptake transporter, or enzymatic breakdown *Steps 5-6: RECEPTOR DETAILS: "lock and key" analogy: a) FAST Excitatory: simulate the target by opening chemical-gated Na+ channels; b) Fast Inhibitory: inhibit the target by opening chemical-gated K+ or Cl- channels; c) Slow Modulating--"reprogram" the target (altering activity of its proteins and/or genes)-via receptor-enzyme-2nd messengers More on RECEPTOR binding: 1) "Same-key-different-locks" concept!! Acetylcholine (ACh) example: somatic/motor nerves use ACh to stimulate skeletal muscles via fast Na channel; parasympathetic nerves use ACh to nhibit HEART via slow opening of K+ channels. 2) Agonist and antagonist drugs: AGONISTS mimic a natural NT, but may persist longer; ANTAGONISTS block a natural NT's actions. EXAMPLES of KEY NTs and DRUGS 1) Glutamate = most common fast excitatory (via Na channels): <---MSG = agonist; ketamines=antagonist 2) GABA = widespread fast inhibitory (via Cl- channels) <---ethanol is agonist!! So is [Valium] 3) Serotonin: modulator, prolonged stimulation of mood/serenity neurons <----Prozac blocks reuptake

--associated with serenity/calmness; anti-aggression/anti- anxiety; depression if too low 4) Adenosine from LAB= inhibitory (via K+ channels) <----caffeine is antagonist SEE MORE LATER and from LAB

D. INFORMATION and INTEGRATION: --ALL-or-NONE ACTION POTENTIALS: how get GRADED information or commands? 1) Information sent by FREQUENCY of APs--how weak vs strong stimuli cause this 2) Multiple neurons to/from organs: example of MOTOR UNITS each controlling only a small part of a muscle. Note: fineness of muscle motions requires many motor units Émale vs female --DECISIONS made by INTEGRATING or SUMMING incoming signals Mechanism: basic decision to "fire" works via summation of excitatory (via Na+ channels) and inhibitory (via K+ or Cl- channels) neurotransmitters (NTs)! Especially GLUTAMATE and GABA effects.!!!!!!! GLIAL CELLS: provide axon insulation = myelin. Speeds APs by allowing them to "jump" from one node of negative voltage to the next, with neutral zones in between.

E. NERVOUS SYSTEM PNS – input side with sensors feeding into the CNS; outgoing somatic/motor to SKELETAL muscles; and SYMPATHETIC fight-or-flight vs PARASYMPATHETIC rest-and-digest CNS: Spine and BRAIN with 4 REGIONS: Note: functions determined by injuries, animal surgeries, electrodes implanted, and new noninvasive scans From lab and lecture, know location and basic functions of: 1. CEREBRUM: a) CORTEXES: Motor, Sensory, Association cortexes. Know basic pyramidal neuron; gray vs white matter; locations and functions of major motor, sensory, associative areas; BODY MAPS!

b) Limbic system--includes olfactory bulbs and amygdala, hippocampus--role in short-term, emotional memory, relaying long-term memory 2. Diencephalon: a) THALAMUS =relay for sensory signals going to sensory cortexes & coming back to memory area, and relay to amygdala; has PINEAL GLAND b) HYPOTHALAMUS: reflex integrating center for temperature, appetite, water/salt, growth, stress, sex, birth; has CLOCK! Also hooked to PITUITARY GLAND 3. CEREBELLUM: coordinates senses w/ motor control; procedural memories for skills, balance 4. BRAINSTEM: Pons/Medulla--major reflex integrating centers for cardiovascular system, respiration

Basic WIRING: REFLEXES

vs

Voluntary REACTIONS

Know basic pathways: Reflex=receptors to spine, brainstem or hypothalamus then to effectors Reaction=receptors to spine to thalamus to sensory cortex to sensory associative to motor cortex to muscles

HIERARCHY OF REGULATION 1. REFLEXES in Spine, Brainstem, Hypothalamus

Often used for basic, ancient Homeostasis needs: some body state deviates from the set point, so a sensory neuron moves to its threshold; a signal is sent to the integrator, then to an effector to make a correction. THESE SIMPLE PATHWAYS reduce DELAYS (but donÕt eliminate them!)

a) SIMPLE REFLEXES: EXAMPLES i) Withdrawal reflex: using skin pain sensors, spinal interneuron, muscle effector related: POSTURE, CATCH reflexes: how stretch sensors in muscles work via feedback loop

ii) Temperature reflex: how this works from skin to hypothalamus to effectors b) RHYTHMIC Reflexes: i) Breathing reflex: rhythmic in/out circuit in PONS/MEDULLA uses gas sensors in arteries, breathing muscles as effectors ii) Biological CLOCK: how this works from eye to hypothalamus' SCN clock to pineal gland to melatonin to adenosine neurons for sleep --why this clock, by running on its own once set, is useful in ANTICIPATING day/night cycles. Why sleep might be necessary!

Important Aside: MEMORY!! 1) DECLARATIVE (fact) memory: Short-term and long-term memories: Images, names, etc.--evolved for ANTICIPATION of future events, faster reactions, planning, etc: Paths: thalamus-->sensory centers, limbic's hippocampus---> prefrontal & basal cortexes

2) PROCEDURAL (skill) memory: learning new non-reflex motor skills! Cerebellum, etc. 3) WORKING Memory: active register, thinking area that accesses CURRENT sensory info, SHORT-TERM Memory, and LONG-TERM memory to plan an action/decision. MEMORY: how does it work at the NEURAL level??: MODULATING NTs: e.g., repeated use of GLUTAMATE circuits stimulate modulatory receptors: how 2nd messengers like cyclicAMP create trigger genes that grow NEW connections

Return to Hierarchy 2a) LIMBIC SYSTEM evolved next - for short-term declarative memory (hippocampus*) and primitive emotional memories (amygdala): basic learning for mating & survival, anticipating basic future needs/crises. Know Neural PATHWAYS for amygdala & fight-or-flight!! How prepares body for action!

2b) CEREBELLUM --evolved for procedural memory = learning non-reflex, skilled movements. Learns then anticipates each move in a skilled sequence to eliminate clumsinesscausing delays. Typically, MOTOR CORTEX makes the decision to move, then the cerebellum takes over for fine control Éunderstand the reason why coaches often say "Don't think about it, just do it!"

3a) [Neo] CORTEX: SENSORY AREAS --evolved for complex sensory integration; separate areas for each sense can process multiple inputs from each sense organ 3b) [Neo] CORTEX: MOTOR AREAS Initiating ÒnewÓ non-reflex movements (using many muscles); Anticipation control of reflexes, Resetting reflexes (e.g., suppression) --MAP of the Body EXAMPLE of MOTOR Cortex CONTROL OF BREATHING i) Anticipation reduce delays by activating respiration just before muscle activity begins (GLUTAMATE) ii) RESET: Breathholding for swimming by inhibiting reflex homeostasis (GABA). WHY YOU CANNOT OVERRIDE this (or urination) forever.

IMPORTANT ASIDE ON CORTEX vs LOWER-LEVEL CONTROL and PERSONAL RESPONSIBILITY: assoc. cortex has veto power over many lowerlevel regulators, butÉ.! Ability to override depends on distance below in the hierarchy and survival necessity. E.g., we usually hold adults responsible for overriding LIMBIC drives (rage, racism?, simple lust, etc.) but not for HYPOTHALAMIC hunger, thirst, temperature.. or BRAINSTEM respiration, cardiovascular, urination. ..because those reflexes generally win out over higher suppression eventually

3c) Cerebrum CORTEX: ASSOCIATIVE AREAS Sensory understanding--incl. integrating 2+ senses; Long-term decl. memory -prefrontal frontal etc.; Planning/Prediction! (working memory)--frontal; Overriding primitive drives, reflexes: how much? E.g., Wernicke's and Broca's areas for language understanding vs speech PLANNING SUMMARY Example--KNOW DIAGRAM of PATHWAYS!! How information flows in from sensor/receptors to memory systems, sensory cortex, associative areas to motor cortex; frontal Working Memory can access i) current new info; ii) short-term memory from hippocampus, and iii) long-term memory from prefrontal areas to PLAN/PREDICT

NEUROCHEMISTRY: Lower vs Higher Brain Communication ¥NTS: some have general functions, some associated with specific functions Already covered Glutamate; GABA; Acetylcholine (ACh); Adenosine [lab] ¥) Serotonin: [brainstem-->hypothalamus; cerebellum; limbic; frontal cortex]: antianxiety/serenity DRUGS: PROZAC and other SSRIs ¥) Dopamine: [midbrain--> prefrontal long-term memory & frontal cortex]; activates "attention" to learning useful events and skills; reinforces with reward for accomplishment. DRUGS: Cocaine; Ritalin both enhance (agonists) ¥) Endorphins / Enkephalins (spine; somatosensory pain area; limbic; hypothalamus): anti-pain pleasure --wounded soldier, runner's high and why this aids survival ¥) Cannabinoids; e.g., anandamide [hypothalamus, limbic]: modulator; enhances APPETITE and destroys unwanted SHORT-TERM MEMORIES; suppresses PAIN DRUG: THC in marijuana is agonist. FROM DISCUSSION

¥) Histamine [hypothal. SCN-clockjFrontal neurons: wake up! Antagonist drug=antihistamines

FRONTIERS of NEUROSCIENCE ¥Plasticity; Growth vs. Pruning: general trend in connection density with age! And how brain can sometimes rewire itself, e.g., in blindness ¥Genomics: reading on brain-wiring genes in humas vs chimpanzee DNA ¥Perception; Memory: require cooperative NETWORKS of neurons ¥CONSCIOUSNESS: Spindle Cells; Hawkins' idea of MODELing and PREDICTing the world

II. SENSORS & SENSES GENERAL FEATURES: A. Sensors are "Transducers" of information: convert stimuli into graded ion currents, then into AP frequencies. 2 types: i) Sensor cell --> peripheral (afferent) nerves-->CNS (thalamus first, then to sensory cortex);

ii) Sensory dendrite of peripheral (afferent) nerves-->CNS (thalamus first, then to sensory cortex) B. TYPES: mechano-, thermo-, noci-, chemo-, osmo-, photo- (some animals: magneto-, electro-) & ROLES: a) Exteroceptors--5 classic, for external stimuli: light, sound, taste, smell, and skin/somatic sensations (touch, pressure, hot/cold temperature, pain) b) Proprioceptors=kinesthesia 6th sense, etc: balance, limb and head position, rotation, & acceleration: inner ear vestibule and semicircular canals; and muscle/tendon stretch sensors c) Interoceptors-- = blood pressure, CO2 O2, blood glucose, osmotic balance, bladder &stomach stretch, etc. May get indirect conscious sense of some of these

C. STIMULUS RESPONSES: a) Continuous --e.g., pain, proprioceptors : keep signaling as long as stimulus present b) "Adapting": detect CHANGE: shut off after a bit even if stimulus continues-touch, smell, etc. Proximate mechanism: SMELL is intrinsic=local inhibitiors build up in cell; SOUND (ignoring white noise) is extrinsic= cortex neuron sends inhibitory GABA to ear cells Evolutionary/survival reason for "adapting"=ignore constant, non-threatening stimuli to save on brain processing power! -->human psychology: does this apply to higher sensory processing? Examples!

INTEROCEPTORS: later EXTEROCEPTORS A. SKIN , other "SOMATIC"--see text diagram: all are nerve endings (dendrites), some in gelatinous capsules 1) Surface touch, deep pressure: mechanically gated channels--how work w/leverage proteins 2) Pain : Nociceptors respond to sharpness, chemicals from damaged cells, intense heat/cold 3) Temperature: hot and cold sensors with thermally gated ion channels B. SIGHT=VISION: PHOTORECEPTORS in retina of EYE: Basic anatomy: cormea; lens with focusing muscles; pupil and iris; Retina: Rods & Cones; Fovea; Blind Spot; how light enters; "backward" arrangement of cells; how this flaw evolved (READING) FUNCTION: light is received by RETINENE (VitaminA derivative) bound to receptor protein OPSIN; retinene bleaches, changes shape, kicks opsin which ultimately alters ion channels; fresh unbleached retinal must rebind to opsin to shut off signal. What happens when you stare at a light. --How COLORS are distinguished with CONES using different (R, G, B) scotopsin proteins C. SOUND=HEARING: INNER EAR and COCHLEA: --eardrum; middle-ear bones amplify waves into cochlea, vibrations resonate at appropriate location on the basilar membrane with protein fibers varying from stiff/thin to thick/loose!! "HAIR" CELLs: vibration of basilar pushes on these, which open and close mechanical ion channels D. TASTE or GUSTATORY CHEMORECEPTORS: chemosensing of materials in direct contact

--5 Primary tastes = salt, sour, bitter, sweet, umami; also a Òhot/spicyÓ capsaicin pain receptor and maybe a fat sensor. Know what the purposes of each taste is in terms of survival. --Mechanisms: separate receptor proteins and second messengers (bitter, sweet, umami), or direct ion channels (salt, acid) Much detail still unsolved--e.g. aspartame: binding mechanism unclear E. SMELL=OLFACTORY = chemosensing of distant sources; accounts for much taste Mammals: i) olfactory bulb—where found; 1000 receptor genes (only about half work in humans! What this says about our evolution!!) HOW are 10,000 or more odors distinguishable? COMPARATIVE-Binding! ii) Vomeronasal organ --basic pheromone uses in other mammals; controversy over role in humans PROPRIOCEPTORS: Kinesthesia SenseA. INNER EAR: 1) Semicircular Canals: Rotational acceleration proprioceptors: 3 canals detect ROTATION in all 3 planes of 3D world: fluid pushes on hair cells IN AMPULLAE 2. Vestibule =POSITION proprioceptors: otolith crystals shift gently in a gel with gravity and movement, push hair cells; sense head position, and some linear motions B) Muscle spindle / tendon Stretch sensors: inform the brain of limb positions; involved in reflexes

III. HORMONAL REGULATION: usually for slower, more prolonged effects

NOTE: only the topics I cover in lecture will be on exam II. A. GLANDS secrete hormones =chemical messenger traveling in blood to affect another cell 1. ENDOCRINE GLANDS: Some Glands are integrators themselves, such as KIDNEY, PANCREAS;

2. NeuroEndocrine: others are under Neural control such as PINEAL and PITUITARY; or neurons themselves secrete neurohormones in to blood (HYPOTHALAMUSP. Review role of PINEAL in sleep, controlled by SCN clock, and the IMPORTANCE OF SLEEP! B. HORMONE TYPES, Signaling Mechanisms: similar to synapse lock & key receptors 2) Steroids use Internal Receptor: 1) Proteins, peptides & Amines: use Membrane Receptor/2nd Messenger system: amplifier! medium- --slower but prolonged or permanent fast, short-lived: e.g., epinephrine boosts glucose in -- GENE mechanism!! Bind to transcription proteins muscle! -->promoters-->genes on

C. REGULATION: FEEDBACK LOOPS! Effectors = target organs of hormones 1) Pure Endocrine-- Pancreas, etc: use sensors to measure crucial body state, use blood hormones to control effector: FROM LAB!!!! PANCREAS Example: Know how islets regulate blood glucose using insulin and glucagon

2) Neuroendocrine Hypothalamus/pituitary: Multiple-stage system; most regulate body states that can't be properly sensed, so sense & regulate a secondary hormone instead: GROWTH HORMONE example: Hypothalamus--->RH->pituitary--->GH-->liver--->somatomedin-->muscle, bone growth etc. How injected GH affects

DISCUSSION: Neuroethics; Legality of Certain

Psychoactive Drugs CNS NEUROBIOLOGY and PSYCHOLOGY: I. Scanner/stimulator technologies--can we predict criminology? Abuses? Know ethic issues

II. Marijuana vs natural NT Anandamide – appetite; reduce pain; wipe out short-term and bad memories. AGONIST = THC in marijuana!! What are the ethical issues involved here?

LABS: NERVES I–key events in action potential; what is a MOTOR UNIT? how did the EMG show this? NERVES II--difference between REFLEX and higher reactions --major brain regions and their functions --how ADENOSINE and DOPAMINE work and are altered by CAFFEINE and COCAINE SENSES--to help with lecture; also more details on eye, ear anatomy! Also, what is SYNAESTHESIA, and the VOMERONASAL ORGAN? HORMONES: how insulin-glucagon system works!!!! And effects of GLYCEMIC INDEX, delays!

READING--KEY ARTICLES: OUTLINE #11, Feb. 12: -- what evidence supports the Aquatic Ape theory? --the HIERARCHY article: why is distributed control (here called "subsumption") better than central control? --GEOGRAPHY and SKIN. . . what are the factors involved in evolution of skin color? OUTLINE #12, Feb. 14: --WHY WE ARE NOT CHIMPS: what type of genes are discussed here? --the HIERARCHY exercpt: why is distributed control better than central control? : --WATCHING.. . A Moral Dilemma: how does this illustrate the difference between "higher" and emotional brain regions? OUTLINE #13, Feb. 16: --UCLA BRAIN SCIENTISTSÉfound what about GABA? --PROBING THE SOCIAL BRAIN: what are MIRROR activities? OUTLINE #14 (mislabeled #24) Feb. 21: FOOD: how might CAFFEINE help memory??!! --BRAIN STORM (last page): what are some key developing regions in adolescents and effects thereof? OUTLINE #15, Feb. 23: --DIAGRAMS to aid on SCN and AMYGDALA roles/paths --CONDITIONED FEAR: what brain part may be involved in racism, and is it built-in, suppressible, or what? OUTLINE #16, Feb. 26,: --AMYGDALA diagram again; --MEMORY's MACHINE--what is occurring in memory formation? --CAUTION: TEENAGE BRAIN is different from an adult's how? and what are the implications? --IT'S THE JUNK -- what is the possible of role of GENE REGULATION in human brain evolution? OUTLINE #17, Feb. 28: --EVOLUTION OF ATTENTION; THE GENE THAT CAME TO STAY: what useful traits might have fostered the evolution of ADHD? --LOST SIGHT.. . what does the visual cortex do in blind people? --MAY 2004: what does histamine do in the brain and why do some antihistamines cause drowsiness? --MACOMB DAILY on RACISM: again, what brain region is key here and is racism unavoidable?????

--HUMANITY? MAYBE IT'S IN THE WIRING: what are spindle cells and their possible role?? OUTLINE #18, Mar. 2: --back of PAGE 1: can the brain easily LISTEN and SEE simultaneously? --know all key issues in the ethics discussion as presented in the articles: on brain scanning technology and marijuana in medicine and the effects of the natural NTs it mimics. OUTLINE #19, Mar. 5: --Back of PAGE 1: how might color vision have led to reduce pheromone and general smell sense in humans? --MUSIC LOVERS should be thanking fish why? --A SMELL Like NO OTHER: what is the evidence that we MIGHT use pheromones still?? --MAKING SENSE: how does our proprioception compare to other animasls' and our understanding of physics?