History Of Science
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History of Science
Brief History of Modern Science • Discovery A new method of acquiring knowledge was invented by a series of European thinkers from 1550 to 1700. Among these thinkers are Galileo, Descartes, Kepler, and Newton
• Definition of Science A special method and
knowledge executed by practitioners of science called scientists.
Meaning of Science • Science is practiced by specially trained people with a specific world view. Scientists try to be objective, non sentimental, unemotional, honest, and unbiased • Scientists work in laboratories where conditions are carefully controlled. • Scientists report their findings in peerreviewed journals to other scientists • Scientists do not claim more than what they can prove
External World • Science deals with things or objects in the external world. External world is anything that can be measured and described in mathematical terms • The external world the scientist believes follows rules of mathematics. • The external world contains solar systems, galaxies, quanta, quarks, quasars, four forces, six lepton, six lepton and six hadrons
Science Language • Scientists describe the results of controlled experiments in a specialized language and/or in mathematics. • Is the external world understandable because our brains conform to the external world or because the external world is essentially mathematical in nature as is the human mind?
Philosophical Foundations of Science Originated in the 17th century • Science removed animism as a physical explanation. Greek philosophers thought movement was a sign of life. Planets were moved by angels. Newton’s 1st law of motion changed this attitude. • Science changed man’s position from the center of the universe to its periphery. Man’s place in the universe was seen as minor. • Scientific achievement revived human pride in place of an obsession with sin.
Aristotelian Science Theory of Matter Matter stuff out of which things are made In sublunary world (below the moon) there are four elements or essences: earth, water, air, and fire. These four elements never found pure always mixed. Heavy things made out of earth Light things made mix of water,air, and fire
Aristotelian Science • Above sun, planets are stars imbedded in the crystalline sphere • The crystalline sphere made out of pure quintessence ( 5th essence) • Different laws pertain to the sublunary world than to the world above the moon
Aristotelian Science • • • • • •
Motion Natural state of all sublunary things is rest All objects seek rest Earth, Air, and water seek down for rest Fire seek rest upward Bodies seek the grave, the souls seek heaven
Aristotelian Science Motion • Two kinds of motion violent and natural • Things move because they’re pulled or pushed • Sun, planets, and stars move in uniform, circular motion • Circles are ideal and circular motion is an aspect of quintessence. • Earth is at center of Universe
Aristotelian Science • Violent Motion • A projectile exhibits violent motion • Question: why does an object keep moving after leaving the bow or hand? • Answer: air moves from the front of the object to the back and pushes the object along.
Aristotelian Science Violent Motion
Archimedes (287-212 BCE ) Sicilian geometrician who calculated an accurate value for π, demonstrated the relationship between the volume of spheres and cylinders, discovered methods for determining the center of gravity of plane figures, and provided a foundation for the science of hydrostatics. Archimedes also invented many ingenious machines, including a pump for raising water, effective levers and compound pulleys, and a mechanical planetarium. He died defending Syracuse against a Roman siege during the second Punic war.
Ptolemy & Epicycles more accurate measurement required more epicycles
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Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274 ) •
Although matters of such importance should be accepted on the basis of divine revelation alone, Aquinas held, it is at least possible (and perhaps even desirable) in some circumstances to achieve genuine knowledge of them by means of the rigorous application of human reason. As embodied souls
•
(hylomorphic composites), human beings naturally rely on sensory information for their knowledge of the world. Reading hint: Although the rigidly formal structure of the Summa articles can be rather confusing to a modern reader, the central portion beginning with the words, " I answer that ..." is always a direct statement of Aquinas's own position.
Roger Bacon •
Bacon, Roger (1214-1292 )English philosopher who translated many Aristotelian treatises from Arabic into Latin. Although passionately interested in alchemy and magic, Roger defended reliance upon mathematics and experimental methods for the improvement of human knowledge generally and theological understanding in particular in the Opus Maius (Greater Work ) (1267) { at Amazon.com } and On Experimental Science (1268). His novel educational doctrines were supposed to violate the condemnation of 1277 , and much of Roger's later work, including the Compendium Studii Theologiae (1292) was suppressed.
William of Ockham, • •
William of Ockham (1285-1349 )English philosopher who defended the logic, physics, and metaphysics of Aristotle in Summa Logicae (The Whole of Logic ) (1328) vol. 1 { at Amazon.com } and vol. 2 { at Amazon.com } and the Dialogus . An extreme nominalist , Ockham held that general terms are signs that indefinitely signify discrete (though similar) particulars. Ockham is best known for his statement of the law of parsimony as the ontological principle often called Ockham's Razor : " Frustra fit per plura quod potest fieri per pauciora " ["It is pointless to do with more what can be done with less"]. Thus, according to Ockham, we ought never to postulate the reality of any entity unless it is logically necessary to do so.
Copernicus b. 1473 Poland •
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Polish astronomer who developed the theory that the earth is a moving planet. In Copernicus's time, most astronomers accepted the theory the Greek astronomer Ptolemy had formulated nearly 1,400 years earlier. Some astronomers before Ptolemy had suggested that the earth did in fact move. Copernicus decided that the simplest and most systematic explanation of heavenly motion required that every planet, including the earth, revolve around the sun. The earth also had to spin around its axis once every day. The earth's motion affects what people see in the heavens, so real motions must be separated from apparent ones. Copernicus skillfully applied this idea in his masterpiece, On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543). In this book, he demonstrated how the earth's motion could be used to explain the movements of other heavenly bodies. Copernicus could not prove his theory, but his explanation of heavenly motion was mathematically strong and was less complicated than Ptolemy's theory. By the early 1600's, such astronomers as Galileo in Italy and Johannes Kepler in Germany began to develop the physics that would prove Copernicus' theory correct.
A 1543 volume by Copernicus
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Tycho Brahe b. 1546 •
Danish astronomer. Brahe developed a systematic approach for observing the planets and stars. He stressed the importance of making such observations on a regular basis. The telescope had not yet been invented, and so Brahe used his eyesight and such instruments as astrolabes and quadrants to estimate the positions of celestial objects. His observations were far more precise than those of any earlier astronomer.
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Brahe's observations of planetary motion revealed that the tables then in use to predict the positions of the planets were inaccurate. His sighting of a supernova (type of exploding star) in 1572 helped disprove the ancient idea that no change could occur in the heavens beyond the orbit of the moon.
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Like many astronomers of his time, Brahe refused to accept the Copernican theory of the solar system. According to this theory, the earth and the other planets move around the sun. Brahe reasoned that if the earth revolved around the sun, he should have been able to measure changes in the positions of the stars resulting from the earth's movement. He did not realize that such changes were too small for his instruments to detect. However, Brahe's observational data later enabled Johannes Kepler, a German astronomer and mathematician, to confirm the Copernican theory.
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Brahe was born in Knudstrup (then a Danish city but now in Sweden), near Malmo. As a member of the nobility, he attended universities in Denmark, Germany, and Switzerland. Brahe built an elaborate observatory on the island of Hven (now called Ven), where he made many of his observations.
Tycho Brahe b. 1546 •
Danish astronomer. Brahe developed a systematic approach for observing the planets and stars. He stressed the importance of making such observations on a regular basis. The telescope had not yet been invented, and so Brahe used his eyesight and such instruments as astrolabes and quadrants to estimate the positions of celestial objects. His observations were far more precise than those of any earlier astronomer.
•
Brahe's observations of planetary motion revealed that the tables then in use to predict the positions of the planets were inaccurate. His sighting of a supernova (type of exploding star) in 1572 helped disprove the ancient idea that no change could occur in the heavens beyond the orbit of the moon.
Tycho Brahe b. 1546 •
•
Like many astronomers of his time, Brahe refused to accept the Copernican theory of the solar system. According to this theory, the earth and the other planets move around the sun. Brahe reasoned that if the earth revolved around the sun, he should have been able to measure changes in the positions of the stars resulting from the earth's movement. He did not realize that such changes were too small for his instruments to detect. However, Brahe's observational data later enabled Johannes Kepler, a German astronomer and mathematician, to confirm the Copernican theory. Brahe was born in Knudstrup (then a Danish city but now in Sweden), near Malmo. As a member of the nobility, he attended universities in Denmark, Germany, and Switzerland. Brahe built an elaborate observatory on the island of Hven (now called Ven), where he made many of his observations.
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
Johannes Kepler b. 1571 •
Discovered three laws of planetary motion.
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Newton later used Kepler's three laws to arrive at the principle of universal gravitation Kepler's laws are: (1) Every planet follows an ovalshaped path, or orbit, around the sun, called an ellipse. The sun is located at one focus of the elliptical orbit. (2) An imaginary line from the center of the sun to the center of a planet sweeps out the same area in a given time. This means that planets move faster when they are closer to the sun. (3) The time taken by a planet to make one complete trip around the sun is its period. The squares of the periods of two planets are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the sun.
•
Kepler formed an association with Tycho Brahe, which shaped the rest of his life. His most significant discoveries were trying to find an orbit to fit all Brahe's observations of the planet Mars. Earlier astronomers thought a planet's orbit was a circle or a combination of circles. However, Kepler could not find a circular arrangement to agree with Brahe's observations. He realized that the orbit could not be circular and resorted to an ellipse in his calculations. The ellipse worked, and Kepler destroyed a belief that was more than 2,000 years old.
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Kepler was the first astronomer to openly uphold the theories of the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus.
Johannes Kepler b. 1571 •
Discovered three laws of planetary motion.
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Newton later used Kepler's three laws to arrive at the principle of universal gravitation Kepler's laws are: (1) Every planet follows an ovalshaped path, or orbit, around the sun, called an ellipse. The sun is located at one focus of the elliptical orbit. (2) An imaginary line from the center of the sun to the center of a planet sweeps out the same area in a given time. This means that planets move faster when they are closer to the sun. (3) The time taken by a planet to make one complete trip around the sun is its period. The squares of the periods of two planets are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the sun.
•
Johannes Kepler b. 1571 •
Kepler formed an association with Tycho Brahe, which shaped the rest of his life. His most significant discoveries trying to find an orbit to fit all Brahe's observations of the planet Mars. Earlier astronomers thought a planet's orbit was a circle or a combination of circles. However, Kepler could not find a circular arrangement to agree with Brahe's observations. He realized that the orbit could not be circular and resorted to an ellipse in his calculations. The ellipse worked, and Kepler destroyed a belief that was more than 2,000 years old.
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Kepler was the first astronomer to openly uphold the theories of the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus.
Johannes Kepler b. 1571 •
FIRST LAW The orbits of the planets are ellipses, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse.
Johannes Kepler b. 1571 •
SECOND LAW The line joining the planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times as the planet travels around the el
Johannes Kepler b. 1571 •
THIRD LAW The ratio of the squares of the revolutionary periods for two planets is equal to the ratio of the cubes of their semi-major axes:
Paracelsus (Phillippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim) ( 1493-1541 ) • Swiss chemist and physician. Rejecting the ancient reliance on concern for bodily "humours," Paracelsus transformed the practice of medicine by employing careful observation and experimentation. Although his chemical knowledge was rudimentary by modern standards, Paracelsus envisioned using pharmaceutical methods for treating disease and something like inoculation for preventing it.
Robert Boyle (16271691) •
An Irish scientist considered the founder of modern chemistry. He helped establish the experimental method in chemistry and physics.
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Boyle is best known for his experiments on gases that led to the formulation of Boyle's law (see GAS (Gas laws)). This law says the volume of a gas at constant temperature varies inversely to the pressure applied to the gas. Boyle also helped improve the air pump, and with it he investigated the nature of vacuums.
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Boyle introduced many new methods for determining the identity and chemical composition of substances. He disproved the theory that air, earth, fire, and water were the basic elements of all matter. Boyle argued that all basic physical properties were due to the motion of atoms, which he called "corpuscles."
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Boyle lived in England for most of his life. He was a founding member of the Royal Society of London, one of the world's foremost scientific organizations. Boyle described his experiments in many books. He was born at Lismore Castle, Ireland.
Robert Boyle (16271691)
Galileo Galilei 1564 1657 Italian astronomer and physicist, has been called the founder of modern experimental science. Galileo made the first effective use of the refracting telescope to discover important new facts about astronomy. He also discovered the law of falling bodies as well as the law of the pendulum. Galileo designed a variety of scientific instruments. He also developed and improved the refracting telescope, though he did not invent it.
Galileo Galilei
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Astronomy and Kinematics • In 1610 Galileo made observations of sunspots and of Venus, noting that the planet progresses through phases similar to those of the moon. This fact confirmed his doubts about Ptolemaic astronomy and deepened his conviction of the truth of Copernicus' theory that the earth and planets revolve around the sun. Publication of these findings, starting in 1610, brought him wide renown.
Astronomy and Kinematics • Galileo also pursued research on motionespecially the motion of freely falling bodies. The problem, as he saw it, was that the Aristotelian theory of motion, which referred all motion to a stationary earth at the center of the universe, made it impossible to believe the earth actually moves. Galileo went to work to develop a theory of motion consistent with a moving earth.
Galileo and Inertia
• http://id.mind.net/~zona/mstm/physics/mechanics
From World Book © 2002 World Book, Inc., 233 N. Michigan Avenue, Suite 2000, Chicago, IL 60601. All rights reserved. Museo di Fisica e Storia Naturale, Florence, Italy (SCALA/Art Resource)
From World Book © 2002 World Book, Inc., 233 N. Michigan Avenue, Suite 2000, Chicago, IL 60601. All rights reserved. © J. M. Charles, Photo Researchers
Astronomy and Kinematics • Among the most important results of this search were the law of the pendulum and the law of freely falling bodies. Galileo observed that pendulums of equal length swing at the same rate whether their arcs are large or small. Modern measuring instruments show that the rate is actually somewhat greater if the arc is large. Galileo's law of falling bodies states that all objects fall at the same speed, regardless of their mass; and that, as they fall, the speed of their descent increases uniformly.
Pendulum The Italian physicist Galileo discovered the laws of the pendulum. He
noticed that a hanging lamp would swing with an almost constant period, whether the arc was large or small. He believed that a pendulum could regulate the movements of clocks. The Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens patented the first pendulum clock in 1657. Galileo's observations are still correct as long as the pendulum's swing is small. But modern measuring instruments have shown that the period of a pendulum increases when it has a large swing.
Pendulum • The Simple Pendulum •
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If a pendulum of mass m attached to a string of length L is displaced by an angle from the vertical, it experiences a net restoring force due to gravity: In this small angle approximation, the amplitude of the pendulum has no effect on the period. This is what makes pendulums such good time keepers. As they inevitably lose energy due to frictional forces, their amplitude decreases, but the period remains constant.
Pendulum
Figure showing the more intense scattering of blue light by the atmosphere relative to red light.
Rayleigh scattering is more dramatic after sunset. This picture was taken about one hour after sunset at 500m altitude, looking at the horizon where the sun had set.
Rayleigh scattering causes the blue hue of the daytime sky and the reddening of the sun at sunset
Rene’ Descartes
“I think, therefore I am”
Method of Doubt
Descartes used a certain method to try to isolate a definite truth, or something that can not be doubted. Descartes tried to achieve this absolute truth by starting analysis with radical doubt.
Rene Descartes
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Rene Descartes was one of the founders of modern philosophy. In this painting, Descartes conducts a scientific experiment for Queen Christina of Sweden shortly before his death in 1650.
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Detail of Rene Descartes Conducts a Demonstration Before Queen Christina of Sweden (about 1700) oil on canvas by Dumesnil (The Art Archive)
Gilbert, William (15401603), •
Gilbert, William (15401603), an English doctor and scientist, was the first person to use the word electricity. He has been called the "Galileo of Magnetism" because of his celebrated book De Magnete, which he published in 1600. It was concerned with the properties of magnetism, with electricity, and with the use of compasses in navigation.
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Gilbert's most important discoveries in the field of magnetism were the laws of attraction and repulsion, magnetic dip, and the properties of loadstones. Gilbert based his findings on observation and practical experiments. This practice differed greatly from that of most of the scientists of his time, who developed only abstract theories, unsupported by experiments.
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Gilbert was born in Colchester, in Essex, England, and was educated at St. John's College, Cambridge. He was physician to Queen Elizabeth I and
attended her during her last illness. Gilbert died on Nov. 30, 1603.
William Harvey (15781657) •
An English physician who became famous for his discovery of how blood circulates in mammals, including human beings. He described his discovery in An Anatomical Study of the Motion of the Heart and of the Blood in Animals (1628). This work became the basis for all modern research on the heart and blood vessels.
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Bacon, Francis (15611626)
English philosopher, essayist, jurist, and statesman. He was one of the earliest and most influential supporters of empirical (experimental) science and helped develop the scientific method of solving problems. Bacon believed all previous claims to knowledge, particularly of medieval science, were doubtful because they were based on poor logic. He believed the mind makes hasty generalizations, which prevent the attainment of knowledge. But he also believed that the mind could discover truths that would enable humanity to conquer disease, poverty, and war by gaining power over nature. To discover truths, the human mind must rid itself of four prejudices. Bacon called these prejudices Idols of the Mind. Bacon believed the mind could attain truth if it followed the inductive method of investigation. He developed four steps of doing so: (1) listing all known cases in which a phenomenon occurs; (2) listing similar cases where the phenomenon does not occur; (3) listing the cases in which the phenomenon occurs in differing degrees; and (4) examination of the three lists. These steps would lead to the cause of a phenomenon. Bacon suggested the use of preliminary hypotheses (assumptions) to aid scientific investigation. His treatment of hypothesis is still a subject of study. Bacon also wrote an unfinished romance called New Atlantis (published in 1627, after his death). The book describes an imaginary island where the inhabitants dedicate themselves to the study of science.
Bacon, Francis (15611626) • Four very significant stumblingblocks in the way of grasping the truth, which hinder every man (sic) however learned, and scarcely allow anyone to win a clear title to wisdom, namely: the example of weak and unworthy authority, longstanding custom, the feeling of the ignorant crowd, and the hiding of our own ignorance while making a display of our apparent knowledge.
Isaac Newton 1642 1727 • Proposed three laws of mechanics: 1. Inertia A body continues to move in a straight line unless acted upon by a force 2. F = ma Acceleration is proportional to the applied force. As long as the force is applied the velocity increases. 3. For every action there is a reaction • • • • • •
Explained motion of planets and moon Proposed law of universal gravitation Explained tides Assumed laws on Earth were same as in the heavens Discovered light composed of different color Invented reflector telescope
Newton’s Rules of Reasoning • • • • •
Use no more hypothesis than needed a restatement of Ockham’s Razor Apply same cause to same effect Properties on earth are same as properties (laws) in other parts of universe Offer hypotheses supported only by experiment “ we are to look upon propositions inferred by general induction from phenomena as accurately or very nearly true, not withstanding any contrary hypothesis that may be imagined till such time as other phenomena occur by which they may either be made more accurate or liable to exception
Antoine Lavoisier 1743 1794 French chemist who, through a conscious revolution, became the father of modern chemistry. As a student, he stated "I am young and avid for glory." He was educated in a radical tradition, a friend of Condillac and read Maquois's dictionary. He won a prize on lighting the streets of Paris, and designed a new method for preparing saltpeter. He also married a young, beautiful 13-year-old girl named Marie-Anne, who translated from English for him and illustrated his books. Lavoisier demonstrated with careful measurements that transmutation of water to earth was not possible, but that the sediment observed from boiling water came from the container. He burnt phosphorus and sulfur in air, and proved that the products weighed more than he original. Nevertheless, the weight gained was lost from the air. Thus he established the Law of Conservation of Mass.
Systematic Classification
Carolus Linnaeus Systema Naturae 1758
THE LINNEAN HIERARCHY FOR HUMANS
Phylum Chordata Class Mammalia Order Primates Family Hominidae Genus Homo Species Homo sapiens
Early Ideas about Evolution Speices changes through time in response to environment
Heritable characteristics
Catastrophism
Comte de Buffon (Georges Louis Leclerc) 17071788
JeanBaptiste Lamarck 17441829
Environment, but other mechanisms too
Erasmus Darwin 17311802
Baron Cuvier 17691832
Understanding the Depth of Time
James Hutton
Charles Lyell
17261797
1797 1875
Alexander Von Humboldt
Thomas Malthus 17661834
Charles Darwin & Alfred Wallace
How did they arrive at the same conclusions?
Darwin and Wallace Volumes
Heat Engines, Heat Pumps, and Refrigerators
Getting something useful from heat
Michael Faraday, b. Sept. 22, 1791 d. Aug. 25, 1867 The English chemist and physicist Michael Faraday, b. Sept. 22, 1791, d. Aug. 25, 1867, is known for his pioneering experiments in electricity and magnetism. Many consider him the greatest experimentalist who ever lived. Several concepts that he derived directly from experiments, such as lines of magnetic force, have become common ideas in modern physics.
Dmitri Mendeleev (c. 1860) • Russian chemist • Looked for common properties in elements • Then arranged by atomic mass • Noticed similar properties appeared at regular intervals “periodic”
The world first saw Mendeleev’s periodic table when it was published in a German scientific journal.
Henry Moseley (1911) • English scientist • Elements fit into patterns better if arranged by atomic number e.g. Te and I
Modern Periodic Table
What you need to identify in the modern periodic table: • • • • • • • •
Metals Nonmetals Metalloids Transition metals good conductors, shiny Alkali metals most reactive metals Alkaline metals reactive metals Halogens most reactive nonmetals Noble gases don’t react
JAMES CLERK MAXWELL 1831-1879 James Clerk Maxwell was one of the greatest scientists who have ever lived. To him we owe the most significant discovery of our age - the theory of electromagnetism. He is rightly acclaimed as the father of modern physics. He also made fundamental contributions to mathematics, astronomy and engineering.
Maxwell, James Clerk (18311879) •
Scottish scientist, one of the greatest mathematicians and physicists of the 1800's is best known for his research on electricity and magnetism and for his kinetic theory of gases. This theory explains the properties of a gas in terms of the behavior of its molecules. Maxwell also investigated color vision, elasticity, optics, Saturn's rings, and thermodynamics, a branch of physics that deals with heat and work.
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Maxwell based his work on electricity and magnetism on the discoveries of the English physicist Michael Faraday. In 1864, Maxwell combined his ideas with those of Faraday and certain other scientists and formed a mathematical theory that describes the relationship between electric and magnetic fields. Both these fields exert forces on electrically charged objects. Maxwell showed that waves in combined electric and magnetic fields, called electromagnetic waves, travel at the speed of light. In fact, Maxwell argued that light itself consists of electromagnetic waves. In the late 1880's, the German physicist Heinrich R. Hertz conducted experiments that confirmed Maxwell's theory.
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Maxwell's equations indicate that light moves at a particular speed, represented by the letter c. The value of c is now known to be 186,282 miles (299,792 kilometers) per second. Maxwell assumed that c was the speed of light relative to the ether. According to this assumption, light would travel faster or slower than c in an inertial frame moving
relative to the ether.
Michelson and Morley During the 1800's, physicists tried unsuccessfully to measure the speed of the earth relative to the ether. According to classical physics, the ether was motionless. In the early 1880's, Hendrik A. Lorentz, a Dutch physicist, explained the failure of these experiments by assuming that the ether was partially dragged along as the earth moved through it. Two American physicists, Albert A. Michelson and Edward W. Morley, developed an instrument that made far more precise measurements than earlier devices. Their experiments helped destroy the ether theory. In 1887, Michelson and Morley demonstrated that the earth's movement around the sun had no effect on the speed of light. Their finding could be understood only by assuming that the ether near the surface of the earth moved at the same speed as the earth. However, this assumption contradicted the results of many other experiments.
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Principles of Relativity Einstein introduced a new principle, the special principle of relativity. This principle has two parts: (1) There is no ether, and the speed of light is the same for all observers, whatever their relative motion. (2) The laws of nature are the same in all inertial frames, where the laws are understood to include those described by Maxwell.
Albert Einstein (18791955), •
Was one of the greatest scientists of all time. He is best known for his theory of relativity, which he first advanced when he was only 26. He also made many other contributions to science.
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Relativity. Einstein's relativity theory revolutionized scientific thought with new conceptions of time, space, mass, motion, and gravitation. He treated matter and energy as exchangeable, not distinct. In so doing, he laid the basis for controlling the release of energy from the atom.
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Thus, Einstein was one of the fathers of the nuclear age. Einstein's famous equation, E equals m times csquared (energy equals mass times the velocity of light squared), became a foundation stone in the development of nuclear energy. Einstein developed his theory through deep philosophical thought and through complex mathematical reasoning. The great scientist was once reported to have said that only a dozen people in the world could understand his theory. However, Einstein always denied this report.
Discoveries of 20th Century • • • • • • •
1900 Quantum nature of energy 1903 First motorized airplane flew Special theory of relativity published 1907Radiometric dating finds earth 2.2 billion years old Ehrlich finds cure for syphilis 1912 Leavitt discovers Cepheid's period and luminosity 1912 Wegener proposes continental drift
• • • • • • • •
1913 Leavitt discovers 1913Bohr describes atomic structure 1915 General theory of relativity 1922 Banting and Best isolate insulin 1924 Hubble identifies new galaxy 1926 Television developed 1927 Big bang theory introduced 1927 Heisenberg state uncertainty principle
Discoveries of 20th Century • • • • • • •
1928 Fleming discovers penicillin 1929 Hubble finds universe expanding 1931 Lawrence invents cyclotron 1935 Nylon invented 1942 Fermi creates 1st controlled nuclear reaction 1945 ENIAC built 1945 Atomic bomb detonated
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1947 Libby introduces C14 dating 1947 Transistor invented 1953 Salk polio vaccine 1953 Miller makes amino acids in laboratory 1953 MidAtlantic rift discovered 1953 Watson and Crick describe DNA 1954 First kidney transplant 1959 Leaky finds early hominid
Discoveries of 20th Century • • • • • • • •
1960 Hess propose seafloor spreading 1965 Penzias and Wilson observe cosmic background microwave radiation 1967 Pulsars discovered 1969 Apollo lands on moon 1971 First commercial microprocessor introduced 1974 Johanson finds 3.2 million year old Lucy 1975 Personal computer launched 1976 Cosmic string theory introduced
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1977 found near deep ocean vents 1980 Alvarez finds evidence for dinosaur killing asteroid 1992 World wide Web 1992 The risk of carbon dioxide buildup and global warming is recognised. 1992 The first 'xenotransplant' from one type of animal to another involving genetically engineered tissue (liver) is carried out successfully.
Discoveries of 21 Century st
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1997 Dolly the sheep is born. She has been produced by Ian Wilmut and his team at the Roslin Institute near Edinburgh
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2000 World Wide Web estimated to cover 1 billion pages.
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As homework the student list other discoveries during the past 4 years
Deductive and Inductive Reasoning A deductive argument is one in which it is claimed that it is impossible for the premises to be true but the conclusion false. Thus, the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises and inferences. In this way, it is supposed to be a definitive proof of the truth of the claim (conclusion). Here is an example: 1. All men are mortal. (premise) 2. Socrates was a man. (premise) 3. Socrates was mortal. (conclusion)
As you can see, if the premises are true (and they are), then it simply isn't possible for the conclusion to be false. An inductive argument is one in which the premises are supposed to support the conclusion in such a way that if the premises are true, it is improbable that the conclusion would be false. Thus, the conclusion follows probably from the premises and inferences. Here is an example: 1. Socrates was Greek. (premise) 2. Most Greeks eat fish. (premise) 3. Socrates probably ate fish. (conclusion)
Deductive and Inductive Reasoning inductive
The meerkat is closely related to the suricat The suricat thrives on beetle larvae Therefore, probably the meerkat thrives on beetle larvae
Deductive and Inductive Reasoning deductive The meekat is a member of the mongoose family All members of the mongoose family are carnivores Therefore, it necessarily follows that the meerkat is a carnivore
cobra
mongoose
Inductive Mathematical Reasoning Find a General Rule for the Number series: 0, 2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 72…..
Explain the Fibonacci Series: 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34,……
Stable Atomic Nuclei have the following number of nucleons (proton and neutrons): 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126, … What is the next member in the series?
Logical Fallacies
http://www.intrepidsoftware.com/fallacy/toc.php • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Abusive ad hominem Accent Ambiguity (index) Amphiboly Age, Appeal to Authority, Appeals to (4 types) Authority, Legitimate Appeal to Ad Hominem (5 types) Begging the Question Circumstantial ad hominem Complex Question Composition Correlation vs. Causation Division Emotion and Desire, Appeals to (5 types) Equivocation Unqualified Authority, Appeal to False Dilemma Flatter, Appeal to Force / Fear, Appeal to (Argumentum ad Baculum)
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Novelty, Appeal to No True Scotsman Numbers, Appeal to Money, Appeal to Oversimplification and Exaggeration Pity, Appeal to (Argumentum ad Misercordiam) Poisoning the Well Poverty, Appeal to Presumption Quantifier Fallacy Quoting out of Context Reification / Hypostatization Fallacies of Relevance (index) Scope Fallacy Suppressed Evidence Tradition, Appeal to Tu Quoque (two wrongs don't make a right Genetic Fallacy Illicit Observation
Logical Fallacies • Straw Man • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Definition: The author attacks an argument which is different from, and usually weaker than, the opposition's best argument. Examples: (i) People who opposed the Charlottown Accord probably just wanted Quebec to separate. But we want Quebec to stay in Canada. (ii) We should have conscription. People don't want to enter the military because they find it an inconvenience. But they should realize that there are more important things than convenience. Proof: Show that the opposition's argument has been misrepresented by showing that the opposition has a stronger argument. Describe the stronger argument.
Logical Fallacies • • • • • • •
Definition: The truth of the conclusion is assumed by the premises. Often, the conclusion is simply restated in the premises in a slightly different form. In more difficult cases, the premise is a consequence of the conclusion. Examples: (i) Since I'm not lying, it follows that I'm telling the truth.
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(ii) We know that God exists, since the Bible says God exists. What the Bible says must be true, since God wrote it and God never lies. (Here, we must agree that God exists in order to believe that God wrote the Bible.) Proof: Show that in order to believe that the premises are true we must already agree that the conclusion is true.
Logical Fallacies
• Coincidental Correlation • (post hoc ergo propter hoc ) • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Definition: The name in Latin means "after this therefore because of this". This describes the fallacy. An author commits the fallacy when it is assumed that because one thing follows another that the one thing was caused by the other. Examples: (i) Immigration to Alberta from Ontario increased. Soon after, the welfare rolls increased. Therefore, the increased immigration caused the increased welfare rolls. (ii) I took EZ-No-Cold, and two days later, my cold disappeared. Proof: Show that the correlation is coincidental by showing that: (i) the effect would have occurred even if the cause did not occur, or (ii) that the effect was caused by something other than the suggested cause.
Scientific Development From 1543 to 1789 `1543: Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543) publishes De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, which argues that the Sun is the center of the Solar System. *1543: Andrea Vesalius (1514-1564) publishes Concerning the Structure of the Human Body, the first modern anatomical text. *1600: William Gilbert (1540-1603) publishes Concerning the Magnet. *1605: Francis Bacon (1561-1626) publishes Advancement of Learning. *1609: Astronomia Nova is published by Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), in which he presented his first two Laws of Planetary Motion. *1610: Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) publishes Sidereal Messenger, describing his observations using the telescope. *1619: Kepler publishes his Third Law in Harmonia Mundi. *1628: William Harvey (1578-1657) publishes On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals, in which he proves that the heart circulates blood throughout the body. *1632: Galileo publishes Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, in which he compares the Copernican and Ptolemaic solar systems. *1637: Rene Descartes publishes his Discourse on Method, in which he lays the foundation for modern philosophy. *1644-9: Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655), in a series of works, revives the traditions of Epicureanism and Skepticism. *1660: Robert Boyle (1627-1691) publishes New Experiments Physico-Mechanical Touching the Spring of the Air, in which he states his laws of gases. *1662: The Royal Society of London is founded. *1666: The French Academy of Science is founded. *1677: Anton von Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723), using a microscope, discovers male spermatoza. *1678: Christian Huygens (1629-1695) proposes the wave theory of light. *1687: Isaac Newton (1642-1727) publishes his Principia Mathematica. *1704: Isaac Newton publishes his Optics. *1735: Carolus Linnaeus publishes his Systema Naturae, which establishes the science of taxonomy. *1789: Antoine Lavoisier publishes his treatise on chemistry, laying the foundation for the modern theory of chemical elements.
Scientific Development From 1543 to 1789 • • • • • • •
1543: Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543) publishes De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, which argues that the Sun is the center of the Solar System. 1543: Andrea Vesalius (1514-1564) publishes Concerning the Structure of the Human Body, the first modern anatomical text. 1600: William Gilbert (1540-1603) publishes Concerning the Magnet. 1605: Francis Bacon (1561-1626) publishes Advancement of Learning. 1609: Astronomia Nova is published by Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), in which he presented his first two Laws of Planetary Motion. 1610: Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) publishes Sidereal Messenger, describing his observations using the telescope. 1619: Kepler publishes his Third Law in Harmonia Mundi.
Scientific Development From 1543 to 1789 *1628: William Harvey (1578-1657) publishes On the Motion of the Heart and Blood `in Animals, in which he proves that the heart circulates blood throughout the body. *1632: Galileo publishes Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, in which he compares the Copernican and Ptolemaic solar systems. *1637: Rene Descartes publishes his Discourse on Method, in which he lays the foundation for modern philosophy. *1644-9: Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655), in a series of works, revives the traditions of Epicureanism and Skepticism. *1660: Robert Boyle (1627-1691) publishes New Experiments Physico-Mechanical Touching the Spring of the Air, in which he states his laws of gases. *1662: The Royal Society of London is founded.
Scientific Development From 1543 to 1789 *1666: The French Academy of Science is founded. *1677: Anton von Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723), using a microscope, discovers male spermatoza. *1678: Christian Huygens (1629-1695) proposes the wave theory of light. *1687: Isaac Newton (1642-1727) publishes his Principia Mathematica. *1704: Isaac Newton publishes his Optics. *1735: Carolus Linnaeus publishes his Systema Naturae, which establishes the science of taxonomy. *1789: Antoine Lavoisier publishes his treatise on chemistry, laying the foundation for the modern theory of chemical elements.
These tiny fluctuations have evolved into clusters of galaxies today
How Small Is A Particle?
Molecular Biology Overview Nucleus
Cell
Chromosome
Protein
Gene (DNA)
Gene (mRNA), single strand
Graphics courtesy of the National Human Genome Research Institute
Copyright © 2002
104
Method of Doubt He used 3 different foundations of belief in this method: •Analysis of the Senses •The Dream Hypothesis •The Evil Genius
Since he is able to think, then it is derived that he is alive and breathing.
Three Types of Ideas Innate------------Adventum ---------------Distinct
• Innate Ideas: Ideas that are in our souls by nature. • Adventum Ideas: Ideas that we “learn” • Distinct Ideas: Ideas that we “invent”
Adventum Ideas Descartes’s main interest is in the Adventum Ideas.
• Descartes described the ideas as: • It is not evident that the things that exist outside oneself are the causes of one’s ideas because the things that exist outside oneself and that seem are responsible for one’s ideas, are in reality material things.
Objectives of the Philosophy of Descartes Mathematics and Philosophy are the basics of Descartes’ fundamental studies. • Don’t try to prove a multitude of truths, but instead develop a system in which nothing is said that is not evident. • • Use reason so you can be able to succeed in life.
Brief History of Modern Science • Discovery A new method of acquiring knowledge was invented by a series of European thinkers from 1550 to 1700. Among these thinkers are Galileo, Descartes, Kepler, and Newton
• Definition of Science A special method and
knowledge executed by practitioners of science called scientists.
Meaning of Science • Science is practiced by specially trained people with a specific world view. Scientists try to be objective, non sentimental, unemotional, honest, and unbiased • Scientists work in laboratories where conditions are carefully controlled. • Scientists report their findings in peerreviewed journals to other scientists • Scientists do not claim more than what they can prove
External World • Science deals with things or objects in the external world. External world is anything that can be measured and described in mathematical terms • The external world the scientist believes follows rules of mathematics. • The external world contains solar systems, galaxies, quanta, quarks, quasars, four forces, six lepton, six lepton and six hadrons
Science Language • Scientists describe the results of controlled experiments in a specialized language and/or in mathematics. • Is the external world understandable because our brains conform to the external world or because the external world is essentially mathematical in nature as is the human mind?
Philosophical Foundations of Science Originated in the 17th century • Science removed animism as a physical explanation. Greek philosophers thought movement was a sign of life. Planets were moved by angels. Newton’s 1st law of motion changed this attitude. • Science changed man’s position from the center of the universe to its periphery. Man’s place in the universe was seen as minor. • Scientific achievement revived human pride in place of an obsession with sin.
Aristotelian Science Theory of Matter Matter stuff out of which things are made In sublunary world (below the moon) there are four elements or essences: earth, water, air, and fire. These four elements never found pure always mixed. Heavy things made out of earth Light things made mix of water,air, and fire
Aristotelian Science • Above sun, planets are stars imbedded in the crystalline sphere • The crystalline sphere made out of pure quintessence ( 5th essence) • Different laws pertain to the sublunary world than to the world above the moon
Aristotelian Science • • • • • •
Motion Natural state of all sublunary things is rest All objects seek rest Earth, Air, and water seek down for rest Fire seek rest upward Bodies seek the grave, the souls seek heaven
Aristotelian Science Motion • Two kinds of motion violent and natural • Things move because they’re pulled or pushed • Sun, planets, and stars move in uniform, circular motion • Circles are ideal and circular motion is an aspect of quintessence. • Earth is at center of Universe
Aristotelian Science • Violent Motion • A projectile exhibits violent motion • Question: why does an object keep moving after leaving the bow or hand? • Answer: air moves from the front of the object to the back and pushes the object along.
Aristotelian Science Violent Motion
Archimedes (287-212 BCE ) Sicilian geometrician who calculated an accurate value for π, demonstrated the relationship between the volume of spheres and cylinders, discovered methods for determining the center of gravity of plane figures, and provided a foundation for the science of hydrostatics. Archimedes also invented many ingenious machines, including a pump for raising water, effective levers and compound pulleys, and a mechanical planetarium. He died defending Syracuse against a Roman siege during the second Punic war.
Ptolemy & Epicycles more accurate measurement required more epicycles
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Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274 ) •
Although matters of such importance should be accepted on the basis of divine revelation alone, Aquinas held, it is at least possible (and perhaps even desirable) in some circumstances to achieve genuine knowledge of them by means of the rigorous application of human reason. As embodied souls
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(hylomorphic composites), human beings naturally rely on sensory information for their knowledge of the world. Reading hint: Although the rigidly formal structure of the Summa articles can be rather confusing to a modern reader, the central portion beginning with the words, " I answer that ..." is always a direct statement of Aquinas's own position.
Roger Bacon •
Bacon, Roger (1214-1292 )English philosopher who translated many Aristotelian treatises from Arabic into Latin. Although passionately interested in alchemy and magic, Roger defended reliance upon mathematics and experimental methods for the improvement of human knowledge generally and theological understanding in particular in the Opus Maius (Greater Work ) (1267) { at Amazon.com } and On Experimental Science (1268). His novel educational doctrines were supposed to violate the condemnation of 1277 , and much of Roger's later work, including the Compendium Studii Theologiae (1292) was suppressed.
William of Ockham, • •
William of Ockham (1285-1349 )English philosopher who defended the logic, physics, and metaphysics of Aristotle in Summa Logicae (The Whole of Logic ) (1328) vol. 1 { at Amazon.com } and vol. 2 { at Amazon.com } and the Dialogus . An extreme nominalist , Ockham held that general terms are signs that indefinitely signify discrete (though similar) particulars. Ockham is best known for his statement of the law of parsimony as the ontological principle often called Ockham's Razor : " Frustra fit per plura quod potest fieri per pauciora " ["It is pointless to do with more what can be done with less"]. Thus, according to Ockham, we ought never to postulate the reality of any entity unless it is logically necessary to do so.
Copernicus b. 1473 Poland •
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Polish astronomer who developed the theory that the earth is a moving planet. In Copernicus's time, most astronomers accepted the theory the Greek astronomer Ptolemy had formulated nearly 1,400 years earlier. Some astronomers before Ptolemy had suggested that the earth did in fact move. Copernicus decided that the simplest and most systematic explanation of heavenly motion required that every planet, including the earth, revolve around the sun. The earth also had to spin around its axis once every day. The earth's motion affects what people see in the heavens, so real motions must be separated from apparent ones. Copernicus skillfully applied this idea in his masterpiece, On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543). In this book, he demonstrated how the earth's motion could be used to explain the movements of other heavenly bodies. Copernicus could not prove his theory, but his explanation of heavenly motion was mathematically strong and was less complicated than Ptolemy's theory. By the early 1600's, such astronomers as Galileo in Italy and Johannes Kepler in Germany began to develop the physics that would prove Copernicus' theory correct.
A 1543 volume by Copernicus
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Tycho Brahe b. 1546 •
Danish astronomer. Brahe developed a systematic approach for observing the planets and stars. He stressed the importance of making such observations on a regular basis. The telescope had not yet been invented, and so Brahe used his eyesight and such instruments as astrolabes and quadrants to estimate the positions of celestial objects. His observations were far more precise than those of any earlier astronomer.
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Brahe's observations of planetary motion revealed that the tables then in use to predict the positions of the planets were inaccurate. His sighting of a supernova (type of exploding star) in 1572 helped disprove the ancient idea that no change could occur in the heavens beyond the orbit of the moon.
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Like many astronomers of his time, Brahe refused to accept the Copernican theory of the solar system. According to this theory, the earth and the other planets move around the sun. Brahe reasoned that if the earth revolved around the sun, he should have been able to measure changes in the positions of the stars resulting from the earth's movement. He did not realize that such changes were too small for his instruments to detect. However, Brahe's observational data later enabled Johannes Kepler, a German astronomer and mathematician, to confirm the Copernican theory.
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Brahe was born in Knudstrup (then a Danish city but now in Sweden), near Malmo. As a member of the nobility, he attended universities in Denmark, Germany, and Switzerland. Brahe built an elaborate observatory on the island of Hven (now called Ven), where he made many of his observations.
Tycho Brahe b. 1546 •
Danish astronomer. Brahe developed a systematic approach for observing the planets and stars. He stressed the importance of making such observations on a regular basis. The telescope had not yet been invented, and so Brahe used his eyesight and such instruments as astrolabes and quadrants to estimate the positions of celestial objects. His observations were far more precise than those of any earlier astronomer.
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Brahe's observations of planetary motion revealed that the tables then in use to predict the positions of the planets were inaccurate. His sighting of a supernova (type of exploding star) in 1572 helped disprove the ancient idea that no change could occur in the heavens beyond the orbit of the moon.
Tycho Brahe b. 1546 •
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Like many astronomers of his time, Brahe refused to accept the Copernican theory of the solar system. According to this theory, the earth and the other planets move around the sun. Brahe reasoned that if the earth revolved around the sun, he should have been able to measure changes in the positions of the stars resulting from the earth's movement. He did not realize that such changes were too small for his instruments to detect. However, Brahe's observational data later enabled Johannes Kepler, a German astronomer and mathematician, to confirm the Copernican theory. Brahe was born in Knudstrup (then a Danish city but now in Sweden), near Malmo. As a member of the nobility, he attended universities in Denmark, Germany, and Switzerland. Brahe built an elaborate observatory on the island of Hven (now called Ven), where he made many of his observations.
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
Johannes Kepler b. 1571 •
Discovered three laws of planetary motion.
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Newton later used Kepler's three laws to arrive at the principle of universal gravitation Kepler's laws are: (1) Every planet follows an ovalshaped path, or orbit, around the sun, called an ellipse. The sun is located at one focus of the elliptical orbit. (2) An imaginary line from the center of the sun to the center of a planet sweeps out the same area in a given time. This means that planets move faster when they are closer to the sun. (3) The time taken by a planet to make one complete trip around the sun is its period. The squares of the periods of two planets are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the sun.
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Kepler formed an association with Tycho Brahe, which shaped the rest of his life. His most significant discoveries were trying to find an orbit to fit all Brahe's observations of the planet Mars. Earlier astronomers thought a planet's orbit was a circle or a combination of circles. However, Kepler could not find a circular arrangement to agree with Brahe's observations. He realized that the orbit could not be circular and resorted to an ellipse in his calculations. The ellipse worked, and Kepler destroyed a belief that was more than 2,000 years old.
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Kepler was the first astronomer to openly uphold the theories of the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus.
Johannes Kepler b. 1571 •
Discovered three laws of planetary motion.
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Newton later used Kepler's three laws to arrive at the principle of universal gravitation Kepler's laws are: (1) Every planet follows an ovalshaped path, or orbit, around the sun, called an ellipse. The sun is located at one focus of the elliptical orbit. (2) An imaginary line from the center of the sun to the center of a planet sweeps out the same area in a given time. This means that planets move faster when they are closer to the sun. (3) The time taken by a planet to make one complete trip around the sun is its period. The squares of the periods of two planets are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the sun.
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Johannes Kepler b. 1571 •
Kepler formed an association with Tycho Brahe, which shaped the rest of his life. His most significant discoveries trying to find an orbit to fit all Brahe's observations of the planet Mars. Earlier astronomers thought a planet's orbit was a circle or a combination of circles. However, Kepler could not find a circular arrangement to agree with Brahe's observations. He realized that the orbit could not be circular and resorted to an ellipse in his calculations. The ellipse worked, and Kepler destroyed a belief that was more than 2,000 years old.
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Kepler was the first astronomer to openly uphold the theories of the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus.
Johannes Kepler b. 1571 •
FIRST LAW The orbits of the planets are ellipses, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse.
Johannes Kepler b. 1571 •
SECOND LAW The line joining the planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times as the planet travels around the el
Johannes Kepler b. 1571 •
THIRD LAW The ratio of the squares of the revolutionary periods for two planets is equal to the ratio of the cubes of their semi-major axes:
Paracelsus (Phillippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim) ( 1493-1541 ) • Swiss chemist and physician. Rejecting the ancient reliance on concern for bodily "humours," Paracelsus transformed the practice of medicine by employing careful observation and experimentation. Although his chemical knowledge was rudimentary by modern standards, Paracelsus envisioned using pharmaceutical methods for treating disease and something like inoculation for preventing it.
Robert Boyle (16271691) •
An Irish scientist considered the founder of modern chemistry. He helped establish the experimental method in chemistry and physics.
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Boyle is best known for his experiments on gases that led to the formulation of Boyle's law (see GAS (Gas laws)). This law says the volume of a gas at constant temperature varies inversely to the pressure applied to the gas. Boyle also helped improve the air pump, and with it he investigated the nature of vacuums.
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Boyle introduced many new methods for determining the identity and chemical composition of substances. He disproved the theory that air, earth, fire, and water were the basic elements of all matter. Boyle argued that all basic physical properties were due to the motion of atoms, which he called "corpuscles."
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Boyle lived in England for most of his life. He was a founding member of the Royal Society of London, one of the world's foremost scientific organizations. Boyle described his experiments in many books. He was born at Lismore Castle, Ireland.
Robert Boyle (16271691)
Galileo Galilei 1564 1657 Italian astronomer and physicist, has been called the founder of modern experimental science. Galileo made the first effective use of the refracting telescope to discover important new facts about astronomy. He also discovered the law of falling bodies as well as the law of the pendulum. Galileo designed a variety of scientific instruments. He also developed and improved the refracting telescope, though he did not invent it.
Galileo Galilei
From World Book © 2002 World Book, Inc., 233 N. Michigan Avenue, Suite 2000, Chicago, IL 60601. All rights reserved. Uffizi Gallery, Florence, Italy (Art Resource)
Astronomy and Kinematics • In 1610 Galileo made observations of sunspots and of Venus, noting that the planet progresses through phases similar to those of the moon. This fact confirmed his doubts about Ptolemaic astronomy and deepened his conviction of the truth of Copernicus' theory that the earth and planets revolve around the sun. Publication of these findings, starting in 1610, brought him wide renown.
Astronomy and Kinematics • Galileo also pursued research on motionespecially the motion of freely falling bodies. The problem, as he saw it, was that the Aristotelian theory of motion, which referred all motion to a stationary earth at the center of the universe, made it impossible to believe the earth actually moves. Galileo went to work to develop a theory of motion consistent with a moving earth.
Galileo and Inertia
• http://id.mind.net/~zona/mstm/physics/mechanics
From World Book © 2002 World Book, Inc., 233 N. Michigan Avenue, Suite 2000, Chicago, IL 60601. All rights reserved. Museo di Fisica e Storia Naturale, Florence, Italy (SCALA/Art Resource)
From World Book © 2002 World Book, Inc., 233 N. Michigan Avenue, Suite 2000, Chicago, IL 60601. All rights reserved. © J. M. Charles, Photo Researchers
Astronomy and Kinematics • Among the most important results of this search were the law of the pendulum and the law of freely falling bodies. Galileo observed that pendulums of equal length swing at the same rate whether their arcs are large or small. Modern measuring instruments show that the rate is actually somewhat greater if the arc is large. Galileo's law of falling bodies states that all objects fall at the same speed, regardless of their mass; and that, as they fall, the speed of their descent increases uniformly.
Pendulum The Italian physicist Galileo discovered the laws of the pendulum. He
noticed that a hanging lamp would swing with an almost constant period, whether the arc was large or small. He believed that a pendulum could regulate the movements of clocks. The Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens patented the first pendulum clock in 1657. Galileo's observations are still correct as long as the pendulum's swing is small. But modern measuring instruments have shown that the period of a pendulum increases when it has a large swing.
Pendulum • The Simple Pendulum •
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If a pendulum of mass m attached to a string of length L is displaced by an angle from the vertical, it experiences a net restoring force due to gravity: In this small angle approximation, the amplitude of the pendulum has no effect on the period. This is what makes pendulums such good time keepers. As they inevitably lose energy due to frictional forces, their amplitude decreases, but the period remains constant.
Pendulum
Figure showing the more intense scattering of blue light by the atmosphere relative to red light.
Rayleigh scattering is more dramatic after sunset. This picture was taken about one hour after sunset at 500m altitude, looking at the horizon where the sun had set.
Rayleigh scattering causes the blue hue of the daytime sky and the reddening of the sun at sunset
Rene’ Descartes
“I think, therefore I am”
Method of Doubt
Descartes used a certain method to try to isolate a definite truth, or something that can not be doubted. Descartes tried to achieve this absolute truth by starting analysis with radical doubt.
Rene Descartes
From World Book © 2002 World Book, Inc., 233 N. Michigan Avenue, Suite 2000, Chicago, IL 60601. All rights reserved. Detail of Rene Descartes Conducts a Demonstration Before Queen Christina of Sweden (about 1700) oil on canvas by Dumesnil (The Art Archive)
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Rene Descartes was one of the founders of modern philosophy. In this painting, Descartes conducts a scientific experiment for Queen Christina of Sweden shortly before his death in 1650.
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Detail of Rene Descartes Conducts a Demonstration Before Queen Christina of Sweden (about 1700) oil on canvas by Dumesnil (The Art Archive)
Gilbert, William (15401603), •
Gilbert, William (15401603), an English doctor and scientist, was the first person to use the word electricity. He has been called the "Galileo of Magnetism" because of his celebrated book De Magnete, which he published in 1600. It was concerned with the properties of magnetism, with electricity, and with the use of compasses in navigation.
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Gilbert's most important discoveries in the field of magnetism were the laws of attraction and repulsion, magnetic dip, and the properties of loadstones. Gilbert based his findings on observation and practical experiments. This practice differed greatly from that of most of the scientists of his time, who developed only abstract theories, unsupported by experiments.
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Gilbert was born in Colchester, in Essex, England, and was educated at St. John's College, Cambridge. He was physician to Queen Elizabeth I and
attended her during her last illness. Gilbert died on Nov. 30, 1603.
William Harvey (15781657) •
An English physician who became famous for his discovery of how blood circulates in mammals, including human beings. He described his discovery in An Anatomical Study of the Motion of the Heart and of the Blood in Animals (1628). This work became the basis for all modern research on the heart and blood vessels.
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Bacon, Francis (15611626)
English philosopher, essayist, jurist, and statesman. He was one of the earliest and most influential supporters of empirical (experimental) science and helped develop the scientific method of solving problems. Bacon believed all previous claims to knowledge, particularly of medieval science, were doubtful because they were based on poor logic. He believed the mind makes hasty generalizations, which prevent the attainment of knowledge. But he also believed that the mind could discover truths that would enable humanity to conquer disease, poverty, and war by gaining power over nature. To discover truths, the human mind must rid itself of four prejudices. Bacon called these prejudices Idols of the Mind. Bacon believed the mind could attain truth if it followed the inductive method of investigation. He developed four steps of doing so: (1) listing all known cases in which a phenomenon occurs; (2) listing similar cases where the phenomenon does not occur; (3) listing the cases in which the phenomenon occurs in differing degrees; and (4) examination of the three lists. These steps would lead to the cause of a phenomenon. Bacon suggested the use of preliminary hypotheses (assumptions) to aid scientific investigation. His treatment of hypothesis is still a subject of study. Bacon also wrote an unfinished romance called New Atlantis (published in 1627, after his death). The book describes an imaginary island where the inhabitants dedicate themselves to the study of science.
Bacon, Francis (15611626) • Four very significant stumblingblocks in the way of grasping the truth, which hinder every man (sic) however learned, and scarcely allow anyone to win a clear title to wisdom, namely: the example of weak and unworthy authority, longstanding custom, the feeling of the ignorant crowd, and the hiding of our own ignorance while making a display of our apparent knowledge.
Isaac Newton 1642 1727 • Proposed three laws of mechanics: 1. Inertia A body continues to move in a straight line unless acted upon by a force 2. F = ma Acceleration is proportional to the applied force. As long as the force is applied the velocity increases. 3. For every action there is a reaction • • • • • •
Explained motion of planets and moon Proposed law of universal gravitation Explained tides Assumed laws on Earth were same as in the heavens Discovered light composed of different color Invented reflector telescope
Newton’s Rules of Reasoning • • • • •
Use no more hypothesis than needed a restatement of Ockham’s Razor Apply same cause to same effect Properties on earth are same as properties (laws) in other parts of universe Offer hypotheses supported only by experiment “ we are to look upon propositions inferred by general induction from phenomena as accurately or very nearly true, not withstanding any contrary hypothesis that may be imagined till such time as other phenomena occur by which they may either be made more accurate or liable to exception
Antoine Lavoisier 1743 1794 French chemist who, through a conscious revolution, became the father of modern chemistry. As a student, he stated "I am young and avid for glory." He was educated in a radical tradition, a friend of Condillac and read Maquois's dictionary. He won a prize on lighting the streets of Paris, and designed a new method for preparing saltpeter. He also married a young, beautiful 13-year-old girl named Marie-Anne, who translated from English for him and illustrated his books. Lavoisier demonstrated with careful measurements that transmutation of water to earth was not possible, but that the sediment observed from boiling water came from the container. He burnt phosphorus and sulfur in air, and proved that the products weighed more than he original. Nevertheless, the weight gained was lost from the air. Thus he established the Law of Conservation of Mass.
Systematic Classification
Carolus Linnaeus Systema Naturae 1758
THE LINNEAN HIERARCHY FOR HUMANS
Phylum Chordata Class Mammalia Order Primates Family Hominidae Genus Homo Species Homo sapiens
Early Ideas about Evolution Speices changes through time in response to environment
Heritable characteristics
Catastrophism
Comte de Buffon (Georges Louis Leclerc) 17071788
JeanBaptiste Lamarck 17441829
Environment, but other mechanisms too
Erasmus Darwin 17311802
Baron Cuvier 17691832
Understanding the Depth of Time
James Hutton
Charles Lyell
17261797
1797 1875
Alexander Von Humboldt
Thomas Malthus 17661834
Charles Darwin & Alfred Wallace
How did they arrive at the same conclusions?
Darwin and Wallace Volumes
Heat Engines, Heat Pumps, and Refrigerators
Getting something useful from heat
Michael Faraday, b. Sept. 22, 1791 d. Aug. 25, 1867 The English chemist and physicist Michael Faraday, b. Sept. 22, 1791, d. Aug. 25, 1867, is known for his pioneering experiments in electricity and magnetism. Many consider him the greatest experimentalist who ever lived. Several concepts that he derived directly from experiments, such as lines of magnetic force, have become common ideas in modern physics.
Dmitri Mendeleev (c. 1860) • Russian chemist • Looked for common properties in elements • Then arranged by atomic mass • Noticed similar properties appeared at regular intervals “periodic”
The world first saw Mendeleev’s periodic table when it was published in a German scientific journal.
Henry Moseley (1911) • English scientist • Elements fit into patterns better if arranged by atomic number e.g. Te and I
Modern Periodic Table
What you need to identify in the modern periodic table: • • • • • • • •
Metals Nonmetals Metalloids Transition metals good conductors, shiny Alkali metals most reactive metals Alkaline metals reactive metals Halogens most reactive nonmetals Noble gases don’t react
JAMES CLERK MAXWELL 1831-1879 James Clerk Maxwell was one of the greatest scientists who have ever lived. To him we owe the most significant discovery of our age - the theory of electromagnetism. He is rightly acclaimed as the father of modern physics. He also made fundamental contributions to mathematics, astronomy and engineering.
Maxwell, James Clerk (18311879) •
Scottish scientist, one of the greatest mathematicians and physicists of the 1800's is best known for his research on electricity and magnetism and for his kinetic theory of gases. This theory explains the properties of a gas in terms of the behavior of its molecules. Maxwell also investigated color vision, elasticity, optics, Saturn's rings, and thermodynamics, a branch of physics that deals with heat and work.
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Maxwell based his work on electricity and magnetism on the discoveries of the English physicist Michael Faraday. In 1864, Maxwell combined his ideas with those of Faraday and certain other scientists and formed a mathematical theory that describes the relationship between electric and magnetic fields. Both these fields exert forces on electrically charged objects. Maxwell showed that waves in combined electric and magnetic fields, called electromagnetic waves, travel at the speed of light. In fact, Maxwell argued that light itself consists of electromagnetic waves. In the late 1880's, the German physicist Heinrich R. Hertz conducted experiments that confirmed Maxwell's theory.
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Maxwell's equations indicate that light moves at a particular speed, represented by the letter c. The value of c is now known to be 186,282 miles (299,792 kilometers) per second. Maxwell assumed that c was the speed of light relative to the ether. According to this assumption, light would travel faster or slower than c in an inertial frame moving
relative to the ether.
Michelson and Morley During the 1800's, physicists tried unsuccessfully to measure the speed of the earth relative to the ether. According to classical physics, the ether was motionless. In the early 1880's, Hendrik A. Lorentz, a Dutch physicist, explained the failure of these experiments by assuming that the ether was partially dragged along as the earth moved through it. Two American physicists, Albert A. Michelson and Edward W. Morley, developed an instrument that made far more precise measurements than earlier devices. Their experiments helped destroy the ether theory. In 1887, Michelson and Morley demonstrated that the earth's movement around the sun had no effect on the speed of light. Their finding could be understood only by assuming that the ether near the surface of the earth moved at the same speed as the earth. However, this assumption contradicted the results of many other experiments.
From World Book © 2002 World Book, Inc., 233 N. Michigan Avenue, Suite 2000, Chicago, IL 60601. All rights reserved. (C) Hulton/Archive
Principles of Relativity Einstein introduced a new principle, the special principle of relativity. This principle has two parts: (1) There is no ether, and the speed of light is the same for all observers, whatever their relative motion. (2) The laws of nature are the same in all inertial frames, where the laws are understood to include those described by Maxwell.
Albert Einstein (18791955), •
Was one of the greatest scientists of all time. He is best known for his theory of relativity, which he first advanced when he was only 26. He also made many other contributions to science.
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Relativity. Einstein's relativity theory revolutionized scientific thought with new conceptions of time, space, mass, motion, and gravitation. He treated matter and energy as exchangeable, not distinct. In so doing, he laid the basis for controlling the release of energy from the atom.
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Thus, Einstein was one of the fathers of the nuclear age. Einstein's famous equation, E equals m times csquared (energy equals mass times the velocity of light squared), became a foundation stone in the development of nuclear energy. Einstein developed his theory through deep philosophical thought and through complex mathematical reasoning. The great scientist was once reported to have said that only a dozen people in the world could understand his theory. However, Einstein always denied this report.
Discoveries of 20th Century • • • • • • •
1900 Quantum nature of energy 1903 First motorized airplane flew Special theory of relativity published 1907Radiometric dating finds earth 2.2 billion years old Ehrlich finds cure for syphilis 1912 Leavitt discovers Cepheid's period and luminosity 1912 Wegener proposes continental drift
• • • • • • • •
1913 Leavitt discovers 1913Bohr describes atomic structure 1915 General theory of relativity 1922 Banting and Best isolate insulin 1924 Hubble identifies new galaxy 1926 Television developed 1927 Big bang theory introduced 1927 Heisenberg state uncertainty principle
Discoveries of 20th Century • • • • • • •
1928 Fleming discovers penicillin 1929 Hubble finds universe expanding 1931 Lawrence invents cyclotron 1935 Nylon invented 1942 Fermi creates 1st controlled nuclear reaction 1945 ENIAC built 1945 Atomic bomb detonated
• • • • • • • •
1947 Libby introduces C14 dating 1947 Transistor invented 1953 Salk polio vaccine 1953 Miller makes amino acids in laboratory 1953 MidAtlantic rift discovered 1953 Watson and Crick describe DNA 1954 First kidney transplant 1959 Leaky finds early hominid
Discoveries of 20th Century • • • • • • • •
1960 Hess propose seafloor spreading 1965 Penzias and Wilson observe cosmic background microwave radiation 1967 Pulsars discovered 1969 Apollo lands on moon 1971 First commercial microprocessor introduced 1974 Johanson finds 3.2 million year old Lucy 1975 Personal computer launched 1976 Cosmic string theory introduced
• • • • •
1977 found near deep ocean vents 1980 Alvarez finds evidence for dinosaur killing asteroid 1992 World wide Web 1992 The risk of carbon dioxide buildup and global warming is recognised. 1992 The first 'xenotransplant' from one type of animal to another involving genetically engineered tissue (liver) is carried out successfully.
Discoveries of 21 Century st
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1997 Dolly the sheep is born. She has been produced by Ian Wilmut and his team at the Roslin Institute near Edinburgh
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2000 World Wide Web estimated to cover 1 billion pages.
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As homework the student list other discoveries during the past 4 years
Deductive and Inductive Reasoning A deductive argument is one in which it is claimed that it is impossible for the premises to be true but the conclusion false. Thus, the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises and inferences. In this way, it is supposed to be a definitive proof of the truth of the claim (conclusion). Here is an example: 1. All men are mortal. (premise) 2. Socrates was a man. (premise) 3. Socrates was mortal. (conclusion)
As you can see, if the premises are true (and they are), then it simply isn't possible for the conclusion to be false. An inductive argument is one in which the premises are supposed to support the conclusion in such a way that if the premises are true, it is improbable that the conclusion would be false. Thus, the conclusion follows probably from the premises and inferences. Here is an example: 1. Socrates was Greek. (premise) 2. Most Greeks eat fish. (premise) 3. Socrates probably ate fish. (conclusion)
Deductive and Inductive Reasoning inductive
The meerkat is closely related to the suricat The suricat thrives on beetle larvae Therefore, probably the meerkat thrives on beetle larvae
Deductive and Inductive Reasoning deductive The meekat is a member of the mongoose family All members of the mongoose family are carnivores Therefore, it necessarily follows that the meerkat is a carnivore
cobra
mongoose
Inductive Mathematical Reasoning Find a General Rule for the Number series: 0, 2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 72…..
Explain the Fibonacci Series: 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34,……
Stable Atomic Nuclei have the following number of nucleons (proton and neutrons): 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126, … What is the next member in the series?
Logical Fallacies
http://www.intrepidsoftware.com/fallacy/toc.php • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Abusive ad hominem Accent Ambiguity (index) Amphiboly Age, Appeal to Authority, Appeals to (4 types) Authority, Legitimate Appeal to Ad Hominem (5 types) Begging the Question Circumstantial ad hominem Complex Question Composition Correlation vs. Causation Division Emotion and Desire, Appeals to (5 types) Equivocation Unqualified Authority, Appeal to False Dilemma Flatter, Appeal to Force / Fear, Appeal to (Argumentum ad Baculum)
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Novelty, Appeal to No True Scotsman Numbers, Appeal to Money, Appeal to Oversimplification and Exaggeration Pity, Appeal to (Argumentum ad Misercordiam) Poisoning the Well Poverty, Appeal to Presumption Quantifier Fallacy Quoting out of Context Reification / Hypostatization Fallacies of Relevance (index) Scope Fallacy Suppressed Evidence Tradition, Appeal to Tu Quoque (two wrongs don't make a right Genetic Fallacy Illicit Observation
Logical Fallacies • Straw Man • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Definition: The author attacks an argument which is different from, and usually weaker than, the opposition's best argument. Examples: (i) People who opposed the Charlottown Accord probably just wanted Quebec to separate. But we want Quebec to stay in Canada. (ii) We should have conscription. People don't want to enter the military because they find it an inconvenience. But they should realize that there are more important things than convenience. Proof: Show that the opposition's argument has been misrepresented by showing that the opposition has a stronger argument. Describe the stronger argument.
Logical Fallacies • • • • • • •
Definition: The truth of the conclusion is assumed by the premises. Often, the conclusion is simply restated in the premises in a slightly different form. In more difficult cases, the premise is a consequence of the conclusion. Examples: (i) Since I'm not lying, it follows that I'm telling the truth.
• • • • • • •
(ii) We know that God exists, since the Bible says God exists. What the Bible says must be true, since God wrote it and God never lies. (Here, we must agree that God exists in order to believe that God wrote the Bible.) Proof: Show that in order to believe that the premises are true we must already agree that the conclusion is true.
Logical Fallacies
• Coincidental Correlation • (post hoc ergo propter hoc ) • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Definition: The name in Latin means "after this therefore because of this". This describes the fallacy. An author commits the fallacy when it is assumed that because one thing follows another that the one thing was caused by the other. Examples: (i) Immigration to Alberta from Ontario increased. Soon after, the welfare rolls increased. Therefore, the increased immigration caused the increased welfare rolls. (ii) I took EZ-No-Cold, and two days later, my cold disappeared. Proof: Show that the correlation is coincidental by showing that: (i) the effect would have occurred even if the cause did not occur, or (ii) that the effect was caused by something other than the suggested cause.
Scientific Development From 1543 to 1789 `1543: Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543) publishes De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, which argues that the Sun is the center of the Solar System. *1543: Andrea Vesalius (1514-1564) publishes Concerning the Structure of the Human Body, the first modern anatomical text. *1600: William Gilbert (1540-1603) publishes Concerning the Magnet. *1605: Francis Bacon (1561-1626) publishes Advancement of Learning. *1609: Astronomia Nova is published by Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), in which he presented his first two Laws of Planetary Motion. *1610: Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) publishes Sidereal Messenger, describing his observations using the telescope. *1619: Kepler publishes his Third Law in Harmonia Mundi. *1628: William Harvey (1578-1657) publishes On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals, in which he proves that the heart circulates blood throughout the body. *1632: Galileo publishes Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, in which he compares the Copernican and Ptolemaic solar systems. *1637: Rene Descartes publishes his Discourse on Method, in which he lays the foundation for modern philosophy. *1644-9: Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655), in a series of works, revives the traditions of Epicureanism and Skepticism. *1660: Robert Boyle (1627-1691) publishes New Experiments Physico-Mechanical Touching the Spring of the Air, in which he states his laws of gases. *1662: The Royal Society of London is founded. *1666: The French Academy of Science is founded. *1677: Anton von Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723), using a microscope, discovers male spermatoza. *1678: Christian Huygens (1629-1695) proposes the wave theory of light. *1687: Isaac Newton (1642-1727) publishes his Principia Mathematica. *1704: Isaac Newton publishes his Optics. *1735: Carolus Linnaeus publishes his Systema Naturae, which establishes the science of taxonomy. *1789: Antoine Lavoisier publishes his treatise on chemistry, laying the foundation for the modern theory of chemical elements.
Scientific Development From 1543 to 1789 • • • • • • •
1543: Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543) publishes De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, which argues that the Sun is the center of the Solar System. 1543: Andrea Vesalius (1514-1564) publishes Concerning the Structure of the Human Body, the first modern anatomical text. 1600: William Gilbert (1540-1603) publishes Concerning the Magnet. 1605: Francis Bacon (1561-1626) publishes Advancement of Learning. 1609: Astronomia Nova is published by Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), in which he presented his first two Laws of Planetary Motion. 1610: Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) publishes Sidereal Messenger, describing his observations using the telescope. 1619: Kepler publishes his Third Law in Harmonia Mundi.
Scientific Development From 1543 to 1789 *1628: William Harvey (1578-1657) publishes On the Motion of the Heart and Blood `in Animals, in which he proves that the heart circulates blood throughout the body. *1632: Galileo publishes Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, in which he compares the Copernican and Ptolemaic solar systems. *1637: Rene Descartes publishes his Discourse on Method, in which he lays the foundation for modern philosophy. *1644-9: Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655), in a series of works, revives the traditions of Epicureanism and Skepticism. *1660: Robert Boyle (1627-1691) publishes New Experiments Physico-Mechanical Touching the Spring of the Air, in which he states his laws of gases. *1662: The Royal Society of London is founded.
Scientific Development From 1543 to 1789 *1666: The French Academy of Science is founded. *1677: Anton von Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723), using a microscope, discovers male spermatoza. *1678: Christian Huygens (1629-1695) proposes the wave theory of light. *1687: Isaac Newton (1642-1727) publishes his Principia Mathematica. *1704: Isaac Newton publishes his Optics. *1735: Carolus Linnaeus publishes his Systema Naturae, which establishes the science of taxonomy. *1789: Antoine Lavoisier publishes his treatise on chemistry, laying the foundation for the modern theory of chemical elements.
These tiny fluctuations have evolved into clusters of galaxies today
How Small Is A Particle?
Molecular Biology Overview Nucleus
Cell
Chromosome
Protein
Gene (DNA)
Gene (mRNA), single strand
Graphics courtesy of the National Human Genome Research Institute
Copyright © 2002
104
Method of Doubt He used 3 different foundations of belief in this method: •Analysis of the Senses •The Dream Hypothesis •The Evil Genius
Since he is able to think, then it is derived that he is alive and breathing.
Three Types of Ideas Innate------------Adventum ---------------Distinct
• Innate Ideas: Ideas that are in our souls by nature. • Adventum Ideas: Ideas that we “learn” • Distinct Ideas: Ideas that we “invent”
Adventum Ideas Descartes’s main interest is in the Adventum Ideas.
• Descartes described the ideas as: • It is not evident that the things that exist outside oneself are the causes of one’s ideas because the things that exist outside oneself and that seem are responsible for one’s ideas, are in reality material things.
Objectives of the Philosophy of Descartes Mathematics and Philosophy are the basics of Descartes’ fundamental studies. • Don’t try to prove a multitude of truths, but instead develop a system in which nothing is said that is not evident. • • Use reason so you can be able to succeed in life.
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