Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty Of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

This course is all about the beauty of research: why research, what type of research, what to research, who is the research about, how to design a research, who to research, how to get data, how to analyze and how to finally tie the research questions to the answers (usually tentative answers. We never have absolute truth, but versions or parts of the truth)  Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

We all are researchers of sorts. We cannot live without being one. We see, seek, search, imitate, develop beliefs (making sense conceptualising & hypothesising) and constantly test these beliefs (our personal theories about the world around us) against our experience (data, empirical) either to change it or to fortify it. This course is to educate you on the rules and rigor of scientific research.  Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511 Datuk Mokhtar Hashim’s Murder Trial Prosecutor: Witness: Prosecutor: Witness: Prosecutor: Witness: Prosecutor: Witness: Defense: Witness: Defense: Witness: Defense: Witness: Defense:

Judge: do not lie.

Can you tell the court your name and occupation? My name is Ali bin Ahmad and I am a paddy farmer. One the night of the shooting, were you walking back to your home from the surau? Yes, I was. Did you see a man walking away from Pn Sarinah’s house? Yes, I saw Datuk Mohktar leaving Pn. Sarinah’s house in a hurry. It was at night, wasn’t it? Yes, but I saw him clearly. Pak Cik Ali, you saw this person around after Ishak prayers? Yes. Can you be certain that you saw this man? Yes, I am certain. Have you seen a doctor recently about eye problems – cataract, shortsightedness etc.? Yes, for mild cataract. So you must be lying about clearly seeing this man! With your eyesight you cannot be sure? Did any one here tell you what to say? Your honour, this witness is plainly lying or he was coached. Mr. Counsel, he (the witness) is a simple god faring farmer. This people, unlike city folks,

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: What is Research?  Everyone is researching everyday. Personal observations, mental models, standards, theories, bias, prejudices and beliefs.

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to provide a working definition of research. Points to ponder:

 It is an organised and systematic effort to investigate a problem that needs a solution (Sekaran, 1994:4)  Research is also seeking to better understand the world around us in the hope that we can improve the human condition;  Individual capacities  Group capacities  National capacities

• We are all researchers? • Everyday is an empirical/conceptual experience. • What personal theories do you hold? • Research is purposive • People use theories to define the situation, choose alternatives and take action. • You no theories – you name must be Rigor Mortis

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: The Learning Outcomes Explicit  List and explain the elements of empirical research.  Formulate and develop a written proposal that meets the norms.  Can select and utilize the statistical tools to analyse data.

Implicit  Write clearly and logically  All key points referenced (hence well researched)  Can select important theoretical, conceptual or practical problems  Smart use of online facilities

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to outline the learning outcomes of this course. Points to ponder: • If the required readings are not carried out, will it compromise the learning? Probably • Without experience, can I pull this off? Yes, you can. • Are they samples or examples to follow? Many, just need to look for it around you.

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: What is Research?  Everyone is researching everyday. Personal observations, mental models, standards, theories, bias, prejudices and beliefs.

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to provide a working definition of research. Points to ponder:

 It is an organised and systematic effort to investigate a problem that needs a solution (Sekaran, 1994:4)  Research is also seeking to better understand the world around us in the hope that we can improve the human condition;  Individual capacities  Group capacities  National capacities

• We are all researchers? • Everyday is an empirical/conceptual experience. • What personal theories do you hold? • Research is purposive • People use theories to define the situation, choose alternatives and take action. • You no theories – you name must be Rigor Mortis

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: Why Do Research?  Explore things we don’t know  risky to think we know all  testing what we know  To understand the variables/dynamics  social world is complex  figuring out what the elements are  to prevent biases, popular beliefs etc driving decisions  To examine the relationships between them  think are not what they seem  interactions are dynamic and complex  necessary to solve everyday problems, seek better methods, predict and avoid problems

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to introduce the importance and value of research. Points to ponder: • Do we know why students ‘melepak’? Is it important we know this from them? • What makes teenagers smoke? • What motivates knowledge workers? Money, security, growth opportunities, just workplace, community spirit. • We know or we just assume knowledge!

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: Basic vs. Applied Research  Basic research: discovery, exploration, understanding, explanation. Concerned with building blocks. Basic research is developing new knowledge. E.g. Understanding the concept and meaning of “melepak”  Applied research: prediction, forecasting, productivity and performance improvement, outcome enhancement. Applied research takes existing knowledge to solve problem problems. Evaluating the impact cozy and private of parks on “melepak” phenomenon in Selangor.

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to characterize types of research Points to ponder: • Is commercializable research basic or applied? • Understanding the problem is the key to an effective solution. • All too often, we rush to explain the problem without knowing enough about the problem itself.

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Qualitative

Quantitative

Topic: Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

• Assumes objective social reality • Social reality is relatively constant across time and space • Sees causal relationships among social phenomena from a mechanistic perspective • Social reality is constructed by its participants • Social reality is continuously constructed in local situations • Human intentions play major role in explaining causal relationships among social phenomena

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to characterize types of research Points to ponder: • Can we quantify most things social? We do but is it right? • Quantifying the unquantifiable – a scientific fraud? • Most people can see the simple and the obvious – no ability or interest in deeper level of analysis? • Two different worlds or two ends on a continuum?

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Qualitative

Quantitative

Topic: Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

• Takes objective, detached stance toward research participants and their setting. • Studies populations or samples that represent populations. • Studies behavior and other observable phenomena.

• Becomes personally involved with research participants--sharing perspectives and assuming a caring attitude. • Studies cases. • Studies the meanings that individuals create and other internal phenomena

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to characterize types of research Points to ponder: • Can we quantify most things social? We do but is it right? • Quantifying the unquantifiable – a scientific fraud? • Most people can see the simple and the obvious – no ability or interest in deeper level of analysis? • Two different worlds or two ends on a continuum?

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Quantitative

Qualitative

• Studies human behavior in • Studies human actions in natural or contrived natural settings. settings. • Analyzes social reality into • Makes holistic observations of the total variables. context within which social action occurs. • Uses preconceived • Discovers concepts and theories after data have concepts and theories to been collected. determine what data will be collected.

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to characterize types of research Points to ponder: • Can we quantify most things social? We do but is it right? • Quantifying the unquantifiable – a scientific fraud? • Most people can see the simple and the obvious – no ability or interest in deeper level of analysis? • Two different worlds or two ends on a continuum?

Research Method & Analysis Data:ADS501/ADS511

Topic: Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Quantitative

Qualitative

• Generates numerical data • Generates verbal and to represent the social pictorial data to represent environment. the social environment. • Uses statistical methods to • Uses analytic induction to analyze data. analyze data. • Uses statistical inference • Generalizes case findings b procedures to generalize y searching for other similar cases. findings from a sample to a defined population.

• Prepares interpretive • Prepares impersonal, objective reports of research findings. reports that reflect researchers’ constructions of the data and an awareness that readers will form their own constructions what is  Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Sciencefrom & Policy Studies

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to characterize types of research Points to ponder: • Can we quantify most things social? We do but is it right? • Quantifying the unquantifiable – a scientific fraud? • Most people can see the simple and the obvious – no ability or interest in deeper level of analysis? • Two different worlds or two ends on a continuum?

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: What is Scientific Research?

 Purposive: specific objective  Testability: can be verified  Rigour:great care in examination  Replicability: others can do it  Precision & confidence: definitional clarity  Objectivity: researcher’s biases are reduced or removed  Generalisability: can be applied to similar cases  Parsimony: identification of the major causes or consequences

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to introduce students the multifaceted nature of social products. Points to ponder: • What is science? • What are the basic assumptions of science about the physical and social world? • How do we make the tradeoffs between different elements of the research?

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: What Kind of Research is Required?

 Original – well some originality at least  Empirical – primary data collection, fieldwork  To some extent analytical – relationship between variables with possible cause effect  Scientific – testable, verifiable  Demonstrates the one’s understanding of research elements and processes  Possible within 2 semester: 1 semester for planning and another for fieldwork and writing up(20 weeks) ------------------------

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to introduce the students to the type of research that is expected for this course Points to ponder: • What kind of research is useful? • What you mean by analytical? • Can I do qualitative study?

More details in Dissertation Guide V 1.0

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: Standard Elements of a Research Report  Title of the study  Statement of the problem  Research questions and objectives  Scope of the study  Significance of the study  Literature review  Research method  research design  population, sample, sample size and  sampling  unit of analyses  measurement/operationalisation

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to provide a common structure to the research and the report Points to ponder: • What is bothering me about this problem? • Is there a difference between methodology and method?

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: Standard Elements of a Research Report

 Research method  data collection  data analysis  Findings  Discussion & conclusions  References  Appendices

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to provide students a common structure for the research and report. Points to ponder: • How much should I state under each of these elements? • How much of statistics must I know to carry out this study? • Who will be reading my research report? • What about the writing style? Flowery, formal, jargon filled, conversational etc.

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: How To Choose A Research Topic?

 Stick closely to familiar areas  Focus on current issues and phenomena  Stay away from issues where the concepts are unclear and you haven’t the skills to deal with it  Do not choose extremely sensitive topics  Issues or topics should be researchable within time given  Concepts and their variables easy to measure  Plenty of references available  Issues or topics which are of interest to others  Issues of interest to your employer,

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to provide students with basis to choose areas/problem to research. Points to ponder: • Why am I interested in this topic? • Will my respondents participate? • Are the concepts too difficult for me to handle? • Do I have some background knowledge on this topic?

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: Basic Concepts and Terminologies in Research Concepts: tools for organising and categorising events or phenomenon for communication  Theories: two or more concepts having propositional relations.  Models: representations of a process or phenomenon.  Phenomenon: an event or occurrence which is illunderstood  Variables: measures that can take one or more values  Independent variables  Dependent variables  Moderating variables  Mediating/intervening variables  Control variables  Confounding/spurious variables 

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to provide students with the meaning of the basic jargon in research Points to ponder: • How well do I understand these terms? • What is the use of theories? • What is the difference between theories and models? • Can one variable be dependent and independent at the same time?

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: Statement of the Research problem  Explains the nature of the problem to be

researched.  Provide some authoritative support for the problem.  Outline the lack of understanding or void or unsatisfactory state of affairs which needs clarifying or researching  Is there a gap in our present understanding?  Is the gap an important one to study  Examples

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to provide students with some understanding of problem statement. Points to ponder: • Problems can be looked at from many perspectives. • Problems are not necessarily negative. • Not knowing why a business is successful is a problem – knowledge void.

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: Statement of the Research problem

Symptoms (Indicators)

Turnover\absenteeism High reject rate, low productivity, low sharing of knowledge

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to provide students with some understanding of problem statement. Points to ponder:

Problems (Causes)

Causal connections are inferred from theory, logic, experience, hunch etc.

Low morale, lack job satisfaction, job conflict, role clarity, trust/distrust, self preservation

• Symptoms are manifestations of some underlying conditions • Causes are the problems • A gap in the literature is not a problem. • Practical or theoretical problem

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: Research problem

Symptoms (Indicators)

Problems (Causes)

Data, statistics, reports, statements etc adduced to show the existence of the symptoms

The causes are posited, claimed, alleged through systematic analysis

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to provide students with some understanding of problem statement. Points to ponder: • Symptoms are manifestations of some underlying conditions • Causes are the problems • A gap in the literature is not a problem. • Practical or theoretical problem

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: Research problem

Symptoms (Indicators)

Problems (Causes)

Better performance of national types schools in critical subjects

Principal’s leadership behavioral & motivation style

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to provide students with some understanding of problem statement. Points to ponder: • Symptoms are manifestations of some underlying conditions • Causes are the problems • A gap in the literature is not a problem. • Practical or theoretical problem

Balasandran (2007) DBA Thesis, School of Management, USM 2007

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: Research problem

Symptoms (Indicators)

Problems (Causes)

Strict division of duties, slow decision making, unhappy line execs.

Low empowerment of line, lack of trust in ability, not risk taking

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to provide students with some understanding of problem statement. Points to ponder: • Symptoms are manifestations of some underlying conditions • Causes are the problems • A gap in the literature is not a problem. • Practical or theoretical problem

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data:ADS501/ADS511

Topic: Research problem

Symptoms (Indicators)

Client charter not revised Client charter not known Client charter not serious

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to provide students with some understanding of problem statement. Points to ponder:

Problems (Causes)

CC not linked to budget CC not linked to performance CC not part of strategic goals

• Symptoms are manifestations of some underlying conditions • Causes are the problems • A gap in the literature is not a problem. • Practical or theoretical problem

Hazman & Munirah (2003) IRDC Research UiTM

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: Research problem

Symptoms (Indicators)

Chinese schools better in Maths, Eng & Science than national schools

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to provide students with some understanding of problem statement. Points to ponder:

Problems (Causes)

Leader quality differences

• Symptoms are manifestations of some underlying conditions • Causes are the problems • A gap in the literature is not a problem. • Practical or theoretical problem

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: Research problem Perspective I

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to provide students with some understanding of problem statement. Points to ponder:

• Multiple causation • Multiple perspectives

• Perspectives change problem understanding. • There are multiple causes of the problem • The challenge is to make the case for the most compelling one • On what basis – theory, evidence, logic, experience etc.

Perspective IV  Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: Research problem PS1: The universities have failed employers Many ways to look at the same problem Unemployed Graduates

PS4: The employers have failed universities

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: Research problem

Broad

Many ways to look at the same problem

Research questions 1. How do universities develop curriculum? 2. Are employers involved in curriculum development and approval?

Specific

PS1: The universities have failed employers

Research objectives 1. Determine type of market study 2. Categorise information sought from employers. 3. Ascertain level of match or mismatch.

Unemployed Graduates

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: Research problem

Unemployed Graduates

Specific

Many ways to look at the same problem

Broad

PS2: The economy has failed economist

Research questions 1. Is there enough job creation? 2. Where is the job creation?

Research objectives 1. Ascertain trend in job creation between 1990-2004. 2. Determine the job and econ growth relationship in the kindustries.

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: Research problem

Broad

Many ways to look at the same problem

Research questions 1. Is the government policy of expansion wise? 2. Should the government limit admission into social science?

Specific

PS3: The government has failed - opposition

Research objectives 1. To ascertain the opinions of VCs about the expansion. 2. To examine the mechanisms used to control the universities.

Unemployed Graduates

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: Research problem

Unemployed Graduates

Broad

Many ways to look at the same problem

Research questions 1. Are employers sexist? 2. Are they prepared to train new employees?

Specific

PS4: The employers have failed universities

Research objectives 1. To determine if male grads are favoured over female. 2. To examine the level of new employee training.

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: Research problem

Unemployed Graduates

Specific

Many ways to look at the same problem

Broad

PS5: The students have failed – Job counselors

Research questions 1. Are student aware of the job market? 2. Do students choose courses based on market or personal likes?

Research objectives 1. Determine the students level of awareness of job market. 2. Examine students reasons for enrolling in a course. 3. Extent of counseling sought before enrolment.

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: Research problem

Unemployed Graduates

Specific

Many ways to look at the same problem

Broad

PS6: The parents have failed – Sociologists

Research questions 1. Are parents aware of job prospects? 2. Going to university or train for job?

Research objectives 1. The role of parents in their children’s choice of courses. 2. Parents concern for employability.

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: Research problem

Specific

Broad

PS1: The universities have failed - employers Research questions 1. How do universities develop curriculum? 2. Are employers involved in curriculum development and approval?

Research objectives 1. Ascertain level of match or mismatch. 2. Determine type of market study 3. Categorise information sought from employers.

The conceptual framework

Education/ Training orientation

H1

University Curriculum H2 Dev’t Policy

Market study

H3

Information from employers

H4

Level of match

H5 Job market Soft - hard

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Exercise A key problem in KM is the lack of sharing of knowledge amongst employees within the organisation. Examine why there is low knowledge sharing from different perspectives

Time: 10 minutes 1.Law – I was not contract to do that 2.Management – people share if this behavior is measured,

monitored and reinforced 3.Sociology – Sharing in in-groups, not out-groups 4.Economics – Information is valuable resource 5.Politics – creates power asymmetry between the haves and have-nots

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to provide students a clear understanding of research objectives Points to ponder: • What is the difference between research questions and objectives? • How many objectives is enough? • Should I state it in paragraph or point form?

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: Research Objectives  Points to the issues to be researched  univariate objectives  bivariate/correlational objectives  Multivariate objectives  Should stated as specifically as possible  Sets the scope of the research  Literature review bounded/guided by it  Conceptual framework must consistent  Dictates the research design choices/trade-offs  Basis for the evaluation of the quality of the

research  Should start with        



Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to provide students a clear understanding of research objectives Points to ponder: • What is the difference between research questions and objectives? • How many objectives is enough? • Should I state it in paragraph or point form?

to examine, to ascertain, to determine, to establish, to discover, to identify, to locate, to measure etc. Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: Research Objectives  Example 

To ascertain the level of smoking among university students –UNIVARIATE To determine public perception of corruption in government  To examine the relationship between the student’s and the parent’s smoking habit – BIVARIATE To examine the relationship between religiosity and perception of corruption in government  To examine the influence of allowance received by the students on his smoking  To determine the influence of friends in smoking  To determine the relative influence of parents, friends and allowance in smoking – MULTIVARIATE To determine the relative influence of religiosity, instrumentalism and moral maturity on perception of corruption in government

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to provide students a clear understanding of research objectives Points to ponder: • Are my objectives clear? • How does the conceptual framework relate to my objectives? • Are my objectives, practically achievable? – reality check

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: The Scope of the Research  Marks out the limits of the research  Related to population, sample and

generalisability of study  General basis of study scope  space/territory/geographical- Klang Valley  time/temporal - Monsoon  level/division/categories – HR Department  dimensions/aspects – Process justice  type of subjects - Children

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to provide students with knowledge of scoping issues Points to ponder: • Why the scope is important? • Do I just state it or should I explain why? • Is scope and delimitations of the study different?

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: The Scope of the Research  Examples This study is focused on the smoking habits of university students in the 1st year. Only students from 2 universities are involved in the study namely; Universiti Teknologi MARA and Universiti Selangor.

This study is limited to women executives in governmental organisations in and around the Klang Valley who have been in their positions for at least 1 year.

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to provide students with knowledge of scoping issues Points to ponder: • Why the scope is important? • Do I just state it or should I explain why? • Is scope and delimitations of the study different?

The study will cover newspaper distributors in 4 districts of Selangor namely; Shah Alam, Klang Subang Jaya and Petaling Jaya

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies

Research Method & Analysis Data: ADS501/ADS511

Topic: The Significance the Research  Why is the study important?

Lecture objectives: This lecture is intended to provide students with knowledge of scoping issues

Theoretical standpoint

Concepts are make clear, new relationships are tested, evaluation of models, better instrument, new design etc.  Policy Standpoint

It helps in formulating better policies.

Points to ponder: • Why the scope is important? • Do I just state it or should I explain why? • Is scope and delimitations of the study different?

 Practical standpoint.

It works. Threshold before changes occur. Some levers are better than others.

 Hazman Shah Abdullah, Faculty of Administrative Science & Policy Studies