Guis: The Most Significant Element In The History Of The Information Revolution?

GUIs: The most significant element in the history of the Information Revolution? Matthew W. A. Sparkes BSc School of Computing Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom, NR4 7TJ [email protected] April 5, 2006 Abstract This essay puts forward the argument that the development of graphical user interfaces was the most important element in the history of the information revolution, enabling the masses to use technology with more ease than ever before, and that this was the main aspect of the information revolution; to bring massive computing power, simplified by intuitive GUIs, into the hands of the masses.

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Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 What is the Information Revolution? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 GUIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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2 Before the GUI 2.1 GUIs Before Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Computing Before GUIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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3 Birth of the GUI 3.1 Failed GUI Paradigms 3.1.1 Command Line 3.1.2 Microsoft Bob 3.1.3 Virtual Reality

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4 The 4.1 4.2 4.3

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Effect of the GUI 9 Bringing Computers to the Masses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Desktop Publishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Graphing Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

5 What Drove GUI Development? 5.1 Pornographers - The Earliest of Early Adopters 5.1.1 Photography and Video . . . . . . . . . 5.1.2 Internet Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Human Familiarity with Visual Interaction . . . 5.3 Multimedia Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Conclusion

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1 1.1

Introduction What is the Information Revolution?

It is difficult to choose one element to label as the most important in the history of the information revolution, and to do so requires a closer look at the definition of the phrase itself. It is a term that is used, and overused, in many fields and every definition differs slightly in its scope and focus. It is commonly used to refer to the development of computers and the Internet, and is also used to describe the emergence of databases and the improved capability to analyse data. In this essay the definition is taken to mean this; the information revolution is widespread adoption of computing technology, and the linking of these computers in a world-wide network, with a graphical layer of interconnected pages abstracted from this network, called the Internet which allows massive collation and interpretation of this data in numerous ways. The information revolution is people using Google to settle disputes, rather than the Encyclopedia Britannica. The information revolution is sharing digital images on a personal website, rather than getting copies of prints made for friends. The information revolution is researching an essay from a computer, rather than walking around a library. It is huge relational databases with graphical front ends, rather than huge dusty rooms full of filing cabinets. And it is communicating via SMS, Email, IM, Skype, or video conferencing, rather than walking between offices, or sending letters.

1.2

GUIs

In this definition of the term one can make a convincing argument for the most important element in the history of the information revolution, and that is the development of graphical interfaces. The hardware and software developments that power this revolution could theoretically (aside from multimedia elements) run in a command line environment; instant messaging conversations could occur, websites could be read as text, etc. But one could not talk to multiple people over an IM client at once, whilst simultaneously surfing the Internet, checking email, listening to an MP3, downloading a document from an FTP server and running a spreadsheet to collate coursework marks, which is something that this computer has no trouble doing. It is not only the power of the machine that is important, but the complexity of the interface. Command line interfaces are not good at multitasking, unless 3

one spends years learning a compendium of esoteric Unix commands. The execution of programs is also very linear; the program asks the user for input in a set order, whereas in a GUI environment the user is capable of performing numerous tasks at once, and in numerous ways. GUIs have provided a way for the enormous power of the combined elements of the information revolution to be unleashed, and to be made understandable and usable by the masses. They have been essential in the revolution. Computers can be thought of as nothing more than a series of abstractions, layers of complexity sitting atop a few fundamentally simple components. At the very lowest level, the level of transistors, there is nothing more than a store holding either a 1 or a 0, yet to the user a computer appears to be a simple ’black box’ which performs any task that they require of it. As the complexity and power of computers increases the need for a simple GUI grows, and thankfully the increase in power allows more resource intensive GUIs to be run, allowing the adoption of more complex interaction paradigms. The history of computer interfaces is not a linear one, as the history of computing is not. The first computers were never designed to be operated by the general public. Personal computers were, and hence these two streams of technology, though overlapping considerably in mechanical, electrical and programming technology, are divergent in their HCI characteristics.

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Before the GUI

It is difficult to say which came first; the computer, or the GUI. Technically the concept of the GUI was developed first, although it could be argued that devices such as the abacus indicate the knowledge of the power and need for computing devices, which would place the concept of computing earlier than the GUI. However, in real terms, the first GUI theorized was the Memex in the 1930’s, which predates the first computer. In a bizarre twist however, there was no computer capable of running a GUI for several decades after this, hence, the GUI predates the computer, and vice versa.

2.1

GUIs Before Computing

Before computers had even been developed, as early as the 1930’s, there were theoretical plans for GUIs such as Vannevar Bush’s Memex. These plans resemble closely the systems we have today, with many of the fundamental concepts overlapping. This is similar to the development of algorithms before there were computers powerful enough to run them successfully; it was known that should these machines be developed, that GUIs would be the most intuitive way to interact with them. However, even once computers began to emerge, they were not powerful enough to run these graphical front ends for applications.

2.2

Computing Before GUIs

Despite the fact that the power of the GUI had been realized before the first computer had been developed, programmers were unable to take advantage of the paradigm. The first computers had no monitor, instead performing I/O on printed cards, even later when VDUs were used they were monochrome, and graphical capabilities extended little past text handling. While computers are now ubiquitous, by far the most common means of interacting with them remains the keyboard and screen, despite the disadvantages of these devices. Using a computer by means of typed text input is slow, requires the user to have good manual dexterity and their hands free, and ideally demands the ability to type. [2]

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Birth of the GUI

As described in section 2.1, GUIs were being hypothesized about before computers were even available, and long before computers with the necessary graphical capabilities were available.

3.1

Failed GUI Paradigms

There is basically one GUI paradigm, and that is the window concept. This concept is based on modeling windows onto information, and being able to navigate through folders, as though the files are objects within a box that is a folder, and the window is a window into that box. Coupled with this most systems have the concept of the desktop, which was initially supposed to model a real desktop, with files laid out on it. This concept has since evolved to a much more abstract conception, and is now little more than another folder whose contents are always on display. However, there have been several attempts to create a new paradigm, in the hope that a more intuitive interface will encourage those who do not use computers to do so. 3.1.1

Command Line

Not a failed paradigm, but an enormously successful one. For decades all operating systems were almost entirely text based. Obsolete is not even an appropriate description, as in certain applications command line interfaces are still very much in use. But in terms of home users, the majority of the people affected by the information revolution, an obsolete and unintuitive paradigm. 3.1.2

Microsoft Bob - The ’Social Interface’

The most famous of these alternative paradigms was Microsoft Bob, which was a replacement operating system from Microsoft which was intended to model more directly an office. [7] For example, if a user wanted to make a phone call they would click on an image of a phone on a desk, and if a calendar entry needed to be made they would click on a calendar on the wall. Microsoft Bob was released in February 1995, and the attempt to draw in new users, mostly from the computer illiterate elderly and young children is understandable for the time; this was relatively early in the information revolution and thus there were still large sections of the population who were not 6

using computers that, the developers of Microsoft Bob hypothesized, could be drawn into personal computer ownership by a more laymen-friendly interface. However, a combination of problems meant that it was a phenomenal failure. One major reason was that. Microsoft continued with the idea of a social interface for many years afterwards, albeit in a more subtle incarnation with the Microsoft Office Assistants feature. In any one of the Office programs one could summon a ’helper’ which was an animated character that would use AI to reply with help to any question posed to it. Again public reaction to this feature was almost universally negative, with complaints that the character would leap onto the screen and offer help when not wanted, distracting the user far more than helping. One possibility for the negative reaction to this technology is that the interactions between the ’helper’ and user were not, and probably never could be, realistic enough to make the user feel comfortable. In the same way that computer generated animations that attempt to mimic realistically human faces are sometimes found to be unsettling by audiences, whereas CGI cartoon characters are fine. 3.1.3

Virtual Reality The technology of virtual reality stands at the edge of practicality and at the current limit of the effort to create a communication/communion medium that is both phenomenologically engulfing and yet all but invisible.” [5]

As this quote explains, virtual reality (VR) was created to completely immerse the user in a system, whilst providing a degree of realism high enough so that the system could be completely transparent to the user immersed in that environment. Obviously this requires a certain amount of familiarity with the system, and is not an attempt to make a convincing model of the world, but simply to make something that tricks the more primal parts of our brain into being comfortable with the system as an environment. If a believable environment could be created then it would trick the user into It was used to attempt to create the ultimate social interface by immersing the user in an office environment. Instead of clicking on an image of a calendar the user would reach out and pick up a VR calendar within a VR office. One major problem with VR was the human body’s internal system of balance. As people were remaining still according to their inner ears’ balance, 7

but moving according to their visual system, the brain became confused. This lead to motion sickness, and nausea from use is not conducive to mainstream public take-up of a technology. This, coupled with the enormous cost of putting a VR system into your home, led to the death of VR as a GUI paradigm, although it is still used in some more niche applications.

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The Effect of the GUI

It is hard to quantify the effect that GUIs had on the information revolution simply because they were an integral part of that revolution; there is no ”control group” of a non-graphical information revolution to compare it to. The term information revolution refers to the development of computers and their periphery technologies, as well as software, and the combined ability of these parts to massively alter the capability to store and organize data. GUIs enabled this in a very large way, and allowed data to be presented in graphical formats instantly. It is difficult, and perhaps even misguided to attempt to analyze the effect of one component of an event, on that event itself. It is possible however, to look at the part that GUIs played in the revolution, and to attempt to theorize on the direction and extent of it, had it occurred in a non-graphical way.

4.1

Bringing Computers to the Masses

The rise of the GUI coincided loosely with the proliferation of affordable computers. Although text based OS equipped computers were available their take up was limited to those that had a certain need or strong desire to own a computer. Only with the advent of GUI equipped computers did people who would not normally have the need for data processing buy computers. Uptake increased massively, as GUIs enabled non experts to use computers easily, and for a wider range of tasks than previously possible. This increase in sales led to an increase in profits, enabling higher R&D budgets in those firms. It is easy to see how this generates a cycle of self perpetuating innovation, something that is unique in its speed and last-ability in the IT field, due to rapid obsolescence.

4.2

Desktop Publishing

GUIs enabled desktop publishing, one of the most important enabling technologies that drove the home PC revolution. Initially an office based product, desktop publishing packages soon found their way into the household, and were a major marketing feature used to sell PCs for many years. This has now changed as it is seen by users, not as a revolutionary capability as it once was in the days of ’Multimedia PCs’, but as a mundane and standard ability of all home computers. [1] 9

4.3

Graphing Capabilities

Computers have always been more than capable of storing and manipulating numbers; in fact it is the only thing that they are capable of doing. However, the development of graphical capabilities enabled the user to be presented this information in a more intuitive way than a table of numbers. Graphs, drawn in real time at the user’s command, allowed data to turn into knowledge instantly. Never before had it been so easy to interpret information.

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What Drove GUI Development?

When trying to establish what drove the development of a certain technology it is always useful to look at the demographic that utilizes the technology; other information such as where the R&D money that funded the technology came from can also be helpful indicators. Unfortunately with something abstract and varied like the concept of a graphical interface, it is impossible to infer any knowledge from its users; almost everyone on the planet uses a GUI every day. Likewise, we cannot pin down the source of research investment, as GUI development occurred over decades, in numerous companies, academic institutions, and even in part in the private homes of computer amateurs and hackers.

5.1

Pornographers - The Earliest of Early Adopters

One can take any technology development and find charitable and innocent uses for it, but it is equally simple to find a use that is more seedy. When a new technology emerges it is not simply what happens before its complete development that drives it into mainstream use and acceptance, but equally what happens to that technology afterwards and how it is used. This is of equal importance, as without mainstream use it would not become part of the information revolution. As an example we can take competitive standards - before we had DVD, we also had MMCD and SD, but DVD won, and has become part of the technological landscape. Now, we have competing standards that may take over, such as Blu-Ray. With much technology, one of the first two sets of users one will find evidence of are pornographers and criminals. This is true with most technologies, and we will examine some of them here. Despite not being part of the information revolution per se, we will show that they have become a large part of the driving force behind many aspects of the information revolution, and that these are simply the latest in a long line of technologies that have been utilized in this way. 5.1.1

Photography and Video

Technology has slowly made it simpler, and more anonymous, to create and disseminate pornography. When cameras were first invented, some of the first images were pornography, even before this the printing press allowed the distribution of pornographic works such as Pietro Aretino’s Postures in 11

1524, which was a collection of erotic engravings. During the American Civil War people utilized the mail system and photography to send husbands in the field pornographic images, leading to Congress passing a bill banning the distribution of obscenity via the mail network. [8] With all previous technology you either had to take your film to a developers, or possess both a darkroom of your own and the skill to develop your own photographs. The emergence of Polaroid self developing cameras meant that people could take and keep images of whatever they wanted without embarrassment and digital cameras took this freedom even further. With the distribution of mass produced pornography we see the same pattern of increasing ability through technology. The advancement of the steam powered printing press by Friedrich Koenig and Andreas Friedrich Bauer in 1812 helped to reduce the costs associated with printing, allowing cheap paper back books to become feasible. These led to ’pulp’ books, known as such due to the use of inferior paper stock in their printing. Mass market eroticism and pornography were often released in this format. Video pornography also became much more prevalent, with the super 8mm cameras, and eventually camcorders and home VCR machines. 5.1.2

Internet Technologies

Ready access to free porn was a factor in widespread adoption of Internet access, and this in turn led to advancements in other technologies that facilitate easier distribution. It is undeniable that a large amount of traffic on the internet is pornography, and this high amount of traffic is evident in other subsections of the web such as peer to peer file sharing. Micropayment systems were also adopted very early on by pornographers. There was a need for an effective mechanism to receive small payments from people over the internet, in order to make money, as the traditional web startup business model of profit through advertising revenue would not necessarily work for such a site. Therefore early pioneers of e-commerce and micro-payment systems were pornographers. Without this early testing ground it is unlikely that the growth of e-commerce would have been as rapid or happened as early as it did.

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5.2

Human Familiarity with Visual Interaction

Another factor that led to the development of GUIs is the human familiarity with visual interaction. It must be remembered that sight is a rather abstract concept, which is entirely subjective. Other species do not see the world as we do; bats use echolocation, other animals navigate using an advanced sense of smell. However, as humans we are used to navigating our way through the world with our sense of sight, and although command line systems still rely on this, it is only with GUIs using familiar concepts such as windows that we really began to relate to computers in an instinctive way. With command line systems there was a steep learning curve initially. Commands had to be learnt, and had to be entered in a strict order and format. With GUIs however there is a real time feedback for learning. If one wants to copy a file there are numerous ways to do so, some may be more instinctive to certain people, others more intuitive for other groups. It is this instant familiarity that GUIs provide, and this was a major factor in the development of GUIs. System designers realized that this link to lay-people was important if widespread adoption of computers was going to be possible.

5.3

Multimedia Capabilities

Graphical interfaces and multimedia capabilities go hand in hand. Graphics within a command line system are not seamless, as they are in a GUI environment. The emergence of powerful hardware that could handle graphics led to the development of GUIs, and GUIs in turn led to an increased demand for powerful graphical capabilities, generating a cycle of development. These increased capabilities of hardware allowed the long envisaged GUI to come to fruition.

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Conclusion

It is difficult to say what single factor was most important in the information revolution; the development of computers and software has been such a rapid process in comparison to other radical technology developments, and far more interdisciplinary. Mathematicians, engineers, and physicists have all been involved in, and were fundamental to, the success if IT. Computing is a very precarious development, analogous in many ways to human evolution. If any of the conditions on earth had been different by a tiny factor then we would not have evolved - the same can be said for computers, any one of a thousand small and independent inventions or discoveries could be attributed to the failure of computing in their hypothetical absence. Almost certainly then the actual answer to such a question as what is the most important factor in the information revolution, is human ingenuity and intelligence. However, considering the evidence explored in this essay, a strong argument for the importance of the GUI in the history of the information revolution is apparent. It is a relatively simple advancement, when compared to the invention of the transistor for example, but a concept that has allowed so much to be done, by so many. A simple paradigm, to mimic real world objects on a monitor, which has enabled laymen everywhere to use computers. In this way the amazing capabilities of IT were brought to the masses; precisely what revolution is about. It seems doubtful that the development of IT would be given the moniker the Information Revolution, if its use was still limited to academics, scientists and the government. With advances like the GUI it was placed in the hands of the many, and a revolution was started. By making information accessible and easily understandable, and by enabling WYSIWYG document editing and publishing the GUI has elevated computing from limited use by few, to extensive use by many. This process will continue further, with the development of new hardware technology, and the ingenuity of HCI researchers, there will be paradigm shifts, caused by new conceptual models for GUIs. There is no doubt that new developments in the fields of multimedia, hypertext/hypermedia (especially in their popular versions as World Wide Web applications), three-dimensional representations, and virtual reality technology will have a great impact on the type of issues HCI has to address and on how interfaces will look in the future [4] 14

In the past, hardware advancements like colour monitors, and advanced graphics cards enabled the development of GUIs, and software advancements like the development of graphical browsers enabled the graphical web. Similarly future advancements will enable the development of a new GUI paradigm. What it will be, and what hardware it will run on are not easy questions to answer. We had predicted the rise of the GUI as early as 1930, but now development is almost keeping pace with the imagination of researchers; technologies such as augmented reality are pushing the boundaries of HCI to their very limits.

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References [1] Vannevar Bush, As we may think, Atlantic Monthly, p 101-108, July 1945. [2] R. Wooffitt, N. Fraser, N. Gilbert and S. McGlashan, Humans, Computers and Wizards; Analysing Human (Simulated) Computer Interaction Routledge Publishing, 1997. [3] Bruce Horn, On Xerox, Apple and Progress, Folklore.org: Macintosh Stories, http://www.folklore.org, 1996 [4] John M. Carroll (editor), Human Computer Interaction in the Next Millenium, Chapter 25, Roomware: Toward the Next Generation of HCI Based on an Integrated Design of Real and Virtual Worlds, pp. 553. [5] Michael Benedikt (editor), Cyberspace: First Steps, MIT Press, 1992. [6] Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia, Entry for ’History of the GUI’ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History of the GUI [7] Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia, Entry for ’Microsoft Bob’ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft bob [8] Peter Johnson, Pornography Drives Technology: Why Not to Censor the Internet Indiana University Law School, http://www.law.indiana.edu/fclj/pubs/v49/no1/johnson.html

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